automatic induction motor ( project )

8/14/2019 automatic induction motor ( project )

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Automatic Induction Motor Starter with Programmable Timer

INTRODUCTION

Man is an ambitious creator. He has conquered the

world of science and has reached to this 21ST century. In pre-cuts of perfection.

He has cared much for automation and product quality which is directly co

related to electronics.

In this fact developing society, electronic has come to

stay as the most important branch of Engineering. Electronic devices are being

used in almost all the industries for quality control and automation. They have

become a fast replacement of present workers army which is engaged in

processing and assembling of the factory.

Great strides taken in the industrial applications of

electronics during recent years have demonstrated that this versatile tool can be

of great importance in increasing production. Efficiency and control. The rapid

growth of electronic technology appears as a formidable challenge to the

beginners. The purpose of this introduction is the presentation of elementary

knowledge of modern electronics.

The branch of engineering which deals with current

conduction through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor and study of flow of

electrons through these is known as Electronics.

Govt. Poly., Washim. 1


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Electronics essentially deals with electronic devices

and their applications. As ELECTRONIC DEVICE is that in which electrons

flow through a vacuum or gas or semiconductors. Such devices have valuable

properties which enable is function and behave as a friend as man today.

Electronics has gained much importance due to its

numerous applications in industries. In Industries, electronic circuits and

electron devices are used in system on apparatus which quite useful.

Electronic devices are capable of performing lots of

different types of function.



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PURPOSE OF PROJECT

An engineer discover new ideas and identifies

opportunities in various sectors of national economy. He explores the

possibilities of starting adventures infield of agriculture, trade, industry,

transport and communication etc.

An engineering project is a combination of numerous

activities on the part of entrepreneurs, organisers, designers, workers and etc.

project is a reflection of hard but harmonious labour on the part of above

agencies.

The engineer is the key element in any project work

and it is not possible to attain success for every engineer. An engineer should

posses certain qualities and characteristics to achieve success in project or task

undertaken. The characteristics which contribute to engineers success in his.

Technical competence, better judgement, intelligence,

leadership, self confidence, attitude of creativeness, honesty and emotional

stability.

The engineering project is a perfect co-detail of the

practical aspects of humanity and economics. The project provokes an engineer

to deal problem from a standpoint of view of the society. The engineer ultimate

aim is to do and dedicate himself for the society.



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INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT

Automatic induction motor starter with programmable timer.

Induction motors are popular due to their low-cost,

sturdy construction, fast pick-up , low maintenance expenditure and good

efficiency. The DOL ( direct-on-line ) starters and star/delta starters used for

starting and running of induction motors provide coarse type of protect ions

against voltage fluctuations and single phasing. Induction motors are very

sensitive to low voltage and single phasing during which they draw a heavy

current and can burn out unless switched of within few seconds of occurrence of

such conditions. This makes the requirement of a sensitive protective device

absolutely essential to avoid burning of induction motors under such conditions.

The circuit of an automatic starter, incorporating the

important features given below, is described here. It is meant to be used in

conjunction with a DOL starter.

1. Under-voltage and over-voltage cut-out.

2. Single phasing prevention.

3. Automatic start on resumption of proper conditions.

4. 24-hour programmable off timer (on completion of actual runtime of the

motor).

5. Specially suited for remote operation of induction motor.



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INTRODUCTION OF INDUCTION MOTOR

With the almost universal adoption of a.c. system of

distribution of electric energy for light and power, the field of application of a.c

motors has widened considerably during recent years. As a result, motor

manufacturers have tries, over the last few decades, to perfect various types of

a.c. motors suitable for all classes of industrial drives and for both single &

three phase a.c. supply. This has given rise to bewildering multiplicity of types

whose proper classification often offers considerable difficulty. Different a.c.

motors may however, be classified and divided into various groups from the

following different points of view:

1. AS REGARDS THEIR PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

A) Synchronous motors

i) plain and ii) super-

B) Asynchronous motors

a) Induction motors

i) Squirrel cage {single, double}

ii) Slip-ring (external resistance)

b) Commutator motors



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i) Series {single-phase, universal}

ii) Compensated {conductively, inductively}

iii) shunt {simple, compensated}

iv) repulsion {straight , compensated}

2. AS REGARDS THE TYPE OF CURRENT

i) single phase

ii) three phase

3. AS REGARDS THEIR SPEED

i) constant speed

ii) variable speed

iii) adjustable speed

4. AS REGARDS THEIR STRUCTURAL FEATURES

i) open ii) enclosed

iii) semi-enclosed iv) ventilated

v) pipe-ventilated iv) riveted frame eye etc.

PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION MOTOR

As a general rule, conversion of electrical power into

mechanical power takes place in the rotating part of an electric motor .In

demotors, the electrical power is conducted directly to the armature (i.e.

rotating part) through brushes and commutator . Hence, in this sense, a dc



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motor can be called a conduction motor. However , in a c motors, the rotor does

not receive electric power by conduction hut by induction in exactly the same

way as the secondary of a 2-winding transformer receives its power from the

primary. That is why such motors are known as induction motors. Infact, an

induction motor can be treated as a rotating transformer i.e. one in which

primary winding is stationary but the secondary is free to rotate.

Of all the a. c. motors, the polyphase induction motor

is the one which is extensively- used for various kinds of industrial drives. It has

the following main advantages and also some disadvantages :

Advantages :

1. It has very simple and extremely rugged, almost unbreakable construction

(especially squirrel-cage type).

2. Its cost is low and it is very reliable.

3. It has sufficiently high efficiency. In normal running condition. No

brushes are needed, hence frictional losses are reduced. It starting arrangement

is simple especially for squirrel-cage type motor.



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Disadvantages:

1. Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its

efficiency.

2. Just like a. d. c. shunt motor, its speed decreases with increase

in load.

3. Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a. d. c. shunt

motor.

Construction

An induction motor consists essentially of two main parts :

a) a stator and b) a rotor.

a) Stator

The stator of an induction motor is. in principle, the

same as that of a synchronous motor or generator . It is made up of a number of

stampings which are slotted to receive the windings. The stator carries a 3 phase

winding and is fed from a 3phase supply. It is wound for a definite number of

poles the exact number of poles being determined by the requirements of speed.

Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa. The sattor

windings, when supplied with 3 phase currents, produce a magnetic flux which

is of constant magnitude but which revolves (or rotates) at synchronous speed



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(given by Ns =- 120f/P). The revolving magnetic flux induces an e.m.f. in the

rotor by mutual induction.

b) Rotor

i) Squirrel-cage rotor : Motors employing this type of rotor are known

as squirrel-cage induction motors

ii) Phase wound or wound rotor :- Motors employing this type of rotor

are variously known as phase-wound motors or wound motors or

as slip-ring motors.



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THE CIRCUIT

As the circuit being described is required to be used

with a DOL starter, the internal diagram of the same is given in Fig. 1. The

three phases (R. Y, and B) entering the starter are passed via fuses Fl, F2. and

F3. The current rating of the fuses would depend on contactor and motor current

ratings. The three phases from the DOL starter are extended to the automatic

starter circuit of Fig. 2 via points marked R ', Y', and B'. The other points which

are to be extended to Fig. 2 are marked C through F. All the points marked

identically in Figs I and 2 are to he connected together.

Functions of switches and relays. To understand the

circuit operation, it is essential to know the effect of switches S1 through S6 and

contacts of relays RLI and RL2 in on and off conditions. These are discussed

below.

When switches S1 and S2 are off, only manual

operation of the DOL starter, without protections offered by the circuit of Fig. 2,

is possible. The C and D points are shorted (via switch S1 in off position)

whereas E and F points remain open. in this state, relay contacts have no effect

on the DOL starter operation. The motor can be switched on by momentary

operation of start switch s6. Please note that red ( R ) phase is always connected

to one side of the EM (electromagnetic) coil of contactor. The blue ( B ) phase



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gets extended to the other side of contactor coil through switch S6 (in depressed

state) , normally made contacts of stop switch s5 (red button) and shorted C and

D points (via switch S1 in off position). Once the contactor coil is energised, it

is latched via its own contact marked '5 ' and closed dry run points D1 and D2

to provide alternate path for B phase to the contactor coil. All three phases (R.

Y, and B) are extended to the induction motor via the closed contacts of the

contactor, and the motor runs.

When switch SI is on and switch S2 is off, the red (R)

phase connection to transformer XI through, while yellow (Y) phase is already

connected to bottom end of transformer X2. In this state, sensing circuit and B-

Y phase detector circuits of Fig. 2 are effective. If all phases are available and

voltages are within proper limits, relay RL1 will get energized (as explained

later in the text) to close contacts C and D. However, contacts E and F remain

open irrespective of the state of relay RL2 (contacts of relayRL2 come in

parallel with the contacts of start switch, provided switch S2 is on. Thus in this

condition, although safety circuits are functional, auto starting is not feasible.

Manual start button S6 has to be pressed for starting the induction motor. This

mode of operation is termed here as mode 1.

When switches SI and S2 are both on. then the sensing

circuit (for under/over voltages and single phasing) as well as auto start circuits



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are operational. The effect of switch S1 and relay RL1 has already been

explained above. Relay RL2, which remains, on for a short while, along with

tenderization of relay RLI, acts in the same way as momentary depression of

start switch S6 to provide auto start/restart facility when 3-phase voltages are

within limits. This is termed here as mode 2 operation.

Switch S3 is used for automatic switching off of the

induction motor after it has operated for a pre-programmed period selected with

the help of rotary switch S4. During mode 1 (switch 1 on and switch 2 off)

operation when switch 3 is on, the induction motor will be switched off when

programmed on-time' is completed or whenever power fails. However, after

power resumes (and if all phase voltages are within limits), the motor can be

restarted with the help of start switch manually, provided the programmed

period is not over. During mode 2 (both switches S1 and S2 on)operation if

switch S3 is on, the motor will keep restarting automatically whenever power

resumes (or all 3-phase voltages become all right) until the programmed

running period is over.

Power supply. The power supply for the schematic

circuit of Fig. 2 is derived from R and Y phases, using two mains transformers

with primary voltage rating of 230V AC connected in series across it through

DPDT slide switch S1. Their secondaries rated at 6V-0-6V AC, 200mA are also



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connected in series to realise 12V-0-12V output across rectifier diodes Dl and

D2, connected as full-wave rectifiers. The output of rectifier, after some

smoothing by capacitor C1. is used for the purpose of sampling of under/over

voltage conditions. The output across capacitor C1, after passing through diode

D3, is further filtered by capacitor C3 before regulation by 9-volt regulator

7809 (ICI). The regulated output of ICI regulator is used for powering the entire

circuit. No heat sink is required for regulator 7809.

When two transformers (X1 and X2) are used in this

fashion, the AC output voltage should be checked after connecting the

secondaries of both transformers in series. If no voltage is present across

anodes of diodes Dl and D2 then either primary or secondary connections need

be reversed (but not both).



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INTEGRATED CIRCUIT 4060

DESCRIPTION:

Integrated circuit 4060 is a sixteen pin CMOS

integrated circuit. It is a twelve stage Ripple Carry Binary Counter. The

counters are advanced one count on the negative transition of each clock pulse.

The counters are reset to the zero state by a logical I at the reset input

independent of clock.

CHARACTERISTICS;

1. It has wide supply voltage range from Iv. To I 5v.

2. Integrated circuit 4060 had high noise immunity s 0.45 VDO.

3. Its lower power Transistor Logic is Fan out of two driving 741. or one

driving 74LS.

4. Maximum speed of operation is 8 MHz. Tip. At = 10 volts.

5. It is used Schmitt trigger clock input.

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATING :-



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7. Its .supply voltage VDD is -0.5v. to + 18v.

2. Its input voltage VIN is -0.5v. to + 0.5v.

3. It has storage temperature of Ts -65o C to 150o C

4. It has package Dissipation

a) . In Dual-in-line 700 MW.

b) In Small-out-line 500 MW

5. It has head temperature (T,) of 260o C

6. Soldering is within 10 sec. Nods.

RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITION :

Its supply voltage VDD is +3 volts to + 15 volts

and input voltage Vin is volts to VBD. Its operating temperature range ( T1) is

10o C to + 85o C.



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INTEGRATED CIRCUIT LM 393

DESCRIPTION.

LM 393 is eight pin linear IC consisting of two

opamps. It has two independent processing voltage comparators having offset

voltage specification as low as 2 mV designed specifically to operate on single

power supply over a wide range. Operation from split power supply current

drain is independent of magnitude of power supply voltage. These comparators

also have a unique characteristics that the input common-mode voltage includes

ground even if operated eight single power supply voltage.

Application areas includes limit comparators. Simple

analog to digital converter, pulse, square wave any time delay generator. It has

a wide range of Vco. MOS clock timers multivibrators and single voltage

digital logic gates. This series was designed to interface directly with TTI and

CMOS logic where its law power drain is a distance advantage over other

standard comparators.

SILENT FEATURES :

1. If gives wide supply voltage range. Dual supply varies from 2 VDC to 36

VDC and 1.0 VDC to 18 VDC.

2. If gives very low supply current drain about 0.4 MA.

3. It is independent of supply voltage.



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4. It has low triasing current nearly about 25 mA and input offset current

upto 5 nA.

5. Maximum offset voltage is about 3 mV.

6. Its input common mode voltage range includes ground.

7. Its differential input voltage range to power supply voltage.

8. At 4 MA current its output low saturation voltage is 250 mV.

9. Its output voltage is compatible with TTl, DTL, ECL and CMOS logic

system.

ADVANTAGES :-

1. It is a high precision comparator.

2. If eliminates need power supply.

3. It reduces Vos drift over temperature.

4. It is compatible with all forms of logic.

5. Power drain is suitable for battery operation.



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DESCRIPTION:

IC-7809 is a three terminal positive regulator, it is

self contained having fixed voltage capability upto 1.5 amperes load current and

input voltage upto 15ov. It has a unique feature to set the output voltage on

chips. The 7809 version is now much improved with load regulation

characteristics.

Though designed as fixed voltage regulator the output

voltage can he increased through us of simple voltage divider. The low quiescent

drain current of device insures good regulation when this method is used. In this

we give positive dry battery voltage to input terminal of 4809 and get + 9v.

regulated output voltage from o/p terminal of IC.

SILENT FEATURES :

1. Ifs output voltage is 9 v.

2. The maximum output current is I ampere.

3. Its output impedance Ro is 30 milli ohm.

4. The minimum input voltage required for operation is greater

than 3v.

5. It has terminal load protection.



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A 555 monolithic timing ckt. Is a highly stable

controller capable of producing an accurate time delay or oscillation.

Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resulting if desired. In the

time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by one external

resistive and capacitive for a stable operation as an oscillator, the free running

frequently and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled. With two external

resisters and capacitors. The ckt. May be triggered 7 reset on falling waveform

and the output structure can source or sink upto 200 ml. Or drive TTL ckt.

Fig.4.5 shows pin-diagram of IC555.

The NE versions are similar except for minimum

temperature ratings. The general purpose type NE 555 operates reliably only

over a range of 0 degree centigrade to 70 degree centigrade.

FEATURES

1. Timings from microseconds to hours

2. Operates in both stable & monostable modes

3. Adjustable duty cycle

4. High current output, can source or sinks zero ma.

5. Output can drive TTL

6. Temperature stability of 0.005/ deg. Centigrade.

7. Normally ON and normally OFF output.



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APPLICATIONS .

1. Precision Timings

2. Pulse Generation

3. Sequential Timing

4. Time delay generation

5. Pulse width modulation

6. Pulse position modulation

7. Mission pulse detection

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS :--

1. 7. Supply voltage- + 18 volts

2. 2. Power dissipation - 60 mw

3. Operating Temperature Range - 0 deg. Ceg. To 70 deg. Ceg.

4. NE - 555

5. Storage Temperature Range - 65 deg. Ceg. To 150 deg. Ceg.

6. Lead Temperature- + 300 deg. Ceg. ( Soldering 60 sec. )

The external connections facilities for free tuning and self triggering mode for

operation are shown. The three equal register R for the deference level of upper

comparator at 2/3 vcc. There reference levels are required to control.



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STUDY OF COMPONENTS

Apart from different ICs and gates we have used many

other components such as

a) Capacitor

b) Transistors

c) Resistors

d) Diodes

Lets discuss these components one by one is short.

a) CAPACITOR :

It is a system of electrical conductors and insulators

the principle characteristic of which is capacitance. The simplest form consists

of two parallel metal plates separated by layer of air or some other insulating

material that is, dielectrode such as ceramic, mica etc. The capacitor C of

such a parallel plate capacitor is given by :-

Where E = Permitivity of farad meter

A = Area of the plate

D = Distance of separation between plates

Hence, we can said that capacitor is the property of a

system which enables it to store Electrical Charge when a potential



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difference exists between the conductors separated by a dielectric. The SI

unit of capacitance is farad. Fig. (4.1) shows capacitance.

The types of capacitors are :-

1. Electrolite Capacitors

2. Air Capacitors

3. Paper Capacitors

4. Polystyrene Capacitors

5. Ceramic, mica, glass Capacitors

The operating range of frequencies is different for

these different capacitors in general each type of capacitors is based in its own

operating range.

b) TRANSISTORS

It is a semiconductor device capable of amplification

in a similar to thermionic values. It consists of two PN semiconductor junction

back to back forming either PNP or NPN structure.

c) RESISTORS :-

A resister is an electrical component which when

made part of an electrical ckt is intended to introduce a definite amount of d.c.

resistance in very compact form. In many application the amount of ckt.



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Current to a predetermined value Resisters are made in many sizes and shapes

and in a variety of materials. The wire wound type makes use of a special alloy

wire or ribbon as the resistance element and is wound on an insulting form with

or without a ceramic covering.

Another type of fine resisters consists of a thin film of

metal deposited. On insulating form. Both the carbon and the deposited metal

types are low current units and are available in resistance values from several

ohms to as high as mega ohm and is having voltage rating from watts to 2

watts. As shown in fig. (4.3)

These types of carbon and deposited metal types are

connected by means of wire leads called pigtails.

d) DIODES :--

The diodes are generally formed by diffusing a P

-type region and an N - type region in the same crystal structure. There are

different types of semiconductor diodes.

1. Zener Diodes.

2. Point Contact Diodes.

3. Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

4. Photo Diodes

5. Tunnel Diodes



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6. Varacter Diodes

But our ckt. Contains LED i.e. Light emitting diode.

So let us take a brief look at these diodes.

Light Emitting Diodes [ LED ]

LEDs are now a day being used in almost all

instruments. In last decade upto electronics technology has developed very

rapidly and a number of new Opto-electronic product have come in the market

of various types, sizes & colours of LEDs have been developed to unit all

requirements.

LEDs is infect a diode which emits light when it is

reversed biased, it does not conducts and hence does not emit light. When the

diode is in forward biased, electrons are moved from N-side conduction band to

the P-side valance band. In making this transitions the electrons cross the

energy gap 'E.g.' that separates the two bands and hence they radiate energy. In

ordinary rectifier diode this energy is given off as heat but in Light emitting

diode it radiate as light.

When LEDs are to used in the ckt. Where the

operating voltage are much more than the forward voltage v.f. (2F), then first



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Precaution to be taken is to see that the LED does not exceed the maximum

rated forward current ( 35 ma maximum ).

Polarity of LED :

It is shown as in fig. The electrode with small area in

an anode and the other with larger area in an anode and other with larger area

in cathode. Usually in red LEDs the terminal is shorten than the other. The

shorter terminal is called cathode and longer terminal is called anode.

LM78XX Series Voltage Regulators

General Description



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The LM 78 XX series of three terminal regulator is available with

several fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of

applications. One of these is local on card regulation, eliminating the

distribution problem associated with single point regulation. The

voltage available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems

instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment.

Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators these devices

can be used with external components to obtained adjustable voltages

and current.

The LM78XX series is available in an aluminium

TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0 A load current if adequate heat sinking

is provided. Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current to a

safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistor is provided to limit

internal power dissipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high for

the heat sinking provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing

the IC from overheating.

Considerable effort was expanded fop make the

LX78XX series of regulators easy to use and minimise the number of external

components. It is not necessary to bypass the output, although this does improve



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transient response. Input bypassing is needed only if the regulator is located far

from the filter capacitor of the power supply.

RELAYS :-

The name relay is given too board class

electromechanical switches in which contacts are opened and/or closed by

various in the conditions of one electric circuit and thereby affect the operation

of other devices in the same or other electric ( usually control or signalling)

circuits. The term "relay " does not over devices, such as magnetic starters,

contractors, and the like, intended to switch power circuits.

Relays are very common components of automatic

Control systems. There may be a total of several hundred various relays in some

of them.

The way a relay acts is represented by its static

characteristic which relates its output y to its input x. This is a stepped

relationship. The output y jumps from y1 to y2 only after the input x has

changed to x2 ( the subscript 0 stand for operate ). Any further increase in

x will not affect the value of y. As the value of x falls stands for release, the

value of y again decreases stepwise.

The principal parameters of relays follows :



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a) The operate value of a relay is the minimum value of

a physical quantity that will allow the operated load or retractile force of the

relay to un operate, or release, it. Thus release is the opposite of operate.

b) The release value of a relay is the maximum value of

a physical quantity that will allow the operated load or retractile force of the

relay to unoperate, or release, it. Thus release is the opposite of operate.

c) The power consumption of a relay is the amount of

power taken by the relay in a given duty.

d) The operate time is the interval required for a relay to

start its contents and to complete its function after a control signal has been

applied to its coil.

e) The waiting time in operate is the time required for

the pull of the electromagnet to become equal to the back tension, so that any

further increase in the pull will cause the relay to pick up.

f) The motion time in operate is the time that elapses,

after the armature just starts off, until the relay completes its intended function.

The relays are utilised in automatic control system as

transducers for an intermittent (desecrate ) control of actuating mechanisms by

means of low-power electric signals.



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The form of the relay is in a large measure

determined by the form of the parameter it checks ( temperature, pressure rate

of

rotation) and the type of actuating mechanism (pneumatic, hydraulic, electric)

which the relay controls. Accordingly, all relays are classified as electric,

pneumatic, hydraulic, electropneumatic, etc.

All relays are classified as :

i. Electromagnetic.

ii. Moving-coil.

iii. Inductive.

iv. Electronic

According to power of control signal, electric relay sub-divided into :

i) Low power ( less than 1 W )

ii) Medium-power (from l to W )

iii) Hifh-power ( 10 W )

Finally according to pick-up time into quick :

i) Quick-response.

ii) Normal

iii) Delay.



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iv) Time relays.

Now we will discuss the various types of relays in details.

A NATURAL ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY :

The principle of operation of a relay consists in the

fact that when the control current is fed to the -winding of the electric magnet its

core gets magnetised and attracts the armature. The movement of the armature

closes ( or opens ) the contract of the controllable electric circuit.

The relays used for signal multiplication and

separation of electric circuits operating in a common scheme, or as amplifier s

of relay action. These relays can be utilised for direct current of any polarity

and for alternating current.

Electromagnetic relays are designed with a hinged or

pull in armature.TRANSFORMER :-

A transformer is a static ( or stationary ) piece of

apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is transformed into

electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the

voltage ion a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.

The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits

linked by a common magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it consists of two



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inductive coils which are electrically separated but magnetically linked through

a path of low reluctance as shown in fig.

The two coils posses high mutual inductance. If one

coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up

in the-laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it

produces mutually induced e.m.f. (according to faradays laws of Electro-

Magnetic Induction e = Mdl/dt. ) if the second coil circuit is closed, a current

flows in it and so electric energy is transferred from the first coil to the second

coil. The first coil. in which electric energy is fed from the a. c. supply mains, is

called primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is called

secondary winding. In brief, a transformer is a device that

i) Transfers electric power from one circuit other.

ii) It does so without a change of frequency,

iii) If accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and

iv) Where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of

each other.

TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION:

The simple elements of a transformer consist of two

coils having mutual inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are

insulated from each other and the steel core. Other necessary parts are : some



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suitable container for the assembled core and windings, a suitable medium for

insulating the core its windings from its container : suitable bushings ( either of

porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor - type ) for insulating and bringing out the

terminals of windings from the tank.

In all types of transformers, the core is constructed of

transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic

path with the minimum of air gap included. The steel used is of high silicon

content, some times heat treated to produce a high permeability and low

hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux. Densities. The eddy current loss is

minimised by laminating the core, the laminations being insulated from each

other by a light coat of core - plate varnish or by an oxide layer on the surface.

The thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 mm for a frequency of 50 Hz to

0.5 mm for a frequency of 25 Hz. The core laminations are joined as shown in

fig.

Constructionally, the transformers are of two general

types. Distinguished from each other merely by the manner in which the primary

and the secondary coils are placed around the laminated steel core. The two

types are known as

1. Core Type and

2. Shell type



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FABRICATION UNIT

An etched or printed circuit consists of a thin layer of copper foil.

The final is shaped by etching the copper in a chemical. The copper

foil acts as a wire, or conductor in the ckt. Components parts like

resistors, transistors and capacitors are soldered to the conductive

foil to complete the electrical path and circuit.

Production of PCBs.



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The transfer of the conductor pattern -which on the

film master on the copper clad laminate is done by two methods. They are

1. Photo Printing

2. Screen printing

But in our circuit we have used screen printing

method so we study only about this.

SCREEN PRINTING METHOD :-

PCB production by photographic printing method is

expensive though accurate. The screen process uses a resist ink applied

throughout a stencil or mask to the surface of the blank circuit board. The

stencil is produced and attached to the fine mesh, metal, polyester, nylon or silk

screen. The resist ink is kept forced through openings in the stencil on to the

surface of the blank board. This process produces a positive of the cleb on the

copper foil. When dry, the board is ready for etching. In our project instead of

stencil we used positive of artwork.

Etching Process

The etching solution is prepared in non metallic plate.

For preparing etching solution take one part of ferrite chlorides in power form



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with two parts of water heat the solution upto 40o C to 50o C till the vapour just

starts forming, add a small quantity of HCL for fast etching action the quantity

of solution required should be just enough to immerse the PCB. Give some base

to the PCB so that it does not touches the bottom of the container. Always keep

the printed circuit side on the upper side. For fast action of etching stir the

solution without disturbing PCB. By this process the copper other than the areas

which are covered by point is etched away. Continue the process for 45 min. By

holding the board in light it can be seen that, whether the board is completely

etched or not ?

After few boards have been etched the colour of the

solution changes from yellow to green. Wash the board under running water and

remove the paint. After etching give a coat of varnish to the PCB so that it

remain shining.

SELECTION AND MOUNTING OF COMPONENTS ON PCB :

The careful assembly of the PCB is as relevant for the

final equipment reliability as the circuit design or PCB design and fabrication.

Assembly technique can vary widely from case to case.

i) Mounting of resisters, capacitors and diodes

The bending of the axial component lead is done in a

manner to guarantee an optimum retention of the component on the PCB while a



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minimum trace is introduced on the solder joint. During bending the component

lead no damage to the component should occur. The bend lead should fist into

the holes perpendicular to the board so that any trace on the component lead

junction is minimised.

Component are generally mounted on only one side of

the PCB. In double sided PCBs, the component side is usually opposite to the

pager conductor pattern side Unless otherwise detached by special design

requirement.

The uniformity in orientation of polarised components

like diodes, resisters. IC etc. is determined during the design of PCB.

ii) Mounting if ICs :

It is never expected to put the ICs directly on the PCB

and then soldered. The IC sockets are available in the market. These sockets are

available in the market. These sockets are first mounted and leads of the sockets

are soldered. After completion the IC is transferred in the socket.

After the component mounting and soldering the extra

part of the lead coming out, must be cut with a cutter. It is recommended that

before soldering the lead the extra portion of the lead must be cut and then

soldered. The lead cutting after soldering is still common in the smaller

industries -where hand soldering is used.



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By keeping all above information in mind we

fabricate total unit after testing of each component and after preparing power

supply for unit. The circuit works successfully and we get results which are

given in chapter Conclusion & Results

Under/over voltage cut-out. This section comprises an

8-pin dual comparator LM393N (IC3) in DIL (dual-in-line) package. The output

of the two comparators (at pins 1 and 7) has been combined in a wired-OR

fashion. This output is high as long as sampled voltages being monitored are

within precept limits. When sampled voltages are out of limits, the wired-OR

output goes low.

Here IC2(a) is used as over-voltage detector, while

IC2(b ) is used as under-voltage detector. The 4.2V developed across Zener D4

is used as reference voltage for both the comparators. The potmeter VR1 is so

adjusted that when the phase-to-phase (R-Y) input voltage across primary of

transformer (X1 and X2 combined) is less than a specific desired level (sav 350V

RMS), the voltage at its contact goes less than 4.2 volts. Thus, the output of

comparator IC2( b ) and also the wired-OR output goes low, irrespective of

output of'comparatorIC2 (a). Similarly, potmeter VR2 is so adjusted that when

the voltage between R-Y phases exceeds certain desired value (say 480V AC

RMS), the voltage at its wiper contact goes higher than 4.2 volts, and the output



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of comparator IC2( a ) goes low. Thus, we observe that whenever the R-Y phase-

to-phase voltages are beyond acceptable limits, the output of comparator goes

low to switch off the motor after a delay of four seconds, as explained in the

following section.

On/off time delay. The popular NESS 5 timer is so

configured as to provide an on-time delay of 12 seconds after all conditions are

suitable (i.e. all 3 phases are present and the phase-to-phase voltages are also

within limits), if all conditions are all right (at the time of start-with slide switch

S1 in on position), capacitor C4 will he charged via resistors R2 and R4 .which

would take about 12 seconds to make pin 2 of 555 high, so that its output

(at pin 3) goes low to cut off transistor T3. As a result, base of transistor T4 gets

forward biased via resistor R9 (andR13 ) to energise relay RL1 to short points C

and D (refer Figs 1 and 2) through its contacts, and energise contactor in the

DOL starter of Fig. 1 via the start switch ( in pressed state) or due to

energisation of relay RL.2 for short duration with switch S2 on (explanation

covered under Auto start unit subheading ). Thus motor starts after an on-time

delay of 12 seconds.

When compactor IC2 senses under-voltage or over-

voltage condition, its output goes low and capacitor C'4 discharges via

resistance R4. This will take about jour seconds before it causes pm 2 of IC3



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logo low or its output to go high, which in turn causes de-energisation of relay

RLI to eventually switch off the motor. This is the off-time delay which allows

the motor not to s-witch off if the voltage returns to normal state within this 4-

second period. If the voltage does not return to normal state within this period

then only the motor is s-witched off. This avoids unnecessary switching off of the

motor during momentary voltage fluctuations.

Single-phase cut-out. When a single phase failure

occurs, the motor will continue to run on remaining two phases, drawing heavy

load current. This would result in overheating of windings and its eventual

burning in a short time if it is not disconnected. The single-phase cut-out circuit

employed here is very simple and it has the capability to sense all three phases ,

including low voltage condition of phase B. Sensing of under-voltage and over-

voltage condition of R and Y phases is already taking place, as described

earlier.

Phase failure of R and/or V phase (s) results in no

supply to the circuit and relays RBI and RL2 will he in de-energised state and

the motor is, therefore. Switched off. In Y-B single phase detector part of the

circuit, the diode D12 in Y phase path rectifies the voltage before potential

divider network, comprising resistors R16 and R17, reduces the voltage with

respect to phase B. Capacitor C7 smooth the voltage across resistor R17. If this



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voltage is greater than 27V, zener D11 as well as the diode inside opto-coupler

IC4 will conduct. As a result, base of transistor T2 is pulled to ground and it is

cut off. This causes the compactor output to he applied to pin 2 of timer NE555

without any change (modification). But in case the B-phase voltage is very low,

or if it is missing altogether, transistor T2 will he biased to saturation condition,

discharging capacitor C4 via resistor R5. As a result, pin 2 of timer 555 would

go low immediately and eventually switches off relay RLI to cut off the con

factor in DOL starter as well as the motor.

Auto start unit. The necessity auto start unit has, if

late, increased due to frequent power interruptions, including single phasing.

Many auto start units are available in the market. The auto start circuit

comprises the circuitry around relays RL1 and RL2 (and their contacts), slide

switches SI and S2, and the DOL, starter.

During normal conditions, the out-put of timer NE555

will initially go high for 12 seconds on resumption of power or when normal

state is reached. The capacitor C.6 will he charged through resistor R11.

However, the base of transistor T5 will he held to ground potential by diode D6,

which is forward biased due to the condition of transistor T3. As a result, relay

RL2 will he in off state due to non-conduction of transistor T5. When NE555 IC



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changes its out-put state from high to low after 12 seconds, diode D6 will he

reverse-biased due lo the positive voltage at anode of diode D6. Capacitor C6

will get discharged via resistor R11 and transistor T5 will come to conduction

stale due to the positive voltage at its base. As a result, relay RL2 will get

energised. The discharge action of capacitor C6 continues for about two seconds

(which is sufficient to bring the electromagnetic relay of DOL starter to on

position). Once the starter EM relay energises, it is latched as explained under

Functions of relays and switches subheading. After two seconds, the base of

transistor T5 will fall to ground potential and relay RL2 will he switched off.

However, relay RLI will continue to he on and hold the motor in on stale.

Timer, The timer is built around 14-stage CMOS

counter CD 4060 which has an on-chip oscillator. The timing component,

comprising resistor R24 and capacitor C8, is selected lo gel an approximate off-

time delay of 20 minutes at Q7, 45 minutes at Q8, 1.5 hours at Q9, 3hours at

Q1O, 6 hours at Q11, 12 hours at Q12 , and 24 hours at Q13 out-put. The timer

is not affected by power cuts as it is provided with a backup, using a 9V, PP3

battery. The timer function comes into play when switch S3 is flipped to on

position.

When power fails, transistor T6 will cut off due to

absence of any forward bias voltage at its base. This forward biases diodeD14,



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which makes pin II of the counter high and the counter suspends further

counting. When power resumes, the counter proceeds further and the time count

is thus not lost. The same thing occurs when an unhealthy condition of line is

detected. Pin 3 of timer 555 goes high and diode D13 causes suspension of

counting. When the final count is reached, the corresponding output pin of IC5

goes high. The IC5 output is coupled to pin 11 via diode D12 to suspend the

counting. At the same time this high output is also connected to the base of

transistor T3, which starts conducting and takes the base of transistor T4 to cut-

off. As a result relay RL1 de-energises to switch off the motor.

To set the counter timing, first set the value of time by

rotary switch S4 and then flip switch S3 on to start the timer. To reset the timer

push switch S3 to off' and then switch it on again.

LED indicators. LED1, when on indicates that switch

S1is on and R-Y phase supplies and 9V output from the regulator ICI are

available. LED2, when on, indicates that relay RL1 has energised. LED3 is on

when switch S3 is on and 9V supply from IC1 for timer is available.

An actual-size, single-sided PCR for the circuit of

Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 3 . The component layout/or the PCB is given in Fig 4.

All switches, relays, and transformers are to he mounted externally. As the B-Y



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phase detector circuit contains high voltages, it is recommended to cut out the

phase detector part up lo opto-coupler from the PCB and install the same

externally. Only the output leads from the opto-coupler may be soldered on to

the- points provided on the PCB.

PARTS LIST

Semiconductors :

IC 1 - 7809 fixed regulator + 5 volts

IC 2 - I.M393 Voltage compactor

IC 3 - NE555 timer

IC 4 - CD4060 14-stage ripple counter oscillator

IC 5 - MC2TE opto-coupler



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T2,T3 - BC 547 npn transistor

T4,T5,T6 - 2N2222 switching transistor

D 1-D3,D5-D10,

D12-D16 - 1N4007 rectifier diode

D4 - 4.2V, 0.5W zener

D11 - 27 V, 0.5 W zener

LED1-1.ED3 - Coloured LED

Resistors : all 1 4W, + 5% metal carbon film, unless stated otherwise

R 1, R5, R8-R10, R12

R15, R18, R21 - 1 kilo-ohm

R2, R22 - 22-kilo-ohm

R3, R7, R19,

R20, R25 - 10-kilo-ohm

R4 - 47-kilo-ohm

R6 - 220-kilo-ohm

R11, R 14 - 4.7-kilo-ohm

R15 - 470-kilo-ohm

R16, R17 - 47-kilo-ohm 1 W

R22 - 22 kilo-ohm



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R23 - 1-mega-ohm

R24 - 100 kilo-ohm

R26 - 22-kilo-ohm 1W

VR1, VR2 - 4.7-kilo-ohm potmeter

Capacitors :

C1,C8 - uF, 25V electrolytic

C2 - 1000uF, 25V electrolytic



C5 - 0.0uF ceramic disc




C10 - 4.7uF, 25V electrolytic

Miscellaneous

R1,1,RL.2 - 0V,150ohm SPSP relay

S1,S2,S3 - Slide switches DPDT

X1,X2 - 250V primary to 6V-0-6V,



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200 mA see transformer

- Battery PP9V

S4 - Rotary switch single-pole

7-throws

- DOL starter

Bergstrip connectors-male/female

REFERENCE

i) Electrical Engineering : by B. L. THAREJA

ii) Electronics For You.(Dec.99)

iii) Data Hand Book.



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automatic induction motor ( project )

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