assessing the satisfaction of students studying at …

Scietech Journal, Volume 5, 137

ASSESSING THE SATISFACTION OF STUDENTS STUDYING AT ADAMAWA STATE

POLYTECHNIC, YOLA

By

Bulama H. James

Department of Computer Science

ABSTRACT

The customer satisfaction has been interpreted by several scholars in the past. We do not

criticize or apprise anyone. However, there is one common motivating factor in understanding

customer satisfaction of any group or organization; that it can help in bringing up the

performance. We strongly favour that there do exist a trade-off between customer satisfaction

and productivity. For the students of Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola, the expectations are

huge and a number of them are even beyond the reach of the management to fulfil. Therefore,

it is imperative to understand their expectations first and then perceptions. Therefore, we

have used one of the most renowned technique; SERVQUAL, to understand the gaps between

expectations and perceptions. Also, it helped us distinguish tangible and intangible needs of

the students. During the interviews, we clearly realized that a majority of them are comparing

the polytechnic with institutions that are outside the country and are independent for over 100

years and are part of countries which are fully developed. Therefore, it is meaningless to

compare with these institutions at this stage at least in terms of infrastructure and other

tangible developments. However, there were a number of issues which the researcher clearly

understands as the issues of management and can be handled and controlled with proper

governance. Some of the issues, such as “escalation free fee structure”, “conducting exams

on time”, “and providing necessary help on time” are basic issues which students have

highlighted under reliability. Therefore, it will be very nice to see if a large sample has a

similar opinion and then Polytechnic management has to make significant changes even if

requires some investment. Also, the responses highlighted in the quantitative analysis brought

some very trivial issues, such as drug addiction, thefts, late admissions and admissions of

non-qualified students, inexperienced lecturers, etc. These issues are very much in control of

the management to handle. However, some new policies, decisions have to be taken by the

management to rectify these issues. Overall, as a researcher on the study, I would strongly

recommend that small positive steps if taken on continuous basis will lead to monumental

changes for the polytechnic. It is understandable that the Polytechnic faces a tough financial

situation. The only task for the management is to validate that the things highlighted by a

group of few students is actually at large throughout the institute. Adamawa State Polytechnic

has to come up with a plan to handle the issues raised in this study. Based on the seriousness

of the issues and available funds, the issues have to be prioritized.

Key words: Expectation, Perception, service quality, satisfaction

INTRODUCTION

The Polytechnic, as other institutions has a number of issues and among all those issues; the

issue of student's satisfaction & high number of non-accredited program are the ones which

the management deserves immediate attention.


The institute has nineteen accredited programs out of the seventy-nine programs offered

(excluding Consultancy and Preliminary programs). The researcher seeks to assess the

satisfaction of the students studying across all departments for both accredited and non-

accredited programs. The satisfaction levels will be assessed using SERVQUAL (Service

Quality), one of the most popular techniques in assessing service quality gaps.

The data will be collected through structured and unstructured interviews with students and

Lecturers. In case of students, they will be asked to rate their expectations on a number of

services and products should be offered by the polytechnics in general and then their

perception on the similar services and products offered by Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

will be captured through the survey.

Further, the students and Lecturers will participate in a number of unstructured interviews

which will lead to qualitative analysis which can help the management draw more meaningful

understanding of the entire situation at the polytechnic.

Aim and objectives of the study

The research aims to help the working committee to make strategic changes in the overall

functioning of the polytechnic and improve on the already built reputation in the state and

country at large. The problem discussed in this research has been an old problem faced by

polytechnic for more than a decade and would like to correct it to a certain degree through

this research study.

▪ Assess the satisfaction of the existing students with the polytechnic on all 5 elements

covered in the SERVQUAL study.

▪ Identify pain areas and suggest the best possible solutions to improve the satisfaction

of the students.

▪ Identify issues from teachers' perspective.

Strategic & Administrative Importance

The research work will strategically help the polytechnic correct/change some of the

existing policies related with the administration. The management may wish to review some

of its decisions, such as starting late evening classes, make-shift accommodation for students

who gets late to go home while studying, to and fro transportation from a few important

areas, construction of a new facilities area, and a dedicated placements department to help

the students in getting recruited to their preferred area of profession; introduction of

Polytechnics' new “code of conduct”, to manage drug addiction, theft issues, dressing code

among others.

Administratively, qualitative interviews from Lecturers and students will help the polytechnic

to get rid of the areas where it (polytechnic) has been spending more resources and time but


with minimal marginal benefit. These areas can be slightly ignored and freed resources can

be utilized to focus on more demanding and trivial issues.

SERVQUAL Findings:

The analysis of students' satisfaction at the Polytechnic is done using a popular

performance measurement technique called SERVQUAL. It is a multiple item scale for

measuring perception and expectations of the targeted respondents on a number of service

quality dimensions. Using 22-item instrument, SERVQUAL technique helps in identifying

gaps in the service quality. A large sample of 55 interviews is used to collect data for the

SERVQUAL analysis. The data is collected through online survey hosted on Survey Monkey,

one of the largest surveys hosting company. The data collected through the survey forms the

basis of SERVQUAL findings.

The 22-point SERVQUAL instrument covers a number of service dimensions to quantify,

compare and analyse the difference in the students' expectations and perceptions on service

quality. A rating scale of 1 to 7 is used to understand students' agreement with the service.

General Dimensions of Service Quality (SERVQUAL)

On a generic basis, the students were asked to rate the importance of service quality

dimensions, such as tangibles, assurance, responsiveness, reliability, and empathy in the

beginning of the survey. The students quoted different weights for each service dimension

making sure that the total should add up to 100. It helped the researcher in quantifying the

importance of each dimension against the other dimensions. This also helps to compare the

results of the same dimensions when asked in a different way through the 22 statements asked

in the second part of the survey. To improve the understanding of the students on each service

dimension, the attributes of each service dimension was highlighted in the survey:

Tangibles: It accounts for physical facilities, equipment and appearance of personnel.

Reliability: It is the ability of the firm to conduct the promised service dependably and

accurately.

Responsiveness: Willingness of the polytechnic to help students and provide prompt service.

Assurance (including competence, courtesy, credibility and security): It constitutes the

knowledge and ability of the staff to inspire trust and confidence.

Empathy (including access, communication, understanding the students): The individualized

attention given by the polytechnic to the students.

(Adapted from Parasurman A, Zeithaml Valerie A, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992)


The average scores are illustrated in the figure below:

General Dimensions of Service Quality (Contd...)

The students of Adamawa State Polytechnic have clearly pointed out that reliability is the

most important factor in the service delivery for them. A majority of the courses are not

accredited and the management considers that the concern of the students is justified as the

Polytechnic has a number of non-accredited programs diluting students' confidence in the

study at the Polytechnic. Also, most of the programs run by the polytechnic are professional

courses which make the students more conscious about reliability of the program as they

directly lead to employment after the course. Therefore, students have expressed higher

expectations in the reliability index.

Assurance has also been rated very highly by the students among the other service

dimensions. The students demand assurance from the polytechnic management on both the

academic courses and their usefulness in the employment. A lot of students study in the

polytechnic to acquire skills that can immediately help them secure a job after the completion

of the course. Therefore, a high rating on assurance is justified.

Responsiveness is also rated high on the index. The students concern for responsiveness

is reasonable as it facilitates the students in completing the program effectively and in the

timely manner.

The results pointed out that tangibles' is not a very important dimension for the students as

they have rated the dimension lowest among all other dimensions. A number of students in

the polytechnic are concerned about the success of their enrolled program than the tangibles

benefits from the Polytechnic. Also, the students understand that the country's overall

infrastructure is weak but growing. Therefore, the expectations are lower on the building and

other tangible attributes.


Empathy is also another dimension which is not rated higher by the students. There can be

multiple reasons for this response. Some of the students expect that the polytechnic knows

the ground issues and therefore the expectations are slightly lower. On the contrary, Ladhari,

(2008) highlights that people rate their expectations lower on certain service dimensions if

those are met. A number of students might also think that the polytechnic is giving attention

to the students especially the lecturers who are expected to know each student performance

in the class.

Expectations Scores

All the students were asked 22 statements on expectations in the beginning of the survey.

This was important to understand the expectations of the students from the polytechnic in

general so that the quality of service from the Adamawa State Polytechnic can be

benchmarked. The graph highlighted below show the results of this section:

Figure 2: Dimension weights

The expectations of the polytechnic students are consistent across all the service

dimensions. The students rated all the dimensions in the range of 5.0 to 5.4. “Assurance”

has been rated as the top most service dimension by the students. Being a professional

institution, students do expect assurance from the polytechnic on a number of aspects such as

job prospects, international quality standards, quality of education, etc. All these elements

will shape the future of each of the student at the Polytechnic. Therefore, high expectations

on this dimension are understandable.

The appearance of tangibles high up in the table suggested that the student expectations

are significantly high on the physical aspects and infrastructure of the institutions as well.

The Polytechnic has made several improvements in the past which has significantly improved

the look and feel of the campus – many are ongoing. Therefore, we might see a small gap in

tangibles when we compare with the perceptions.


Responsiveness', empathy, and reliability have been rated lower at 5 and 5.1. The

students' expectations on these aspects are lower. There can be a number of reasons for this

development. Either, the students' requirement has been met well on these fronts or they

know that it is difficult for the institutions to score high on these elements due to lack of

government support and country's overall limited resources and infrastructure.

Also, it has been quoted by experts that the expectations get lower when the needs are

being met in those particular areas (Ladhari. 2008). Therefore, there can be a mix of reasons

for this response from the students.

Gap scores

The gap scores are calculated using the GAP model (Parasuraman et al.1985). When we

subtract the expectation scores from the perception scores, it gives us the difference (also

called gap) in the expectations and perceptions. The results are highlighted below:

Figure 3: Average percentage gap breakdown by dimensions

Adamawa State Polytechnic students have expressed mixed feeling for the institution.

Although, they have clearly highlighted that their expectations on the top-quality element,

reliability are not met adequately whereas Assurance, another service quality element rated

higher by the students on the expectations, has been met adequately as shown in the figure

above.


The students have expressed deep concern on “reliability” as a service quality dimension.

The gap reported in reliability is 14% which is highest among all the other dimensions. The

students have highlighted concerns on the reliability of the software offered by the institution.

(As highlighted by the students for statement, “Adamawa State Polytechnic students can

download a number of software services free of cost at the click of a button from the online

portal of the polytechnic”). Some of the other main statements where the gap has been

significantly higher are “Adamawa State Polytechnic has a consistent process of admissions

with escalation free fees structure and entry requirements do not change overnight” and

“Adamawa State polytechnic conducts all programs in a timely manner and adhere to all

important dates and schedules as promised to the students”. The students have also raised

concern over the reliability of exam schedules and other important program dates.

Responsiveness' is another very important service quality dimension where the gap has been

significantly higher. Yola has been very slow on a number of aspects related with

responsiveness. Statements such as, “The administrative services of Adamawa State

Polytechnic are prompt and highly responsive. Students can change their accommodation

place, class, or can avail other administrative services without any hassle in a quick time”

have received very low scores. It clearly shows that there are administrative issues leading

to dissatisfaction of students. Although, students have highlighted that the institution have

been successful in maintaining students' record (as highlighted in statement, “Adamawa State

Polytechnic keeps student's record as well as the other course material accurate, up-to-date,

and conveniently accessible to students even from a remote location”) and giving them remote

access using latest software. It shows that the Polytechnic is not too responsive to technology

to that extent, which prompted the students queries on Administration not being real-time

responsive to their requirements.

The negative gap of 10% in empathy as a service dimension is also an area of concern. One

of the major points where the gap scores have been significantly higher is the financial support

to the students from the institution. There was a significant gap of 38% on one of empathy

statement, “Adamawa State Polytechnic award scholarships to the needy students, and keep

low fees levels and provide financial aid to students”

There are a number of students at the Polytechnic who hails from small villages expecting

scholarships as they come from economically weaker families. However, the polytechnic has

not been able to consistently award scholarships to needy students which have diluted

students' confidence in the institution's financial aid programs.

The respondent reported gap in service dimension, tangibles at 7.5%. Some of the important

areas where the gaps were significant include: infrastructure of the institution, variety and

range of programs, student’s health & safety, and accounting standards. Students have raised

concerns in building and infrastructure of the institution. Also, the students have pointed out

that the institution does not have a wide range of courses, which is area of concern for the

students.


Qualitative Analysis: Lecturers “Perspective”

Funding

One pressing issue which has been highlighted repeatedly by the staff across all major

departments are given funds in form of running-cost directly as one of the NBTE's

requirements. The management has complained of some staff of funds misappropriation,

hence to be controlled by the College Directors. However, majority cited this issue as purely

lack of funds – may be/not. The Lecturers claim that most of the departments are over booked

and have more than the stipulated student's strength in each course; but the management has

not complemented this with adequate funding for the departments and excess load

compensation to them (staff). They claim that the management has enough money to

substantiate the issue. However, the management claims another side of the story that the

polytechnic is in crisis and needs more government funding. They are allocating

proportionately to the departments controlled at the various colleges.

Grossly off beam Student – Teacher ratio

Almost, all the students and Staff complained that the classes for every course are over-

crowded and are accommodating students more than the number stipulated in the institution

guidelines. The Staff clearly complained that they find it difficult to focus on every student.

A number of them even cited (I don't even know how many are there and who they are. I

just come and teach and I know that I can't even think of talking to each one of them as it

would probably take me weeks to just say hello to each of them individually) that we do not

end up meeting all the students during the entire course.

Online Library Missing

The staff strongly condemned the management for not creating an online library which

they have been promising for years. The staff demanded some software which gets free

licenses with old applications which often break while working. They complained that the

management shows that it is working towards the problem.

Thefts

There have been numerous cases of burglaries across the institute. Some of the staff even

reported that their staff rooms were mobbed. These activities are more prevalent at night –

Laptops, Desktop computers, Fans in classrooms, food stuff of students even Handsets and

wears are items of high patronage by the thieves. The measures taken by the management of

recent has reduced theft cases.

Infrastructure

The lecturers also complained that the polytechnic buildings are due for renovation. For

over 2 decades, the building has not been renovated. The classes are small and students are

many. The management has been adding additional benches in the classrooms and beds in the

existing hostel rooms which is making the life of the students even more difficult. Its worthy

of note that many infrastructural constructions are on-going – there might be improvement at

later end.


Qualitative Analysis: Students – perspective

Non-qualified students

A lot of students highlighted that the institute crowd comprise a number of non-qualified

students who have managed to enter the polytechnic with entry qualifications that they could

not defend, wasting a lot of time in getting these students up to the mark and often they do

fail at the end of assessment. It clearly leads to dilution in the effort of the Lectures to teach

qualified and intelligent deserving students.

Late admissions

It has been observed that several students suddenly show up in the classes. Generally, these

students are late admissions recruited in the 2nd half of the course. These students' further

make things complicated as they haven't studied from the beginning and often request

lecturers to explain things over and over again. In the end, a number of these students fail.

The management clearly knows this phenomenon but has ignored due to pressure for quest

of admission. They are concerned about getting the admission fee.

Inexperienced Lecturers

A number of students complained about the ability of some Lecturers to teach. They often

get stuck in contradicting statements. Often, they have not been successful in answering

students' questions due to their lack of ability on the subject matter. These cases have been

observed by the entire class but students inform that they often remain quite as they think that

the management will not act and moreover if the Lecture will get to know then he/she will

deduct the marks in the final exams.

Drug Addiction

Drug addiction is rampant among the students and some staff. Lecturers often ignore and

walk-away from such students without taking serious actions. The management if as a policy

can trace the students who get the drugs inside the campus, but no enough commitment on

ground yet. Management is called to take decisive measures to curtail this criminal act.

Conclusion

The overall findings from the SERVQUAL exercise suggested that the gaps between the

expectations and perceptions are not very significant. The Adamawa State Polytechnic has

the opportunity to improve on a number of quality issues to improve the students' satisfaction

levels. One of the most interesting development of this analysis suggested that the students in


accredited department are not really concerned about the non-accreditation of the courses but

the otherwise.

In fact, the overall results suggested that the satisfaction of the students on this aspect has

been more than the expectations (as per statement, “Adamawa State Polytechnic has most of

its programs accredited and recognized by the government which means students graduating

from the polytechnic have strong trust and confidence in the diploma/degree awarded by the

polytechnic”). This might be an important development for the management. Reviewing the

results of this task, the management might need to rethink their strategy as the students have

shifted their concern from “lack of programs” to “lack of accredited programs” which means

that the students expect that the polytechnic should work towards accrediting more programs

giving them better recognition. Students and Lecturers both expect that the institute should

not lack on technology and issues such as online library and updated software should be heard

and resolved.

The students are also concerned about the IT services especially the software. The Polytechnic

has to find solution to this problem as early as possible as technology is changing at a drastic

pace across the world and educational institutions are expected to adopt them first so that the

students do not feel uncomfortable when they see the same technology at their work place.

There are clear issues on managing things properly. Some of the issues such as drug addiction

can be immediately brought to end to change the image of the institute.

Therefore, with little funds within the budgets, this can be achieved with a few tough

disciplinary actions as well as certain good policies and decisions.

The management can rely on the results as the students answered the SERVQUAL

questionnaire without highlighting any type of personal information. Also, they used

computers in the ICT centre without using their login information to ensure that the identity

of the students is kept confidential. All this was done to ensure that the responses are not

skewed and are in agreement with the real situation at the Polytechnic.

Recommendations

i. More effort to accredit courses that are not accredited.

ii. Develop students' portal to standard.

iii. Speedy completion of E-library for at the desk modern/recent academic resources.

iv. Running-cost to the Heads of Department directly and their activities be monitored.

v. Management to introduce financial aid to the poor and needy students and keep fees

lower.

vi. Provide transportation to and fro for students of identified areas at a subsidized rate.

vii. Staff excess work load be compensated accordingly to keep their moral high.


viii. More surveillance on the activities of thieves, drug pushers/addicts and terrorist actives

on campus.

ix. Additional classrooms, hostels common-rooms and recreational facilities should be

given more attention.

x. Measures be taken to check the entry qualification of the students as many cannot not

measure up with their paper qualification.

xi. Number of students admitted should be reduced to a manageable size.

xii. Inexperience lectures be checked and called to order.

REFERENCES

Gronroos, C (1978), "A Service-Oriented Approach to Marketing of Services," European

Journal of Marketing, Vol 12, No 8, pg 588-601.

Gronroos, C. (1984), “A service quality model and its marketing implications”, European

Journal of Marketing, Vol. 18, No. 4, pg. 36-44

Ladhari, R. (2008), “Alternative Measure of Service Quality: A Review”, Journal of

Managing Service Quality, Vol 18, No 1, pg 65-86.

Parasuraman A, Zeithaml Valarie A., & Berry Leonard L (1985), “A Conceptual Model of

Service Quality and Its Implications for Future Research”, Journal of Marketing, (Fall),

pg 41-50

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, Valarie. A., & Berry, Leonard. L. (1988). “SERVQUAL: A

multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality”, Journal of

Retailing, Vol. 64, No 1, pg.12-40.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, Valarie. A., and Berry, L.L. (1994), “Alternative scales for

measuring service quality: A comparative assessment based on psychometric and

diagnostic criteria”, Journal of Retailing, Vol 70, No 3, (Spring), pg. 201-230

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. and Berry, L.L. (1994), “Reassessment of expectations as a

comparison standard in measuring service quality: implications for future research”,

Journal of Marketing, Vol. 58 (January), pg. 111-24.


A REVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF INTERNET BANKING IN FIRST BANK OF NIGERIA PLC

By

Lawal Michael Feyipitan

Department of Banking and Finance

ABSTRACT

For about two decades now in Nigeria, electronic banking is a subject that has been receiving

great attention in the banking industry and among the regulation agencies. And the process

is continuously evolving. The main research instrument used in this study is the two set of

questionnaires administered to bank staffs and bank customers while secondary data were

also used. The simple frequency percentage was adopted as statistical measure. The study

revealed that electronic banking is revolutionizing the banking industry, besides

complementing the traditional physical banking practices and that irrespective of its numerous

advantages there are challenges and problems associated with this form of banking in Nigeria.

The challenges include poorly functioning internet infrastructure and semi-skilled manpower

which sometimes impairs its benefits. It also revealed that patronage of electronic banking is

increasing, and customers satisfaction too is increasing by the day. And despite its challenges

it has led to increased efficiency in the provision of banking services, service cost-reduction

and reduction in time spent by customers when accessing bank services. The biggest

advantage of internet banking is that bank customers can access bank services and products

anywhere to transact business without having to personally visit the bank. When small

transactions like balance enquiry, record of recent transactions, etc are to be processed, the

internet banking facilities proves to be very handy. It concluded that internet banking is fast

bringing about increase in banking activities in Nigeria, improving our banking culture and

consequently assisting in promoting economic growth and development. In the light of the

identified challenges, the study recommended that banks should do more in creating

awareness, continue to send their IT staffs for more training on internet banking to minimizing

or totally eliminate infrastructure failure current users are complaining about.

INTRODUCTION

The economy of most developing countries is cash driven. This means that monetary

transactions are basically made through the exchange of bank notes and coins for goods and

services. Nigeria is largely a cash-based economy with over 90% of funds residing outside

the banking sector as against the developed world where the money in circulation is 4% and

9% in the United Kingdom (UK) and United States of America (USA) respectively (Ojo,

2004 and Ovia, 2003). The cash base economy is characterized by the psychology to

physically hold and touch cash. However, this trend is gradually giving way to a modern and

sophisticated payment system where currency and notes are converted to data which are in

turn transmitted through telephone lines and satellite transponders. Business organizations

especially the banking industry of the 21st century operates in a complex and competitive

environment characterized by changing factors and highly unpredictable climate. Laudon and

Laudon (1991) contend that banks cannot ignore information system because it plays a critical

role in their competitive edge both locally and globally, they point out that most banks' cash

flow is linked to their adoption of information system. The adoption of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) in the banking sector is generally referred to as electronic

banking (E-banking) and the application of its concepts, techniques, policies, and


implementation strategies to banking services has become a subject of fundamental

importance and concerns to all banks and indeed a pre-requisite for local and global

competitiveness because, it directly affects the management decisions, plan and products and

services to be offered by banks. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is the

automation of process, controls and information production using computers,

telecommunication, software and ancillary equipment such Automated Teller Machine and

Debit Cards. It is a term that generally covers the harnessing of electronic technology for the

information needs of a business at all levels. Laudon and Laudon (2001), assert that

Information and Communication Technology deals with the physical devices and software

that link various computer hardware components and transfer data from one physical location

to another. Harold and Jeff (1995) contend that financial service providers should modify

their traditional operating practices to remain viable in the 1990s and decades that follow.

Woherem (2000) claims that only banks that overhaul the whole of their payment and delivery

systems and apply Information and Telecommunication Technology to their operations are

likely to survive and prosper in the new millennium. Information and Communication

Technology has provided self-service facilities (automated customer service machine) from

where prospective customers can complete their account opening direct online. It assists

customers to validate their account numbers and receive instruction on when and how to

receive their cheque books, credit and debit cards. According to Report of Technical

Committee on e-banking (CBN, 2003), e-banking can be defined as a means whereby banking

business is transacted using automated processes and electronic devices such as personal

computers, telephones, facsimiles, Internet, card payments and other electronic channels. E-

banking is a kind of banking that involves electronic form of money transmission. Here,

banking services are fully automated such that transactions are concluded in a jiffy. He further

states that, e-banking involves the use of computer network in dispensing cash and transfer

of funds.

The following issues and problems constitute part of the operating environment which this

research intend to address:

i. The vulnerability of banks to potential risk of virus attacks; unauthorized access,

fraudulent transactions and theft on adoption of electronic banking in the Nigerian

environment

ii. The deployment of e-banking in the Nigerian rural areas is facing great challenges as

the noble objective behind the deployment seem to be failing.

iii. The unavailability of bank and internet network in rural areas.

iv. The problem of insecurity and congestion of internet.

v. The existing business environment also poses some challenges to the smooth operation

of electronic banking in Nigeria e.g. epileptic power supply, dominance of cash

transactions in the economy and the low level of awareness among Nigerians.

Objectives of the study:

i. The primary objective of the research work is to get users acquainted with the full

nature of internet banking and its benefits.

ii. To highlight and analyse the challenges in e-banking.

iii. To suggest ways of tackling the challenges facing the use of internet banking.


This research work will be of great significance to the following class of people:

i. Banks, financial institutions and various business establishments. This research work

adds to the enlightenment of these class of people on the challenges of internet

banking.

ii. The outcome of this research work will be of tremendous enlightenment and benefits

to current and potential beneficiaries of e-banking, students and future researchers.

The problems encountered in the course of carrying out this work include:

i. Time and financial constraint which limited the scope of coverage.

ii. Environmental constraint i.e. the environment in which the study was carried out was

restrictive as getting respondents respond to the administered questionnaire was a

challenge, coupled with the challenge of insecurity and dearth of literature.

Literature review

The internet is rapidly turning out to be a tool of world-wide communication. The

increasing use of internet earlier promoted producers and entrepreneurs, being used to sell

their products online. It has also become an important source of information and knowledge.

Due to these, many banking and finance organizations have come up with the idea of internet

banking or online banking.

The concept of internet banking has been simultaneously evolving with the development

of the world wide web. Programmers working on banking database came up with the idea of

on line banking transactions, sometimes during the 1980s. The creative process of

development of these services was probably sparked off after many companies started the

concept of online shopping. The online shopping promoted the use of credit card through

internet. Many banking organizations started creating data warehousing facilities to ease their

working staff. The development of these database was widely used during the development

of automated teller machines (ATMs). Sometimes in 1980s, banking and finance

organizations in Europe and United States started suggestive researches and programming

experiment on the concept of home banking. Basically, they made use of fax machines and

telephones to facilitate customers' transactions. The wide spread of internet and programming

facilities created further opportunities for development of home banking.

Nigeria started the long and tortuous journey in November, 1990 when Société Générale bank

launched their first Automated Teller Machine. Agboola (2002) discusses the dimensions in

which automation in the banking industry manifests in Nigeria and a limited of these include:

i. Automated Payment Systems - Devices used here are: Automated teller machine.

According to Idowu (2005), the introduction of this machine serves as the genesis and

bedrock of electronic banking. It has been a common feature in the United Kingdom,

France and Japan banking system, but Nigeria never had experience until Société

Générale Bank blazed the trail in November 1990. Then it was popularly referred to

as "cash point 24" at their Broad Street and Apapa Branches.


ii. Electronic cards - These are:

a. Credit cards. These are plastic cards encoded with electromagnetic identification -The

card is incorporated with circuit on which value is loaded and customers can use the

card to carry out transactions on the ATMs deployed by the issuing banks at strategic

locations as well as point of sale terminals with designated signs of the producer of

such card. Among the companies that are offering this service to banks are Visa

International, which is the leading payment solution system with presence in about

120 countries globally, the Master Card Inc. which is also the second largest credit

card brand.

b. Debit card. This is an electronic card with very advanced feature including the use of

microchip, whereby transaction is validated against the chip rather than a magnetic

stripe. Among the companies that are offering this service to banks are also Visa

international, Master card incorporated and an indigenous company called Smart

Switch Nigeria Ltd.

iii. Automated Delivery Channels - These include:

a. On-line banking. This product basically allows a customer to transact business in any

branch, irrespective of the branch his/her account is domiciled.

b. Internet banking. This refers to the worldwide connection of networks that enables

communication with other entities and individual around the world. It is a super

network connecting millions of computers around the world via telephone lines, cables

and satellite. The World Wide Web otherwise called website is a gateway to accessing,

organizing and moving through the information on the Internet. Every website has an

address is called Uniform Resources Location (URL). To get to any website, the

internet address must be typed in the space for the URL (http://....) entry in the web

browser and having entered the address, one can then use the "search engine" to locate

the required information. Example of website of some banks include:

− First Bank of Nigeria Plc- http:/www.firstbankingeria-com

− Zenith International Bank -Plc http:/www.zenithbank.com

iv. Telephone banking (tel-banking) - This service allows bank's customers to access

banking service via dedicated telephone lines from the comfort of homes, offices etc.

As at present, account balance could be checked, authorized inter-branch money

transfer, transaction alert (withdrawal or savings) and enquiry can be made through

telephone.

From the foregoing, it can be safely deduced that electronic banking can be referred to as

Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT), which is simply the use of electronic means to transfer funds

directly from one account to another, rather than by cheque or cash. You can use electronic

funds transfer to:

i. Instruct your bank or credit union to automatically pay certain monthly bills from

your account such as your auto loan or your mortgage payment basic

ii. Use your computer and personal finance software to co-ordinate your total personal

financial management process, integrating data and activities related to your income,

spending, savings, investing, record keeping, bill-payment and taxes, along with basic

financial analysis and decision making.


iii. Use a smart card with a prepaid amount of money embedded in it for use instead of

cash at an expressway road toll, or on college campuses, at the library's photocopy

machine or books stores (Edet, 2008).

Internet banking uses the internet as delivery channel for banking services, including

traditional banking services such as account balance enquiry, printing statement, fund transfer

to another account and bills payment (Frustlang and Nolle, 2000) and the new banking service

such as electronic regular payments and direct credit for salaries.

According to Adewuyi, (2011) as banks increased response to e-banking needs in Nigeria

coupled with the supervisory role of Central Bank of Nigeria, it became inevitable to set up

the Technical Committee on e-banking in 2003 and also the formulation of guidelines on e-

banking based on the report submitted by the committee in the same year (2003). The

guidelines put in place include the following:

i. Restriction of issuance of e-money products to only licensed banks under the

supervisory purview of the CBN or eligible subsidiary companies of it.

ii. Any bank or company intending to serve as issuer of e-money to seek and obtain prior

clearance and approval of CBN.

iii. The bank or subsidiary company to submit a detailed feasibility report covering areas

such as the scheme structure, documentation including prototype (sample card)

products, clearing and settlement arrangements, security and system control, float

management business plan and contingency plans i.e. disaster recovery plan and

contingency system.

iv. The promoter of e-products to enter into contractual agreement with the Nigerian Inter

Bank Settlement System (NIBSS) for the clearing and settlement of e-money products.

v. The electronic banking service should be offered in Naira only. Where such a service

is to be provided in foreign currency, it should be to only holders of ordinary

domiciliary accounts and-conform to all other foreign exchange regulations.

vi. Electronic Banking products and services should comply with the Money Laundering

Act 1995 as amended and "Know Your Customer Rules" (KYC).

vii. The CBN, through its Banking Supervision Department would appraise the product

or service as well as the applicant, bank's overall financial condition and its

compliance with the CBN rules and regulations based on the latest available returns

and examination report on the bank.

viii. Banks wishing to provide transactional and /or enhance existing electronic banking

services shall submit to the CBN, an application describing the services to be offered

/enhanced and how it fits into the bank's overall corporate objective and strategy.

ix. To disclose to the CBN and National Drug and Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA)

any single transaction, lodgement or transfer of funds in excess of N500,000 and

N2million or their equivalent for individuals and corporate bodies respectively in line

with the provisions of Money Laundering Decree 1995.

The main advantages of internet banking therefore are as follows:

i. It saves time spent in banks.

ii. It provides ways for international banking


iii. It provides banking throughout the year 24/7

iv. It provides well-organized cash management for internet optimization.

v. It provides convenience in terms of labour and time (being all the resources needed

to make a transaction).

vi. Taking advantage of integrated banking service as banks may compete in new

markets, can get new customers and grow their market share.

vii. it provides some security and privacy to customers by using state of the art encryption

and security technologies Idowu (2005) viewed the advantages e-banking in Nigeria

from three (3) perspectives:

a. The Bank

i. Facilitation of decision making

ii. Availability of essential information at finger tips

iii. Improved service delivery

iv. New product development

v. Savings in space and running costs

vi. Relevance among league of global financial institution.

b. The Customer

i. Quality services enjoyed

ii. Great reduction in time being spent in banking halls

iii. Confidentiality

iv. Bank statement, balance etc obtained ease

v. 24/7 service delivery.

vi. Account could be accessed almost anywhere in the world

c. The Economy

i. Creation of jobs and specialization

ii. Improvement in commerce

iii. Technological development

iv. Data bank for National planning

Before the emergence of modern banking system, banking operation was manually done.

This manual system actually led to a slowdown in settlement of transactions. It involved

posting transactions from one ledger to another which humans handled. Figures and counting

of money were computed and counted manually resulting in human errors since humans

cannot be 100% accurate. Most banks then used only one computer in handling transactions

leading to the sluggish nature of banking.

Nigeria did not embrace electronic banking early compared to developed countries.

Nigeria adopted electronic banking system in the early 2000s (Adewuyi, 2011). Before the

introduction of electronic banking system, the use of raw cash was said to have bred

corruption through the “cash and carry syndrome” usually linked with the swift movement


of “Ghana must go” bags. Some analysts said the bags were a major aid to corrupt practices

as dubious persons sought to bribe their way through to avoid been checked in some sensitive

places (Anyanwaokoro, 2001).

However, the electronic banking in Nigeria came with some challenges. Checks revealed that

for some civil servants, their salaries hardly arrive on time as efforts to electrically transfer

their salaries into their accounts most times fail according to Ibrahim (Feyipitan, 2014). One

bank will tell you it has transferred your salaries but the supposed recipient bank will tell you

it has not received anything leaving you even more confused. Olekah (2009) while

acknowledging the initial hiccups that dogged the system, advised stakeholders against being

discouraged as such “teething problems” are normal.

Telephone banking allows banking transactions in which a customer of a financial institution

can access banking services using a telephone as a link to his financial institution's computer

centre (Anyawaokoro, 2006). Services rendered through telephone banking includes account

balance, funds transfer, change of pin, recharge of phone account and bill payment.

Electronic card, according to Anyanwaokoro (2006) is a physical plastic card that uniquely

identifies the account holder and can be used for financial transactions on the internet,

automated teller machine (ATM) and point-of sales (POS) terminal, to authorize payment to

the merchant (seller). The various types of electronic cards include debit card, credit card,

releasable cards require visiting banks for replenishment. Debit cards are linked to local bank

accounts and offer immediate confirmation of payment while credit cards linked to a credit

line can be used for accessing local and international networks and are widely accepted in

most countries. The underlying infrastructure and operational rules are often provided by

global trusted schemes (such as visa and master card) in addition to local lines. Debit cards

are the dominant card mechanism in Nigeria, they are also known as ATM cards and ATM

usage is wider than POS transactions given the current limited deployment of POS terminals.

Internet banking has created many new challenges for bank management and regulatory

and supervisory authorities. They originate not just from increased potential for cross border

transaction but also for domestic transaction based on technology application which raises

many security related issues (Feyipitan, 2014). The Basel Committee on banking supervisions

Electronic Banking Group (EBG) (2001) has defined risk management principle for electronic

banking. They primarily focus on how to extend, adopt, and tailor the existing risk

management framework to the electronic banking setting. There are serious implications of

internet banking. It is a common argument that low transaction costs potentially make it much

easier to conduct cross-border banking electronically. For many banks, cross-border

operation offers an opportunity to reap economies of scale. Such cooperation may need to be

extended to similar supervisory rules and disclosure requirements (for efficiency and to avoid

regular arbitrage) and some harmonizing of legal, accounting and taxation arrangements. The

flip of this technological boom is that electronic banking is not susceptible to, but exacerbate

some banking risks-particularly governance, legal, and operational banking. In addition, it

poses new challenges for bank management and regulatory and supervisory authorities. In

response many national regulators have already modified their regulation to achieve their

main objectives.


Study Methodology

Methodology refers to those techniques associated with scientific models that elicit responses

to predetermined questions (questionnaire and interview) recording, editing, tabulating a

phenomenal event and performing experiment (Asondolo, 2008).

The population for this study included members of staff of First Bank Nigeria PLC and their

numerous customers. The random sampling was employed while the sample size for the study

is forty (40). The data used in this research work were primarily gotten from administered

and retrieved questionnaires. The questionnaires were self-administered. Meanwhile the

research sourced its secondary data from relevant journals and internet articles to make this

work more meaningful. In analysing and interpreting the data collected for this research

work, tables and percentage (%) techniques employed.

Data Presentation an Analysis

Data Presentation

Total of forty questionnaires were distributed to both customers and employees of First Bank

Yola Branch and all forty were returned answered. Result gotten from the respondents are

presented below in a tabular form for graphic presentation and understanding.

(1) Bank Customer Respondents

Table 1 Do you know about internet banking?

Response No of Respondents Percentage (%)

Yes 35 88

No 5 12

Total 40 100

A good number of bank customers are aware of internet banking.

Question 2: Is your bank account made internet complain?


Yes 30 75

No 10 25

Total 40 100

If 88% of bank customers are aware of internet banking and 75% of them have their account

internet compliant, then internet banking is well embraced and fast gaining ground in Nigeria.


Question 3: Do you sometimes have challenges in using the service?


Yes 30 75

No 10 25

Total 40 100

Unfortunately, the entire 75% of our respondents who have their accounts internet compliant

do have challenges sometimes while deploying the service.

Question 4: Are the challenges faced on-and-off thing?


Yes 30 75

No 10 25

Total 40 100

Again, a good number of bank customers regularly face certain challenges while internet

banking.

Question 5: What are some of the challenges?


Infrastructure 40 100

Manpower - -

Total 40 100

Obviously, all the challenges faced while using the internet comes from infrastructure failure.

Question 6: How did your service provider respond to resolving the challenges?


Perfectly - -

Good 30 75

Poorly 10 25

Total 40 100


75% of the respondents rated the response of their bankers in resolving the internet challenges

that confronted them as good, 25% rated it as poor and none was satisfied enough to rate it

perfect.

Question 7: How efficient is the service you received?


Excellent - -

Good 30 75

Poor 10 25

Total 40 100

Response here confirmed the opinion stated under Table 6.

Question 8: How would you rate the satisfaction you have whenever your service provider

solve the challenges you face while banking through the internet?


Excellent - -

Good 30 75

Poor 10 25

Poorly - -

Total 40 100

Once again, the response here confirmed the opinion stated under Tables 6 & 7.

Question 9: Do you feel safe using internet banking service?


Yes 18 45

No 22 55

Total 40 100

Only 45% of bank customers feel safe while using internet service while the remaining 55%

feel otherwise.


Question 10: Is it convenient for you using internet banking service?


Yes 35 88

No 5 12

Total 40 100

From this Table 10, most users of internet banking service (88%) find convenience while an

insignificant 13% of them feels insecure while banking on the net.

Question 11: Would you say you prefer the internet banking system to the normal traditional

banking system?

Responses No of Respondents Percentage (%)

Yes 35 88

No 15 12

Total 50 100

The table above that 88% of the respondents prefer internet banking to the traditional banking

services.

Question 12: How often do you use the internet banking services?

Responses No of Respondents Percentage (%)

Regularly 15 38

Occasionally 25 62

Total 40 100

Unfortunately, only 38% of bank customers use the internet banking service regularly while

a very significant 62% say they use the service only occasionally.

(2) Bank Staff Respondents

Question 1: Does your bank have the infrastructural capacity to support internet banking?

Response No of Respondent Percentage (%)

Yes 40 100

No - -

Total 40 100

The table above shows that the bank has the facility to support internet banking.


Question 2: How would you rate the level of security provided for internet banking?


High 25 63

Average 15 37

Low Nil Nil

Total 40 100

From the above 62% of the respondents are of the opinion that there is a high level of security,

38% of the respondents are of the opinion that it is at the average level.

Question 3: What has your bank done to ensure that customers better appreciate and adopt

internet banking service.


Advertisement 40 100

The grass root mobilization 40 100

Provide literature material 40 100

Total 40 100

The bank has used a combination of advertisement, grassroot mobilization and bills/fliers in

their attempt to improve or boost customers' use of internet banking.

Question 4: How often does your customers use the internet banking facilities?


Once 7 17

Twice 10 25

Frequently 23 58

Total 40 100

From the record of the bank, more than half of their customers frequently use internet banking

facilities.


Question 5: How good is your internet service banking?


Good 35 88

Fair 5 12

Poor - -

Total 40 100

35% of the respondents are of the opinion that the service is good while 12% are of the

opinion that the service is fair. No one rated the bank's internet banking service as poor.

Question 6: What is good about the internet banking service your bank provides?


Quality 20 50

Easy to use 20 50

Total 40 100

Half of the respondent sees the quality of the bank internet service as the main selling point

while the other half said it is the easy to use nature that makes it attractive.

Question 7: What are the problems while providing internet banking service?


Infrastructure 40 100

Manpower 40 100

Technical know how 40 100

Total 40 100

The bank staffs are of the opinion that the problems facing the deployment of internet banking

is a combination of challenge of infrastructure, manpower and technical know-how while

providing internet baking service.


Question 8: What are the major problems you faced while rendering this particular service

on the customers' side?


Level of literacy 40 100

Willingness to accept - -

Change 40 100

Total 40 100

The above table shows that while the bank seeks to provide internet banking service, the

problems they have with some of the customers are both illiteracy and unwillingness to adopt

the new banking platform.

Question 9: Does your customers prefer internet banking to the manual traditional banking

service?


Yes 37 93

No 3 7

Change 40 100

Total 40 100

The table shows that 93% of the respondent says customer prefer internet banking to the

normal banking service.

Question 10: Does internet banking enhance staff productivity?


Yes 40 100

No - -

Total 40 100

100% of the respondent in this table said that internet banking improves staff productivity.


Question 11: Does internet banking make banking operation more efficient?


Yes 40 100

No Nil Nil

Total 40 100

The above table shows that internet banking operation more suitable.

DATA ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION

The use of internet banking remains indispensable from the responses obtained from the

banks. Regarding the challenges faced while using internet compliant services, users

acknowledged there are challenges in this regard. The users have faced one problem or the

other. Some of the challenges identified includes the problem of poorly functioning

infrastructure and unskilled manpower which affects internet banking in the country.

However, the internet banking product services being provided are found satisfactory by

customers and are also enhancing bank staffs' productivity. By implication banks are doing

quite a lot to ensure that customers better appreciate and adopt internet banking as a better

option to the traditional method of providing service. It is clear that internet banking is

increasing or making bank work easier. The major finding of this study came from the data

analysed. With the use of internet in banking so many advantages are accruing to bank staffs

and bank customers. This has gone a long way in making banking more attractive in the

country at large. Moreover, findings revealed that the use of internet banking will go a long

way in reducing or totally eradicating present shortcomings that characterises manual

banking. It will increase speed of service and abolish human errors.

The biggest advantage of internet banking is that people can access the service setting

anywhere to transact business and due to this, more and more account holders does not have

to personally visit the bank. With the help of internet banking many transactions can be

executed by the account holders through the internet. When small transactions like balance

enquiry, record of recent transactions, etc are to be processed, the internet banking facilities

proves to be very handy. The concept of internet banking has thus become a revolution in the

field of banking and finance.

As it stands, this study concludes that internet banking is fast bringing about reasonable

increase in banking activities in Nigeria, improving our banking culture and consequently

assisting in promoting economic growth and development. However, despite the continuous

efforts to increase regulatory efficiencies, the rising cases of internet related frauds

originating from Nigeria have made the internet banking environment very complex. The

banking industry in the country does not also at present enjoy that level of global integration

that should allow for a full benefit of internet banking system. Even the level of public

confidence in the bank is not such that can guarantee effective customer patronage of internet

banking services. In addition to this, the banking industry is struggling with cases of poor

access to the requisite facilities and few customers actually transact their business through the

internet. A situation where banks will have to invest much on acquiring information

technology software without attracting enough customer patronage necessary to justify the


huge expenditure does not make for a progressive chance for rapid grow in internet banking

in Nigeria.

In the light of the above identified challenges, the findings in this study revealed that banks

still have to do more in the area of creating more awareness among the general public and

more particularly at the grass root. This will help to ensure their customers are better

informed regarding internet banking services available and the inestimable advantages of

using such platform. The banks should also continue to send their IT staffs for more training

on internet banking. This will help in increasing and further enhancing the level of internet

bank services provided and their reliability, and thus minimizing or totally eliminating the

infrastructure failure present users are complaining about. Also, the banks in the collaboration

with their ISPs should arrange for seminars and workshops for both staffs and customers of

their banks in order to update them on latest innovations in the field of internet banking. This

will go a long way in enhancing efficiency.

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THE PLACE OF INFORMATION MANAGEMENT IN THE ATTAINMENT OF MILLENNIUM

DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDG)

By

Bulama H. James & Daniel Peter

Department of Computer Science

ABSTRACT

An information system consists of at least a person or a certain psychological type who faces

a problem within some organizational context for which he/she needs evidence to arrive at a

solution, where the evidence is made available through some mode of presentation. If the

Millennium Development Goals are to be attained, stakeholders in all the sectors-Education,

Health, Water etc need to understand and manage information for proper guidance in its

implementation. The paper presents a general overview of the theory in the sphere of the

Management Information System (MIS). The information needs of the various management

levels are pointed out and the stages in the development of MIS are defined.

Key Words: Information Technology (IT) Management Information System (MIS),

Information System (IS), Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and Artificial Intelligence

(AI).

INTRODUCTION

We are living in a time of great change and working in an information Age. Managers

have to assimilate masses of data, convent that data into information, form conclusions about

that information and make decisions leading to the achievement of the organization’s

objectives. For an organization, information is an important resource as money, machinery

and manpower. It is essential for the survival of the enterprise.

Before the widespread use of computers, many organizations found difficulties in

gathering, storing, organization and distributing large amounts of data and information

Development in computer technology made possible for managers to select the information

they require, in the form best suited for their needs and in time they want.

This information must be current and in many cases is needed by many people at the same

time. So it have to be accurate, concise, timely, complete, well presented and storable.

Most firms nowadays depend on IT. But personal computers (pcs) themselves will not

improve organizational productivity: this only comes about if they are used efficiently and

effectively.

The information system is the mechanism to ensure that information is available to the

managers in the form they want it and when they need it. It is designed to support their work

through providing relevant information for their decision-making. Computer systems can

clearly aid organizations in the processing of data into accurate, well-presented, up-to-date

and cost-effective information. Weather that information is also concise, relevant, timely and

complete will depend largely on the capabilities of the people involved in its processing and

selection.


Defining the terms

Technology is a general term for the processes by which human beings fashion tools and

machines to increase their control and understanding of the material environment. The term

is derived from Greek words tekhne, which refer to an art or craft, and logia, meaning an

area of study; thus, technology means, the study, or the science of crafting.

Information technology (IT) and computers can be view as tools enabling the rapid

Capture, manipulation, storage and communication of information. They may help the

managers to administrate and control, to make decision but not to lead. IT is a term that

covers the hardware and software used for storing, processing or communicating information.

It is through IT that companies can define, gather, store, manipulate, and communicate data

to smooth the flow of information

Although the term data and information tent to be used interchangeably, there is a real

distinction between the two concepts. Data are row, unanalysed numbers and facts about

events. Information, in contrast, results when data are organized and analysed in some

meaningful way.

Strategy concerning computer technology application may be viewed as IS strategy and IT

strategy. IS strategy is concerned with ascertaining an organization's demand for application

and overall development of organization system, whereas IT strategy will concern itself with

how those demands are actually satisfied (Barnatt, 1994). In other words, company's

requirement will determine the means sought to fulfil their technological solution. The

information strategy will provide the foundation for the IT strategy. In a good company, IT

strategy should be licked to the business strategy. The term management information system

(MIS) made its first appearance in U.S navy resources.

The MIS idea spread rapidly throughout the administrative systems community,

encouraged by spate of subsequent reports and conferences sponsored by the American

managers, not because it was full of information in technology sense, through the distinction

soon blurred as the idea of MIS spread.

MIS is very system, which provides information for the managerial activities in an

organization. For about a decade, from its introduction in 1959 to the end of the 1960s, this

very broad definition of MIS spread rapidly and was endorsed by industrial corporation,

consultants, academic researchers, management writers, and computer manufacturers.

The “term management information system” [MIS] is synonymous with computer-based

Systems. Used broadly, it is seen as the system satisfying all the information needs of

Managers. MIS is the study of providing information to people who make choices about the

disposition of valuable resources in a timely, accurate and complete manager at a minimum

of cognitive and economic cost for acquisition, processing, and Retrieval. Another definition

emphasizes the use to which information is put, rather Than the way it is produced:

“A system to convert data from internal and external sources into information and

communicate that information in appropriate form, to managers at all levels in all functions

to enable them to make timely and effective decisions for planning directing and controlling

activities for which they are responsible.” (Bee and Bee, 1999)

Others, however, give it more limited scope. They see it as a system collecting and analysing

data and producing reports. Its purpose is to help managers solve structured problems. But it

should also fulfil a number of other purposes:


• It should provide a basis to analyse warming signals that can originate both externally

and internally; this is the main function of data base;

• It should automate routine operations thus avoiding human work in the processing

task;

• It should assist management in making routine decisions;

• It should provide the information necessary to make non- routine decisions;

• It should serve as a strategic weapon to gain competitive advantages.

MIS may be viewed as a mean for transformation of data, which are used as information in

decision-making processes. Figure 1 shows this understanding about information as data

processed for a definite purpose. (Lucey, 1997)

Information flows Data floods MISprocesses

Users processes

Decision

There are so many definitions of MIS. For the purpose of this research, MIS can be defined

as a system providing management with accurate and timely information necessary to

facilitate the decision–making process and enable the organization's planning, control, and

operational functions to be carried out effectively. So, in this way MISs increase

competitiveness of the firm by reducing cost and improving processing Speed.

MIS is by its very nature an electric discipline. It is the study of providing information to

people who must make choices about the disposition of valuable resource in a timely,

accurate, and complete manner at a minimum of cognitive and economic cost for Acquisition,

processing, storage and retrieval.

The beauty of MIS is that it ties together a whole set of operations that general managers

already thought were important (such as reporting, financial controls, and production

scheduling) and bound them to the existing but disruptive technology of computer, thus

blurring distinctions between the technical and the managerial.

Differing information for different management levels

Efficient MIS enables management to plan co-ordinate, and control. It provides information

needed for strategic planning and for day to day operations. The various levels of management

typically require the information they received to be formatted in different ways. These

different levels of management decision-making can be described as follows; strategic,

tactical and operational. So, the information could be:

• Operational information largely internal, mainly historical, detailed information on a

daily or weekly basis, often quantitative, high precision, narrow in scope.

• Tactical information-internal and external sources, with concern on the current and

future performance, aggregated (summarized), information on products, sales,

investment profits etc.


• Strategic information - largely external [information on economic conditions,

technological developments, the actions of competitors], forward looking, qualitative;

information is important, precision is unimportant, wide ranging, incomplete.

Decision are impossible without information and managers are constantly seeking more and

better information to support their decision making, hence the growth of IS. It is a term that

today is often taken to mean networks of computers, but strictly speaking should also include

non-computerized channels of communication such as regular meetings or even phones. Of

course, neither the word “information” nor most of the things to which it was applied were

new. As one might expect, information was originally the event that took place when a person

was informed of something. In the early twentieth century, the term “information” was

frequently associated with communication (especially in the public relations), with

intelligence (in the military sense), and with the acquisition of knowledge. It continued to

imply that a human recipient was being informed (just as the word “education” today implied

that a person is being educated).

The design of the MIS must take into account the information needs of the various managerial

levels, as well as the routine transaction-processing needs of the total organization. For

example, as shown in table 1, the information sources for operation control are found largely

within the organization, while the information sources for strategic planning tend to be outside

the organization. However, the value of information is offset by the cognitive and economic

costs of acquiring, processing, storing, and retrieving it.

TABLE 1. Information Requirements by Decision category

CHARACTERISTICS

OF INFORMATION

OPERATIONAL

CONTROL

(FIRST LINE)

TACTICAL

CONTROL

(MIDDLE

LEVEL)

STRATEGIC

PLANNING (TOP

LEVEL)

Source Largely internal Largely external

Scope Well defined,

narrow

Very wide

Level of aggregation Detailed Aggregate

Time horizon Historical Future

Currency Highly current Less current

Required accuracy High Low

Frequency of use Very frequent Less frequent

To survive, every organization collect information, communicate it internally and process it

so that managers can make decisions quickly and effectively in pursuit of organizational

objectives in a changing, competitive environment. The IS the nervous system which allows

an organization to respond to opportunities and avoid threats. It is widely acknowledged that

firms with the best and most effective ISs are those that have clear and well thought out IS

strategy.


INFORMATION

Management decision making

Management process

Financial indicator

Competitor activity

Customer satisfaction and cost of sale

Customer database Production statistics Research and

development

The speed at which organizations gear up to the new policy - MDG conditions and maintain

a responsible MIS will play a major role in determining their success or failure in this

changing environment. It can give an organization sustainable advantage by improving

administration performance.

The ability to use computers creatively to collect, organize, distribute, and control

information is spelling the difference between success and mediocrity in organizations

ranging from education to health issues. Computers are changing the way the business is done

in every sector.

Almost all business organizations normally have some kind of information system for

management. Accounting rules, stock control and market monitoring systems are the most

traditional and common examples. The power of technology has transformed the role of

information in all aspects of livelihood. Now information has become recognized as the

lifeblood of an organization (Figure 2). Without information, the modern organization is

dead. (Papows, 1998)

Figure 2. Information — the lifeblood of the organization.

Stages in the development of Management Information Systems

Organizations have always had some kind of management information systems, even if it was

not recognized as such. Developments in the new technology have gone through several

stages.

Stage 1: EDP. When computers were first introduced into organizations, they were used

mainly to process data for a few business function - usually accounting and billing. Computers

were located in electronic data processing (EDP) departments, because of the specialized

skills needed to operate the extensive and complex system.


Organizational data (from EDP department)

ExternalManagers

Reports

MIS

Figure 3. Diagram of MIS

Stage 2: MIS. The growth of EDP departments spurred managers to focus more on planning

their organizations' information system. As the EDP departments' function expended beyond

routine processing of masses of standardized data, they began to be called management

information system (MIS) departments. Figure 3 is a diagram of MIS (Kroenke, 1987). MIS

uses data created mainly in the EDP departments and it can be developed only when there

already exists such department. It does not make any changes in these data. MIS could obtain

information from internal and external sources.

Stages 3: DDS. Later on, where remote terminals were introduced, more than one department

began to use the same system. At this stage the MIS has grown beyond a data processing role

and included the provision of a number of decision support systems (DSSs). While the MIS

control routine operations using data processing methods, the DSSs is seen as supporting

decision on “less routine issues” and solving “semi – structured” problems.

Stage 4: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE and EXPERT SYSTEMS. One of the fastest

growing areas of information technology, artificial intelligence uses the computer to simulate

some of the characteristics of human thought. The term artificial intelligence (AI) means the

simulation of human thought process in order to select best mode of behaviour, e.g. taking a

decision or responding to a situation. Expert system is a major application of AI. They act

like a human “expert” in analysing unstructured situations. Expert system is also called

“knowledge-base” systems since they are built on a framework of known facts and responses

to situation. It is believed that we are moving rapidly from industrial-based society to an

information-base one. The application of computer technology to management information

and decision support systems has certainly had an effect on how managers perform their tasks

on how organizations behave.

Conclusion

Importance of information as an instrument for social, economic, educational and health

development cannot be over emphasized. Understanding it (information) will positively

enhance the effective performance of all stakeholders.

Computers and MISs are one of the important organizational resources. A great number of

enterprises – Education medical etc – could not operate properly and successfully without the

implementation of MISs in the new changing environment in the attainment of the MDGs.


The modern IT will become the main force determining the pattern of the 21st century and

giving great opportunities in all spheres of our life.

MISs have great contribution to increase competitiveness and effectiveness of managers in

decision-making process and solving of different problems which appeared in managing an

organization.

REFERENCES

Barnatt, Chr, (1994). The computers in Business Blueprints. Oxford: Blackwell publishers.

Bee, R; Bee, F. (1999). Managing information and Statistics. Trowbridge: Crown well press.

Benett, R. (1995). Management. London; Pitman publishing.

Jackson, I. (1996). Corporate Information Management. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall

International

Knight, J. (1999). Computing for Business. Essex: Pearson Education Ltd.

Kroenke, D, Dolan, K. (1987) Business Computer systems. Cal, Santa Cruz.

Luccey, T. (1997). Management Information systems. London.

PA consulting Group, (1990). IT: The Catalyst for chance. London: W H. Allen & Co Plc.

Papows, J. (1998). Market Leadership in Information Age. London; Nicholas Brealey

Publishing.

Strategies for jobs in the information society (2000). Luxembourg: Office for Official

Publications of the EC.

Wilson, D. (1993). Managing Information: for continual improvement. Oxford: Butterworth

Heinemann Ltd.


THE QUESTIONS OF INCUMBENCY AND WHO SHOULD FINANCE POLITICAL PARTIES

CAMPAIGNS

By

Veno M. Yongo

Department of International Relations

ABSTRACT

The craze for the incumbent elected political office holders to consolidate their stay in office

beyond their present term of office and the quest of so many political organizations to

transmute themselves to full blown political parties is the focus of this paper. Thus, the paper

critically examined the equation and the role of the incumbents in the political engineering of

Nigerian political space. It also looked at the quest for creation of more political parties,

their sponsorship and the motives behind the craze. The paper concluded with a number of

recommendations on the questions, one of which is the strict obedience to electoral law and

of course the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as amended.

INTRODUCTION

The wheel will soon come full circle as the four years of the last democratic elections will

end. Come 2019, fresh national elections would hold. But the big question on people's lips

is where are the gains of this mandate of almost two decades of democratic experiment after

the end of military terrorism into politics? With practically and I think virtually nothing

tangible to show so far by the present regime as positively affecting the lives of the masses

as an account of the mandate given to them on the 29th May, 2015, the drums of re-elections

have since been beating all over the country by the incumbents.

The fate of our country and our lives are in the hands of the men and women we elected

through a process bedevilled by many irrelevancies which consequently led to the emergence

of the last regime. The ones we will elect come 2019 have started their bids and because of

this, the matter of campaign expenditures demands attention. The chapter VI Section 222{c}

of the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria shows that an annual grant will

always be made available to the Independent National Electoral Commission {INEC} for

onward disbursement to the political parties for discharge of their duties. In the same chapter

VI of the constitution, is a feeble provision on how the electoral commission will check the

excesses of the political parties. Thus, the questions of incumbency and who should finance

political parties' campaigns with the realities on ground.

This problem is more serious than many people realize it. Multi-billion naira campaigns have

actually encourage a free-for-all system of fund raising that has corrupted the political terrain

of this country and worse more, has so confused the voter that it is impossible for him to

know what financial obligation and commitment are carried into office by the men and women

who govern the country. One is push to ask the reason why an elected public officer who

spends billions of naira while campaigning would not swindle the public by stealing funds at

his disposal at the end of the day. If our elected leaders are to maintain the freedom of thought

and action that we expect, we need a much closer control of incumbency factor and campaign

expenditure than has ever existed before.


Despite the fact that the 1999 constitution of Federal Republic of Nigeria have shown vaguely

the tendency of government financing of political campaigns; there are argument from all

quarters on whether political parties or individual contestants be left to finance their

campaigns. These arguments are more pertinent now with the seemingly good gesture of the

government towards reviewing the constitution. One of these arguments was put forward by

a former Senator, Sen. Sulaiman Makonjoula from Kwara state who said that “funding of

political parties is done all over the world and is the right thing that ought to be done.” He

said, “The moment government hands-off, it allows money bags to hijack the parties. As it's

often said that he who pays piper calls the tune.” For him, “You put your money where your

heart is.” For this reason, he said “If the government fund political parties, operators within

the parties would operate at about the same level”. That “the idea of people controlling the

party and using the party for their selfish interest is out of it”. So, he concluded by saying

that, “I will strongly support government funding political parties in Nigeria.” (Sunday

punch, March 11 2001). But in what looks like a counter argument to that position, Chief

Bimbola Ogunkelu, the then minister of Cooperation and Integration in Africa in an interview

with the News Agency of Nigeria (NAN) in Abuja on Sunday 8, April 2001 said that Nigeria

had not fought corruption to the extent that “when government funds political parties, those

entrusted with managing them will not just spend the money and not bother about winning

election. He showed that few political parties may be okay, that by the time government

announces that is going to fund political parties, that we will be surprise how many parties

will seek registration - the situation we have already seen with the high number of registered

political parties that we have today. At the last count, we have more than forty (40) political

parties now and more are seeking registration as he said, everybody will want to get a piece

of the action without any interest in governing the country.” These are therefore, few amongst

the arguments for and against government financing political parties’ campaigns; But I think,

I will lean to the latter argument. This is because, the number of elected political offices that

ranges from Federal, State and Local governments in this country are too many to be finance

by the government without corruption and suppression of both new political parties and

candidates by incumbents. Thus, government will succeed in Wasting its scarce resources as

they always claim, despite the fact that parties and individual contestants would also raise

their money and what we are running away from will still be the order of day – hijacking of

political parties by the highest donors and reckless fund raising everywhere and eventually

multi-billion naira campaigns will continue and that means greater advantage to incumbents

who will certainly come back to their offices to exacerbate stealing of public funds; and so,

the noise about fighting corruption will be more of a charade. Therefore, the seemingly

convincing gesture of government funding political parties' campaigns is bound to be abused.

Today the world is caught up as it were, in a creeping web of incumbency factor by regulation

and control of election to perpetuate themselves in power. Nigeria is no exception. Many

Governors, Local Government Chairmen, National and State Assembly Members in the north

have launched campaigns that are for the incumbents who still have another term to continue

in office beyond 2019 or any specified. The situation is not any different in other parts of the

country as almost all elected officers according to them, have secured ticket for the second

term of office, in fact, some people and groups have declared and have commence campaigns

for the second term bid of PMB. There have been complaints of harassment and intimidation

by the incumbents against any opposition. Politicians now take incumbency factor as their

political last card for winning elections come 2019. This is very dangerous, politically tactless

and it exposes our politicians as being immature for them


to seek re-election on the basis of incumbency rather than performance. This is because; the

bid by the incumbents for second term has done incalculable damage to our national image

and has retarded our progress towards political and economic development and growth. With

just less than practically two years to the next election, the country is still characterized by

greater material poverty, unemployment, high level of illiteracy, low life expectancy, high

infant mortality, poor funding of education, unsafe drinking water where little is found and

myriads of social vices with rampant corruption, tribalism and political victimization. Some

governors have turned their states into personal property by rejecting any form of checks by

the legislators. With such an abuse, couple with gross financial mismanagement marked by

uncontrolled spending and unprofitable overseas trips, has expose our country to international

disgrace. Thus, under these conditions of economic austerity and political hopelessness, the

well-meaning Nigerians must be on guard as this great country is already in jeopardy with

the set of “crooks” we have as leaders, that instead of paying attention to the solution of these

national exigencies, the incumbents are busy embezzling government funds for political

parties campaign purposes and this is only to steal money once they got into power again.

So, what is the justification for funding political parties' campaigns of such people? After all,

incumbents serve the interest of nobody except himself and besides, most incumbents are

enemies of progress. Another advantage to the incumbents, if government would finance

political parties' campaigns is that, it would make it near impossible for a new political party

to get started. This is because the incumbents will readily destroy the plans of the new political

parties just registered by heralding non-existent achievements in the media – a way of

blocking any prospects of good programmes that may be announce by the new political

parties. The press, that is both the print and electronic media which are supposed to be the

watch dogs of the society, a vehicle for keeping government on track have succumbed to total

control of the incumbents and the resultant effect is that instead of information dissemination,

what we now see is information regimentation of those I would called political neophytes

who want to come back to continue their acts of profligacy with public funds after years of

waste. In his reaction to what may be term as a “debase'' media, the then Speaker of the

House of Representative, Alhaji Umar Ghali Na'Abba while speaking at the opening

ceremony of a workshop organized for news executives by the National Broad-Casting

Commission (NBC), said “news on television is now largely about what people in power do

and where they and their families go, while questions are not asked about their policies and

programmes.” He said government owned broadcast stations, “have been transmuted into

propaganda tools for incumbents in their feverish and desperate bid to return to power in

2019.” Pointing out that “unabashed display of sycophancy at the state and federal levels

pervades the air waves, just as the opposition parties are denied their constitutionally

guaranteed rights to fair and equitable hearing.” In a clear comparison to the events leading

to the 1983 military intervention, the former speaker claimed that the media were “heavily

deployed” by the parties in power to manipulate the electoral process, noted that there were

“obvious signs that this scenario may repeat itself in 2019.” This is in conformity with what

Enahoro once said to the media on the collapsed of the first republic:

Let us remember to our shame that whatever

Or whoever ruined our first republic did so

With the active collaboration and convenience

Of the greater part of Nigerian press


This impression as shown is contrary to the vibrant press known during the pre-independence

struggle. The patriotic press vanished at independence; the press became partisan mostly

along religions and ethic lines. The military regimes compounded the issue by assuming the

ownership of major dailies and complete control of electronic media. This has since then to

this day remain endemic to Nigerian Media; this was actually makes manifest during the evil

days of the late maximum dictator Gen. Sani Abacha who completely hijacked electronic

media in his bid to transform himself from Military to civilian rule. Thus, journalists are

compelled to be on the side of government and generally anti-masses in their reporting. What

the masses watch or hear on radio now is the bogus achievements of incumbents and the

“Sale” of their political ideas and personalities. In this situation, how will new political parties

and fresh candidates survive? Of course, their future looks cloudy and perhaps doom for

failure.

Incumbents have also greater means for obtaining publicity by distributing government funds

in reckless ways in the name of democratic dividends, but actually, the motive behind the

whole idea is to bribe the masses to vote for them for the second term. This will lead us to

the question of what is it decides who wins election in Nigeria. In Nigeria, I got nauseated

whenever I think of election, because it is only money that decides who wins election. That

means that, politics in this country is not driven by any ideology. Issues, policies and

programmes are of no significance. The only ideology is the ideology of “pocket book”. No

wonder somebody said “Nigerians would vote for the devil himself if he brings money.”

Therefore, the incumbents who are preparing for 2019 election and knowing fully that

achievements doesn't speak for candidates but money, are busy rapaciously amassing public

funds to spend such on campaigns- a prospect of buying the electorates over. So by

implication, elections in Nigeria are to a remarkable degree based on how much money one

has, which consequently means that the government political office holders who have an eye

on the next election will do everything humanly possible even through dubious means to make

much money, so as to prepare them for winning. Thus, they are now expanding their political

tentacles by setting up monstrous and funding of political machineries who will aid their

bidding and that is the more reason why they would go to any length to amass money to

themselves and their associates who will actually be the brain behind their success.

The result of this is that, the business of government will be neglected and what will happen

rather as we are seeing now is awarding and signing contract forms that have no direct bearing

on majority of the people. The consequences are that, the exigencies of the country's needs

will suffer procrastination while our incumbents are busy attending political meetings towards

the perfection of their bidding plans; and as procrastination is the enemy of time, they will at

the tail end of the mandate given to them as we have already started seeing, engage in last

minutes or what can be refer to as the “rush hour” to do one thing or the other to convince

the gullible people in the polity that they have done what they promised. Some of them will

even have the effrontery to claim to have left some projects undone and will wish to come

back and complete them. For this hazarding guess, I strongly urge the electorates not to allow

themselves to be taken for a ride again. This is because, the situation in the country seems to

be akin to the one somebody saw and make a statement some years back which was held as

Sedition; But because of what is happening now, one may be tempted to repeat the same

statement on the present set of politicians that we have if care is not taken – where the accused

said.


Down with the enemies of the people, the exploiters of the weak

and the oppressors of the poor. The days of those who have

enriched themselves at the expense of the poor are numbered.

The common man in Nigeria can today no longer be fooled by

Sweet talk at election time and treated like rubbish after the booty

Of office has been shared among the politicians {OBI VS STATE (1961) ANLR 156}.

I think any sane person in Nigeria will want to agree with this statement. If so, what do we

do then to curb the excesses of incumbency factor, reckless political fund raising and political

parties' campaigns expenditure?

In my stance against government financing of political parties, a prospect for funding political

campaigns, I suggest the following measures to be taken. That instead of funding political

parties’ campaigns, government should control rather the sources of finances and

expenditures of each political party and individual contestants. In this sense, there should be

sincere efforts to limit by law the amount of money to be spent, to restrict the possible sources

of funds, to regulate the size of individual contributions and to require publicity for all sizable

contribution. For instance, the Electoral Commission set up in Britain only few years ago,

fixed the total expenditure of the political parties, including individual contestant's expenses

to maximum of 16 million pounds. With restriction, the ruling party could not exercise the

advantage of incumbency to use government funds to engage in sophisticated campaigns or

bribe voters. In the same way, the need for collecting large campaign funds would vanish in

Nigeria if the National Assembly will provide an appropriation for the proper and legitimate

expenses of each of the parties, an appropriation ample enough to meet the necessity for

thorough organization and machinery of the parties.

There is also the opinion that if only a few wealthy individuals or organizations make political

contribution, the influence of the few will be too great. In contrast, if many people contribute

with logical restriction by law on the number and amount for each member, the office holder

would not be obligated to give special consideration to the wealthy members of the party –

after all everybody have contributed equal amount of money - a feat claimed by the APC-

PMB Campaign organization in 2015. For this therefore, drive should be made in this sense

to increase and equalized numerous small contributions in the theory that he who pays the

piper calls the tune. Numerous small contributions from all members of the party will

stimulate the interest of the citizens, since most people tend to take a greater interest in parties

and candidates they support financially. This is a prospect of making political office-holders

accountable to the people and it will also stem corruption in public offices.

Another thing is that, if government must help political parties at all; such help must not be

direct to the political parties, but must be done in a control way or centrally done. For

instance, a part-time campaign contribution board can be set by government. This board will

be composed of say three members of each political party appointed by the president and

confirmed by the senate. This board would select an impartial administrator from within

themselves, who will direct government funds supplied to them to suppliers of such legitimate

political expenses as radio and television time, newspaper advertising and few other things.

This will mean, no individual party or individual contestant would be allowed to buy radio


or television time or newspaper advertisement. This will actually remove to some extent,

dominance of incumbents in complete hijack of electronic and print Media. In the same way,

primaries of the political parties and especially in Nigeria where party machinery may not be

trusted to treat each entrant equally and fairly, I would suggest that the National Assembly

make a law by allowing a fixed sum of money per candidate for intra-party modest campaigns.

Finally, there are strong indications of growing political maturity in Nigeria. So, it will be

true to say that the Nigerian future electorates and general populace of today are more likely

to be rational, more sophisticated, more articulated and more conscious of their political

rights and obligations than were those of the past republics. Though, our democracy is more

or less a quasi-one, leaders should complement the convincing gesture of the electorates by

having the basic understanding of the government, to comprehend the complex issues facing

the country and to have the will and courage to make faithful decision, to marshal support

for national policies after irrevocable decisions have been made to bring Nigerians out of the

abyss of corruption that is inherent in the system. This would give electorates more hope and

courage to actually vote out the wrong people and vote in the right ones.

Suffice to say finally again that if government dare to finance political campaigns, the suppose

government of the people for the and by the people would at the end of the time do little or

nothing to the masses, because that would only serve the interest of the incumbents to the

detriment of the mass majority of the people who will continue to languish in material poverty

and as a result, the electorates will perhaps, lose interest again in the system and consequently

the incumbents will take the advantage of the ignorance to gather more money, to facilitate

their come back, to continue their evil act of “Lootocracy”. I will therefore, conclude that

funding political parties’ campaigns will not go well for the country at this revival time,

because it will not check corruption, but rather exacerbate it. Thus, the paramount thing now,

is full control by equalizing the strength of all political parties in terms of financial stand, so

that, issues, policies and programmes would determine who wins elections come 2019.

REFERENCES

Ayeni-Akeke, O. A. (2008) “Foundation of Political Science.” Ibadan – Nigeria, Ababa

Press Ltd. Sango.

Lipjhart, A. (1992) “Parliament versus Presidential Government.” Oxford England Oxford

University Press.

Fall, I. M. et al (2011) “Election Management Bodies in West Africa”. A comparative study

of the contribution of electoral commissions to the strengthening of democracy.

Johannesburg – Open Society Foundation, South Africa.

Ibrahim J. & Ibeanu, O (ed) (2009) “The 2007 Nigerian Election and Subversion of Popular

Sovereignty” Abuja Nigeria. Centre for Democracy and Development.

1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as amended – Abuja, Nigeria

Report on the 2011 General Election: Independent National Electoral Commission; Maitama

District FCT Abuja Nigeria

Chaturvedi, A. K. (2006) “Academics Dictionary of Political Science” New Delhi Academic

(India) Publishers.


Mahajan V. D. (1988) “Political Theory: Principles of Political Science” New Delhi, India

S. Chand & Co. Ltd. Ran Nagar.

http://www.soc.titech.ac.jp/uem/governance.html

http://wwwbritcoun.org/governance/ukpgov.html

http://www.soc.titech.ac.jp/uem/governance.html


EFFECTS OF MATHEMATICS ANXIETY ON STUDENTS' PERFORMANCE IN SECONDARY

SCHOOLS, ADAMAWA STATE

By

Elishama, Lakam John

Department of Statistics

ABSTRACT

An inherent fear of mathematics by students in secondary schools nowadays has affected their

performance in SSCE. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of mathematics anxiety on

students' performance at SSCE in Demsa local Government Area, Adamawa state. The study

found out that students' negative attitude toward mathematics, inadequate instructional

materials/resources, parent's perception of mathematics, lack of supervision and inspection

of mathematics teachers are sometimes the root causes of mathematics anxiety amongst

secondary school students in Adamawa state. Consequently, this makes the students to remain

passive in the classroom during instruction, thereby affecting their performance in SSCE and

consequently posing a threat to their future career. The way forward as recommended by this

study are; students themselves must complement the effort of teachers in curbing mathematics

anxiety by looking at mathematics with positive feelings. Parents should be enlightened on

the importance of their involvement in the education of their children. Guidance and

counselling units should be set up in our secondary schools, frequent supervision and

inspection should be done by the state ministry of education, zonal office as well as the

principals. Adamawa state government should fund secondary school education towards the

purchase of resource materials and as well train mathematics teachers to enhance student's

performance in SSCE.

INTRODUCTION

Brief history of the teaching of mathematics in Nigeria started with Arithmetic, a component

of mathematics at the primary and post primacy schools (Fajemidagba, Salmon and

Ayinda,1999). Arithmetic was compulsory for every primary school pupil and most be passed

before a pupil could obtain the “Primary School Leaving Certificate.” The same condition

holds for the teacher training colleges either grade II or III. Mathematics still remains one of

the core and compulsory subjects for Nigerian students at both primary and secondary

schools. Recently, mathematics has become a determining factor to gain admission into most

Nigerian Universities as it must be passed up to credit level before one gains admission.

Mathematics as a school subject is recognized as the foundation of science and technology,

without which a nation will never become prosperous and economically independent.

In spite of its importance to the students' advancement in academics and daily living, many

students feared mathematics. Given the right to choose, many secondary school students could

out-rightly avoid mathematics, this is because many of them have developed some element

of fear (Phobia) about the subject many be, as a result of uncomplimentary remarks made

about mathematics by the parents, other significant adults at home, the mathematics teachers,

the society or other factors which this study will find out.


Since most of the students have lost hope and psychologically defeated due to mathematics

phobia, this affects their level of interest and passion in the subject despite the effort put in

by government and various stakeholders of education to make mathematics compulsory and

one of the leading core subjects in the secondary school curriculum. Consequently, it leads

to greater percentage of the students engaging in examination malpractice.

The term “Phobia” is curled from Greek word probos. It is an irrational, intense persistent

fear of certain situations, activities, things or people (John, 2009). When fear reaches an

extreme pitch, it becomes a phobia. There is a general impression that mathematics is difficult

by nature, and because of this impression, this research work will unravel the effects of

mathematics phobia on students' performance in secondary school certificate examination

(SSCE).

However, students reason that mathematics is highly structured and is so abstract and require

special intellectual attitude. Thus, students flee the subject as something esoteric. The inherent

notion held by many Africans that mathematics is a very difficult subject which is capable of

making one “mad” is at the centre of the phobia which students exhibit for mathematics and

which had claimed may casualties over the years. The question is how then would any person

in fairness expect our poor and innocent children to be courageous as to face something which

is capable of making even an adult mad? The students would prefer to do something else no

matter how difficult rather that to attain mathematics classes.

Significance of the study

Causes of Mathematics Anxiety amongst Secondary School Students

Phobias are learnt as the consequence of either a traumatic event associated with a particular

situation for objects or because an important role model has shown fear (John, 2009). In most

situations the fear-inducing event is a threat to the individual's self rather than a threat to is

physical well-being.

Generally, people with mathematics anxiety often realized that these fears are irrational, but

they find that facing or even thinking about facing these feared situations brings panic attack

or severe anxiety. According to John (2009), “there are four broad source of mathematics

phobia.” This include:

i. Parents and other Significant Adults at home

According to him “Parents and other adults are the first individuals a child comes into contact

with in life. These individuals serves as sources of mathematics anxiety through:-

▪ Their attitude toward mathematics

▪ Uncomplimentary remarks about mathematics.

▪ Their expectations from the children.

He went further to say that “there give the child no hope of doing well in mathematics.

ii. The Mathematics Teacher

John (2009) says that “the teachers is seen by his students as an all-knowing person who

never makes mistake. Students have much confidence in their teacher and they take what

teacher says is final”. The teachers according to him contribute to mathematics phobia

through:


▪ His attitudes toward mathematics

▪ Uncomplimentary remarks or notion about mathematics.

▪ Inadequate training and lack of adequate mastery of the mathematics content.

▪ Improper planning and poor delivery techniques (method)

▪ Unhealthy relationship between the teacher and the learners.

▪ Personal characteristics of the teacher.

▪ Punishing students for failure to solve mathematics.

iii. The Child

Other aspects of the child's contribution to mathematics phobia according to John (2009)

includes the following:

▪ Their attitude toward mathematics

▪ Difficulty in abstracting from concrete mathematical concepts

▪ Lack of self confidence in performing mathematical tasks

▪ Bad company (friends and pairs) seeing maths as a threat to the image of themselves

as component individuals, especially when they set unrealistic goals for themselves.

iv. The Society

The notion of the society concerning mathematics could increase the level of mathematics

phobia amongst the students. These include according to John (2009):

▪ Seeing mathematics as the subject for the geniuses

▪ Seeing mathematics as a situation that can make an individual as mad or appear stupid

and clumsy.

▪ Emphasis on scholastic achievement

▪ The desire for scientific and technological growth.

Teachers have important part to play in learning of mathematics by being effective, most

especially if the students can learn with greater ease and perform well with his help than

without his helps. Tshabalala (2014) says “A quack doctor is capable to handle an individual

at a time but a bad teacher can ruin not only the individual but also a nation.

Wikipedia Free Encyclopaedia (2014) stated that students often develop mathematical anxiety

in school, often as a result of learning from teachers who are themselves anxious about their

mathematical abilities in certain areas.

STAN, (2002) as cited by Ojimba, (2012) was of the view that prominent cause of poor

performance in mathematics are:

▪ Acute shortage of qualified professional mathematics teacher.

▪ Exhibition of poor knowledge mathematics content by many mathematics teachers.

▪ Overcrowded mathematics classrooms.


▪ Undue emphasis on the coverage of mathematics syllabus at the expense of meaningful

learning of mathematics concept.

▪ Inadequate facilities and mathematics laboratories.

The above-mentioned items are possibly the causes of mathematics phobia amongst secondary

school students in Demsa Local Government Area which this research work will find out.

Effects of Mathematics Anxiety on Students Performance in Secondary School

Certificate Examination (SSCE)

Performance on standardized mathematics test is affected by one's confidence (Dar Nimrod

& Heine, 2006). This means that a student who does not have confidence in his/her

mathematical ability is automatically phobia driven. Consequently, the performance in

standardized test (SSCE) may not be encouraging. In addition, research have shown that a

parent perception on mathematics influences their child's perception and achievement in

mathematics (Yee & Eccles, 1998). This means that if a parent makes it apparent that they

do not influence the way in which their child views mathematics, then the child will not

perform well in the subject. In other words, the child would likely develop phobia for

mathematics. It is only when you develop interest in doing something that you can succeed

in it.

Mame (2002), in Atwood, (2014) defines mathematics anxiety “as a feeling of tension,

apprehension, or fear that interferes with mathematics performance.” This implies that

mathematics anxiety (phobia) affect students' performance in mathematics either internal or

external examinations. According to Antthony and Agnes (2009), “Students' achievement in

mathematics test depends on how much interest the students have in the subject. How then

can student who is phobia driven in mathematics perform well in SSCE?

Haimoniwitze (1989) cited by Gegba and Sheriff. (2015) indicated that the cause of most

failure in schools might not be due to insufficient or inadequate instruction but by resistance

by the learner. They said that this argument suggests that favourable attitudes towards

mathematics should be developed for achievement in the subject to improve. Mwamwenda

(1995) in Gebge and Sheriff, (2015) argued that the achievement of students in a subject is

determined by their attitudes rather than inability to study.

Effects of Mathematics Anxiety on Students' Future Career

The research would like to look at the influence of mathematics on students’ future career.

Mathematics anxiety otherwise known as phobia according to Tobias, (1993) has been defined

as feelings of tension and anxiety that interfere with the manipulation of numbers and the

solving of mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations.

This means that mathematics anxiety can cause one to forget and lose one's self confidence.

Mathematics is an important subject with broad applicability to everyday life, yet mathematics

is often considered as a difficult subject in schools (Pradeep, 2012). However, the students'

interest and weakness in mathematics learning could affect the efforts of various sectors in

achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of making Nigeria a fully developed

nation before 2020 (Ibbid).


Adebayo, (1997) in Edukugoh (2010) stated that knowledge of mathematics promotes the

habit of accuracy, logical, systematic and orderly arrangement of faults in the individual

learner. It also, he said, encourage the habit of self-reliance and assists learners to think and

solve their problems themselves. Mathematical knowledge indeed equips individual with the

skills to solve a wide range of practical tasks and problems they may encounter in life (Sa'ad

& Usman, 2014) Saint Paul Public School (2007) as reported by Sa'ad and Usman (2014)

commenting on importance of mathematics that the study of mathematics helps the mind to

reason and organize complicated situations or problems into clear, simple and logical steps.

The reality, they noted, is that in a society such as ours, high paying jobs often demand

someone who can simplify complicated situations and reduce them to the level everyone can

understand. They therefore insisted that by knowing more mathematics, students give

themselves the competing edge they need to vie for such high paying job. This supports the

fact that any student who is mathematically phobia developed may not have a brighter future.

Mathematics is no longer important just in so far as it is a basic requirement for entry into

institutions of higher learning. It is now more than ever before an essential ingredient in the

education of every Nigeria child especially in this technological era.

Students need to be encouraged to acquire, and be provided with, the necessary academic

skills to enter mathematics and science related profession. Mastering mathematics has become

more important than ever before in the world. Students with a strong background in

mathematics have an advantage over those students who struggle when competing the Job

Market (Gegba, Sundai & Sheriff, 2015). In the job market they say, workers who have a

strong mathematics and Science background are more likely to be employed and even more

than those with lower achievement even if they have not gone to college. They argued that

to compete in our 21st century global economy, it is critical have highs school, knowledgeable

and proficient in mathematics.

Statement and Purpose of the Study

The lackadaisical attitude of the students toward mathematics in our secondary schools have

reached such an extreme pitch, that every lover of education growth and development of

Nigeria cannot afford to keep mute on the happening in the mathematics education.

This study work intends to:

i. X-ray the causes of mathematics phobia among the Secondary School Students in

Demsa Local Government Area.

ii. Investigate the effects of this phobia in mathematics on the students' performance in

SSCE in Demsa Local Government Area.

iii. Make some suggestions and recommendations on how best to fight mathematics

phobia so as to improve students' interest and performance in mathematics in Demsa

Local Government Area.

Research Questions

In the course of carrying out this project work, the following questions have been

formulated to provide the needed information to achieve the set objectives of the study:


i. What could be the possible causes of mathematics phobia among secondary school

students in Demsa Local Government Area?

ii. Is there any effect of mathematics phobia on students' performance in SSCE in Demsa

Local Government Area?

iii. What impact has mathematics phobia on students' future career in Demsa Local

Government Area?

Design and Procedure for Data Analysis

In this study, a survey research design was followed. This type of design was used because

it allowed the researcher to study small sample and later generalized the findings to the whole

population. Osuala, (2005) was of the view that in survey research, small sample is studied

and the findings generalized to the whole population

Data collected was analysed using t-distribution at 2.262 significant levels.

Where

µ = Population mean

n = Sample population

The decision rule is, where the computed value of t did not exceed its critical (or table) value

the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected and the alternative hypothesis (H1) is accepted; and when

the computed value of t is equal to or more than the critical (or table) value the null hypothesis

(H0) is accept.

Presentation of Data

This section focuses on the presentation of the data collected from the respondents. Research

Question 1: What could be the possible cause of mathematics phobia among secondary school

students in Demsa Local Government Area?

Table 1: Showing responses obtained from research question one.

S/No

Question

Response Total

Agreed Disagreed

1. Students themselves are the cause of

Mathematics phobia in Secondary

School

21 4 25

2. Inadequate quality teachers are the

major cause of Mathematics phobia

25 0 25


3. Inadequate teaching materials of

Mathematics can cause Mathematics

phobia

17 8 25

4. Lack of frequent supervision and

inspection of Mathematics teachers by

both the school administration and

ministries of education is one of the

causes of Mathematics phobia

17 8 25

5. Anxiety and fear toward Mathematics is

as a result of lack of parental

involvement

15 10 25

6. Students’ negative attitude toward

mathematics is caused by using

inappropriate or poor method

10 15 25

7. Overcrowded or large classes is the

cause of Mathematics phobia

10 15 25

8. Parents and other significant adults at

home are one of the causes of

Mathematics phobia

10 15 25

TOTAL 131 65 200

Source: Field work 2016

Hypotheses 1: t-Score for a possible cause of mathematics anxiety among secondary

Description

of item

Responses Row

result

Percentage t-score

value

Decision

Rule

Cal. Tab

Causes of

Mathematics

phobia will

have no

significant

impact

among

secondary

school

Agree 131 65.5 0.240 2.262 Rejected

Disagree 69 34.5


Research question 2: Is there any effect of mathematics Phobia on students’ Performance in

S.S.C.E.

S/No Question Responses Total

Agreed Disagreed

1. Mathematics anxiety affects

students

25 0 25

2. Performance in S.S.C.E is

affected by one’s confidence

18 7 25

3. Parent’s perception on

Mathematics influences their

child’s perception

14 11 25

4. Students’ achievement in

outcome of Mathematics tests

depends on how much interest

the students have in the subject

21 4 25

5. Positive attitudes toward

Mathematics increases students’

performance

23 2 25

Total 101 24 125

Source: Field work

Table 2: Showing responses obtained from research question two

Hypotheses 2: t-score for effect of mathematics phobia on students' performance in SSCE

Description

of item

Responses Row

Result

Percentage t-score Value Decision

Rule

Cal. Tab

There is no

significance

between

mathematics

phobia and

students’

performance

Agree 101 80.5 0.462 2.262 Rejected

Disagree 24 19.24

Source: Research questionnaire, 2016

Research question 3: What impact has mathematics phobia on students' future career?


Table 3: showing responses from research question two

S/No Question Response Total

Agreed Disagree

1. Mathematics anxiety has a negative

influence on students’ future career

18 17 25

2. To compute in our 21st century

global economy, it is critical that

students should have a high school

knowledge and efficient in

Mathematics

21 4 25

3. In the Job market, people who have

a strong Mathematics and science

background are more than those

with lower achievement even if they

have not gone to college

15 10 25

4. Mathematics phobia may discourage

the habit of self-reliance

13 12 25

5. Mathematics is an importance

subject with broad applicability to

everyday life

Total 92 33 126

Source: Field work, 2016

Hypotheses 3: t-score for impact of mathematics phobia on students' future career.

Description

of item

Responses Row result Percentage t-score value Decision

Rule

Cal. Tab

There is no

significant

difference

between

Mathematics

phobia and

students’

future career

Agree 92 73.6 -0.231 2.262 Rejected

Disagree 33 26.4

Source: Research questionnaire, 2016


Answering of the Research Question

Research Question 1

The result of the analysis of research question one showed that students themselves,

inadequate qualify teachers, inadequate teaching materials, lack of frequent supervision and

inspection of mathematics teachers by both the school administration and ministry of

education, anxiety and fear toward mathematics, student negative attitude, are some of the

main causes of mathematics phobia among secondary school students in Demsa local

government area.

Therefore, the findings of this study tally with the findings of Tata, (2014), Tshabatala,

(2013) in Tata, (2014), Umameh, (2011), Wikipedia free Encyclopaedia, (2014) who found

out that students negative attitude toward mathematics, poor teaching method, inadequate by

the school administration and ministry of education are some of the main cause of

mathematics phobia.

Research Question 2

The result of the analysis of research question two shows that mathematics phobia, one's

confidence in mathematics, students' interest in mathematics and positive attitude toward

mathematics affect students' performance in Demsa local government this because the

students will remain passive in the class.

Therefore, the findings of this study tally with the findings at Yee, (1998), Don-Nimrod,

(2006) Agnes, (2009) and Tata, (2014) who found that mathematics anxiety (phobia), one's

confidence, parents’ perception of mathematics, students’ interest and attitudes effects

students’ performance in mathematics.

Research Question 3

The result of the analysis of research question three shows that mathematics phobia has a

negative influence on students' future career in Demsa local government area. It is also

necessary for students in Demsa local government area to acquire high school knowledge and

efficiency in mathematics to compute in the 21 century. The research revealed that people

who have a strong mathematics and science background in Demsa local government area are

more likely to be employed and earn more money than those with lower achievement even if

they have not gone to college. It also revealed that mathematics phobia can discourage self-

reliance in Demsa LGA. The research also shows that mathematics in Demsa LGA is an

important subject with broad applicability to everyday life.

Summary of Major Findings

It is disheartening to note that with all the importance attached to mathematics in Nigeria's

education system, poor performance is recorded in public examination (SSCE) in recent time.

This poor performance in mathematics is one of the major reasons for decline in Science and

technology courses and development, even though there is emphasis on 60:40 ratio in favour

of science in the area of admission into higher institution (Tata, 2014).


The findings of the research revealed that mathematics phobia affects students' performance

in secondary school certificate examination in Demsa L.G.A. The causes of mathematics

phobia are many and cut across all stakeholders in education. This emanates from the schools,

students, teachers as well as government itself. One's confidence in mathematics, parental

perception of mathematics students' interests and inadequate instruction resources are some

of the contribution factors of poor performance in SSCE in Demsa Local Government Area.

The knowledge of mathematics promotes self-reliance and offers opportunity to compute

favourably in the labour market to earn a living. Mathematics has great influence in the

students' future career in Demsa local government area as it encourages the habit of self-

reliance and assists learners to think and solve their problems themselves. Mathematical

knowledge in deed equips individuals with the skills to solve a wide range of practical tasks

and problems they may encounter in life.

This research titled “effects of mathematics phobia on students' performance in SSCE in

Demsa local government” will enhance better performance in SSCE and influence future

career of students in Demsa local government area and the nation at large. To achieve this

objective the study was based on the following:

▪ The causes of mathematics phobia amongst secondary school students;

▪ The effects of mathematics phobia on the students' performance in SSCE in Demsa

local government area.

▪ The effects or influence of mathematics phobia on the students' future career.

The data collection methods adopted were structured questionnaires and interviews. Data

analysis involved converting series of recorded observation into descriptive statement and

established their relationship. Recommendation for the improvement of students’

performance in SSCE was made.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made:

That students' negative attitude toward mathematics, inadequate quality and qualify teachers,

inadequate instructional resources lack of supervision and inspection of mathematics teachers

are some of the main causes of mathematics phobia among secondary school students in

Demsa local government area.

Mathematics phobia affects students' performance in SSCE in Demsa local government area.

It makes students remain passive in the classroom during instruction. Developing hatred, fear

anxiety for mathematics, parents' perception of mathematics, students' interest among others

affect performance of secondary school students in SSCE.

The future career of students in Demsa LGA is affected by their performance in mathematics.

People who have a strong mathematics and science background are more likely to be

employed and earn more money than those with the lower achievement. It is also necessary

for students in Demsa LGA to acquire high school knowledge and efficiency in mathematics

to compute in the 21stcentury. It also encourages self-reliance and equip individuals with the

skills to solve a wide range of practical tasks and problems they may encounter in life.


Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were provided:

mathematics teachers should have adequate mastering of the subject content, plan their lessons

very well before going into the class and should also select the best delivery techniques, avoid

discouraging statements about mathematics for such can kill interest, scare students from

liking and performing well in mathematics.

Students themselves must complement the effort of teachers in curbing mathematics phobia

by viewing mathematics with positive feelings.

Parents should be enlightened on the importance of their involvement in the education of their

children and its attendance benefit in the performance of students. Parents and society in

general should change their perception of mathematics.

Guidance and counselling units should be set up in our secondary schools and they should be

guiding and counselling students in the educational, personal and social issues affecting

students. This will definitely help them to change their view with regard to mathematics and

can help in improving their performance in it.

Frequent supervision and inspection by the state ministry of education, Demsa Zonal office

as well as the principals should be carried out in order to see and asses the teaching of

mathematics and other subjects in the study area,

REFERENCES

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Secondary School Mathematics Examination in Bayelsa state of Nigeria. Retrieved online.

Attwood, T. (2014). Why are some students so poor at mathematics?

Dar-Nimrod, I. & Heine, S.J (2006). Exposure to Scientific Theories Affect women’s

mathematics performance” (PDE) Science 314:435 doi:10,1126/Science. 1121100

Edukugho, E. (2010). Federal Government moves to Tackle Poor Result in NECO, SSCE

Examinations. Retrieved online.

Fajemidagba M., Salman, M., & Ayinla, J. (2012) Effect of teachers' instructional material

strategy pattern on senior school students' performance in mathematics world problem in

Ondo, Nigeria. Journal of Education and practice, 3 (7), 157-169)

Gegbe, B.S, Sundai A. & Sheriff V.K (2015). Factors contributing to student’s poor

performance in mathematics at West African Senior School Certificate Examination (A

case study: Kenema city, Eastern province Sierra Leone).

John, M. (2009). How to Reduce Mathematics Phobia in students.

Ojimba, D.P (2012). Strategies for Teaching and sustaining mathematics as an indispensable

sustaining mathematics as an indispensable tool for Technological Development in

Nigeria. Retrieved online.

Osuala, E.O (2005). Introduction to Research Methodology. (Rev. Ed) Onitsha: African Fab

Publisher.

Pradeep, R. (2012). A study of mathematics anxiety amongst Primary Pre-service teachers

enrolled in a Dutch Teacher Training program. Unpublished master thesis to


UNIVERSITEITVAN AMSTERDAM, the Netherlands for fulfilment of the requirements

of the master of mathematics and education.

Sa'ad T.U. & Usman, R. (2014). The causes of power performance in English Among Senior

Secondary School Students in Dutse metropolis of Jigawa State. Retrieved online.

Tshabalala, T & Ncube, A.C (2013). Causes of poor performance of ordinary level pupils in

Mathematics in Rural Secondary Schools in Nkayi District: Learner's Attribution.

Retrieved online.

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secondary school students in Azare metropolis of Bauchi State, Nigeria. Retrieved online.

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mathematics in Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) in Idah LGA of

Kogi State, Nigeria. Retrieved online.

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2014 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mathematical anxiety.

Yee, D.K & Eccles, J.S. (1988); Parent perceptions and attributions for children” maths

achievement sex Roles 19:317-33.


SIMULATION OF WATER TABLE POSITION IN RESPONSE TO WEATHERAND TUBEWELL

ABSTRACTION USING WASIM MODEL

By

Malgwi G. S. & William A.H.

Department of Agricultural Bio-Environmental Engineering

ABSTRACT

A study was conducted at Zabramari Fadama Area in Jere Local Government Area of Borno

State, Nigeria. The area covers a fadama land of 1,700ha. The study was done to predict the

behaviour of the aquifer system for the purpose of sustainability. The waSim software program

which is a one-dimensional processed based computer model was used to simulate the effect

of water abstraction (irrigation) and weather (rainfall, evapotranspiration) under drained

condition over a medium-term period of ten (10) years. Soils, climate, crop and irrigation

(abstraction) data were obtained from field study and used for the model validation. The data

was analysed and results obtained displayed on the waSim model interface. The findings

showed that water table fluctuation ranged from 7.65 to 0.26 m for abstraction rate of 1.0

l/s to 6.5 l/s respectively. Maximum fall of water table over the period of simulation was

10.0m at an abstraction rate of 5.5 l/s. Climate had little effect on water table fluctuations

(3.0m) for zero irrigation or zero abstraction. The effect of the average abstraction rate of

1.5 l/s over the study area was minimal (3.0m) on water table position (drawdown). Suction

lift (8.0m) of portable petrol driven engine pumps used by farmers in the study area is below

water table fall (3.0m) at abstraction rate below 5.5l/s which eliminate the fear of water table

fall exceeding the suction lift of pumps. Suggestions and recommendations were proffered in

relation to the establishment and maintenance of metrological station by State Government

and Federal agencies for long term and accurate data.

KEY WORDS: Simulation, Aquifer, Tubewell, Abstraction and WaSim Model.

INTRODUCTION

One of the successful initiatives of the World Bank assisted Agricultural Development

Programmes (ADPs) in Nigeria has been the small-scale low-cost farmer-managed irrigation

in the fadama [1]. This has contrasted with the large-scale irrigation schemes developed by

River Basin Development Authorities (RBDA's); which involves high capital cost and long

period to bring land under irrigation [2].

Small scale fadama irrigation in Borno State has been identified as a key source of

agricultural growth [3]. The usage of shallow aquifer is on the increase as a source of both

domestic and agricultural water supply. Human activities such as dam construction have also

resulted in draw down of groundwater table and piezometic levels downstream [4].

As the usage increases, there must be a tool for predicting the behaviour of the aquifer

system for the purpose of sustainability. Thus, modelling has become an indispensable tool

for quantifying soil physical and chemical processes in the unsaturated and saturated zone as

well as aquifer for fadama development [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10] and [11]. One of such

model is groundwater model which can generally be used in the analysis of many groundwater

problems. ([10], [11], and [12],


“WaSim” model, [10], [11], a one-dimensional process-based model (Water Balance

Model) was thus used to simulate the water table in Zabramari fadama area of Borno State.

The model is multilayer that simulates soil water balance and water table under both drained

and untrained environment, [10].

Extent and potentials of fadama in Borno state

Borno state has an area of about 69436km2 with population of about 4.1 million, [13].

The ecology is fragile but notwithstanding, agriculture is the main stay of the economy.

Economic returns from fadama development have been estimated to be over 30% [14]. Out

of the total land area of Borno State, the irrigable fadama land is estimated to be about

550,000 hectare which is about 17.5% of the total fadama land in Nigeria [15]. The fadama

covers the low land areas around the River Banks and the Lake Chad area which have high

potentials for agricultural development under irrigation [15].

Problems of fadama development

Tubewell/washbores irrigation schemes where each farmer having his own water supply

to irrigate 1 to 2 hectares of land to produce crops such as tomatoes and vegetables has been

successful and very attractive. However, the question still remains; how sustainable is this

development? [16] and [4]. There has been significant increase in fadama production and

more tubewells and wash bores are sunk for irrigation. In spite of this, detailed studies to

generate adequate data for planning and managing the fadama resources for sustainability has

not been put in place [4]. Strategic plans have not been put in place to safe-guard over-

exploitation. Monitoring wells were not constructed to monitor seasonal and annual

fluctuation of groundwater levels. [17] and [18]. In the past two years, aquifer abstraction

for domestic water supplies within the metropolis has more than doubled (personal

communication with the residents within Maiduguri metropolitan city). These may constitute

great problem to both medium- and long-term sustainability of fadama development in the

state particularly that of Zabramari [17], [18], and [19].

Hydrogeology of the area

The Zabramari fadama consists of deltaic out wash deposit formed where the Ngadda and

Goya Kyauwo River joined together and bridged the Bama ridge. The outwash deposit is

complex due to repeated shifting of stream channels and interfingering with coarse grained

materials [15]. The aquifer ranges from confined to unconfined depending on the thickness

of the surface clay in relation to static water levels [15]. The fadama has good potentials for

tubewell development. Yields of 1 to 1.5 l/s are obtainable and static water level is about

4.5m [15].

Remnant drainage is apparent to far north-east of Leje. The recharge of the aquifer

underplaying the flood plain occurs through infiltration of water from the rivers [15]. The

surface materials over most of the floodplains are clays and silts, which have low granular

hydraulic conductivity. However, desiccations and cracks are quite common in the clays.

These openings also provide pathways for flood water to infiltrate downward to recharge the

aquifer, [18].


WaSim model

WaSim is a process-based model developed by [10]. The model carries out a one-

dimensional daily soil water balance. It aims to simulate the soil water storage and rates of

inputs (rainfall or irrigation) and output (evapotranspiration and drainage) of water in

response to climate, irrigation and canal seepage where relevant as shown in Fig.1.2. The

model also simulates changes in root zone soil water content and water table position in

response to weather and water management practices (Fig. 1.2).

It uses a five-layer soil water balance model to estimate the changes on a daily basis, taking

into account input of rainfall or irrigation and output of evapotranspiration or drainage

(modified for the crop cover and soil status and deep percolation, [10]. The deep percolation

forms the input into water table model.

Fig 1.1: Animated diagram of WaSim Model, [10].

To run the model a time series of daily rainfall and reference evapotranspiration data are

required. [10]. In addition to the crop and soil parameters, irrigation and drainage need to be

defined. Wasim requires six sets of input data to simulate soil/water content redistribution.

These relate to the climate, soil, crop, irrigation, drainage and management practices. For

the climate, the model requires daily rainfall and reference evapotranspiration, [10]. The

minimum soil specific inputs are fraction of silt, clay and sand (soil type), soil infiltration,

soil water content and hydraulic conductivity. For the crop, the major requirements are the

sowing, maturity, harvesting dates and vegetative covers. The irrigation inputs data require

scheduling rules and application rate while the drainage input requires drain diameter, drain

spacing and depth. The management practices can be represented using the intervention menu

on the animated display Fig 1.1, [10].

The model works through an animated graphical simulation of the crop growth, water

balance output, water table position and salinity as shown in Fig 1.1. The output given in the

model include, actual evapotranspiration, surface-run-off, soil water moisture in root zone,

rainfall, irrigation, flow to drain and water table depth etc.


Materials and Methodology

Study Area

The study area selected is Zabramari fadama area in Jere local government area of Borno

State. Zabramari is rated among the excellent fadama with high potential for development,

[15]. The area covers a fadama land of 1,700 ha, [20]. It is located north-east of Maiduguri

between latitude 11o401 and 120 051' N and longitude 130 05' and 130 20' E.

Materials

Materials used for the study were laptops and mainly soil sampling equipment (Hand

Auger and Soil Core Sampler), laboratory equipment (Balances, Ovens and conductivity

apparatus), evaporation tank, piezometers, pumps and data obtained from metrological

equipment of weather stations.

Methodology

Annual rainfall and reference evapotranspiration data were obtained for the year 1994 to

2003, from the metrological stations at Chad Basin Development Authority (CBDA), College

of Agriculture Maiduguri, and Maiduguri International Airport. Climatic data were converted

to ACS II type of climatic file data. The period selected for the simulation (10 years)

corresponds to medium term simulation period. Soil physical data were carefully selected

from literature and some from records of previous field studies. The soil input data used in


running the computer-based model was obtained from field survey report of the study area,

(Table 2.1).

Soil, irrigation, climate and crop data of the study area were entered as input data. (Tables

2.1,2.2, 2.3 & 2.4). Assumption made include; one hectare was the area of abstraction over

the period of simulation, depth to impermeable layer was 10m and pumping was 6 hours per

week. Average abstraction rate over the area was 1.5l/s. Abstraction rate intervals used was

0.5 l/s.

Table 2.1 Soil Input data

Soil Name Zabjere Fluvial

Soil Type Silty Clay Loam

Saturation Point (%) 47.10

Field Capacity 35.00

Permanent Wilting Point (%) 20.80

Saturated Paste (%) 47.50

Hydraulic Conductivity (m/day) 0.036

Curve Number (USSCS) 50.00

Leaching Efficiency (%) 75.00

Table 2.2 Climatic Input data/run parameters

Parameter Climatic data

Climatic file C:\document and

settings/Admin

Station Description Zabjere bowl Maid.

Start Date 1/1/94

Finish Date 31/12/2003

Run All dates in Climatic file

(1/1/94; 31/12/2003)

Table 2.3 Crop Input Data

Parameter Crop data

Crop Name Tomatoes

Crop Number One (1)

Planting Data 30th September


Planting Depth (m) 0.10

Emergence Data Day 7 (06/Oct)

20% Cover Day 37 (05/Nov)

Full Cover Day 67 (05/Dec)

Growth Period Days 145

Harvest Date 21st February

Max. Root Date Day 60 (28/Nov.)

Max. Cover (%) 100

Multch Cover (%) 0.00

Full Cover (%) 100

Max Root Depth (m) 1.00

Adjustment for interception a, & b) Peff = a(p-b) 0.00

P-Traction yield response 0.50

Salinity threshold/(ds/m) 1.70

Table 2.4 Irrigation/Tubewell drain

Parameter Irrigation Tubewell Drain

Irrigation Plan Name Washbore -

Crop (I) Tomatoes -

Timing of irrigation (fixed depletion % TAM) 25 -

Return to Fixed Depletion (% TAM) 25 -

Schedule date 30/Sept. -

Finish date 07/Jan, Day 100 -

Drain diameter (m) - 0.10

Depth of drain (m) - 3.00

Spacing of drain - 35.00

Depth to impermeable layer (m) - 10.00

Abstraction rate (L/S) - 0.00 – 0.5L/S

Simulation of the water table position in response to tube well abstraction was then carried

out by varying the rate of tube well abstraction from 0.00 to 6.50 l/s. For the effect of climate

on the water table position, the spatial variation of rainfall and the reference

evapotranspiration were the key factors indicating the response over the ten-year period of

simulation based on the following major processes in WaSim Model. They include;

evaporation, transpiration, surface runoff, redistribution of soil water, drainage and losses

from water table due to abstraction. The most important equation in built in the model are:


Evaporation

Open water evaporation occurs when the water table rises up to the soil surface and

ponding occurs. In this case the soil is treated as open water evaporation loss and the rate is

proportional to the reference evapotranspiration.

Etoi = Kp Eoi [14] (1)

Where:

Eoi = open water evaporation on day i. mm

EToi = reference evapotranspiration on day i. mm

Kp = open water evaporation (pan) coefficient, dimensionless, 0.80.

Surface run-off

Surface runoff is comprised of two components; runoff due to intense rainfall (infiltration

excess) and runoff due to saturated soil. As the rainfall data used to derive the water balance

model is only available on a daily time step, daily surface runoff due to the intensity of rainfall

R is estimated using the USSCS curve number method.

Where:

R1 = surface runoff nmd-1

P = gross rainfall mmd-1

S = maximum storage for the given antecedent conditions, mm.

Drainage

If the water fraction of any compartment is brought above saturation, any excess is

assumed to be transferred to the compartment below it immediately by drainage. If the volume

water fraction is between field capacity and saturation then drainage released from

compartment is calculated (Hess and Cousell, 2000) as;

(Hess and Cousell, 2008) as;

(8) where q = drainage from compartment

Losses from the water table due to tubewell abstraction


Tubewell abstraction (drainage) is assumed to extract water from the water table at a

constant rate of 2.0 l/s for 6 hours pumping daily. The net flux from water table is calculated

from the equation;

VS = Egw + Tgw + qr – q - qs [14] (3)

Where

Vs = Net flux from water table to root zone, mmd-1

Egw = contribution from water table to soil evaporation, mmd-1

Tgw = contribution from water table to transpiration, mmd-1

qr = daily extraction of tube well, mmd-1

q = drainage from lower unsaturated compartment, mmd-1

qs = see page from canal or river channel.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fluctuation of water table.

Maximum fall of water table of 10.00m was recorded between the months of July to

August, while Minimum 2.86m was recorded between October to December. The

fluctuation of water table depth was moderate because during the raining season the aquifer

is being recharged by the streams which probably balance the abstraction rate. Maximum

water table fall was experienced throughout the raining season and minimum during the dry

season because of the time it takes for the stream to be flooded and subsequent recharge of

the aquifer. Another reason could also be attributed to the trends of evapotranspiration,

which was maximum during the month of March/April and minimum during the month of

December and January.

At zero abstraction rate (i.e. zero irrigation), the fluctuation of water table depth ranges

from 2.86m to 3.0m (i.e. 0.14m difference), implying that effect of weather on water table

position is minimum. Annual fluctuation of water table poison for abstraction rate of 1.0 l/s

to 6.5 l/s ranges from 3.0m to 10.0m over the period of simulation (i.e. 7.0m difference).

This value indicates that there is much disparity between zero (0) and 6.5l/s abstraction and

it could be inferred that the effect of tube well abstraction on water table position is

significant.

At abstraction rate of 1.0l/s to 5.0l/s, the maximum water table fluctuation was 3.0m and

minimum being 2.86m. This slight variation could be due to the low hydraulic conductivity

(0.036 m/day) and drainage coefficient (0.09). Water table fluctuations at abstraction rate

of 1 l/s to 5.0 l/s remain constant (ranging from 3.0m to 2.86m until at an abstraction rate

of 5.5 l/s and above). At this abstraction rate, the rate of recharge balances up the

abstraction. At an abstraction rate of 5.5 l/s to 6.5 l/s however, there was a drastic fall of

water table, maximum being 10.0m and minimum 3.0m (Table 3.1). It could be concluded

that rate of abstraction is higher than the rate of recharge during the drier periods.

Table 3.1 Water table depth position at various abstraction rates


File Water table

depth

Abstraction

Max (m) Min (m) 1/s

Jere SCL-TM. drr 3.00 2.86 0.00

Jere SCL-TM2.drr 3.00 2.86 1.00

Jere SCL-TM3.drr 3.00 2.86 1.50

Jere SCL-TM4.drr 3.00 2.86 2.00

Jere SCL-TM5.drr 3.00 2.86 2.50

Jere SCL-TM6.drr 3.00 2.86 3.00

Jere SCL-TM7.drr 3.00 2.86 3.50

Jere SCL-TM8.drr 3.00 2.86 4.00

Jere SCL-TM9.drr 3.00 2.86 4.50

Jere SCL-TM10.drr 3.00 2.86 5.00

Jere SCL-TM11.drr 10.00 3.01 5.50

Jere SCL-TM12.drr 10.00 3.01 6.00

Jere SCL-TM13.drr 10.00 3.01 6.50

NB. Irrigation at fixed depletion used was 50% total available moisture.

Table 3.2, shows the maximum, minimum, average and total values of some of the

parameters from the annual summary of the result of simulation. The parameters include:

root depth, crop cover, rainfall (mm), interception (mm), run off (mm), actual

evapotranspiration ET (mm), irrigation (mm), root zone moisture deficit(mm), water table

depth (m), and drain flow (mm).

Table 3.2 Annual Summary Data for various Parameters

Parameter Max Min Ave Total

Root Depth (m) 0.00 -1.00 -0.33 -

Crop Cover (%) 1.00 0.00 0.22 -

Rain Fall (mm) 98.50 0.00 1.80 6, 469.10

Interception (mm) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Run off (mm) 23.60 0.00 0.10 201.90

Actual ET (mm) 16.10 0.00 3.50 13, 081.80

Irrigation (mm) 16.00 0.00 2.10 7,913.10

Root Zone deficit (mm) -32.40 143.50 24.10 -

Water Table Depth

(mm)

10.00 2.86 9.09 -

Drain Flow (mm) 4.40 0.00 0.00 1, 091.40

Maximum Rainfall/Runoffs

Maximum rainfall recorded over the period of simulation was 98.50 mm and minimum

being 0, while average for the 10yr period was 1.80 mm. Total rainfalls over the period of

simulation was 6469.0 mm. There was no interception since irrigation method adopted for

the simulation was surface irritation. Maximum runoff recorded was 2.36 mm and minimum

0. Total runoff recorded was 201.20 mm. The low runoff from the result of simulation was

probably due to the soil type selected which is silty clay loam. This soil type has a moderate


infiltration capacity. Low runoff result could also be attributed to the moderate to low rainfall

recorded over the years.

Actual ET/Irrigation

Table3.2 also indicate that maximum actual evapotranspiration (ETo) was 16.10mm while

minimum was 0. Average actual ETo was 3.50mm, and total actual ETo over the period of

simulation was 13081.80mm which is high. This could be due to the high evapotranspiration

and solar radiation during greater part of the year. The high evapotranspiration could also

be attributed to the principles of Richies equation (2) which consider evaporation in two

parts namely moisture and energy dependent.

Maximum irrigation was 16.00 and minimum being 0, while average irrigation over the

period of simulation was 2.10mm and total was 7913.10mm (Table 3.2). The moderate

value could be because water abstracted was applied back as irrigation at fixed depletion of

25% total availed moisture (TAM)

Fig 3.1 Water Table and Actual Evapotranspiration (ET) and monthly fluctuation.

Actual ETo peak recorded as indicated by the graphs was 445.0mm and monthly ETo rages

from 5.0mm to 445.0mm (Fig 3.1). These high values are as a result of high solar radiation

as stated earlier.

Drain flow

The drain flow was low, 4.40mm maximum and total 1,091.40mm. The total value of

drain flow was not high due to the fact that drainage used in the simulation (tube well

abstraction) was not the conventional pipe drainage but wash bore where water is taken

directly from the aquifer and applied as irrigation directly there by returning certain quantity

back into the aquifer. Figure 3.1 shows graphical representation of the water table fluctuation

and actual evapotranspiration and root depth while table 3.3 a summary of the fluctuation of

water table over the simulation period for abstraction rate of zero (0), (1.5l/s) and (6.5l/s).


For abstraction rate of 0.0l/s to 5.0l/s the fluctuation was constant between 3.0mm to

2.86mm.

The result shows that for abstraction rate of zero (0) the monthly water table fluctuation

on the graph is almost a straight line while that of 1.0l/s is regular in shape with slight drop

at certain intervals. This also remains constant. For the graph of abstraction rate of 5.5l/s to

6.5l/s the graph has a sharp drop from 3m to 9.9m and flattens at 10.0m. This sharp drop

was explained in section 3.1 (abstraction rate being higher than recharge).

Table 3.3 shows the summary of the simulation over the whole period from 1st January 1994

to December 2003. The summary of all the parameters and the values of abstraction rates of

0.00 l/s, 1.5 l/s and 6.5 l/s is comprehensively summarized in Table 3.3

Table 3.3 Summary of result data (01/Jan/1994 – 31/Dec/2003)

Parameters Zero (0)

abstraction Abstraction 1.5I/s Abstraction 6.5I/s

Max Min Ave Total Max Min Ave Total Max Min Ave Total

Water Table (m)

3.0 2.9 3.0 - 3.0 2.9 3.0 - 10.0 3.0 9.1 -

ET 16.1 0.0 3.5 12900 16.1 0.0 3.5 12,900 16.1 0.0 3.6 1308

(mm) 2 2 1.8

Rainfall 98.5 0.0 1.8 6,469 98.5 0.0 1.8 6,469.1 98.5 0.0 1.8 6469

(mm) 1 1

Root depth 0.0 1.0 0.3 - 0.0 1.0 0.3 - 0.0 1.0 0.3 -

(mm)

Crop Cover 1.0 0.0 0.2 - 1.0 0.0

(%)

Run off 23.6 0.0 0.1 201.9 23.6 0.0 0.1 201.9 23.6 0.0 0.1 201

(mm) 9

Interception (mm)

3.0 0.0 0.0 5.7 3.0 0.0 0.0 5.70 16.0 0.0 0.0 5.7

Drain Flow (mm)

4.4 0.0 0.0 - 4.4 0.0 0.0 1,091.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Irrigation 16.0 0.0 2.1 7,685 16.0 0.0 2.1 7,685. 16.0 0.0 2.2 7,913

(mm) 8 1

Root zone -32.4 143.5 24.1 - -32.4 143.5 24.1 - -32.4 143 34.2 -

Deficit (mm) 5

Water 3,273 3,273 3,273 - 3,273.5 3,273.5 3,273 - 3273 0.0 427.3 -

content in G/W

5 5 3 5 3 5

Water 69.0 28.0 47.4 - 69.0 28.0 47.4 - 69.0 28.0 47.5 -

content Topsoil

Water 285.2 0.0 69.1 - 285.2 0.0 69.1 - 285.2 0.0 68.9 -

content in root

Conclusion


The results of simulation of water table position indicates that it does not fall below suction

lift (8.0m) of the petrol driven engine pumps used by farmers in the study area at an

abstraction rate below 5.5 l/s. Maximum water table fall was 10.0m at an abstraction rate of

6.5 l/s. This is far above the average abstraction rate of 1.5 l/s where water table fall

was3.0m. As long as abstraction rate does not exceed 5.5 l/s long term Fadama irrigation

farming is sustainable provided the aquifers are recharged by the streams.

The results also indicate that climate has little effect on water table fluctuation at zero

irrigation (zero abstraction rates). Maximum, minimum, average and total values for water

table fluctuation from the annual summary of the simulation are within safe limits hence

sustainability could be maintained. It could be concluded therefore that from the medium-

term simulation period (10 years) sustainability of small-scale irrigation farming in the

Fadama could be maintained and farmers conveniently can continue to use the portable petrol

driven engine pumps.

5.0 Recommendations

It is recommended that long term simulation period (30years) should be carried out using

other models (e.g. modflow and GSM 9.5 model) to further subject the study of water table

fluctuation through simulation in the study area under various water management practices

to ascertain long term sustainability. Secondly, it is also recommended that State Government

and Federal Government agencies should establish more network of Metrological station for

long term adequate and accurate data collection. Lastly, it is recommended that farmers

should continue to use the petrol driven engine pumps of 8.0m suction lift and not change to

other pumps that has higher suction lift for sustainability.

REFERENCES

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selected properties of Maiduguri soil. M.Sc. thesis. Unpublished. Pp 1-36.

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reforms for sustainable management of irrigation schemes. Proc. National workshop on

participatory irrigation management of the public sector irrigation schemes in Nigeria.

pp23-34.

Adeniji, F.A (2003). Re-advocating conservation of soil and water resources for sustainable

agriculture in Nigeria. An invited preliminary paper at the NIAE international conference

Damaturu. Vol. 5 pp: 7 – 16, Sept 2003.

Alkali (1999). Application of mudflow model in monitoring of shallow aquafer. Case study

Dogona oasis, Yobe State, Nigeria.” Ph.D. Dissertation, unpublished.

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a soil in University of Maiduguri. M.Sc. thesis, unpublished.

Audu, I and Hess, T.M (2002), simulation of potential benefit of water in the North east arid

zone of Nigeria. Arid zone Journal of Engineering Technology. Vol 2. pp. 6.

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Fadama Development Programme (NFDP) in Borno State, P.ME department.


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“Plausibility as a measure of model reliability”. Calibration and reliability in groundwater

modelling proc of the 4th international conference, model care (2002) Vol. 1 pp.328 –

320.

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water simulation model to the Abbay River Basin. 1-8, 2007.

Hassan, M (2002). Modelling River aquifer interaction in the middle Yobe River Basin,

North Eastern Nigeria, Ph. D thesis, unpublished. Crainfield University, U.K.

Hess, T.M and Counsell (2008). Wasim Technical Manual. H.R Wilingford, Crainfield

University.

Jorg Schulla and Karsten Jesper (2007) Updated Wasim Model description. Water balance

Simulation model ETH.

Magdali Maria (2014) Generation and Calibration of Wasim model for Sachenbach

Catchment. M. Sc. Theses study project. 1-5, 2014.

Malgwi G.S, Sangodoin A. Y and Ogedengbe K (1990). Subsurface Water quality and

quantity from stand point of irrigation and livestock “Case Study Oyo North ADP.

International.

Population report (2006). Federal Govt Census population report figure unpublished.

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balance Monitoring of White Volta catchment in West Africa through coupled

meteorological-Hydrological simulation. Adv. Geosci, 9, 39-44, 2006.

Wardrop (1993). Study of irrigation potential of shallow aquifers in fadama areas of Borno

and Yobe states. Final report Vol.1.

World Bank (1991). Report on National Fadama Development Project (NFDP)

World Bank (1992). Report on National Fadama Development Project (NFDP).

World Bank (1997). Staff appraisal report. Federal Republic of Nigeria, National Fadama

Development Project (NFDP). Agriculture Operation Division, Country Department IV.


THE REVIEW OF FLOOD HARZAD ALONG RIVER BENUE IN ADAMAWA STATE, NIGERIA

by

Dahiru Mohammed Zakari, Bashiru G. Adamu & Mohammed Umar

Department of Survey and Geo-Informatics

ABSTRACT

This review paper examines the effects of flood hazard along River Benue in Adamawa State,

Nigeria using secondary sources of data such as related literatures, journals, publications and

available data from URBDA. The review found that, the occurrence of ravaging flood every year

due to Vulnerability magnitude has yielded negative result to the socio-economic activities and to

the ecological cycle in Adamawa State. This incidence has brought devastating impact to people

who are mostly farmers living in most of the communities found along the flood plain in the State.

Every year the national Emergency Management Agencies (NEMA) advises relocation of residents

to upper area, but to no avail. For instance in 2012 alone, over 360 people were recorded death,

over 50,000 people rendered homeless, infrastructure and properties were damage, farm produce

were swept, over 1,100km2 of area representing 11.46% out of the total area of over 9,600km2

were submerged by the ravaging flood across many local government areas in the State. Based

on the review of related literature, the most affected areas in the state include Demsa, Fufore,

Yola North and South, Girei, Numan, Lamurde, Shelleng, and Guyuk. It was clearly revealed

that, the consequences and damages recorded to the people and environment is un- measurable

where most of sustainable development and communities were seriously affected by the disaster.

Key Word: Vulnerability, Climatic changes, Ravaging flood, flood plain, Magnitude

INTRODUCTION

Flood refers to the occurrence of an extreme value event of river flow classified in terms

of frequency and magnitude being equalled or exceeded with respect to space and time. The

adequacy, relevance and reliability of a given set of data determine the accuracy of magnitude

and frequency of a particular event (FMWR, 2012). The extreme magnitude of flood is

determined by the volume of flood per unit time across a river channel, water level above the

river bed, area undulation along floodplains, extend of damage to infrastructures, crops,

livestock, including displacement of settlement and loss of human life (Angel, 2011). As a

result, Socio-economic, political and environmental development goals will not be attained

in the area if proper measures were not put in place. History has shown that, different

challenges of ravaging flood and Vulnerability assessment were carried out by many countries

and international organization like World Bank and UNICEF but does not prevent flood

occurrence except reduces its volume (Zakari,2014). The flood includes; River (Inland)

flood, Coastal flood and urban flood. River flooding usually occurs as a result of rainfall and

runoff volumes within the river valley. Coastal Flooding is typically a function of storm surge

punctuated by waves (Driven by wind) and heavy rainfall. Urban flooding occurs as a result

of development that was concentrated within or along stream floodplains or channels

(Durotoye, 1999) as cited in (Peter et al, 2012). Documented evidence in Nigeria has shown

that, these basic floods types are the major and frequent flood disaster that have occurred in

the country over the years. Flood mitigation can only be achieved if comprehensive

information is obtained before, during and after the disaster. This will eventually quantify

the magnitude of the hazard as well as the infrastructure and economic activities and

Vulnerability of the settlement. In Nigeria, flood has on several times rendered millions of

people homeless, lives and property worth billions of Naira were destroyed, domestic

businesses were affected, drinking water (s) were also polluted which in Nigeria, flood has


on several times rendered millions of people homeless, lives and property worth billions of

Naira were destroyed, domestic businesses were affected, drinking water (s) were also

polluted which lead to so many diseases (Nwaubani 1991, Edward,1997 & Olajuyigbe, 2012).

In 2001, 5,000 people were affected by flood disaster in various places in the country which

include Abia, Adamawa, Akwa-Ibom, Kano. Sokoto, Taraba among others. Over 12,300

persons were displayed, thousands of hectares of farm produce and buildings were submerged

by a flood disaster in Zamfara State. In 1988 and 2001, Kano State has also experienced a

flood disaster where over 300,000 people were affected due to inadequate drainages (Ishaya,

2008). Lagos and Ibadan too, had their own share of flood disaster in 2011 were lives and

properties were lost (Akinyemi, 1990). In 1999 and 2001, Bayelsa and Delta in Niger Delta

region experienced flood disaster which rendered hundreds of people homeless. In 2005, over

50,000 people were displaced by the flood in Taraba State. So, it can be understood from the

above that, the magnitude of flood disaster can be clearly identified by the relationship

between the affected people and the nature of the havoc, poverty level condition and the

nature of shelter, adequate knowledge of the disaster, availability and means of

communication, inadequate drainage system and infrastructures. This review is a further

contribution to flood studies with an objective of analysing the areas where the flood occurs

frequently as well as its effects in the affected areas in Adamawa state and subsequently

recommending remedial and management strategies to solve it.

2.0 The Study Area (Adamawa State)

Adamawa is one of the States in the North-eastern part of the country, with its Capital in

Yola. Its shares border with Taraba State to the southwest, Gombe to the west and Borno to

the Northwest, and east with the Cameroun Republic see figure 3. It's occupied about 36917

square kilometres (Peter et al 2012). The state lies between latitudes 70 28'N and 100 56'and

longitudes 11030'E to 13045'E. The state has the mean annual rainfall ranges between

750mm-850mm for savanna zone in the North and 1400mm-1600mm for the Guinea zone in

the South.

Figure 1: The Map of Adamawa, Nigeria showing the study Are, River Benue

(Source:Google and Ikusemoran et al., 2013) .

The mean annual Temperature for the savanna zone ranges from 270C to 280C and 180C to

270C for the Guinea zones (Peter et, al 2012). The state is divided into two halve by River


Benue that flows from republic of Cameroun. According to (Tukur,1999), Adamawa

landforms are group into; The Valleys and troughs (with the height range between 100m and

less thank 311m), the lowlands (with height between 311 and less than 470m).The uplands

(between 470 and less than 683m), and the mountainous ranges (with the height between 683

and 1740m).The geological formation of the state encompasses of an ancient craton that was

tectonically active in geologic past (Opeloye & Dio 2011). The state was divided into two

almost two equal halve by the rift created from the tectonic in the cretaceous and was fill

with the series of sedimentary deposit, resulting into four classes of Rocks, Namely; the

alluvial or sedimentary deposit with the rift represented by the light blue colour, second is

the cretaceous continental deposit which is shown with the deep blue colour, and next is the

hard crystalline cratonic basements shown with yellow colour, the red colour represents the

tertiary/quaternary deposit as presented in Figure 2.

Map of Adamawa showing the Terrain of the State

Source: Upper Benue River Basin Development Authority

The drainage patterns in the state were dominated by the three main drainage systems, the

Benue, the Yedzaram and the Taraba. River Benue is the major sources of the river in the

State which originated from the highlands of Cameroun and flows south west with the major

tributaries like River Gongola, BelwaInne, Kilange, Loko and faro (Adebayo, 1999).

The Flood history of the study Area

According to Adebayo (1990), Umar (1991) and Akinyemi (1990), the Benue River having

numerous tributaries originating in both Cameroon and Nigeria is the major tributary of the

Niger River, which is approximately 1,400km (870mi) long and is considered an important

transportation route in the region. According to them, the most important of these tributaries

run from Cameroon Republic namely; Faro, Mayo- Kebbi and Lisaka rivers. The Faro is a

traditional tropical river, transporting considerable quantities of sand with some small lakes

and pools intersecting the course of the Mayo-Kebbi River. The Benue rises on the Adamawa


Plateau in the Cameroun at an elevation of about 1,350m above mean sea level as presented

in Figure 3. The average annual rainfall varies from 3,000mm in the upper reaches to 900mm

in the middle course of the Gongola River (610km). The River falls some 750m over the first

35km of its course. The next 150km, and another 370m, leaving the remaining 1,130km to

the Niger confluence with a fall of 170m. The River flows for a certain reach of its course

through sandstone rocks but encountered with floodplains and flats where the water sloped

and flow at a lower velocity.

Benue River is essentially a tropical river with a mean annual discharge of about 375m 3s

−1 at Garoua (Station 152) with only 75% of this amount, or 280m 3s −1, flowing below

the confluence. Downstream from Garoua, the Benue is joined by a series of mighty streams,

the Gongola from right-hand side, and Faro, Taraba, Donga and Katsina Ala from the left

hand-side. These tributaries supply the Benue and raise its mean annual discharge to over

3000m 3s −1, and its flood and low-flow discharges is 12,000m 3s −1 to 240m 3 s−1

respectively, as measured at Makurdi The mean annual discharge brought by the Benue at

this site is in the order of 3,400m 3 s −1. The Benue reaches its flood level between August

and October each year. It begins to fall in the next three month and becomes very slow. The

water reaches its lowest level in May; The River Faro originated from Cameroun and

discharges its flow into Benue River along Nigeria and Cameroun boarder near Wuro Bokki

Village. The Maximum flood ever recorded was 101.935m above mean sea level

(Ikusemoran, 2013). In 1995, Gongola River is the longest tributary of Benue River along

the Northern bank and it is the only River regulated artificially by Dadinkowa and Kiri dams

at Gombe and Adamawa states. The peak flood recorded in 2012 at Dadinkowa Bridge was

217.28m above mean sea level which is the 5th in magnitude since 1987 and the Maximum

ever recorded was 218.52m above mean sea level in 1994. The Taraba River at Gassol is the

largest tributaries of Benue River along the southern bank. The peak flood recorded in 2012

was 114.1m above mean sea level which ranked the 2nd highest since 1980; the highest was

114.44m in 1981 over a data period for 33yrs, while the peak of the floodwater can attain

any level from 6m to 20m above the low-water mark (Adamawa state Government 2012).

Figure 3: Map Showing Mandara Mountains from Cameroun Republic (Major source of the

River)


The Review

The flash flooding is the frequent havoc that affect most communities in the state, which

occurred as result of heavy rainfall during the raining season (July-October), these common

types of floods is occurring every year with different magnitude, but the worst ever happened

is 2012 flood disaster since 1981. The highest flood disaster usually occurred from August

to October yearly, as a result of dam failure or excess released of water along the River like

Faro and Gongola. This effect resulted to loss of life; submerge of thousands of residential

houses, and farmlands from the communities along the flood plains. Because of the

replenishment of the soil fertility and frequent adding of nutrients and grained sediments by

the flood, the area was so attracted by the communities that are predominantly farmers. The

magnitude of the ravaging flood destroyed lives and properties in the state particularly the

state capital (Yola North/South) in which 70% of the total areas along the flood plains were

submerged in 2012 flood disaster (Zakari, 2014). This has pointed to the fact that, even with

the flood alert warning used to be issued by the concerned agencies; the problem still lingers

till date because some of the policies made by the concerned authority with regard to flood

prone areas are yet to be addressed for implementation. Lack of this implementation resulted

to the increase in the alarming situation as indicated in Table 1 below which shows annual

maximum flood recorded at Jimeta Bridge since 1960 confirming the increase of the disasters

from simple stage to alarming situation which damage properties, infrastructures and loss of

lives. The major disturbing natural disaster is flood which result to economic deterioration in

the country. Every year the Government recorded irreparable losses from the people and the

country at large. Apart from Houses and farmlands that were affected by the havoc, some

major infrastructures like roads, Bridges, Schools, hospitals were also affected. Adamawa

State has been having flood dilemma for a long period of time (Durotoye 1999, Folorunsho

2001, Galtima 2002 & Ologunorisa, 2006). In 1991 the settlement of Loko in song LGA was

completely washed away by the disaster. In 1999 and 2002, the economic activities of Demsa

were paralyzed by the ravaging flood and with a worst re-occurrence in 2003 were many

lives were lost, hectares of farmlands were washed away and thousands of people rendered

homeless. In 2002, areas like Fufore, Yola North, Yola South, Numan and Dasin experienced

severe destruction, over 13 villages were completely submerged and hundreds of farmlands

washed away (Galtima, 2002). In September 2010, over 2,000 people displaced with no

access to clean water and food, leading to outbreak like cholera in which Over 70 people died

out of 300 infected persons as a result of the disaster (Daily Trust Sept 2012). NEMA has

also reported five LGA such as Fufore, Demsa, Numan, Yola North and South as the most

affected areas during 2010 flood disaster.

METHOD AND MATERIAL USED

The related review literatures highlighted the methods and approaches used in identifying the

flood prone areas which include;

Satellite image

This is one of the widely used tools for flood mapping that provide the synoptic view

necessary for estimating extend of the hazard, such images used are Landsat, Spot, AVHR

and Quick bird.


Topographical map;

Most of the related literatures apply Digital Elevation Model (DEM) through the digitized

contours of Scanned topographical map of the study area using ArcGIS, in a GIS

environment.

3.3 Statistical Analysis;

The hydrological data(s) such as rainfall data (Multi-temporal), Discharge levels and runoff

was also analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2010 as described below.

Most Affected Areas along the Benue River

Adamawa state consist of 21 Local Government Authority, in which ten out of 21 LGA are

located along River Benue Plain which is liable to flooding and the LGAs are (Demsa, Fufore,

Girei, Guyuk, Lamurde, Numan, Shelleng Song, Yola North, and Yola South) as identified

by (Ikusemora, 2013) but Shelleng and Guyuk are located along River Gongola and mostly

affected by River Gongola flood. The impact of the disaster is based on the area location

along the flood plains like song LGA which is less Vulnerable when affected by the flood

because it is located at the Southern part of Benue Plains. Areas like Fufore, Girei, Lamurde,

and Numan are highly Vulnerable because they are located along the River Benue bank as

shown in Table 2, while the areas with less or marginal vulnerability were also show in Table

3 (Felix et al 2013). According to (Peter et al, 2012), about 134 settlements are liable to flood

risk which include areas such as Numan, Yola North (Jimeta), Yola South (Ngurore),

Wamgo, Dasin, Fufore, Nafori, Jambutu to mention a few, as shown in Table 3. The review

of literatures shows that, the most affected areas along the River Benue Include Demsa, Girei,

Fufore, Numan, Lamurde, Yola North and South, which spread over 120 settlements in ten

local Government in the State (Felix et al 2013 & Ikusemoran 2013). The review highlighted

over 1,109km2 area that were submerged by the flood havoc in Adamawa (Felix et al, 2013)

as in Table4a-c.

Table 1 Hydrological data of river Benue at Jimeta Bridge (Statistical Analysis of 2012,

Upper Benue Basin Authority)

Year Annual

Rainfall

(mm)

Min.

Discharge

(m3/sec)

Max.

discharge

(m3/sec)

Annual

Runoff

Millions

(m3)

1960 1166 19 7695 28506

1961 897 22 6310 21063

1963 1356 41 7088 29668

1970 652 17 8033 28726

1994 925 92 6600 15972

1999 1113 134 7140 31995

2012 1084.6 60 6340 32189


Source: Upper Benue River Basin Development Authority.

Figure4a, b, and c: Show the Level of Annual, Minimum, and Maximum Water Discharge

Water Area along River Benue in Adamawa state generated by the researchers.


Table 2a Highly Vulnerable Areas along River Benue in Adamawa state

L.G.A. Highly vulnerable Communities Along River Bank

Fufore Bilachi, Chikito, Datsin, Hausa, Chawa, Goduwo, and

Muninga

Girei Girei

Lamurde Hoki

Numan Bara, Kapalakan, Ndasso, Numan


Table 2b Highly Vulnerable Area along River Benue in Adamawa state ((Statistical Analysis

of 2012, Upper Benue Basin Authority)

Area (Km2) L.G.A. Submerge

(Km2)

Area Submerge Area

(%)

4222 Fufore 178 4

1073 Girei 139 13

1155 Lamurde 420 36

805 Numan 122 15



Table 3. Marginal Flood Vulnerability of some settlement along River Benue in Adamawa

state

L.G.A. Villages along flood plain (Buffer zone)

Demsa Demsa, Banga, Tikka, and Gerbkai

Fufore Benga, Bodare, Dulo, Filingo, Hamdalla, Jalingo, Jaltari, Kapo and

pariya

Girei Gada, Ndiyam and Gokra, Wuro Bokki

Lamurde Giwana, Kwa, Tigno, and Wadatu

Numan Ngalang, Nguruwal, Salti, Wuro Waziri, and Shabani

Yola North Jimeta, Jambutu

Yola South Yola, Ngurore, Luga Damare

Areas in table 3 are liable to flood with subject to high rainfall intensity and excess water

from Lagdo dam reservoir in Cameroun.

Table 4. Flood affected in Adamawa State ((Statistical Analysis of 2012, Upper Benue Basin

Authority)

Area L.G.A. Submerge Area Submerge Area (%)

(Km2) (Km2)

1155 Lamurde 420 36

138 Yola North 33 24

805 Numan 122 15

1073 Girei 139 13

2265 Demsa 217 10

4222 Furore 178 4


Figure 6c

Figure 6a, b, and c: Show the Level of Flood affected area along the River Benue in

Adamawa State generated by the researcher.

Preventives and mitigation measures

The Government in collaboration with society organization, NGOs and other notable

organization should embark on public enlightenment campaigns on the causes of global

warming due to climatic changes as identified by Baiye (1998). The campaign shall include

providing early warning on the flood prone area using mass media and GSM communication

Network inform of text messages and adequate knowledge to communities settling on the

flood plain on environmental management control. The Government should review previous

flood havoc of a flood prone area using the hazard map, to come up with better ways that

will aid in mitigating the flood disaster. Proper dam monitoring and better quality of

construction materials most also be emphasized to be used, especially in communities along

the flood plain zone. Dam constructed at the course of the river, must have embankment

constructed at the River bank in order to reduce the alarming consequences and Buffer zone

should also be protected along the river bank and the constructed dam. Deforestation should

be discouraged while a forestation should be encouraged since plans and trees help in

controlling soil erosion along the River bank by reducing the amount of soil particles that

will be eroded into the river that lead to overflows of water as lamented by Aletan and Idowu

(2011). Agricultural practice on the flood plain should be reduced by introducing modern

farming system on the upland, also providing improve seed variety that will be resistance to

short drought. Fertilizer should be actually provided or subsidized to the citizen farming

along the flood plain, since majority of people farming there are doing so because of the soil

fertility. Laws should be enacted by Governments and policy makers for urbanization

planning, provision of low-cost estate to communities residing along the flood prone zone,

modern waste dump area to be introduced, frequent clearing of drainage systems and

expanding if the need arises. All the above steps are only to be emphasized and implemented


by the policy makers, because they are major capital project that is beyond citizens or

communities. As the matter of fact, the structures erected on the floodplain should be above

the appropriate flood level. Finally, emergency agencies should be adequately funded and

fully equipped, relief material such as grain should also be plan ahead in order to reduce the

flood hardship whenever there is an occurrence.

Conclusion

Generally, reports have shown that, many people have lost their lives, properties worth

millions of Naira washed away by flood disaster, thousands of people from communities

along the flood plain rendered homeless, thousands of hectares of farm land were submerged

by the ravaging flood in the state. In conclusion, the 2012 flood disaster was analysed along

the Benue River at Wuro Bokki, Jimeta Bridge Yola, and Numan, and the result indicated

that the annual daily maximum flood recorded at Yola was 158.496m above the mean sea

level with flow rate approximately above 6.34 billion liters per second on the 27th August

2012, the second highest since 1971, a data period of 42yrs ,while The annual daily maximum

flood recorded on 29th August, 2012 at Numan along the Benue Rivers was 147.28m above

the mean sea level with flow rate approximately 7.8 billion liters per second which was also

the second highest since 1983, given a total data period of 30yrs. However, the total area

submerges in the state was 1,100km2 from the total area of over 9,600km 2 which represent

11.46%. Therefore, as a matter of urgent attention, the Government and other stakeholder

should intervene, and bring a lasting solution to the problem. Professionals such as Remote

Sensing analyst, engineers, planners, geographers to mention but few, must also participate

in flood combat in the State. Local and international Medias should also be involved by

disseminating the information to the affected Communities. Social groups and organization

should also be involved in public awareness campaign by educating people on the

consequences of flood disaster.

REFERENCES

Adebayo, A. A. (1999). Climate of Adamawa State. In A. A. Adebayo & A.L. Tukur (Eds),

Adamawa State in map. Yola: Paraclete Publishers

Adamawa State of Nigeria, 2007; Flood Report. Adamawa State: Ministry of Environment

Adamawa State Government (2012), 2012 Flood Report. Adamawa State: Ministry of

Environment

Olajuyigbe, A. E., Rotowa O. O. and Durojaye, E. (2012), "An Assessment of Flood Hazard

in Nigeria: The Case of Mile 12, Lagos, "Mediterranean Journal of Social science Vol.3,

No. 2, 2012, pp. 367-375.

Akinyemi, T., 1990. Stemming the Tide of Lagos Floods, in: The Guardian, Friday, July

20, pp: 7

Angel K. E. 2011, Journal for TS06J-Hydrography and the Environment Innocent Chirisa,

Zimbabwe

Aletan A., Martins O., Idowu O.A., 2011; Mitigating the effect of floods and erosion in the

Niger South Catchment Area through Integrated flood Management (IFM): Proceedings

of the Environmental Management Conference, Federal University of Agriculture,

Abeokuta, Nigeria


Baiye, E., 1988.Numan in the Throes of Floods, in: The Guardian, Thursday, October 8, 9.

Durotoye, B., 1999. Human Occupation of hazard areas in Nigeria, in: Oshuntokun, A. (ed)

Environmental problem of Nigeria. Lagos: FriendrichEbet Foundation Daily trust, in

September 2010

Edward-Adebiyi, R., 1997. The Story of Ogunpa, in: The Guardian, Saturday, May 17, pp:

FMWR, 2013.Federal Ministry of water Resources, Statistical Analysis of 2012, Upper

Benue Development Authority, Yola Flood Disaster

Felix N.N, Philip J.H, Vincent N.O., (2013) Geospatial Techniques for the Assessment and

Analysis of flood Risk along the Niger-Benue In Nigeria; Journal of Geographic

Information system,5, 123-135

Folorunsho, R. and L. Awosika, 2001. Flood Mitigation in Lagos, Nigeria Through wise

management of solid waste: a case of Ikoyi and Victoria Islands; Nigeria, paper presented

at the UNESCO-CSI workshop, Maputo 19-23 November, 2001

Galtima, M. and Bashir, B. A. (2002) the impact of Floods on the Riverine Communities of

the Lower Benue Reaches: The Experience in Adamawa Area. Proceedings on the Expert

Group Meeting on


BLOCK INTEGRATOR WITH TWO HYBRID POINTS FOR THE NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF

STIFF AND OSCILLATORY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS FOR FIRST ORDER INITIAL VALUE

PROBLEMS OF ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

By

Abubakar Umaru Fotta, Binta Abubakar Timothy Siya Kwabuggi


ABSTRACT

This paper examined the derivation and implementation of a hybrid block integrator for the

solution of Stiff and Oscillatory first order initial value problems of ordinary Differential

Equations. The hybrid block integrator was derived by collocation and interpolation of the

combination of power series and exponential function at some selected grid and off-grid points

to generate a linear multistep method which is implemented in block form. The paper further

investigated the properties of the block integrator and found it to be zero-stable, consistent

and convergent. The region of absolute stability was also investigated. The method was tested

on some numerical experiments and found to compete favourably with some existing methods.

KEYWORDS: Stiff, Oscillatory, Collocation, Consistent, Convergent, Block integrator,

Power Series, Interpolation

Corresponding authors email: [email protected], Phone no: 07060692679

INTRODUCTION

There are many processes in the field of sciences, engineering and management which

involves rate of change of one or more quantities in relation to another, which may result

into first order ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Usually mathematical models are

developed to help in the understanding of physical phenomena, which often yields equations

that contain some derivatives of an unknown function of one or several variables, such

equations are called differential equations (D.E). Differential equations do not only arise in

the physical sciences, but also in diverse fields of scientific disciplines that attempt to unveil

the reality of the physical world. The development of numerical methods to obtain

approximate solutions becomes necessary because most of these state equations do not have

analytic solutions, with the advent of digital computers, application of numerical methods in

solving real life problems has received attention of researchers.

This paper considered the numerical solution of stiff and oscillatory first order initial value

problems (IVPs) in the form

Where x0 is the initial point, y0 is the solution at the initial point and f also assumed that (1)

satisfy the existence and uniqueness theorem.

Fatunla, (1988) considers numerical integration scheme as schemes in which the approximate

solutions are given by a linear combination of independent functions. Examples are Taylor

series, Lie approach and Picard integration scheme. These methods generate the series of

solutions whose convergence cannot be guaranteed, and when the series do converge, the rate

of convergence may be rather too slow.


Statement of the Problem

Most numerical integrators developed for the solution of first order initial value problems

has been reported to have setbacks such as computational burden, complication in writing

computer programs, lack of adequate stability characteristics, inefficiency in terms of

accuracy and error term, low rate of convergence and resultant wastage of computer time

(Awoyemi, Ademiluyi and Amuseghan, 2007). Also, LMMs implemented by the predictor-

corrector mode have been found to be very expensive to implement and the predictors often

have lower order of accuracy than the correctors especially when all the step and off step

points are used for collocation and interpolation.

The application of hybrid methods in the LMMs to achieve reduction in the step number of

the predictor-corrector mode is compounded by the need to develop predictors for the

evaluation of the corrector at off step points making the approach even more tedious and time

consuming (Lambert, 1973). The introduction of block methods to cushion the challenges

associated with LMM implemented in the predictor-corrector mode has largely been

concentrated in solving stiff initial value problems ordinary differential equations. The block

method was found to be cost effective and give better approximation than predictor corrector.

Most of the block methods developed in literature, the number of interpolation points must

be equal to the order of the differential equations, the implication of this is that the method

does not interpolate at all the grid points, hence, method of lower order is developed.

In view of the foregoing, this research is motivated by the need to address the setbacks

associated with the existing methods by developing hybrid method that interpolate at all the

grid points, using polynomial approximate solution. The implication of this is that method

with higher order and better approximation are developed to handle stiff problems.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are to:

i. develop a continuous scheme using finite power series and exponential function as

basis function.

ii. obtain discrete methods which are implemented in block form.

iii. investigate the stability properties of the developed method.

iv. write a code in MATLAB 8.5 to implement the method and test the method on some

numerical examples.

v.

Justification of the Study

The solution to stiff initial value problems is of course timely, because it occurs virtually in

all human endeavours. Furthermore, the methods would be less expensive in terms of the

number of function evaluation per step, more computationally reliable, highly efficient in

terms of accuracy and error term, flexible in the change of step length, possesses better rate

of convergence and very easy to program due to economy of computer time. It is also

important to note that this research besides its enormous contribution to knowledge, will of

course justify its importance in other disciplines like engineering and sciences that deals with

ODEs. Researchers of Mathematics and other related disciplines will find it necessary in

solving real life problems. The research will also serve as preliminary for further researches

in related areas.


Scope of the Study

This research work would be restricted to numerical solutions of first order initial value

problems of ordinary differential equations which will solve first order initial value problems.

This is necessary for the fact that ODEs are quite a broad area of study. Boundary value

problems are not considered unless they are converted to initial value problems. Methods of

conversion are not considered in this research.

Review of Related Literature

Linear multistep method can be implemented in two basic forms namely predictor-corrector

method and block method. The main disadvantage of the predictor-corrector method is the

high cost of execution as subprograms are very difficult to code due to the separate methods

needed to provide initial values (James and Adesanya, 2014). Block method was introduced

to address the setbacks of the predictor-corrector.

In this research, our attention will be based on block method. Block method is formulated in

terms of linear multistep methods (LMMs), It preserves the traditional advantage of one- step

methods of being self - starting and permitting easy change of step length (Lambert, 1973).

The block method produces numerical solutions with less computational efforts as compared

to non-block method, this is because block method generates simultaneous solutions at all

grid points (Majid, Suleiman and Omar, 2006). Scholars that worked on block methods for

the solution of first order initial value problems include:

Akinfenwa, Yao and Jator, (2011), considered the development of a self-starting two step

continuous hybrid block formulae (CHBF) using polynomial approximate solution. They used

collocation and interpolation techniques to obtained an A (α)-stable method of order 7.

Akinfenwa, Jator and Yao (2011), considered the development of Backward differentiation

formula with continuous coefficients for the solution of stiff ODEs using polynomial

approximate solution. They used collocation and interpolation techniques to give L-stable

method of order 8, implemented in block form.

Ibijola, Skwame and Kumleng, (2011) considered the development of continuous hybrid

linear multistep methods n=1. They considered multistep collocation procedure to obtain

three, four and five discrete schemes. They used collocation and interpolation techniques to

obtain an A-stable method of order 6, implemented in block form.

Adesanya, Odekunle and James (2012), considered the development of continuous hybrid

method for the solution of first order ODEs using polynomial approximate solution. They

used collocation and interpolation techniques to give method of order 7, implemented in block

form.

Fotta, Alabi and Abdulqadir (2015), considered the development of hybrid block method for

the solution of first order IVPs of ODEs using an approximate solution that combine power

series and exponential function. They used collocation and interpolation techniques to obtain

method of order 3.

Ra'ft, Zurni and Kaboye (2016), considered the development of hybrid block method for the

solution of first order ODEs using polynomial approximate solution. They used collocation

and interpolation techniques to obtain a method of order 4.


Rufai, Duromola and Ganiyu (2016), considered the development of hybrid block method for

solving general first order ODEs using Chebyshev polynomial as approximate solution. They

used collocation and interpolation techniques to obtain an A-stable method of order 4.

In this paper, the development of hybrid block integrator is carried out using an approximate

solution which is a combination of power series and exponential function. It should be noted

that our approximate solution considered will be more of exponential function than the one

proposed by the authors mentioned above.

Methodology

We considered an approximate solution that combines power series and exponential function

of the form

Where ai ‘s are unknown parameters to be determined. The first derivative of (2) gives

Substituting (3) into (2) gives

Interpolating (2) at x = xn and collocating (4) at x= xn+2, S = 0, ⅓, ⅔󠆅, 1 gives a system

linear equation in the form

XA = U

Where

And A = [a0 a1 a2 a3 a4]T, U = [yn fn ]T. Solving (5) for the ai ’s and substituting

back into (4) gives a linear multistep method of the form

Where


Evaluating (7) at s a discrete block formula of the form

Where

Analysis of Basic Properties of Developed Integrator

Order of the block method

Let the linear operator L{y(x):h} associated with the block integrator (8) be defined as

L{y(x): h} = A (0) Ym – eyn + hdf(yn) + hbF(Ym)

Expanding using Taylor series and comparing the coefficients if h gives L{y(x):h} = C0y(x)

+ C1hy’(x) + . . .+ CP+1hP+1(x) +…?10?

Definition 3: Order of Block Method

The linear operator L and associated block method are said to be of order p if C0 = C1 = C2

= … = CP = 0, CP+1 ≠ 0. CP+1 is called the error constant and implies that the truncation

error is given by

tn+k = Cp+1hp+1yp+1(x) + 0(hp+2) (11)

for our method

Let the Linear operator L{y(x):h} associated with the block integrator (8) be defined as

L{y(x):h} = A(0)Ym – eyn + hdf(yn) + hbF(Yn)


Hence, C0 = C1 = C2 = C3 = C4 = 0, C5 ≠0, LTE = [-1.0860(-04), - 4.5725(-0.5), -

1.5432(-4)]T. The hybrid block integrator is of order 4.

Zero – Stability

Definition4: Zero – Stability

The block integrator (8) is said to be zero stable, if the roots z, S = 1, 2, . . ., k of the first

characteristics polynomial ρ(z) defined by ρ(z) = det (ZA(0) – e) satisfies ꞁzꞁ = 1 have

multiplicity not exceeding the order of the differential equation. Moreover as h→0, ρ(z) =

zr – u (z – 1)µ, where µ is the order of the differential equation, r is the order of th matrices A

and e.


Ρ(z) = z3 – z2 = z2(z – 1) = 0=» z1 = z2 = 0. Z3 = 1. Hence our integrator is zero – stable.

Consistency

The block integrator (8) is consistent since it has order greater than one. From the above

analysis, it is obvious that our integrator is consistent.

Convergence

The block integrator is convergent by the consequence of Dahlquist theorem below.

Theorem 1: (Dalhquist, 1956)

The necessary and sufficient conditions for a linear multistep method to be convergent are

that it be consistent and zero stable.

Region of Absolute Stability

Definition 5: Region of Absolute Stability.

Region of absolute stability is a region in the complex z plane, where z = It is defined as

those values of z such that the numerical solution of y’ = y satisfies jj →0 as j→ for any

initial condition.

To determine the absolute stability region of the new block integrator, we adopt the boundary

locust method. This is achieved by substituting the test equation

y’ = y (14)

into the block formula (8). This gives

(15)

Thus,

(16)

Since is given by and . Equation (16) is our characteristics or stability polynomial for our

integrator, equation (16) is given by

The Region of Absolute Stability for the method is shown in figure I below.


Numerical Examples

We shall evaluate the performance of the block integrator on some challenging stiff and

oscillatory problems which have appeared in literature and compare the results with solutions

from some methods of similar derivation. The numerical results are obtained using

MATLAB.

The following notations shall be used in the tables below.

ERR- |Exact solution - Computed solution| (Error in new method)

ERS - Error in Sunday, et al., (2014).

ERO- Error in Okunuga, et al., (2013).

ERA- Error in Adebayo and Umar, et al., (2013).

Problem 1

Consider the highly stiff ordinary differential equation:

Exact solution:

This problem was earlier discussed by Lambert (1973), the newly derived hybrid block

integrator is used for the integration of this problem within the interval 0 ≤ x ≥ 0.1.

Okunuga et al., (2013) solve this stiff problem by adopting a new 2 – point hybrid block

method with step size ratio at r = 1. Sunday et al., (2014) also solved problem 1 by applying

a self – starting integrator.

Problem 2


Onsider the Prothero-Robinson Oscillatory ODE.

Exact solution:

Adebayo and Umar (2013) solved this problem by adopting a generalize rational

approximation method via Pade approximants with step number k = 6, r = 1. In a similar

manner et al., (2014) solved problem 2 by applying a self-starting block integrator.

Table 1: Showing the results for stiff Problem 1 Table 2: Showing the results for

Prothero-

Robinson Oscillatory Problem 2

Discussion of Results

X ERR ERS ERO

0.0100 2.879519e-

011

3.414671e-

006

1.07e-

03

0.0200 4.097789e-

011

2.749635e-

006

2.30e-

03

0.0300 4.514411e-

011

1.342943e-

005

2.21e-

03

0.0400 4.539880e-

011

9.090648e-

005

5.30e-

03

0.0500 4.378098e-

011

7.969685e-

005

7.53e-

03

0.0600 4.132628e-

011

6.994886e-

005

9.00e-

03

0.0700 3.856981e-

011

6.270048e-

005

9.98e-

03

0.0800 3.578560e-

011

6.017101e-

005

1.06e-

02

0.0900 3.311063e-

011

5.411308e-

005

1.10e-

02

0.1000 3.060774e-

011

4.880978e-

005

1.12e-

02

X ERR ERS ERO

0.0100 1.473405e-

013

1.452952e-

011

2.0e-

11

0.0200 2.791656e-

013

1.621117e-

011

3.0e-

11

0.0300 3.954059e-

013

2.131013e-

011

1.0e-

10

0.0400 4.962142e-

013

1.379910e-

011

2.0e-

10

0.0500 5.817569e-

013

2.744084e-

011

1.0e-

10

0.0600 6.520340e-

013

1.111424e-

011

2.0e-

10

0.0700 7.072121e-

013

2.865663e-

011

1.0e-

10

0.0800 7.477352e-

013

1.921784e-

010

2.0e-

10

0.0900 7.736034e-

013

1.239202e-

010

3.0e-

10

0.1000 7.857048e-

013

1.471102e-

010

3.0e-

10


We have considered two numerical examples to test the efficiency of our method. The first

problem ( which is stiff ) was solved by Okunuga, et al.,(2013),where they both applied 2-

point block method with step-size ratio at r = 1, while the second problem ( which is

oscillatory ) was solved by Adebayo and Umar (2013) where they adopted generalized

rational approximation method via Pade approximants with step number k = 6. We solved

the two problems using the new hybrid block integrator developed. Tables 1 and 2 above

showed that the hybrid block integrator gives better results than the existing methods. It

should be noted that the method performs better when the step-size is chosen within the

stability interval. The problems are first order ODEs; hence, the method performs better

when the stepsize is within the stability interval.

Conclusion

In this paper, we have presented hybrid block integrator for the solution of stiff and oscillatory

first order initial value problems in ordinary differential equations. Our method was found to

be zero stable, consistent and convergent. The numerical results show that our method is

computationally reliable and gave better accuracy than the existing methods.

Recommendations

This paper developed block integrator with two hybrid points for the numerical solution of

stiff and oscillatory differential equations for first order initial value problems of ordinary

differential equations. We recommend that further research work should be carried out using

second and third order initial value problems of ordinary differential equations.

REFERENCES

Adesanya, A. O., Odekunle, M. R. and James, A. A. (2012): Order seven continuous hybrid

method for the solution of first order ODEs, Canadian Journal on Science and Engineering

Mathematics, 3(4), 154-158

Adebayo R.K. and Umar A.E. (2013). Generalized rational approximation method via Pade

approximants for the solutions of IVPs with singular solutions and stiff differential

equations. Journal of Mathematical Science'. 2(1), pp.327-368.

Akinfenwa, O. A., Yao, N. M. and Jator, S. N. (2011): Implicit two step continuous Hybrid

Block methods with four off-steps points for solving stiff ODEs, World Academy of

Science, Engineering and Technology, 5, 03-28

Akinfenwa, O. A., Jator, S. N. and Yao, N. M. (2011): An eighth order backward

differentiation formula with continuous coefficients for stiff ordinary differential

equations, International Journal of Mathematical, Computational, Physical, Electrical and

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PROSPECTS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN YOLA NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT

AREA OF ADAMAWA STATE

By

Adamu, I. A.

Department of Statistic

ABSTRACT

This study examined the prospects of efficient solid waste management in Yola North Local

Government Area, with the aim to identifying potential opportunity of solid waste management

This is achievable through the use of data obtained from both primary (questionnaires,

observation and interviews) and secondary sources. Data collected was subjected to statistical

analysis to provide required result. Findings from the study indicated that with the vast income

opportunities only 13.8% of the residents make partial use of that 17.0% of the respondents

use their waste as farm manure,28.2% use them to fill hollow places in their neighbourhood

and greater percentage 41.0% dumped their solid waste indiscriminately into gutters, on road

sides and on streets especially in Jimeta bridge and in nearby bushes . These activities were

the key factors hindering progress towards efficient solid waste management. Environmental

education/awareness is highly recommended for the people of Yola North Local government

area as a prospective way of reducing the menace of solid waste disposal in their vicinity.

Keywords: - prospect, clogging, solid waste, incinerator

INTRODUCTION

Proper management of solid waste is critical to the health and well-being of urban residents

(World Bank 2003). In most cities in the developing world, several tons of municipal solid

waste are left uncollected on the streets each day, clogging drains, creating feeding ground

for pests that spread disease and creating a myriad of related health and infrastructural

problems.

Bahaudin & Uddin (2012) reported that Dhaka City Cooperation Bangladesh estimated that

3500 tonnes of waste are generated daily. 1800 tons are collected and dumped by them, 900

tonnes go to backyard and land filling, 400tonnes go to road side and open space, likewise

300 tonnes are recycled by Scavengers while 100tonnes are recycled at a generation point A

substantial part of the urban residents in many cities in developing countries have little or no

access to solid waste collection services. This is due to lack of proper land use planning which

resulted in the creation of informal settlements with narrow streets that make it difficult for

collection trucks to reach many areas. making them particularly vulnerable (Nabegu, 2008)

protection of environment and human health (World Bank 2002, 2003, 2014) The changes in

consumption patterns with alterations in the waste characteristics have also resulted in a

quantum leap in solid waste generation (Ludwig et al. 2003). In addition, solid waste

management is hampered by a lack of data at all levels from the ward, district and

municipality, and where available, is generally unreliable, scattered and unorganized (World

Bank, 2002, 2013). As a result, planning of solid waste management has remained a difficult

task. In yet another vain, solid waste constitute the single most important phenomenon

threatening our environment. According to United Nations conference on human settlement

(UNCHS, 1996,2014) report, one-third to one-half of solid waste generated within most cities

in low- and middle-income countries usually end up in illegal dumps on the streets, open


spaces and waste lands. Neglecting the prospect of waste, the possibility of income

generation, employment opportunities and resource recovered from waste. Inarguably, Yola

North Local Government Area of Adamawa State is no exception. Essentially, the

management of solid waste is one of the challenges facing many urban areas globally.

However, in most urban areas, solid waste is collected by a government agency or private

contractor and this constitute a basic and expected government function in the developed

world (Zerbok, 2003).

Despite the importance of adequate solid waste management to the urban environment, the

performance of many city authorities in this respect leaves much to be desired. Bahaudin

& Uddin (2012) acknowledged that irregular services rendered to producers of refuse by

municipal councils compel them to find ways of disposing of refuse and observed that the

main methods adopted by the producers are burning, composting or indiscriminate dumping

Buttressing further Adamu (2016) reported that indiscriminate disposal of refuse into drains,

gutters and waterways in places like Jambutu, Demsawo, Luggere, Nassarawo, Doubeli and

Shinko have spread to most places and this have rendered the environment inhabitable and

unhygienic for human habitation. These areas are densely populated and yet not served with

adequate sanitary facilities.

The Study Area

This paper studies eleven (11) wards in Jimeta, the headquarters of Yola-North local

government area of Adamawa State as shown in figure 1 below. Yola North local government

area is located in the low land valley of river Benue. It lies between latitude 9011”N to

9020'N and longitudes 12023' to 12033'E and covers an area of about 305km2,with a land

mass of about 2,160km2.It is bounded by Girei at North, Yola south at East west and south

with a total population of about 199.674 people (census,2006).The maximum temperature is

45oc(march-April) and minimum temperature of 260-270(November-December) with

original inhabitant of Verre and Lakka with many settlers ranging from Hausa, Bata, Fulani,

Kanuri, Jukumetc (Adebayo & Tukur,1999).

Fig 1: Map of the Study Area

Source: Google Earth


Research Methodology

Data Collection

Survey research design method was employed in sourcing the data for the Study (Nze, 2009).

Data is obtained through both primary and secondary sources. The primary sources included

data collected using structured questionnaires, observation and interviews. The questionnaires

contained both closed and open-ended questions which were self-administered, while the

secondary data were obtained from the sources such as textbooks, journals, internet facilities,

Newspaper and activities both published and unpublished. The questionnaires were used in

collecting information on the following:

1. Socio-economic data of the respondents

2. Attitudes and perception towards solid waste

3. Kind and adequacy of facilities

4. The various waste disposal methods practiced by the respondents

5. Challenges with the current solid waste management adopted in the

6. Prospect of solid waste management

Sample Size

For equal quality data and results, twenty (20) people were selected as sample size from every

ward out of eleven wards in the study area thereby constituting a total of 220 people for the

entire study area. Consequently, 220 questionnaires were administered for the data collection.

Sampling Technique

The study area was divided into 11 wards where each ward represents a stratum. Stratified

random sampling technique was applied while administering the questionnaires in order to

have an unbiased study. In every 20 houses, a house was picked out in all wards.

Result and Discussion

The findings obtained from the questionnaires are summarized below.

Environmental hygiene is the responsibility of all people irrespective of gender, level or rank

in the social and economic status (Clerkson, 2011). But this is not so in Yola North because

93.1% of the respondents agreed that it is appropriate to clean their surroundings but are not

doing so, for their surroundings remained unhygienic and punctuated with so much dirt

thereby giving rise to foul smell and an unaesthetic view. The reason for this dismay was

attributed to low income of the residents who are battling to survive the economic situation

Similarly, the responses on whether the respondents were taking time to educate their

household on the need to keep their surroundings clean has also yielded negative result

because only 38.3 % of the resident claimed to be doing it while the remaining 61.7 are not

at all. Majority of the residents (60.6%) believed that government is responsible for solid

waste collection and disposal hence did not see the need to educate and dispose solid waste.

The problem of solid waste begins from here, since majority of the residents in Yola north


believed that waste education, waste collection and waste disposal are the sole responsibility

of the government.

Community Participation in solid waste management as identified by Suraj (2002) has helped

in keeping Thamil Nadu community clean at all times. But the reverse is the case in Jimeta –

Yola North for the enforced sanitation exercise at end of every month is not suffice because

indiscriminate throwing of waste is the common feature observed in the study area. Although

60.6% of the resident believed in the community participation as a good step but are not

participating. Therefore, community participation can only work better if severe penalty

inform of huge fine payment is legislated and implemented on defaulters whose community

or houses are found unhygienic so as to reduce the menace of solid waste. The indiscriminate

scattering of solid waste in Yola North more especially in Rumde, Alkalwa, Luggare and

Yelwa wards respectively occurred due to lack of enforcement and regulation of

environmental bye-laws on solid waste management as proved by 78.8 % responses. This

problem when tackled properly by the state will help in keeping the environment clean and

provide employment opportunities Zerbock (2003). The effective and efficient management

of solid waste can only be achieved by the creation of waste management department in Yola

North local Government council as pointed out by 86.2% responses. Therefore, the need to

establish a department in that respect is of paramount importance.

The opinion of most respondents on the willingness to recycle solid waste by scavenging and

selling it to the recycling plants when established is a positive one. This willingness is

supported by 80% responses as a result of the income obtainable based on the weight per

kilogram of solid waste scavenged, like in Lagos, Ibadan and Kano (Musa, 2005). The

categorization of solid waste as done in developed and developing countries like US and India

where each category of waste is collected separately has helped in waste disposal and

recycling, but very few cities in Nigeria has embark on such categorization(Dolin,2011).The

study area is devoid of waste categorization scheme although most of the residents produced

different types of solid waste. However, the study revealed that, 41% of the residents

generated garbage, 32.4% generated agricultural waste, 18.1% generated miscellaneous

waste while only 8.5% of them generated industrial waste.

Similarly, when asked on the types of incentive used in storing garbage in the study area,

majority of the respondent who constituted 38.8% are using open-dustbins, 23.9% uses closed

dustbins,12.8% uses old buckets,11.7% uses baskets,10.7% uses open drums while 2.1% of

them uses polythene bags for storing their waste. These findings indicated that, majority of

the respondent does not have standard solid waste storage materials. Therefore, there is need

for the government to provide standard dustbin or enlighten them on the need to buy one for

their usage.

The management of stored solid waste in the study area is through open burning (64.3%),

recycling (10.2%), land filling (9.6%) and Composting (9.6%). Open burning having 64.3%

seems to be the most common method used in disposing solid waste in the study area which

is harmful to both people and the environment. Therefore, there is need for the government

to intervene and provide harmless method of solid waste management for the residents.

The issue of solid waste disposal frequency in the study area is also a subject of concern

because majority of the respondent dispose their garbage at least thrice in a week while some

disposed theirs twice a week. The findings on this issue indicated that, large volume of waste

is being disposed of in the study area weekly and there is inadequate waste collection centres,

the few available ones are located very far from the residence which resulted in the


indiscriminate dumping of waste in any open space or on the street within their

neighbourhood. Therefore, there is need for the creation of adequate waste dumpsites in the

study area so as to carter for the large volume of waste produced and enhanced solid waste

management. The findings further revealed that, government is contributing only 15% in

evacuating the waste generated in the study area and the remaining 75% was left to individuals

and private contractors who are also finding it difficult to do the job well as the volume of

waste generated outstripped their ability to evacuate it effectively and efficiently (Zerbock,

2003).This problem has caused various diseases in the study area such as Malaria, typhoid,

cholera and dysentery as indicated by 82% responses from the respondents. Not only on

health issue, the mountainous heap of waste found on most of the streets in the study area has

caused a lot of accidents as drivers used to zig-zag and cut corners to avoid the heap of waste

on the roads. This is a fact supported by 67% respondents which needs to be addressed with

an immediate effect.

Furthermore, indiscriminate solid waste disposal has brought negative effects on animals and

climatic conditions in the study area but 74% of the respondents agreed that all the problems

obtained as a result of solid waste will be addressed through massive public awareness

campaign and commitment on solid waste management and its disposal in the study area.

Conclusion

One of the major problem confronting Jimeta town of Yola North is perhaps that of

environmental management This Problem is rooted in the fact that waste are generated faster

than they are collected, transported and disposed. Another major issue compounding the

problem is the attitude of the residents towards environmental protection which is

questionable as lamented by Ekpoh (2009). Residents and passersby litter the streets and

roads indiscriminately with all kinds of waste According to Aderamo (2000), human beings

are entitled to healthy environment in harmony with nature and this is achievable by ensuring

an effective solid waste management and sanitation. for the right to health is an extension to

the right of life as environmental conservation and management lies solely in human

responsibility.

With the vast income opportunities in waste, only 13.8% of the residents make partial use of

these opportunities hence there is need to educate people on the importance or prospect of

solid waste. That includes solid waste can be used as a farm manure to grow different crops;

Solid waste can also be used to fill those areas affected by gully erosion in the study area

thereby reclaiming those lands that were lost to erosion and other agents of denudation.

Recommendations

i. Government should therefore intervene in the following ways to enable the impact of

the prospect of solid waste to be felt:

The waste market known as Kasuwar Bola should be upgraded to be a market where

all the recyclable waste can be sold.

ii. The waste workers in the market should be provided with machineries that will aid

them processing their products also provide more opportunities for waste scavengers

in the study area.


iii. Government should give awards or prices for most clean household to encourage the

spirit of environmental sanitation competition among residents

iv. Environmental education should be introduced into the curriculum of Primary and

Secondary school to inculcate the spirit of clean environment in the younger

generation.

v. Environmental By-laws on solid waste management should be enforced by

implementing penalties by the government whenever defaulters are brought to book.

vi. Government should embark on public awareness campaign on solid waste

management and its disposal in the study area through mass media so as to reduce the

problem solid waste generation and its indiscriminate disposal.

vii. Waste dump site should be provided based on the standards per kilometre in every

ward should have 4 big waste containers placed in strategic locations, two for

recyclable waste and another two for non-recyclable waste.

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INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON TEACHERS PERFORMANCE IN

SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ADAMAWA AND TARABA STATES

by

Mbasumai, Harrison Edan

Department of Building

&

Mbudai, Dzugu

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the influence of environmental factors on teachers' performance in

secondary schools. The design of the study was survey method. Teachers in both Adamawa

and Taraba States formed the population of the study. The total population of the study was

one thousand four hundred and eight (1408) teachers from Adamawa and Taraba states.

Formulated Questionnaire was used to collect data. The collected data was analysed using

Mean, Standard Deviation and z-test. 0ne research question was asked and a null-hypothesis

was formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. Provisions of facilities 1to 6 were

agreed as flouncing the performance of teachers while Provision of Facility 7 was Strongly

Disagreed as influencing the performance of teachers. The study therefore revealed that the

provision of facilities for teaching positively influence the performance of teachers. The

researcher therefore recommended that facilities such as buildings, furniture, equipment,

books, transport, and utilities should be provided to enhance the performance of teachers in

their lessons delivery.

Key Words: Environmental, Influence, Facilities, instructional, Schools, and Class.

INTRODUCTION

Webster Dictionary, (2000) defined school facilities as things that make teaching process

easier. CESAC (1979) stated that school facilities are like “grease that keeps the vehicle parts

moving”. Dubey (1980) stated that school facilities are the plants (building), equipment and

materials which make teaching and learning effective. According to Ogundola, Abiodun and

Jonathan (2010) observed that the quality of education to a large extent depends on the

learning environment which ideally, should be equipped with equipment and facilities such

as laboratory, workshop, libraries, books, teaching aids and the use to which they are put.

Others are well-ventilated and furnished staffroom and classroom, which according to

Nwachukwu (2012) have direct significance on teaching and learning.

School is like a manufacturing organisation where plants and equipment should be in good

working condition as quality of physical environment affects the performance of teacher

(Hornby, 2000). Bendner (2010) observed that teachers need a designated place to relax and

plan during the week; and manageable class to deliver their lessons. This is because it is

believed that lack of space affects the way teachers plan and organise instructions. Iyela and

Audu (2006) observed that several more recent studies in the United States of America have

linked teachers' effectiveness and attrition to the condition of the schools in which they teach.

A survey of crowded schools in New York City found 75% of teachers indicating that large

classes affect classroom activities including instructional technique. Many times, the physical


facilities in which a teacher must function causes him to choose less effective teaching

technique (Bendner, 2009). Oseghale (2015) in his study titled: “Effects of Lack of School

Facilities on the Academic Performance of Students in Senior Secondary Schools in Edo

Central Senatorial District Edo State, Nigeria,” stated that school facilities should be provided

for teachers for effective teaching and learning. He classified school facilities as follows:

i. Building

ii. Furniture

iii. Equipment

iv. Books

v. Transport

vi. Utilities

vii. Machinery (pp. 4).

A teacher, who teaches in a school where staffroom and classrooms are well furnished and

ventilated, will put in more hours than the one who teaches in a school with a high heat level.

Mamman (1996) observed that most public-school buildings in Nigeria are dilapidated and

lack necessary utilities. They listed utilities as light, water supply, air conditioner, fan system

and furniture. They also noted that the buildings were designed in a way that they retain heat.

This condition is said to be responsible for variety of pathogenic factors among teachers.

Ukadike (2003) was of the opinion that high level of heat is believed to be responsible for the

exhibition of mental fatigue and low performance among teachers. Enemali (2012) pointed

out that a teacher, who gets exhausted as a result of heat, may not perform effectively. Khalid

and Azeem (2013) refer to such conditions as thermal condition. High temperature is believed

to produce harmful physiological effect that decrease work efficiency and output. Khalid and

Azeem further stated that lack of literature also affects the performance of the teachers.

Today, however, the situation has improved considerably in Adamawa and Taraba States.

The Government of the two states have given priority attention to infrastructure in the school

system, (NERC, 1980). Okigbo and Okeke, (2012) insisted that despite the improvement in

the infrastructure development much needs to be done. Their appeared to be true because it

appears that many of the gigantic buildings lack very vital equipment. The laboratories/

workshop and libraries are without equipment, consumables and books. This situation is

worse in the public schools. This means that more is yet to be done because no school can

function effectively without adequate equipment. The teacher needs to demonstrate and

practicalize his lessons for his students to understand more.

The influence of environmental factors on teachers performance in Secondary Schools in

Adamawa and Taraba States is by just a cursory glance at the mode of operation in other

organisations like petrochemical company and Nigerian National Petroleum Company will

reveal that adequate facilities are provided for the day to day running of the organisation that

is why Onyesom, Ordor and Nwaham (2005) stated that the condition of teaching is not as

favourable as that of Banking, Law, Medicine and Engineering. If the above statement is

true, then teachers' morale, zeal and commitment to duty can be adversely affected and the

goal of using education for National Development will not be attained. Nwachukwu (2012)

explained that in recent times, there is acute power failure, classrooms are small with poor

lighting; consequently, a teacher may give up the active teaching strategies that he knows. It


is therefore the responsibility o the school administration to ensure that facilities are working

efficiently so as to achieve this educational objective.

The purpose of the study is to determine the opinions of teachers on the influence of

environmental factor (School facilities) on their performance and to specifically determine if

the provision of adequate laboratory facilities and material enhance teacher's performance in

practical lessons. One research question was raised to guide the researcher in the study; 'To

what extent does provision of laboratory/workshop facilities and materials influence teachers'

performance in practical lesson” One null hypothesis was formulated to guide the study;

“There is no significant difference between the opinions of teachers in Adamawa and Taraba

State schools on the influence of provision of laboratory/workshop facilities and materials,

on teachers' performance in practical lessons.”

Methodology

The study employed a descriptive sample survey where a representative sample is used and

the result is generalised (Arbaugh and Benbunan-Fish, 2010). The population of the study

comprised of all the six thousand, three hundred and forty (6,340) teachers in the four

hundred and twenty-eight (428) government owned secondary schools in the forty-four (44)

Local Government Areas of the two states. The stratified random sampling technique was

used; as the entire schools were stratified into Adamawa and Taraba State schools. Five Local

Government Area were taken as dusters. Therefore, all the teachers in the selected schools

were included in the study. This gave a total of seven hundred and four (704) teachers,

representing 21% of the target population.

The researcher developed an instrument tilted “Opinions of teachers on the Influence of

provision of schools facilities on Teachers' Performance Questionnaire” structured on a

modified four Point Likert-Scale option of the order, 4 - Strongly Agree (SA), 3 – Agree

(A), 2 – Disagree (SD), and 1 – Strongly Disagree (D). The instrument was validated by

presenting it to two experts in test measurement and evaluation in Federal College of

Education Yola and one in the Department of statistic of Moddibo Adama University of

Technology Yola. The corrections and suggestions made assisted in modifying the instrument

as to attain validity. The simple descriptive method of mean (x) was used to answer the

research question while the Z-test statistics was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of

significance

Result of the Study

Table 1 in page 4 reveals that many secondary schools have laboratories but the laboratories

are not well equipped. It also indicates that teachers do not perform practical because the

laboratories are not well equipped. Finally, teachers' response reveal that teachers replace

practical lessons with mere demonstrations as a result of non-availability of school facilities

with grand mean of 3.35, 2.51, 2.21, 3.36, 2.78, 3.38 and 1.21 respectively. The teachers

in their opinions agreed with facilities 1 to 6 and disagreed with facility 7. This result is

consistent with the findings of Edmonson (2000) Khalid and Azeem (2013) that most

laboratories lack very vital facilities, and this result in unsatisfactory teaching, especially in

the performance of teachers in practical lessons.


Hypothesis 1. There is no significance difference between the opinions of Adamawa and

Taraba States Teachers on the provision of schools facilities and the performance of teachers

in practical lessons.

The result of the study is presented in table 1 and 2 below.

Research Question 1; what is the responses of teachers on the influence of provision of school

facilities on the performance of teachers in practical lessons?

Table 1: Responses of Teachers on the influence of Provision of School facilities on the

performance of teachers in practical lessons.

S/N Facilities Adamawa State Taraba

State

Grand Remark

Mean

1. Provision of

Building

3.46 3.25 3.35 Strongly Agreed

2. Provision of

Furniture

2.61 2.22 2.51 Agree

3. Provision of

Equipment

2.00 2.42 2.21 Agree

4. Provision of Books 3.35 3.35 3.35 Strongly Agreed

5. Provision of

Transport

2.34 3.21 2.78 Agreed

6. Provision of

Utilities

3.34 3.41 3.38 Strongly Agreed

7. Provision of

Machinery

1.22 1.21 1.21 Disagreed

Influence of provision of schools facilities on Teachers Performance in schools in Adamawa

and Taraba States

Table 2 in page 6 shows that the mean opinions of Taraba State secondary school teachers

(15.0) is almost equal to the mean opinions (15.13) of the Adamawa State secondary school

counter parts on the provision of facilities and teacher's performance in practical lessons.

Furthermore, the z-cal (0.47) is less than the z-crit (1.960) at the degree of freedom at 0.05

level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted. There is no significant

different between the responses of Taraba and Adamawa State teachers on the provision of

facilities and materials and teacher’s performance of practical.


Table 2: Mean, Standard Deviation and Z-test Analysis of the Difference between the

Opinions of Adamawa and Taraba State teachers on the provision of schools facilities and

teachers performance in practical lessons.

School location N X SD df z-cal z-crit Decision

Taraba State 803 15.07 2.02 140.8 -0.47 1.960 Accepted

Adamawa State 605 15.13 1.50

Discussion of Findings

The findings from the study showed that provision of facilities and materials influence

teachers' performance of laboratory skilful practical work. This is shown by the mean

responses of the Taraba Sate teachers (15.07), which is almost equal to that of the Adamawa

State teachers (15.13). Furthermore, the z-cal (-0.47), is less than the z-critical (1960).

This means that without adequate and appropriate facilities and materials, teachers cannot

perform practical with their students. This is in agreement with the findings of Okegbo and

Okeke 2012), Oseghale (2015) and Arbaugh and Benbunan-Fish (2010), that school

laboratories lack very vital equipment and consumables. According to them the situation is

the reason why there is unsatisfactory teaching in the sciences and vocational subjects.

Consequently, this study postulates that there is more to be done if the school system is to

achieve its educational objectives, especially in the science and vocational related subjects.

Conclusion

From the findings of the study it could be seen that the opinion of the teachers in Adamawa

and Taraba States were the same on the provision of teaching materials/equipment. The

teachers all agreed that the environment affects the teacher's performance. This finding was

in line with that of Ogundola, Abiodun and Jonathan (2010).

This study investigated the influence of environment factors on teacher's performance in

secondary schools in Adamawa and Taraba States. One researcher question and one

hypothesis were tested. The main instrument employed in the study the study was the

questionnaire which was administered to one thousand four hundred and eight teachers. The

mean and z-test were used to answer the researcher question and to test the hypothesis

respectively. The findings were discussed and recommendations were made. Teachers in

both the state's schools do not differ on their responses on provision of school facilities and

materials on teachers' performance of practical.

Recommendations

The following recommendations were made based on the findings made:

i. that adequate accommodation should be made available if the performance of the

teachers is to be improved.


ii. that adequate ventilation and air conditioning facilities be provided to make the staff

room conducive for the teachers to enable plan for their lessons without difficulties.

iii. that all necessary equipment be made available for effective teaching process.

iv. Books/literatures should be made available for the teacher to plan their lessons without

problems that may tend to frustrate them. And also

v. Transportation system should be at its best to enable the teachers arrive their places

of work without much stress.

The provision of the above school facilities would help in improving the performance of the

teachers.

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dimensions of teaching in online learning environments. Acad Manage Learn Educ. 5(4):

435 – 447.

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achievement, International Journal of Therapeutic Massage & Bodywork: Research,

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CESAC (1979). Nigeria Secondary School Social Studies Project. Book 2 Lagos. Heinemann

Publishers

Dubey, O. (1980). Social Study Methods for Nigeria Teacher Learning Actives. Ibadan

University Press Limited.

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Technical Colleges in North-Eastern states of Nigeria. Spectrum Journal. 1 (2).

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Academic Press.

Hornby, S. (2000). Oxford Advance Learners Dictionary: New York, University Press.

Iyela, A. and Audu, F. (2006). Social Studies for Higher Education Students. Kaduna: Sinjo

Publishing Company.

Khalid, A. and Azeem, M. (2013). Constructivist vs Traditional: Effective instructional

approach in teacher education. International Journal of Humanities and Social Studies.

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Mamman, J. H. (1996). “Christian Dialogue with People of other Faiths” A Seminar Paper

Presented at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

NERC (1980). The Concept and Scope of Social Studies Education for Schools and Colleges.

Ibadan: Onibonoje Publishers Nigeria Limited.

Nwachukwu, Z. C. (2012). Cmap tools: A knowledge modelling and sharing environment.

In A.J. Canas, J.D. Novak & F.M. Gonzalez (Eds). Concept maps: Theory,

Methodology, Technology, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Concept

Mapping 1: 125 – 133.


Onyesom, E. Odor, O. and Nwaham, C. (2005). Introduction to Social Studies gonsun and

his Environment. Agbor: Krishec Publications.

Okigbo, E. C. and Okeke, S. O. (2012). Effect of games and analogies on students' interest

in mathematics. JSTAN 46, 1, 101-112.

Ogundola, I.P., Abiodun, A.P. & Jonathan, O.O. (2010). Effect of constructivist

instructional approach on teaching practical skills to mechanical related trade students in

Western Nigeria technical colleges. Ikere-Ekiti State. International Journal of Research

and Advancement in Educational Methods, International research and development

institute.10, 1, (23 – 27).

Onyesom, L.O.N. (2005). Social Studies for Higher Education Agbor Royal Pace

Publication.

Oseghale A. J. (2015). There is no significant difference between the perception of teachers

in Adamawa and Taraba State schools on the provision of laboratory facilities and

materials, and teachers' performance of practical. International journal of research and

advancement in educational methods International research and development institute.

vol.10, no.1.

Ukadike, O. J. (2003). Introduction to the Teaching of Social Studies: Onitsha. Lincel

Publishers.


CURTAILING HIGH RATE OF INSECURITY THROUGH: PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

TECHNIQUES

By

Abdullahi Baba Kankamba1 & Ibrahim Mamman2 2Department of environmental science

Federal Polytechnic, Mubi

ABSTRACT

The state of insecurity has brought about negative effect including millions of internally

displaced persons. The rate of crime has consequently led to lots of lives and properties. In

Nigeria, people particularly stem the anxiety and fear they experience because they feel

insecure and vulnerable more say they feel less secure and vulnerable today than in the

previous times. They describe security as stability and continuity of livelihood, predictability

of relationship, feeling safe and belongings to a social group. Forms and degree of security

and insecurity vary from Region and danger for instance in Nigeria “social vulnerability,

natural and human made disasters hiding on Religious fundamentalism to perpetuate violence,

Inter tribal conflict, youth restiveness, Occupational conflicts and armed robbery, The above

stated factors can be linked to lack of good governance to the orchestrated politics against

the wishes of Nigerians. Where people are marginalized”. This paper suggests the adoption

of land use planning processes, dialogue with all stake holders from all and sundry, creation

of qualitative jobs opportunities as well as creating an enabling environment for an effective

Private sector to usher in order to ameliorate if not eradicate the prevailing insecurity in

Nigeria.

Keywords: Crime, Planning, Management, Insecurity, Violence.

INTRODUCTION

Security is defined as the state of being free from fare, care danger. Safety or sense of safety;

freedom from doubt or uncertainty and something that gives or assures safety protection

safeguard. Therefore, security is therefore the elimination of threats. It is one of the basic

necessities of humans. Many countries in Sub Saharan African fall within experienced rapid

urban expansion (Kingsley and Hyacinth, 2013).

Akinola (2013) observed that there are two types of security challenges – Internal and

External security challenges. External security challenges demand the use of force to subdue

opposition or intruding country/nation into one’s territorial jurisdiction, while internal

security challenges may not be necessarily demanding the use of force. Rather discussion

negotiation and reconciliation should lead to the settlement of dispute. However, the case

of Nigeria has been the use of force, which has not resolved the critical security challenge

that we face Today. The origin of insecurity in Nigeria can be traced to the Niger delta

neglect by the Federal government of Nigeria with corresponding agitation and confrontation

by the Niger Delta people especially the youth. This was followed by hostage taking

criminality and Robbery in the Niger Delta. The waves of insecurity then spread to other

parts of the country and then the case of Boko Haram episode, which is presently tasking the

citizenry and the government, emerged-which has in turn affected economic and social life

in the country. In spite of steady economic growth in Nigeria the benefit do not get to the

grass root while unemployment is increasing vis a viz high level of food importation


(Manuaka, 2011 Sawyer, 2012: Akpeji and Ajayi, 2012)in essence what we have today is

growth without development which invariably breeds exclusion a few people determine

resource distribution that are usually skewed in favour of those at the corridor of power,

while citizens are deprived and marginalized in all ramifications. For example, while

innovative ideas on food security are generated by Agricultural scientist and Engineers there

have not been incentive. on the part of the government to harness these potentials for the

benefit of the peasant farmers (Akinola, 2007) This frustration turns some youth into fraud

and robbery, while ride Okada (motor cycle) as commercial Taxi in order to survive

economically others resort in finger nail cutting as a means of livelihood.

The Urban and Regional planning is a noble profession which aimed at making life

comfortable by harnessing the distribution and competing land uses and structures in space

(cities or rural areas) in orderly balanced and consistent forms, the perspective in planning

has changed globally to include all aspect of development to embrace socio economic, cultural

political, management and technological dimension of human society. As a result, this paper

encapsulates Urban and Regional Planning as a modus Vivendi to harnessing the endogenous

Knowledge towards the utilization of environmental resources to addressing the needs,

aspirations and yearning of the citizens to address the causes of insecurity in Nigeria.


The problem investigated revealed that there exists a higher rate of insecurity in Nigeria

ranging from theft, armed robbery, kidnapping and the displacement of worshipping places

through the use of Bombs, vandalization of pipelines –this has caused many of our settlements

insecure. The paper focus on the adoption of planning and management techniques in order

to curtail the rate of crime in Nigeria.

Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to punctuate on the causes of insecurity in Nigeria so as to provide a

viable solution to the said problem.

The objectives include the following:

i. To investigate causes of insecurity in Nigeria;

ii. To identify the elements of National security

iii. To suggest possible ways in Urban and Regional Planning to Insecurity

iv. To propose viable solutions to remedy the problem of insecurity In Nigeria

Research Questions

i. What are the causes of insecurity in Nigeria?

ii. What are the elements of National security?

iii. What are the possible planning and management strategies to insecurity?

iv. What are the solutions that will remedy high rate of crime in Nigeria?


Significance of the Study

The study is important in that it suggested a proffered solution to ameliorating high rate of

insecurity in Nigeria. It suggested an interventionist approach – planning and management to

guard the interest of the people secured human settlement suitable for human habitation and

the implementation of enabling regulatory laws and standards to resolve urban problems of

overcrowding, traffic and other forms of congestion controlling haphazard development.

Scope and Limitations

The paper focused on the Nigeria nation as its area of study. It laid emphasis on the planning

and management as modus operandi to reducing high rate of crime. Due to insurgency in

some part of Nigeria data cannot be obtained in some quarters. Therefore, data through

secondary sources where gathered through published and unpublished works.

Literature review

The attendant literature centred on the following issues: elements of national security.

economic security, Energy and natural resources security, political security, safety and

security through planning and management, neighbourhood security through traffic design,

using law and judiciary, land use planning, natural access control natural surveillance

territorial reinforcement activity support and public private partnership. A typical dictionary

definition from the Macmillan Dictionary (online version), defines the term as “the protection

or the safety of a country's secrets and its citizens” against actions and behaviours that against

conducive life, emphasizing the overall security of a nation and a nation state, protection of

a country from attack or subversion. Preparedness for military action, diligence in matters of

intelligence gathering and secrecy, and protection of resources and rights considered critical

to the functioning of a nation are all included in national defence and security plans. Elements

of national security as identified by Paleri (2008) are:

Environmental security deals with environmental issues which threaten the national

security of a nation in any manner. Romm (1993) classified these as:

i. Transnational environmental problems that threaten a nation's security, in its broad

defined sense. These include global environmental problems such as climate change,

desertification, deforestation and loss of biodiversity, etc.

ii. Environmental or resource problems that threaten a nation's security, traditionally

defined. These would be problems outcomes would result in conventional threats to

national security as first or higher order outcomes. Such disputes could range from

heightened tension or outright conflict due to: disputes over petrol exploitation and

transportation in Nigeria, disputes over water scarcity in the Middle East, illegal

immigration into the United States caused by the failure of agriculture in Mexico,

genocide in Rwanda (indirectly or partly caused by rise in population and dwindling

availability of farmland), is an example of the extremely of outcome arising from

problems of environmental security.

iii. Environmentally threatening outcomes of warfare, e.g. oil pipelines vandalization in

Nigeria, Saddam Hussein's burning of oil wells in the Gulf War; the use of Agent

Orange by the USA in the Vietnam War for defoliating forests for military purposes.


Economic security

In today's complex system of international trade and globalization, characterized by multi-

national agreements, mutual inter-dependence and availability of natural resources etc., the

freedom to follow choice of policies to develop a nation's economy in the manner desired,

forms the essence of economic security. Economic security today forms, arguably, as

important a part of national security.

Energy and Natural Resources Security

Resources include petroleum, bitumen, water, hydroelectric sources of energy, land and other

solid minerals. Availability of adequate natural resources is important for a nation to develop

its industry and economic power. Lack of resources is a serious challenge for Japan to

overcome to increase its national power. Water resources are subject to disputes between

many nations, including the two nuclear powers, India and Pakistan. Nations attempt to attain

energy and natural resource security by acquiring the needed resources by force, negotiation

and commerce.

Political security

The political security is about the stability of the democratic institutions and provision of

good Urban Governance.

Military Security

Military security implies the capacity of a nation to defend itself, and/or deter military

aggression. Alternatively, military security implies the capability of a nation to enforce its

policy choices by use of military force.

Safety and security through planning and management

Kingsley and Hyacinth (2013) stated that securing urban spaces is considered as one of the

basic objectives in urban planning. In recent years planners are developing safety-based

design for urban spaces. In Nigeria to build urban safety and security our new dimension of

physical planning should incorporate the following at Micro level planning:

a. Facilitating eyes on the street: Empty streets and desolate public spaces generate fear and

provide opportunities for criminal acts. Building setbacks should be enough to permit similar

views. Storefronts along commercial streets should have adequate space and good orientation

to allow good surveillance by shop owners and neighbours.

b. Protecting access routes and public places: Through design public spaces and facilities

such parks and bus stops can be sufficiently policed and protected. The route to these facilities

can be designed in such a way that security and safety in the places are ensured.

c. Urban renewal interventions to reduce fear-producing incivilities in streets and public

spaces can be in the form of improving the appearance of buildings, fill in derelict areas and

repairs of streetscape.


d. Neighbourhood security through traffic design:

Adopting complementarily of strategies: Crime prevention through environmental design

should be complemented by a variety of strategies, which may include policing and

surveillance by neighbourhood watch groups; educational programmed, information/media

campaigns; and the use of technology such as closed-circuit television; emergency phones

and surveillance cameras in public spaces. Urban security and safety issues should involve

stakeholders in the design.

At the Macro level the following techniques should evolve as tools for National Security.

Sani (2013) posits as follows:

Using the law and the judiciary

National Security is attained by maintaining the welfare, peace and security of each

individual, this approach depends heavily on established “Comprehensive laws and

regulations (Building/Subdivision Regulations and Building Codes, Zoning Ordinances) and

people's participation. Police patrol of communities, provides support to victims of crime,

and ensure liaison between Government Institutions and communities to create harmonious

physical environments.

Land use planning

One of the major challenges for crowded cities is the management of public spaces; it is about

the design and planning of public space for women and men, and its impact on social urban

development (narrow streets, lack of lighting, poor public transport systems are typical

problems). Urban safety is about increasing choices for men and women, girls and boys to

move freely without threat, harassment, sexual assault, rape, or intimidation, because of

gender, ethnicity or community affiliation. It is also about responsive and inclusive

governance.

Natural access control

Natural access control limits the opportunity for crime by taking steps to clearly

differentiating between public space and private space. By selectively placing entrances and

exits, fencing, lighting and landscape to limit access or control flow, natural access control

occurs. Sani (2013)

Natural surveillance

Natural surveillance increases the threat of apprehensive by taking steps to increase the

perception that people can be seen. Natural surveillance occurs by designing the placement

of physical features, activities and people in such a way as to maximize visibility and foster

positive social interaction among legitimate users of private and public space. Potential

offenders feel increased scrutiny and limitations on their escape routes.


Natural Territorial Reinforcement

Territorial reinforcement promotes social control through increased definition of space and

improved proprietary concern. And environment designed to clearly delineate private space

does two things. First, it creates a sense of ownership. Owners have a vested interest and are

more likely to challenge intruders or report them to the police. Second, the sense of owned

space creates an environment where “strangers” or “intruders” stand out and are more easily

identified. By using buildings, fences, pavement, signs, lighting and landscaping to express

ownership and define public, semi-public and private space, natural territorial reinforcement

occurs (Sani, 2013).

Activity Support

Activity support increases the use of a built environment for safe activities with the intent of

avoiding uncompleted buildings and increasing the risk of detecting of criminal and

undesirable activities.

Public-private partnerships

A final trend has been the increasing use of public-private partnerships to support initiatives

in poorer neighbourhoods. They include active consultation and participation of local

residents, especially young people, partnerships with housing authorities, local governments

and local businesses. The idea is not simply to have better security, but the establishment of

a range of community supports to help young children and families as they grow up. (Sani,

2013).

Discussion

Nigeria African most populous country with an estimated Population of over one hundred

million persons with different linguistic affinities and a predominantly two Religious group

is at the most sober moment of her socio-economic history. Thousands of lives of our people

are continuously wasted. Kidnapping Armed Robbery and militancy and other criminal

activities. Securities agents are killed at will innocent lives are lost regularly. Our Children

the future of our nation is not spared –Orphans Widows are created at a terrifying rate. The

family and community system are broken at will. The Critical infrastructure is destroyed

intermittently. The heart and soul of our nation are being destroyed.

Nigeria has had a long and unfortunate history of communal conflict and ethnoreligious

violence for example in Plateau State, in Nigeria's middle belt there has been so many

outbreaks of violence between various communities since the return of democracy in 1999.

There have also been roots in the urban centres of Kaduna and Kano, and for several decades

there has been a summering conflict in the Tafawa Balewa District of Bauchi – in the Niger

Deltas.

According to Andrew (2012) Boko Haram is an Islamic sect that believes northern politics

has been seized by a group of corrupt, false Muslims. It wants to wage war against them and

the Federal Republic of Nigeria generally to create a pure Islamic State ruled by Sharia law.

Since 2009 it has been driven by a desire of vengeance against politicians, police and Islam

authorities for their role in a brutal suppression of the group that year. But the group has


proved itself to be very adaptable, evolving its tactics swiftly and changing its target at the

behest of a charismatic leadership. The group left onto the world's agenda in August 2011,

when it bombed the U.N. compound in Abuja, killing twenty-three people. The nature of

Nigerian state as facilitation or instrument of international capital (as well as its local

counterpart) is pivotal to the ongoing crime in the Niger Delta so also is the capitalist mode

of production where inherent contradictory, as played out in the fragile ecosystem of the

Niger Delta have not only deepened but also sustained the crises.

Conclusion

Urban safety and security is one of the major objectives of physical planning. Policies

designed to reduce crime and violence fall into several broad categories. Through urban

planning, appropriate designs can be developed to minimize the cost of providing security

and safety in Nigeria cities. A combination of the several approaches seems more likely to

succeed than the ad hoc application of individual initiatives. The mechanism for supporting

such a broad-based approach is usually partnership mechanism. Local authorities can play an

important role in organizing such partnerships, while state governments provide the enabling

environment and necessary policy framework. Local communities should be fully involved

in these processes, not just in terms of consultation, but also as generators and implementers

of such initiatives. Interventions addressing the issue of security and safety should always

ensure that the requirements of all groups are adequately addressed. Governance system that

facilitate local participation are more effective in-service delivery. By tackling unemployment

issue while boosting infrastructural development, insecurity can be minimized. Therefore,

governments should create an enabling environment for private sector investments. This can

help to balance security concern with other needs of the urban population.

Recommendations:

Security is a collective responsibility the General public should as a matter of importance join

hands with the government in combating crime across board.

a. The implementation of the Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Law should be

Implemented at Federal State and Local Level to give the Town planner a Lease of Hope

since Town Planning is a problem solving process the Emancipation of the Law at all

levels will mean that the Town Planner must have a say in the build environment and

hence efficiency and harmonious land use integration amongst other things is ensured.

b. Government should create an enabling environment for an efficient Private sector

participation to create wealth to the nation to cope with the insufficient jobs for the rapidly

growing population. Corruption has to stopped by all means – the government and the

people need to develop trust and work together to resolve security situation in Nigeria

c. There is the need for population policy in Nigeria the population of the Nigerian is

growing rapidly that so much that many of our teeming youths do not have job as hence

the politicians make use of them during electioneering process to achieve their selfish

aims. Therefore, a two-child policy should be evolved to make the Nigerian sustained

with the available resources.

In view of the Lingering Religious conflict bedevilling some parts of Nigeria there is the need

to resort to Dialogue with all stake holders so as to bring a lasting solution to the problem


REFERENCES

Sani A (2013) Land use planning tools for National security. A paper presented at the 44th

annual conference and General meeting of the Nigerian institute of Town planners Owerri

2013.

Kingsley C. (2013). Enhancing Urban security and safety in Nigeria through physical

planning and Management. A paper presented during the 44th annual conference and

General meeting of the Nigerian institute of Town planners Owerri 2013.

Samson R. (2013). The logic of planning process and Polycentric planning and security

challenges in Nigeria. A Polycentric planning and poverty Reduction strategy. A paper

presented during the 44th annual conference and General meeting of the Nigerian institute

of Town planners Owerri 2013.

U N Habitat (2007) Crime and Violence at a Glance. Global report on human settlement 2007

http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/5203 99486 Bk%207.pdf Extracted on

14/09/13. In Nigerian institute of Town planners Conference papers Owerri 2013.

Musa Haruna D. and Musa Delil Urban Violence and Insecurity: Exposure and adaptation in

Suleja Town International journal on current research

Olayiwola, Owolabi and Iwebunir (2007) Oil and Insecurity in Nigeria. The Niger Delta

Crisis. Council for Development of Social Science Research in Africa 2007.

Romm, Joseph J. (2003) Defining National security: the non-Military aspect. Pew Project an

On America’s Task in a changing World (PewProject series) Council of Foreign

relationship 122.

Sani A. (2013) Land Use planning and National Security annual conference proceedings

2013.


WAR AGAINST CORRUPTION IN NIGERIA THROUGH ISLĀMIC TEACHING AND

LEARNING: AN APPRAISAL OF ISLĀMIC PHILOSOPHY

By

Abdulkabir Olaiya Suleiman,

Summit University, Kwara State

ABSTRACT

The downturn of Nigeria economic was as a result of crooked theory of corruption advocates

by the leaders and indiscipline act of the leads. This research propounds that corruption is

the abuse of influence, exploitation of power, misuse of authority and mismanagement of

public fund by the individual or government official through which the entrusted office end

up with Malthusian theory. The major aims of this paper are to critically examine the factors

responsible for widespread corruption in Nigeria and unequivocal suggests Islāmic teachings

if fully implemented as possible way out. The significance of Islāmic studies as apt solution

on war against corruption in Nigeria can never be underestimated. This manuscript submits

that, Islāmic studies, is the study of fundamental teaching of Islām which encompassing the

diplomatic and nonviolent prescription of social, economic and political life. This paper

intends to showcase the benefit of Islāmic teaching and learning as a decisive mechanism to

curtail the corruption which put Nigeria economy in to irresolute downturn and despaired

recession. The study therefore concludes that if Nigeria government is reasonably in need of

solution to cripple corruption in Nigeria, they need to confer with expert in Islāmic studies

on how to reform Nigeria Catastrophe with Islāmic philosophy. The manuscript will really

on historical, analytical and descriptive method.

Keywords: Corruption, crooked theory, Islāmic philosophy, despaired recession, economy

downturn.

INTRODUCTION

Corruption is the major incommodious predicaments troubled Nigeria in this 21st century.

This problem had crippled Nigeria economy as a result of indecisive leaders with wrong

decision making that asphyxiate not only those in charge of governing the Nation but also

individual Nigerian which overtly or covertly contributed to corrupt practices. This paper

aims to shed light on the advantages of Islāmic philosophy as a momentous mechanism to

curtail the spread wing of corruption that put Nigeria economy into downtrodden recession.

However, this research submits that corruption is the abuse of influence, exploitation of

power, misuse of authority and mismanagement of public fund by the individual or

government official through which the entrusted office end up with Malthusian theory. In the

same vein, the scourge of corruption is a threat to ethical values and justice which encumbered

sustainable development and the rule of law which trims down socio-economic growth and

sustainable infrastructural development of any organization or country.

Further still, corruption is the dishonest and illegal behaviour exhibited especially by people

in authority for their personal gain. Ayobami (2011) maintains that corruption is the abuse or

misuse of power or position of trust for personal or group benefit (monetary or otherwise).

According to the ICPC Act (section 2), corruption includes vices like bribery, fraud, and

other related offences.


Historically, Nigeria is a multi-religious state but major religious groups across the country

of more than 160 million inhabitants are Christianity and Islām. (Oloyede, 2012). Therefore,

the need for the introduction of Islāmic philosophy in to Nigeria war against corruption is

essential on every sector across the country not only to perform magnificently but also enable

individual Nigerian to philosophize with divine direction of (Allāh) the Supreme Being on the

feature of proficient leader and the consequential upshot on whichever post you held.

However, Islām as a solution for humanity teaches nonviolence character that edifices

Muslims as an individual and non-Muslim as a statesmanship.

According to Islāmic philosophy, corruption is known as Fasād and Fawāhisha depravity and

turpitude respectively which can be refer to as a collection of amoral behaviour that tyrannize

the peace, tranquillity and environmental stability of a given nation. (Arabic—English

Dictionary 2004:668). Meanwhile, Islāmic studies put the accent on the fundamental teaching

of moral, ethical value as clarified in various places in the Qur'ān with terminology of being

just or unjust, moral and amoral, discipline and indiscipline, virtuous and wickedness with

reference to their detrimental impact on the society.

Although many researchers have painstakingly note down the causes, effect and solution to

the corruption in Nigeria, yet many assumptions could be appealing to the religious critic,

they however, appear to have failed to explain in detail how religion could serve or has served

as an antidote to the scourge of corruption (Oladosu, 2011). As a result of the above

challenges, this is the high time to spelt out the significance of Islāmic philosophy and the

need for scholastic advocacy to the social, economic and political structure in Nigeria.

Having identified the significance of Islāmic teaching as educational medium for inculcating

diplomacy, nonviolence action, passive reaction, ethical and moral value, transparency,

integrity, and accountability in all private and public operation, this research unequivocally

reiterate the reason why Nigerian Government should confer with expert in Islāmic studies

in order to proffer solution to syndrome of corruption and indiscipline


The realm of Corruption has erupted into all sectors in Nigeria which catapults detrimental

effect on social, economic and political development. In essence, these atrocious acts had not

only turned the country to face negative impact on quality infrastructure and public services

but also instigate leakages to the internal revenue and gross profit salvages.

Corruption is a contagious disease which spread severely into the framework of Nigeria

polity. To this effect, all government institution in Nigeria has turned into a corrupted

enterprise where instead of holding power in trust for the people, they held power for their

self-centeredness and political egoism. This rapacious turpitude has gone wide, spreading

upward and downward to the extent that both national and international media envisage

Nigeria as a dangerous and precarious nation. This problem resulted to unemployment,

internally displaced persons, insurgency, kidnapping, religious violence, conflicts and many

other common vices that concerned individuals, state and government at national level.

Despite the fact that, some of corrupt leaders in Nigeria are bearing Islāmic names yet the

lack of religious knowledge and piety is one of the major causes of corruption in Nigeria.

Therefore, this study intends to showcase factors responsible for imprudent corruption in

Nigeria and aptly predict possible solution with Islāmic philosophy.


Conceptual Framework

The range of corruption remains one of the fastest growing social problems in Nigeria. It is

virtually becoming a way of life that permeates both private and public sectors of the

economy. Over the years, this pervasive behavioural proclivity has flecked the country with

tarnished status as one of the most corrupt nations in the world. Despite the concerted efforts

of past and present administrations to combat corruption, the problem remains persistently

endemic with disastrous consequences for the Nigerian society. (Ogege, 2014).

Meanwhile, the position of corruption in recent years moved the discursive arena away from

fraudulence as a common infection that needs an urgent attention of religious, ethical and

norms of personal believes or faiths. This is because various anti-corruption agencies and

human rights bodies are yet to find a lasting antidote to this socio-economic pandemic.

(Bolatito, 2015). This paper therefore delved into some of the major causes of corruption and

the necessity of using Islāmic philosophy as an apt solution to curtail the genesis of corrupt

practice in Nigeria.

Literature Review

Corruption is a word that has been defined differently by both practitioners and academicians

who study it, depending largely on the individual's cultural background, discipline and

political leaning. (Awofeso and Odeyemi, 2014). The word corruption may be used to explain

acts that mean abuse of public office for private gain (Dahida, and Akangbe, 2013).

Etymologically, the word corruption is derived from a Latin word 'corrumpo' which literally

means to break, loose value, putrid and useless. In generally term, corruption is an ethical

issue anchored on moral values and conduct. In addition, corruption is a human act, done by

a morally responsible individual or group which carries with its moral guilt because such act

goes contrary to established and acceptable moral standards in a given society (Alalas, 1980).

Meanwhile to scrutinize available literature, Corruption is the misuse of power for private

benefit or advantage which simply means asking, giving or taking a fee, gift or favour as

conduction for performance of assigned responsibility (Coker, 2006:91).

To this effect, Islāmic scholars have different assertion on the definition of corruption.

Literally, corruption (Fasad) encompasses mischief, abuse, rottenness, spoiledness, decay,

decomposition, putrefaction, depravity, wickedness, viciousness, iniquity and dishonesty.

(Bolatito, 2015). It is pertinent to observed that the original meaning of the Arabic word for

'corruption' (al-fasād) and to its opposite as (al-ṣalāḥ) 'righteousness', 'accountability',

'probity' and 'piety'. Therefore, talking about fasād would not make sense without addressing

the issue of the 'corrupted' (mafsūd) and the ‘cause for corruption' (mafsadah).

However, the majority of the Jurists agree that bribery (Rashwa) is the principle form of

corruption which can be defined as what is given to invalidate a right (Haq) or to validate a

deception or falsehood (Bātil). Other jurists say bribery is an abuse of judicial, administrative

power, political authority, trust, or financial prowess. (Oladosu, 2011). Meanwhile, due to

the crooked theory of corruption in Nigeria, bribery is a gift, whether in real or monetary

terms, presented to judges and other decision makers to facilitate a favourable ruling or

judgment.

To the judgment of Moshood (2015), Corruption is a universal problem for all government

and all countries, the magnitude seems to be at its peak in Nigeria. This is rooted from the


type of leadership Nigeria has had since independence. Furthermore, Agbese (1992) opines

that, corruption is a phenomenon so difficult to define, yet it percolates every structure of the

society. It affects the military as well as it soils the hands of the civilians.

In the light of this, corruption is the misuse of entrusted power or a dishonest use of one's

office or position for personal gain. It is a cancerous global phenomenon, which has continued

to cripple the developmental efforts of Nigeria. Corruption in Nigeria manifests in the form

of misappropriation, kickback, over-invoicing, bribery, embezzlement, tribalism, nepotism,

money laundering, outright looting of the treasuring and so on. (Ijewereme, 2015). In

Nigeria, most of the elected and appointive public office holders and top bureaucrats use their

position of authority to actively engage in corrupt practices (Obuah, 2010a).

The learning of Islāmic education is essential for every Muslim because it is a gateway for

knowing Islām and its teachings. Through Islāmic education, the character building of a good

Muslim as an individual and a member of society would be developed. (Mustafa, and Salim,

2012). In another survey by Ashraf (1985: 24) who defines Islāmic education as “an education

which trains the sensibility of pupils in such a manner that in their attitude to life, their actions

and decisions and approach to all kinds of knowledge, they are governed by the deeply felt

ethical values of Islām.

Surajudeen and AwangMat (2015), submits that Muslim scholars at the First World

Conference on Muslim Education held in Makkah in 1977 emphasized the need for integrated

education. Subsequently, many Muslim countries including Nigeria began the process of

integrating Islāmic and western education. Meanwhile, Mohd Zin, (1995) in his research

found out that Islāmic education teachers were not portraying good personality and

characteristics and therefore, they failed to be a role model for students.

With the available literature, it is pertinent to admit that Islām has laid down universal

philosophy with fundamental teachings as a solution for humanity to be observed and

respected under all circumstances. Therefore, this philosophical stance can only be treasured

through the teaching and learning of Islāmic studies. This research traces the root cause of

corruption and indiscipline in Nigeria with Islāmic philosophy as antidote.

Major Causes of Corruption in Nigeria and the Remedy of Islamic Teaching

1. Lack of Piety

According to the Islāmic school of thought, piety is the most important mechanism of faith

which enables pious believers to be regarded as the most distinguished and respectable

persons in a giving society. In the lexicological acceptance, “Taqwa” (piety) can be

interpreted in various ways such devoutness, righteousness, religious zeal, fearful of Allāh,

consciousness and spiritual conviction to mention a few.

Meanwhile, Piety Deficiency (P.D.) is a disease which destroys the soul of mankind to behave

irreligiously, inimically and ditheringly. In the light of this, it is pertinent upon Muslim to

infuse their hearts with (Taqwa) if they want to be viewed by Allāh as true believers. A heart

engorged with Taqwa will have a filter to renew perspective regarding how to live various

aspects of life because they will become aware of Allāh's pleasure and displeasure in all their

affairs. To this effect, Qur'ān points to the incentive of piety as the most honourable among

the mankind, thus,


“O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into

nations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise (each other). Verily

the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And

Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things” (Yusuf Ali, Qur'ān 49:13)

The verse cited above reveals that, piety and righteousness is the only way to became

praiseworthy and respected person with true conviction as a man of God. Righteousness and

faith are intertwined impulses that build up the philosophy of a practicing Muslim.

Furthermore, Islāmic teaching unequivocally avowed that determined prayer is the divine

antidote to indiscipline, rowdiness, insolence, impudence, defiance and disruptive

performance. To this effect, Qur'ān says

“Recite, [O Muhammad], what has been revealed to you of the Book and establish prayer.

Indeed, prayer prohibits immorality and wrongdoing, and the remembrance of Allah is

greater. And Allah knows that which you do” (Muḥammad taqi-ud-deen and Mausin Khan

Qur'ān 29:45)

Essentially, prayer prohibits immorality and wrongdoing as mention in the verse cited above

which prompt Islamic scholars to lend credent to the significance of piety as an antidote to

Nigerian's brazen predicament. This philosophical stance propounds that Nigerian can

recuperate autonomous freedom from incessant violence, indiscipline and corruption

bedevilling the country like a contagious and cancerous infection if they accept the efficiency

of prayer for the safety of the nation.

By implication, Piety is mandatory upon the slave in all his affairs, in secret and in open, in

matters related to religion and matters related to his worldly affairs; in his dealing with his

Lord, his family, relatives and neighbours; in his dealings of trade, his appointments,

promises, his job and things which he is entrusted with. How can one be pious while he

neglects the commandments of Allāh, transgresses His prohibitions and sets his tongue free

to attack Muslims? How can one be pious while he is known as a liar, commits all types of

sins, eats up people's wealth unjustly, deals with Ribaa, cheats and deceives people and give

less in measure? How can one be pious while he breaches the trust, whether it is in the form

of a job or wealth he is entrusted with or a position of authority he holds? Many people today

are dishonest. If a right is due to others, they do not fulfil it, delay it, try to avoid it, and, in

some cases, he does not give people their rights unless he deducts a portion from it, forcefully

taking some of that right or some money, before returning the right to the actual owner. If

he is assigned a job to perform, he does not perform it in the proper manner.

2. Injustice

Another injurious vices which lead Nigeria to insolvable dilemma is injustice. Injustice is one

of the vicious belligerences orchestrated by government or those who have potential power

or influence to bully, tyrannize or intimidate other. Historically, Nigerian had suffered

various kinds of tragedies, violence and scene of carnage that made life seems miserable for

the general public especially the underprivileged people because of the injustice which is the

source of all evils and incentive of corruption.

However, injustice is the breach of rights, mugging of property, disregard of complaisance

and blatant liar concocted by the influential people to either oppress the less privilege or

deride their fundamental right. The basic purpose of Islām on the decrement of justice is that,

it propels equality before the law which will enable the oppressor to face the consequential


swiftness of law. In the light of this, Qur'ān unequivocally declared the significance of justice

even over oneself, friend or relative thus,

“O ye who believe! stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah, even as against

yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, and whether it be (against) rich or poor: for Allah

can best protect both. Follow not the lusts (of your hearts), lest ye swerve, and if ye distort

(justice) or decline to do justice, verily Allah is well-acquainted with all that ye do” (Yusuf

Ali: 4:135)

The Qur'ānic stand of justice beyond consideration of power, influence, race, religion, color,

and creed, as Muslims are commanded to be just at all levels as the Qur'ān effects it.

Therefore, the significance of justice is an obligation in Islām and injustice is totally

forbidden. The compulsion of justice upon mankind according to the Qur'ānic stance is

displayed by the following verse:

“Indeed, Allah orders justice and good conduct and giving to relatives and forbids immorality

and bad conduct and oppression. He admonishes you that perhaps you will be reminded”

(Muḥammad taqi-ud-deen and Mausin Khan Qur'ān 16:90)

Meanwhile, the primary objective of sending the prophets of Allāh to mankind was to

establish Justice in the world and end injustice because Injustice is deviation from justice and

violation of the truth. On the other hand, justice designate placing things in their rightful

place by giving others equal treatment. In Islāmic teaching, justice is the moral virtue and an

attribute of human personality in the sense that it creates a state of equilibrium in the sharing

of rights and duties through stipulated law.

By the implication, the assertion of the Qur'ān on the subsequent and perennial outcome

on injustice can never be over emphasized. The philosophy of Islām enjoins mankind to be

just, even if it is against your narrowly defined self-interest or those very close to you. The

justice demanded by Islām permits no favoritism. Contrary to the above assertion, Nigeria

fail to notice the ominous subsequence of injustice, instead the influential people hearten the

tyrants and oppressors to go beyond the limits in aggression, tyrannize and intimidate the less

privilege.

3. Political Treachery

The democratic system of government adopted in Nigeria since 1999 has produced form of

crooked leaders with incapable democratic agenda that now wallow into poverty, illiteracy,

hunger and unemployment. This political propensity has negatively influenced Nigeria to

encounter incessant brutality, perilous assault, untenable political constancy and vicious

policy. These problems spread wing to the insecurity, unemployment and economic

meltdown.

Conceptually, Islāmic philosophy can be considered as a proponent reference of democracy

and political ambition because Islām as a way of life draws attention on how to govern the

totality of life from cradle to grave. As a result, the political interest, economic

considerations, social values and interaction are given Islāmic interpretations based on the

glorious Qur'ān, prophetic practices and other sources of law recognized in Islām. These

virtues are expected to permeate the socio-political structure of any Islāmic state. (Afolabi,

2015).

According to Odeyemi (2014), Political corruption connotes any unauthorized, non-legal and

unethical misuse of public position for self-benefit. The word 'political' in this context refers


to public affairs including official resources, wealth and state institution. In other words,

'political' here connotes official, public and governmental in character. Thus, the most

adversely affected victims of political corruption are usually the citizens of a defined political

territory and public affairs in general

Islāmic teaching and learning can proffer a significant solution to Nigerian politics.

Incontrovertible, there is connection between religion and politics. While the actual role that

religion plays in politics has remained debatable, the nexus between the two concepts has

been established for long (Falana, 2010). All over the country, religion plays an important

role in the daily lives of her citizens the way we interact with one another, our choice of

dressing, food, and politics are mostly affected by religion (Afolabi, 2015).

Meanwhile, fundamental attempts have been made to appraise the impact of political

syndrome in the widespread of corruption which overwhelmed the wellbeing of the country

as a whole. Islāmic studies become one of the most important philosophies to get rid of the

blemish in the political agenda. Qur'ān repeatedly warn human kind to refrain from all

deceitful activities as an act of Shaytān, thus,

“O you who have believed, do not follow the footsteps of Satan. And whoever follows the

footsteps of Satan - indeed, he enjoins immorality and wrongdoing. And if not for the favor

of Allah upon you and His mercy, not one of you would have been pure, ever, but Allah

purifies whom He wills, and Allah is Hearing and Knowing. (Muḥammad taqi-ud-deen and

Mausin Khan Qur'ān, 24:21)

In essence, the adoption of Islāmic teaching in to the political practicum can bring about

sustainable political development through the inculcation of high sense of morality, sense of

duty, selfless service, public accountability, respect for human lives, love of one's neighbour,

sense of humanity, abhorrence of violence, love for peace, contentment with what one can

legitimately have and justice with the citizens as well as the leaders (Omoregbe, 2003).

By implication, Islāmic tenets if duly accepted by the leaders and the followers will

significantly enhance political preference. Meanwhile, the major impetus for this diving

philosophy is the beliefs, practices and ethics that serve as check and balance in all human

endeavours. The scope of Islamic studies towards politics can help government to develop a

viable mechanism for political constancy especially Nigeria in which politics are known to

be game of blood. As a result of this apprehension, Islamic teaching will serve as a unifying

factor for social-political development since religion influences every aspect of human

existence.

Conclusion

Islām as the name implies is a religion well guided by divine philosophical thought that

teaches total submission to peace, intellectual excellence and incorruptible scope of

leadership. Islāmic studies on its own, is a study encompassing the teaching and learning of

harmonious and nonviolence disposition exhibits towards social, economic and political

influence. This study submits to the fact that corruption in Nigeria can be cure with Islāmic

philosophy if fully implemented.

Meanwhile, the researcher observed that, the pennant of Islām has been used by some

criminal scapegoat, Muslim by name to stimulate violence and series of attack against the

virtuous people especially in the northern part of Nigeria which cast meltdown to the growth

of social-economic and sustainable development. This paper critically objects that the

proclamation of some named Muslims is quite different from the teaching of Islām especially


the influential people and those in political power. Meanwhile, character or behaviour of

individual Muslims does not automatically means the original teaching of Islām but to

comprehend the conceptual fact about Islāmic philosophy you have to search through the

Glorious Qur'ān and the Hadith of the Prophet SAW as well as the exceptional philosophy

of the experts in Islāmic studies. Therefore, in achieving excellent governance in Nigeria,

Islāmic studies should serve as a codified catalogue in the social, political and economic

related issues.

Suggestions and Recommendations

i. Transforming system of education. There is need for review, reformation and orientation

of the minds of individual Nigerians, not only to conceive the necessity of piety but also

to see that corruption is the enemy of development.

ii. Enforcement of Anti-Corruption Law. The Economic Financial Crime Commission

(EFCC) and the Independent Corrupt Practices and other related offences Commission

(ICPC), Code of Conduct Tribunal (CCT) and Nigeria Bar Association (NBA) should

justly perform their duty to convict whoever guilty of corruption. This is the high time to

realize that, this law enforcement agents are the watchdog created by some influential

people to witch-hunt less privileged. As the Quranic teaching, the law should be enforced

on everyone without fear and favour.

iii. If Nigeria Government really in need of solution to crippled the wing of corruption, there

must be imperative reformation in judicial institution and the justice must have fear of the

most High who will question the judgment of the judges.

iv. Expert of Islāmic studies should at least be exemplary ambassador of Islām in their entire

endeavour. They should give people chance to appreciate the philosophy of Islām.

v. As a result of looking for the way out to curb or totally eradicate corruption in Nigeria,

children, youth, and adults must be given the power to philosophize the reflection of

Islāmic teaching as a solution for humanity with divine guidance on social, economic and

political life.

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KINETIC AND MECHANISM OF REDUCTION OF PERIODATE IONS BY COPPER (II)

COMPLEX IN AQUEOUS ACID MEDIUM.

By

Artimas, P. S. & Clarkson, G. P.

Chemistry Department

ABSTRACT

The kinetic and mechanism of the redox reaction of synthesized complex of copper (II) salt by

Periodate ion was studied in aqueous hydrochloric acid solution at: 24 ± 0.150C, µ = 0.5

moldm-3 (NaCl), [H+] = 0.05 moldm-3 and λmax =629nm.The reaction first ordered both

oxidant and reduction for the system. The rate of the reactions and the kinetic data were as

follows a = -1.45, b=0.34 from the plot of log KH as Log [H+] the rate increased with

increase acid concentration.

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies revealed that redox reactions involved both oxidizing and reducing agents,

which are always bi-molecular in character (Lohdip et al, 1995) Redox reactions are of two

types:

Homo-nuclear exchange and hetero-nuclear reactions (Stranks, 1960).

Mechanism of Redox Reactions

This depend on whether the centres react without modification of their coordination

spheres or whether a Liquid substitution must accompany the reaction.

Mechanism of Electron Transfer process can be studied by considering the following:

a. Stoichiometry of the reaction and the composition of the activated complex should be

known.

b. The number of electrons transferred in a single step for multivalent reactants should

be known.

c. The significance of acid – base catalysis (if any) obtained in the rate law, and how it

could be rationalizated in terms of the reactants, transition state or product should be

studied.

Two stoichiometric mechanisms for redox reactions are classified into:

i. Outersphere mechanism

ii. Innersphere mechanism (Taube, 1954)

Diagnosis of Redox Reaction Mechanism

In order to distinguish redox reaction to be occurring by either enter-or inner-sphere

mechanism, some of the criteria mentioned below can be considered

i. The rate of redox process versus rate of substitution (Kred Vs Ksub) must be considered

(Taube et al, 1954, Rosenham et al, 1974).


ii. The binuclear intermediate complexes, which are formed between two reactants prior

to electron transfer (Basolo and Peasrson, 1967; Al-Jallah and Sulfab, 1983) must be

identified.

iii. Product obtained must be analysed, based on previous studies (Zwickel et al, 1959;

Kruse et al, 1960) which showed that the transfer of a bridging liquid from one metal

centre to another has been used as a criterion to demonstrate the operation of the

inner-sphere mechanism.

Statement of the Problems

In order to assign mechanism for any redox reaction, it must carefully be considered that

i. liquid transfer does not always accompany the inner-sphere electron transfer

process as demonstrated by Huchital and Wilkins (1967; in aqueous 1-1 – 1.2)

1.1

1.2

This process is only applicable when the reaction product contains the transferred Liquid.

ii. The products of a number of known reducing agents such as V2+, Fe2+, Cu2+

hydrolysis rapidly, so much that it is very difficult to detect the [M-liquid]2+

products even when such reactions occur by the inner-sphere pathway.


The kinetics and mechanism of the redox reaction of the synthesized copper (II) complex with

2-acetylpyridine – 4 – methyl thiosemicarbazone (Ac – 4 – Mtsc) is very essential. In this

work, the kinetics and mechanism of the redox reaction of Copper (II) complex with

oxyanion, periodate (IO4) in hydrochloric acid medium will be considered, with a purpose

of establishing a rate law, mechanism and also and also comparing the results with those

reported earlier.

The reactions will be monitored using spectrophotometer because of the efficacy and fame of

spectrophotometric method in the study of election transfer reactions.

Literature Review

Thiosemicarbazone, as a versatile liquid have been reported to be used in various ways as

chelating agent for metal ions, resulting to highly stable complexes:

Recent work have shown the ability of cations of the type C is-[Cr(A)4 (OH)2] + and its cobalt

(III) analogue, where (A)4 represents four ligating nitrogen atoms from an appropriate number

of (tetradentate, bidentate or monodentate liquids) to act as liquids to a variety of metal ions.

Halgson, (1988, 1991; Corbingul Hodysen, 1989).

Reaction of Oxyanion

For a number of oxyanions BrO-3, IO-

4, IO-3, ClO-

4 (Birk and Kozub, 1973, NO-3, and NO-

2,

Anbar and Guhman, 1961, Anbar and Taube, 1954) the rates of oxygen exchange and


reduction by spacie R, generally have rate terms of the forms K[XOn-m] and K[XOn-

m] [R]

[H+] respectively where

X = Cl, Br, I, S, N

The mechanism for the reactions of these oxyanions with a variety of metal ion complexes

have been a subject of discussion in recent years. (Gordon and sucheek 1972, Huchital and

Hodges, 1973, Birk and Kozub, 1973, 1978, Sulfab and Abu-shady, 1977, Ige and Amire,

1985). Depending on the nature of the metal ion complex and the oxy-anion, both inner- and

outer-sphere mechanisms have been proposed. The oxy-anions of interest in this work is

periodate (IO-4), which will be treated in details.

Oxidation Reactionb of Periodate ion (IO4)

Oxidation reactions of periodate ion on metal ion complexes has been intensively studied

(Sulfab and Abuashady, 1977, E.L – Eziri and Sulfab, 1977, Kassin and Sulfab, 1977). Most

cases of these reactions seem to prefer the inner-sphere mechanism.

Oxidation of Fe(II) by IO-4, which precedes through one electron transfer steps has been

reported. Since IO-4 is two electron oxidant I(vii), a concurrent two electron transfer cannot

be ruled out (El-Eziri and Sulfab, 1977) and therefore it is possible for the two electron to be

abstracted from one Fe(II) with the formation of unstable Fe(III) as with some two equivalent

oxidants or from two Fe(II). One of such systems characterized by the following

stoichiometry.

2.1

At constant acid PH(7.72) the rate law obeys equation …………………………..………2.1

…………………..........………………………..……….2.2

Like with other oxy-anions, the rate of oxygen exchange and redox reactions of IO4 also

depend strongly on acid concentration (Birk and Kozub, 1973).

METHODOLOGY

Synthesis of Copper (II) Complex with 2-acetylpyridin4- methylthiosemicarbazone

The copper (II) complex was synthesized by reacting ethanolic solution of CuSO4 salt with

an ethanolic solution of the prepared liquid. CuSO4.5H2O (0.1g) was dissolved in ethanol

(20cm3) while stirring and 2-acetylpyridine-4- methylthiosemicarbazone (0.11g in 20cm3)

ethanol was added drop wise. The greenish brown precipitate was separated out and refluxed

for two (2) hours, cooled, filtered and then washed with ethanol and ether then dried over

P2O5 under vacuum.

The spectrum of the greenish coloured product [Cu(AC – 4 – Mtsc )SO4] was determined in

the wavelength range (490 – 750)nm using Jenwery spectrophotometer. Its wavelength of

maximum absorption was found at 620nm. The electronic spectral properties of the complex

were consistent with the literature values (Weaver et al, 1995)


Preparation of Standard Sodium Periodate (NaIO4) Solution

21.39 of NaIO4 was dissolved in 10cm3 value of distilled water to give 1M solution. The

stock solution was determined gravimetrically by taking 2cm3 portion of the solution in a pre-

weighed bottle dried at 1050C and cooled in a desiccator until constant weight was achieved.

The actual concentration of the solution was then calculated from the weight obtained after

drying of the 2cm3 portions of the stock of the salt.

RESULTS

Stoichiometry of copper (II) complex – periodate system:

Determination of order of reactions with respect to Copper (II) complex – IO4 system:

The rate of the reactions was studied under condition in which the periodate ion concentration

(ox) was tenfold excess over the complex concentration (Red). The pseudo first order plot of

log (At - Aα) versus time were linear to about 67 percent extent of the reactions figure 4.1

table 4.1 and figure 4.2 table 4.2

DISCUSSION:

Copper (II) complex – Periodate System

The kinetic studies of this system showed an order of one in respect to both oxidant and

reductant respectively. The first order dependence on each of the reactant (concentrations) is

common in the reaction of IO-4 ion (El-Eziri and Sulfab, Kassin and Sulfab, 1977), Iyun et

al, (2004) also reported similar orders of reaction in their studies of the oxidation of ethnol

and propanol by hexavalent respectively, as shown in equation 5.1

CH3

N

C

2IO4

X Cu

N

16H+

N H

SO4 S = C

N

CH3

H

CH3

N

C

I Cu N

+

SO2-4

+ 8H20 N

H

I

S =

C

N CH3

H

2 – acetylpyridine – 4 – methyl

Thiosemicarazonesulphato

Copper (II) Complex

2 – acetylpyridine – 4 – methyl

Thiosemicarbazone iodo

Copper (II) Complex


-d[Cu2+] = K2 [Cu2+] [IO-4]……………………………………5.1

→dt

First order dependence of [H+] has featured prominently in IO-4 redox reactions with some

metal ion complexes (Ige and Amire and references Theem, 1985, El-Eziri and Sulfab, 1977,

Kassim and Sulfab, 1977). This type of acid dependence was also observed in this study and

related to K2 as follows.

K2 = a + b[H+]

= a + b[H+] [Cu2+] [IO4] ………………………………………….5.2

This suggest the existence of two paralleled pathways for the reaction, involving a protonation

and unprotonation species, both reacting to form products. However, the protonated path has

been shown to predominate. (Birk and Kozub, 1978).

Table 4.1 Pseudo – first order and Second order Rate constant for the Reaction of copper (II)

complex and Periodate: [Cu2+] = 8.00 x 10-4 moldm-3 [H+] = 5.00 x 10-2 moldm-3, µ=5.0 x

10-1 moldm-3 (NaCl) [IO-4] = (15 – 35) x10-3 moldm-3, T=24.00 ± 0.150C, λmax = 620nm.

103[IO-4] (moldm-3) 103 K1 102 K2

15.00 1.67 1.11

17.00 2.24 1.32

19.00 2.56 1.34

30.00 3.41 1.13

35.00 4.60 1.31

Figure 4.1: Pseudo-first order plot for the Redox Reaction between Copper (II) complex and

periodate.

[Cu2+] = 8.0x10-4 moldm-3 [BrO-3] = 9.0x10-3 moldm-3, 5.0x10-2 moldm-3 (NaCl) T=24 ±

0.150C; λmax = 620nm.

- 1.2 Y=1.13 – 003*X;R^2=856

- 1.4

- 1.6

- 1.8

- 2

- 2.2

-

2.4

-

2.6

-

2.8

- 3

- 3.2

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Log

(A

t – Aα)

Time (sec)


Log [IO-4]

Figure 4.2. Pseudo-first order and second order Rate constants for the Reaction of copper

(II) complex and periodate: [Cu2+] = 8.0x10-4 mloldm-3 [H+] = 5.00x10-2 moldm-3, 5.0x10-

1 moldm-3 (NaCl) [IO-4] = (15 – 35) x 10-3 moldm-3, T=24 ± 0.150C; λmax = 620nm.

Most of the periodate oxidation reactions so far studied seems to prefer the inner-sphere

mechanism (El-Eziri and Sulfab, 1977, Kassim and Sulfab and Abu-shady, 1977 Al-Jallel

and Sulfab, 1983).

103 [H+] 103 KH 101 K2

2.00 2.38 1.19

3.00 3.29 1.09

6.00 5.42 0.90

7.00 7.16 1.02

8.00 11.05 1.38

12.00 13.10 1.09

15.00 16.60 1.10

-2.3

-2.35

-2.4

-2.45

-2.5

-2.55

-2.6

-2.65

-2.7

-2.75

-2.8

-1.85 -1.8 -1.75 -1.7 -1.65 -1.6 -1.55 -1.5 -1.45 -1.4 -1.35

Y= -925+99*X;R̂ 2=962

Lo

g K

1


CONCLUSION

The reactions of the synthesized copper (II) complex were studied with periodate in aqueous

hydrochiometry acid medium at 24.00 ± 0.150C. The stoichiometry of the reactions was 1:2

at ionic strength of 0.5moldm-3 (NaCl). The order of the reactions with respect to the

reductant concentration was one for the system, while with respect to oxidant concentration,

the order is also one.

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(III) J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 83:793.


ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION; ACID RAIN

by

Clarkson G. P.

Chemistry Department

ABSTRACT

Rain water passes through the atmosphere before reaching the ground. Since there are

pollutants in the atmosphere, the rain can be polluted by these atmospheric pollutants,

resulting to Acid Rain. Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests,

freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms, causing paint to peel, corrosion

of steel structures such as bridges and weathering of stone buildings and statues as well as

having impacts on human health. Industrial activities where coal and other fossil fuels are

burned and waste gases which contain Sulphur and nitrogen oxides combine with the rain

water to form acids, and the rain eventually falls as acid rain. This paper looks at acid rain,

its causes, how safe it is to drink, its effects, and also to proffer possible solutions as to what

can be done by the government, and even individually to minimize these effects on the

environment.

INTRODUCTION

Naturally, we expect rain from the sky to be clean (unpolluted) such that we can even collect

water from it and drink, and also to wet our lands for food. But things are not always as we

expect them to be. Sometimes we have problems from the very things we thought we would

not have from. Though we do not expect acid in our rain, acid rain comes due to the natural

interaction of the environment, and sometimes, human activities.

In this paper we will see what acid rain is, how this happens, how it affects our environment,

and possibly what can be done to reduce it, if we cannot stop it.

What is Acid Rain, and What Causes Acid Rain

Rain, or any other precipitation that possesses elevated levels of Hydrogen ions [H+], [low

pH] can be said to be Acid Rain, due to the elevated levels of Hydrogen ions. The rain is

now acidic.

According to Wikipedia [2014], Acid Rain is a popular term referring to the deposition of

wet [rain, snow, sleets, fog, cloud water, and dew] and dry [acidifying particles and gases]

acidic components

Distilled water with pH 7 is neutral because carbon dioxide [CO2] is removed. But liquids

with pH less than 7 are acidic, while those with pH more than 7 are alkaline.

"Unpolluted" (clean) rain usually has acidic pH [usually lower than 7]. This is because CO2

and H2O in the air will react together forming carbonic acid, which is a weak acid.

H2O, l, + CO2, g, → H2CO3, aq,

And this carbonic acid can now ionize in water giving low concentration of hydronium and

Carbonate ions.

H2O, l, + H2CO3, aq, →, aq, +


Nitric acid produced by electric discharge in the atmosphere such as lightning can also affect

acidic level, of unpolluted water, Likens et al (1987).

Acid Rain, however, is a very weak acid. Scale called pH is used to measure acidity and

alkalinity. It goes from 0 to 14 (0 – 14).0 being most acidic, and 14 the most alkaline (no

acid at all). pH 7 is called neutral, i.e. neither acidic, nor alkaline.

Acid Rain can be caused by a variety of things.

Power stations, factories, and cars, all burn fuels, and other human activities produce

polluting gases in the atmosphere, such as Sulphurdioxide (SO) and Nitrogen Oxides. These

gases now react with the water droplets in the clouds to form Sulfuric (H2SO) and Nitric

(HNO3) acids, and the rain eventually falls as weak acid – hence called Acid Rain. Burning

of fossil fuels is another major cause of acid rain, Jacobson (2002). These reactions can be

seen clearly explained in gas phase Chemistry.

In gas phase chemistry SO2 is oxidized by hydroxyl radicals in an intermolecular reaction.

SO2 + OH => HOS, followed by

HOS, + O2 => H2O+ + SO3

In the presence of water, SO3 is converted rapidly to H2SO4 acid

SO3 + H2O => H2SO4, aq,

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the air or atmosphere reacts with OH+ to form nitric acid, HNO3

NO2 + OH+ => HNO3

Both H2SO4 and HNO3 in any liquid make the liquid acidic no matter how dilute.

Acid rain can be caused by air travel also. According to Wikipedia, (2014) and Seinfeld, at

al (1998), air pollution from activities from factories, motor cars emissions cause acid rain

as the rain will have to pass through the atmosphere to reach the soil where we live. Because

the air is polluted, the rain is polluted. This polluted rain may deposit acid rain from just

anywhere in the world, not just its source, i.e. it can travel far and then deposit the acid rain.

For instance, Britain and Western Europe distribute 16 percent of acid rain deposition during

the industrial revolution to other parts of the world. Over 90 percent of Norway's acid rain

pollution comes from different countries, not Norway, by air travel.

But many people collect and drink rain water. Is it ok?

Rain is always slightly acidic. Though rain water is acidic, it is only weak acid(s). Unpolluted

rain would have a pH value of between 5 and 6. When the air becomes more polluted with

Nitrogen and Sulphur Oxides, the acidity can increase to the pH value of 4. Vinegar has the

pH of 2.2, and Lemon juice has pH of 2.3. Even the strongest recorded acid rain is only

about as acidic as lemon juice or vinegar and these do not harm us. Therefore, rain water

may be used where necessary. Rural areas where there is no portable water (tap or borehole),

actually depend large on rain water as their best source of drinking water. The atmosphere,

Nitrogen released into the air and nitrous oxide production, combustion of fossil fuels, all

contribute to atmospheric nitrogen condition and are washed into water bodies by atmospheric

deposition (in form of acid rain). Acid rain can cause eutrophication in water bodies as it can

affect nutrient concentrations in these water bodies, especially the highly industrialized

regions, which is one of the major effects of acid rain on the environment.


EUTROPHICATION is the enrichment of a water body with nutrients, usually with an excess

amount of nutrients. This induces growth of plants and algae, and due to the biomass load,

they result in oxygen depletion of the water body Schindler & Vallentyne (2004). So,

eutrophication arises from the oversupply of nutrients into a water body which leads to

overgrowth of plants and algae and when such organisms die, the bacterial decomposition of

their biomass consumed the oxygen in the water, causing the state of hypoxia. According to

Werner (2002) Eutrophication can be summarized thus

i. Excess nutrients are applied to the soil

ii. Some nutrients leach into the soil where they can remain for years. Eventually, they

get drained into the water body.

iii. Some nutrients run off over the ground into the body of water.

iv. The Excess nutrients cause an algal bloom.

v. The algal bloom blocks the light of the sun from reaching the bottom of the water

body.

vi. The plants beneath the algal bloom die because; they cannot get sunlight to

photosynthesize.

vii. Eventually, the algal bloom dies and sinks to the bottom of the water body e.g. lake.

Bacteria begin to decompose the remains using up oxygen for respiration.

viii. The decomposition causes the water to become depleted of oxygen. Larger life forms

such as fish suffocate to death. These water bodies can no longer support life.

Eutrophication was recognized as local problem of water pollution in the mid-20th century

but became more widespread since then, surveys show that 54% of lakes in Asia are

Eutrophic: in Europe, 53%: in North America, 48%: in South America, 41%: and in Africa

28%, ILEC/lake Biwa Research Institute (1988-1993). In South Africa, a study using remote

sensing has shown more that 60% of the dams surveyed were Eutrophic, Matthews & Barnard

(2015). Some South African scientists believe that this figure might be higher, Harding (2015)

with the main source being dysfunctional sewage works that produce more than 4 billion

litres a day of untreated, or at least partially treated, sewage effluent that discharges into

rivers and dams, Turton (2015). Worldwide problem it has ecological and toxic effects.

New species invasion

Eutrophication may cause competitive release by making abundant a normally limiting

nutrient. This process causes shifts in the species composition of ecosystems. For instance,

an increase in nitrogen might allow new, competitive species to invade and out-compete

original inhabitant species. This has been shown to occur, according to Bertness et al [2002]

in New England salt marshes. In Europe and Asia, the common carp frequently lives in

naturally Eutrophic or Hyper eutrophic areas, and is adapted to living in such conditions. The

eutrophication of areas outside its natural range partially explains the fish's success in

colonizing these areas after being introduced.


Toxicity

Some algal blooms, otherwise called "nuisance algae" or "harmful algal blooms", are toxic

to plants and animals. Toxic compounds they produce can make their way up the food chain,

resulting in animal mortality, Anderson [1994] Freshwater algal blooms can pose a threat to

livestock. When the algae die or are eaten, neuro- and hepatotoxins are released which can

kill animals and may pose a threat to humans, Lawton & Codd [1991], also Martin & Cooke

[1994]. An example of algal toxins working their way into humans is the case of shellfish

poisoning. [28] Bio toxins created during algal blooms are taken up by shellfish (mussels,

oysters), leading to these human foods acquiring the toxicity and poisoning humans.

Examples include paralytic, neurotoxic, and diarrheic shellfish poisoning. Other marine

animals can be vectors for such toxins, as in the case of ciguatera, where it is typically a

predator fish that accumulates the toxin and then poisons humans.

Other Effects of Acid Rain

From Liken (1997 & 2007), and Wikipedia, (2014), we can see that acid rain has made us

learn some lessons as we see the effect on the environment. Some of these effects include the

following few; Acid rain can be carried to and through greater distances in the atmosphere,

not just between countries, but also from continent to continent. Acid rain can take the form

of snow, mist, dry dust, etc. The rain sometimes falls many miles from the source of

pollution, but wherever it falls, it can have a serious effect on soil, trees, buildings and water.

Forests all over the world are dying. In Scandinavia, there are dead lakes which are crystal

clear, and contain no living creatures or plant life. Many of Britain's fresh water fish are

threatened. There have been reports of deformed fish being hatched. This leads to fish -

eating birds and animals being affected also. Scientists have found interesting results on effect

of acid rain on environment.

FORESTS

It is thought that acid rain can cause trees to grow more slowly or even to die, though it may

not be the only cause. The same amount of acid rain seems to have more effect on some areas

than it has on others.

As acid rain falls on a forest, it trickles through the leaves of the trees and run down into the

soil below. Some of it finds its way into streams, and others then on into the rivers and lakes.

Some types of soil can neutralize the acid – they have a buffering capacity. Other soils are

already slightly acidic, and these are particularly susceptible to the effects of acid rain,

Driscol, 2006.

Acid rain can affect trees in several different ways. It may;

i. dissolves and wash away nutrients and minerals in the soil which helps trees to grow

ii. cause the release of harmful substances, such as Aluminium into the soil

iii. wear away the waxy protective coating of leaves damaging them and preventing them

from being able to photosynthesize.

A combination of these effects weakens the trees, which means that they can be more easily

attacked by diseases and insects, or injured by bad weather. Other plants also get affected by

acid rain, not just trees.


Lakes and Rivers

Effects of acid rain are most obvious in aquatic habitats. Acid rain run off the land and ends

in the streams, lakes, and marshes – the rain also falls directly on these areas.

As the acidity of the lakes increases, the water becomes clearer, and the numbers of fish and

other water animals' declines. Some species of plants and animals are better able to survive

in acidic water than others. Fresh water shrimps, snails, mussels are the most quickly affected

by acidification, followed by fish such as minnows, salmon and reach. The roe and fry (eggs

and young) of the fish are the worst affected. The acidity of the water can cause deformity in

young fish and can prevent eggs from hatching properly.

Acidity of the water does not just affect the species directly; it also causes toxic substances

like Aluminium to be released into the water from the soil, harming fish and other aquatic

animals. Lakes, rivers and marshes each have their own aquatic fragile ecosystems with many

different species of plants and animals, all depending on one another to survive. If a species

of fish disappears, the animals which feed on it will gradually disappear too. If the extinct

fish used to feed on a particular species of large insect, that insect population will start to

grow, this in turn will affect the smaller insects or plankton, on which the larger insect feeds,

(Likens, et al 1987).

Buildings and Monuments

Every type of material will become eroded sooner or later by the effects of the climate, water,

wind, ice and snow by the erosion processes. Unfortunately, acid rain can help to make this

normal process even quicker. Buildings, statues, vehicles, pipes and cables can all suffer.

The worst affected are things made from limestone or sandstone. This is because these types

of rocks are particularly susceptible and can be affected by air pollution in aqueous form as

well as by acid rain, (Likens et al 1996)

Marble and limestone have long been preferred materials for constructing durable buildings

and monuments. The Saint Louis Art Museum, the Parthenon in Greece, the Chicago Field

Museum, and the United States Capitol building are all made of these materials. Marble and

limestone both consist of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and differ only in their crystalline

structure. Limestone consists of smaller crystals and is more porous than marble; it is used

more extensively in buildings. Marble, with its larger crystals and smaller pores, can attain

a high polish and is thus preferred for monuments and statues. Although these are recognized

as highly durable materials, buildings and outdoor monuments made of marble and limestone

are now being gradually eroded away by acid rain.

How does this happen? A chemical reaction below between calcium carbonate and sulfuric

acid (the primary acid component of acid rain) results in the dissolution of CaCO3 to give

aqueous ions, which in turn are washed away in the water flow.

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + SO4

2-(aq) + H2O + CO2(g)

This process occurs at the surface of the buildings or monuments; thus acid rain can easily

destroy the details on relief work (e.g., the faces on a statue), but generally does not affect

the structural integrity of the building. The degree of damage is determined not only by the

acidity of the rainwater, but also by the amount of water flow that a region of the surface

receives. Regions exposed to direct downpour of acid rain are highly susceptible to erosion,

but regions that are more sheltered from water flow (such as under eaves and overhangs of


limestone buildings) are much better preserved. The marble columns of the emperors Marcus

Aurelius and Trajan, in Rome, provide a striking example: large volumes of rainwater flow

directly over certain parts of the columns, which have been badly eroded; other parts are

protected by wind effects from this flow, and are in extremely good condition even after

nearly 2000 years Casiday & Frey [1998]

Human Health

Acid rain water is too dilute to have direct effect on human health. However, dry depositions

such as gaseous particles can cause serious health problems when inhaled. For example, lung

and heart problems like bronchitis and asthma as levels intensify by inhaling these gases.

These are some of the effects of acid rain 0n our environment.

Conclusion and Recommendations

As rain falls, it is acidified by the atmospheric pollution. What can we do to stop, or at least,

reduce to the barest minimum?

Emissions can be reduced by

i. Burning fossils without producing much pollution as research on this guarantee. It is

also cheaper

ii. Government should spend more money on pollution control, even if it means an

increase in electricity price

iii. Government needs to research different ways to produce energy

iv. Explore the hydroelectric power, this is " clean" as far as acid rain goes

v. Solar energy, and even wind mills are excellent sources to explore too

vi. Transport systems should be improved so that people can conveniently use public

transport, and not using their cars always

vii. Persons can switch of lights when not in use in homes

viii. Walking and cycling, and sharing cars can reduce pollution from vehicles

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STANDARDS AND ACCREDITATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

PROGRAMMES

by

Aishatu Umaru Abdullahi


ABSTRACT

This paper attempted to study the concepts “standards” and “accreditation”, the purpose for

setting up standards and the importance of standards and accreditation efforts in educational

and training institutions. The study also included the process of accreditation of programmes.

All these were done using Nigeria as a reference point.

Keywords: Standards, Accreditation, Library, Information Science, Programmes.

INTRODUCTION

The main reason for creating library in the ancient times was to preserve records of human

endeavours. Because of the nature of the information carriers of the early libraries, and

purpose of concentrating the records in one place, which was mainly preservation of the

records there was no much demand imposed on their keepers (the librarians) in terms of

professional qualification. The most important qualifications expected of any person charged

with the security and safety of the library with sound educational background that include

knowledge of Latin and Greek and ardent love for books. During the medieval period,

especially the later part of the period that is popularly known as the age of enlightenment,

the techniques of producing records of human knowledge improved with the invention of

movable types, thereby making it possible to produce large quantity of printed materials

within a very short time. The mass creation of books improved the development of libraries

and first set of librarians in “the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries [to] set a fine scholarly

standard for their successors, and the useful service [to be] rendered by them in the first half

of the 19th century. [that] paved the way for training in library work” (Debons, 1972:415).

In fact, the bulk of library materials and their diversities necessitated the imposition of order

to avoid chaos in the library and to ensure prompt retrieval and dissemination of information.

Prominent among the new breed librarians who introduced the concept of organization of

library materials are Anthony Panizzi and Charles Jewett. The phenomenon of library

organization introduced by these pioneers made it very clear for many prominent individuals

to agitate for some form of training in library work for efficiency and effectiveness (Debons,

1972: 415).

The first school of library studies was credited to Melvil Dewey (1851-1931), who established

the first library school, and who was also the originator of Dewey Decimal Classification

Scheme when he was the acting librarian at the Amherst College.


Standards and accreditation in librarianship profession are said to be a process by which an

institution or programmes are continuously updated. It is pertinent to note that there exists a

gap, because not all library and information science schools in Nigeria do meets the stated

criteria for academic quality as spelt out by N.U.C. minimum academic standards (MACS).


The issue of standards and accreditation of programmes in library schools is also a problem,

because the professional bodies i.e. Nigerian Library Association (NLA) and Librarian

Registration Council of Nigeria (LRCN) were not actively incorporated in the implementation

of the stipulated standards for accreditation of the schools like their counterparts in other

professional bodies like Nigeria institution of Architecture, chartered Accountants of Nigeria

etc. (Nkiko and Yusuf: 2007) corroborated the statement by suggesting that: “NLA and

LRCN should live up to their responsibility by participating in the accreditation exercise of

library and information science schools, as this will provide parameter for recognition of the

degrees and empower librarians and the library schools with adequate skills and competence

to compete globally”.

It is a problem because there are no ethical considerations from both the accrediting agents

and institution concerned. It is pertinent to note the situation where institution engage in

massive window dressing to impress the accreditors, this is not only misleading but outright

misrepresentation.


The aim of standards and accreditation for library and information science programmes is to

provide competitive and resourceful graduates with high moral standards irrespective of race,

religion, tribe or political inclinations as well as provision of competent staff to run the

programmes. “Accreditation, standards and guidelines in Nigeria educational system is aimed

at strengthening programmes for quality assurance and quality improvement” (Adeola, 2014).

The main objectives are:

i. To provide materials that will enrich and support the curriculum, taking into

consideration the varied interests, abilities and maturity levels of the students served.

ii. To provide a background of information which will enable the instructors to assist the

students in making intelligent judgements in their daily life.

iii. To provide materials representative of the many religious, ethnic and cultural groups.

iv. To provide materials that will stimulate growth in factual knowledge, literacy

appreciation, aesthetic values and ethical standards.

v. To promote and foster good quality library education and training for the production

of high-quality skilled manpower for all types of libraries in the society.

vi. To ensure uniformity of standards and accreditation of all the programmes offered by

the library schools

vii. To provide counsel and assistance to the established library school and programmes.

viii. To ensure and certify to the society that the programmes offered by a library school in

a particular institution of higher learning have satisfied the minimum educational

requirements as laid down by National Universities Commission (NUC).

Scope of the Study

The study covered Library and Information Science Schools in tertiary institutions in Nigeria.

The study also discussed the need and importance of standards and accreditations of


programmes so as to guide planners and executors of the programmes on the quality and

quantity of human and material resources.

Significance of Standards and Accreditation in Library School

Standards in library education provides guidance to schools in order to improve the library

education programmes. It brings categorisation of library work into two broad professional

work and clerical work each with its requirements. It also brings about uniformity in the

programmes. UNESCO/IFLA School Library Manifesto (2000) specified the importance

library standards “as a policy on library services formulated to define goals, priorities and

programmes in relation to the school's curriculum”.

It is a good standard, if the library school is located within a university, to be part of a

department. This is so, in order to maintain academic standard for which universities are

known. Standards brings consistency in admission requirements into the library schools. It

gives room for incentives to instructors (lecturers) such as fellowships and scholarships in

order to make library training more attractive. (Obajemu, 2002) corroborated and outlined

the importance of standards among which are: “to promote development, to measure not only

the quantity of services, resources and programmes given but also the quality and to serve

both as goals which schools should try and attain as well as the irreducible minimum to

qualify a school for recognition as having an ideal library school.”

According to Bidlack (1980), accreditation is generally seen to serve some major importance

functions:

i. It identifies for public purposes educational programmes that meet the established

standards. In so doing, accreditation protects both the public and the community of

higher education from inferior institution.

ii. The accreditation process serves to stimulate improvement in institutions through the

application of standards and through a process by which the faculty and staff of the

institution are included in an on-going process of self-evaluation, institutional and

planning.

iii. Higher education is crucial to the production of mass of human capital that will turn

the fortunes of this country around. As such, its quality needs to be guided and

continuously improved. Thus, accreditation reviews ensure that library schools are

well equipped to pass the viability test to be able to perform its fundamental and social

functions and respond effectively and efficiently to societal needs and aspiration.

Education and Training for Library and Information Workers in Nigeria

Education and training for library and information workers in Nigeria has its roots dated back

to 1944. The idea was nurtured and supported by the UNESCO, Carnegie corporation of

New York and the West African Library Association (Nwoye, 1977). The earliest programme

of library education in British West Africa was established at Achimota Collage in the Gold

cost, in 1944. But Nigerians did not participate in the school until 1948 when a group was

sent to the school for a 6-month course. Graduates of the programme were issued with

Associateship Certificate of the British Library Association. After this short course they

eventually proceeded to the United Kingdom to attend the full-time course. In 1950, a course


for Native Authority librarians was held at the University College, Ibadan Library. Such

short courses and intensive in-service training programmes have remained a unique aspect of

the whole process of education for the profession of librarianship in Nigeria.

Theoretical Framework of the Study

The study used course content laid down for library science education in the new minimum

academic standards for all Nigerian universities as the theoretical frame work for the study.

This is because accreditation exercises are afoot to approve or disallow the continuation of

any academic programmes which fails to conform with the recommended minimum standards

in respect of course content, physical facilities and quality and quantity of staff.

The standards have specified fundamental core subjects which should be mastered by all

students and as well to serve as prerequisites for specialization in librarianship. The course

content includes:

i. The role of library in a society as communication agent

ii. Principles and methods of bibliography

iii. Principles and methods of organising library materials (cataloguing and classification).

iv. Principles and methods of selecting, acquiring and using print and non-print materials.

v. Principles and methods of library management

vi. Library history

vii. Bibliology

viii. Principles and techniques of conducting research in librarianship

ix. Principles and methods of planning, constructing arid equipping library. (Ononogbo

and Falaiye, 1992).

Conceptualization

“Standard” refers to a document of national excellence for teacher librarians in library

schools in order to improve the teacher librarians’ professional practice and enhance student

learning outcomes (Australian Library and Information Association, 2011). Also, standards

“is a goal or criteria for assessment expressed either numerically or philosophically as an

ideal norm or judgement selected as a basis for comparison” (Johnson, 2006). Corroborated.

In its broadest sense, standards provide guidance to library schools in order to improve the

school programmes and to determine present and future decision. Also serves as a tool use

to shape the learning of students as well as the teaching of instructors in the library schools.

“Accreditation” is a process of self-study, and external quality review used in higher

education to scrutinize an institution/ or its programmes for quality standards and need for

quality improvement” (Corazon, 2003). Also, the term accreditation in this context “is used

to connote a system for recognizing universities and programme offered for a level of

performance, integrity and quality which entitles them to the confidence of the educational

community, the public they serve and the employment of labour” (Olasanmi, 2016).


In essence, accreditation ensures the provision of relevant facilities, services and learning

information resources that are appropriate to support teaching, research and service mission

of the library schools and the institution.

Standards in Library Education

Standards refers to an established or accepted model, a principle of behaviour or criterion

(Chambers Dictionary, 1993). In education, the concept is used to denote a set of criteria

used to study an educational or a training programme. This way, standards are used for

system of evaluation, accreditation and control. There is no single universally acceptable

model of standards. However, certain elements seem to have universal acceptance. In this

regard, standards for professional library and information educational programmes that have

been approved by IFLA's (2000) professional Board is a model herein used as an illustration

of how standards impose control in the conduct of library education. Standards should include

the context within which the educational programme takes place. Below are the standards

spelt out by IFLA, (2000):

i. Administrative: The mission statement of the institution offering the programme,

Goals, objectives, course content and the training components for the proposed

programme must be spelt out.

ii. Staff both academic and non-academic that will participate in running of the proposed

programme, their appointment, placement and promotion must be spelt out.

iii. Students: Their admission criteria, academic qualification requirements for

admission, evaluation, work record and study completion requirements must be spelt

out.

iv. Resource to includes administrative structure, financial support, instructional facilities

and equipment should be spelt out.

The need for establishing standards was developed right from the earliest time in the history

of library education at the school of Library Economy established by Melvil Dewey (1851 –

1931) (Debons, 1972). As the number of schools of library education increased, so also

pressure began to mount on the American Library Association (ALA) regarding

standardisation. This is because by 1915 there were 15 of such schools in the U.S.A. with

differences in length of the programme, type of degree or certificate awarded, and admission

requirements. In response, ALA set up a committee in 1903 to study the library training

programmes and to make recommendations as to which school had a programme that could

serve as a model. The report of the committee did not meet the expectations of the

stakeholders. Even the standards issued in 1905 and 1906 did not satisfy their needs.

Consequently, the library schools formed an association called Association of American

Library Schools in 1916. The main concern of the Association was to among other things:

a. Create standards for admission;

b. Establish standards for the institutions;

c. Determine the length of each programme;

d. Determine the type of degree of certificate offered on graduation;


e. Establish proper balance between theoretical and practical components of the

programme, and

f. Develop a system for transferring credit from one school to another.

These elements marked the beginning of contemporary standards adopted by modern library

schools. They are not adequate themselves, but they are a great improvement over the then

existing records of attempts at standardisation (Debons, 1972).

Accreditation of Library and Information Science Programmes

Accreditation refers to evaluation of resources and services of an institution (Balakrishnan

and Paliwal, 2001) reiterated that, accreditation entails two aspects: self-assessment and peer

assessment. Self-assessment is ongoing (3-5 years) and involves planning- goal-setting and

measurement against two dimensions – the goals and objectives set by the programmes, and

evaluation by peers against the set standards accreditation, specifying the quality of the

curriculum, the facilities, the faculty, the students and the administrative structure.

Criteria for Accreditation of Programme in Nigerian Library Schools

i. Philosophy and objectives of the programme to be accredited should be spelt out.

ii. Curriculum of the programme to be accredited should be adequate

iii. Teaching staff quantity and quality i.e. adequacy in numbers, competence and the

standard of instruction that it maintains in all subject areas be taken into consideration.

iv. Students Admission, Retention and Graduation should have policies and clearly spelt

out its annual academic calendar.

v. Standards of Degree Examination i.e. should have rules and regulations governing

degree examinations and awards.

vi. Financial Support i.e. there should be adequate financial support to the department

where the programme to be accredited is offered as a measure of dedication to the

philosophy and objectives of the programme.

vii. Physical Facilities, there should be adequate physical facilities such as classrooms,

laboratories, studios, workshops etc.

viii. Administration of department that is sound administrative policy and effective

leadership cannot be over emphasized.

ix. Employers' Rating of Graduates as an evidence of meeting the philosophy and

objectives of the programme, accreditation panel will require a displayed employers'

satisfaction that graduates of the programme are performing well at their various

levels of employments (NUC, 2012).

Status of Accreditation in Nigerian Library Schools

According to NUC (2012), the status of accreditation of academic programme, e.g. of library

science programme are as follows:


i. Full Accreditation

This is granted to an academic programme that has satisfied the Minimum Academic

Standards (MACS) for a period of six (6) academic sessions with a mid-term appraised after

three years. Also, that after the expiration of six academic sessions, there shall be-

accreditation visit.

ii. Interim Accreditation

This is granted to any academic programme that has minor deficiencies that must be rectified

with in a stipulated period, i.e. not more than two (2) academic sessions.

iii. Denied Accreditation

This apply to any academic programme which fails to satisfy the approved Minimum

Academic Standards (MACS).

Therefore, programmes are evaluated and scored based on the following criteria: staffing,

academic content, physical facilities, library, funding and employers' rating.

S/N Component Points

1. Staffing 32

2. Academic Content 23

3. Physical Facilities 25

4. Library 12

5. Funding 5

6. Employers’ Rating 3

Challenges Associated with Accreditation Exercise.

a. Inadequate funding

b. Inadequate infrastructure and equipment

c. Non-compliance to the NUC directives

Conclusion

Standards and accreditation are critical elements in any educational programme. They provide

focus guidance to administrators and regulatory agencies. They also assist students in many

more ways than one. In ideal situations, a combination of both regulatory agencies and

professional bodies should form a partnership in designing standards and conducting

accreditation exercise. This way, the team can find the exercise more efficient and more

effective.


Recommendations

Below are some recommendations made for improvement in order to stimulate library school

administrators, managers and instructors on the needs to comply strictly to the Minimum

Academic Standards (MACS) and to undertake accreditation in order to evaluate any

academic programme that may be introduced:

i. The library schools should generate more funds through internally generated revenue

(IGR) to augment government subventions.

ii. The library schools should always endeavour to seek clarifications on grey areas

whenever requests are made from NUC.

iii. There is a need to comply with the accreditation recommendations with emphasis on

books, journals and other electronics resources that are require to build up collection

in every programme offered in the library school.

iv. Librarians or teacher librarians should make sure that they are actively involved in the

accreditation exercise, because the provision and use of library materials and services

affects the quality of the students' educational experience.

v. Every library school in the country should agree to undergo a review on a rotating

basis every few years or sometimes every ten years. The purpose of this continuous

review of its programmes, is to ensure that the accredited programmes continues to

maintain the required accreditation standards.

vi. For the success of the accreditation, all parties concerned e.g. the administrative

officers, staff, faculties, library, students, trustees and others appropriate to the

process, should be involved. This will allow the school and the institution to consider

their effectiveness in achieving their stated mission and compliance with the

accreditation requirements established by the National Universities Commission

(NUC).

vii. There is no doubt that the quality of higher education determines the quality of human

resources of a country. The library school should ensure the provision of facilities,

services and learning/information resources that are appropriate to support teaching,

research and service mission of the institution.

viii. The success of any programme will depend on the quality and quantity of lecturers, as

such, the library schools should provide sufficient number of qualified staff, with

appropriate education and experiences in librarianship, in order to accomplish the

objectives of all the programmes introduced and the mission of the parent institution.

ix. A combination of both regulatory agencies and professional bodies should form a

partnership to design standards and conduct accreditation exercises regularly.

x. Finally, it is therefore suggested that NLA and LRCN should live up to their

responsibility to participate actively in the formation of standards and accreditation

exercises of library and information science schools.

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assessing the satisfaction of students studying at …

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