article souvenir pulak

8/3/2019 Article Souvenir Pulak

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Coal mining: Land degradation and reclamation status in IndiaDr. Pulak Das

HSE Coordinator, Geopetrol Int. Inc., email:[email protected]

Introduction

Mining has been defined as the removal of minerals from the earths crust in the service of humans (Down & Stock 1978)Mining and industrialization play an important role in national economy. Mining industry in India, second largest to

agriculture, is one of the largest providers of employment and accounted for about 2.3% of the total GDP. India produces64 minerals and the distribution value of mineral production in the year 2000-2001 shows that fuel accounts for about 83%(solid fuels 37% and liquid/gaseous 46%), metallic minerals about 7%, non-metallic minerals about 3% and remaining byminor minerals.

The coal resources of India are available in sedimentary rocks of older Gondwana Formations of peninsular Indiaand younger Tertiary formations of north-eastern/northern hilly region. Coalremains the primary source of energy, accounting for about 80% of totalenergy generation in the country. Relatively clean, underground minesoccupied more than 70% share of coal extraction before nationalization.Gradually, more and more open cast mines were opened to balance thedemand/supply ratio and at present, they dominate with 80% share. In India55%, of energy need is fulfilled by coal. Out of total mining, 80% is onlydone for coal while remaining 20% is for other raw materials such as gold,

copper, iron, lead, bauxite, zinc and uranium. For electricity generation inIndia, coal has been recognized as the most important source of energy.The coal reserves of India up to the depth of 1200 m have been estimatedby the Geological Survey of India at 267.21 billion tonnes as on April 1, 2009of which 106 billion tonnes are proven. Hard coal deposits spread over 27major coalfields are mainly confined to eastern and south central parts ofIndia.

According to the International Energy Agencys (IEA) World EnergyOutlooks business-as-usual (BAU) scenario, India and China presently account for 45 percent of world coal use and wilbe responsible for over three-quarters of the increase by 2030. Coal remains Indias most important fuel andpredominantly used to generate electricity. Coals share in power generation is predicted to increase from todays 69percent to 71 percent by 2030.

History of coal mining

The first published reference to the mining ofcoal in India dates back to the year 1774(Gee 1940), during the time of WarrenHastings, when permission to work coalmines in Bengal was accorded toJohnSumner and Suetonius Grant Heatly(M/s Sumner and Heatly of East IndiaCompany). The first two mining areas wereAitura (Ethora) at Chinakuri near DamodarRiver and Damulia (Nega Raniganj seam),also near Damodar.

The foundation for mass coal

production in India was laid in 1886, whenthe Hyderabad Deccan Company wasincorporated to exploit coal in Yellanadi areain Andhra Pradesh. The company was later renamed as SCCL and brought under Government control in 1945. For abouta century after mining in Bengal the growth of Indian coal mining remained sluggish for lack of demand. Introduction ofsteam locomotives in 1853 increased the production in an exponential manner. Within a short span, production rose to anannual average of 1 million tonne (mt) and by 1900 it reached 6.12 mts. The production got a sudden boost from the FirstWorld War and reached 30 mts by 1946. The production rose to 70 mts, 300 mts, and ultimately to 478.18 mts in 1970,1999, and 2007 respectively. Setting up of the National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC), a Government of India

Sectoral use of coal in India

Power

72%

Cement,

4%

Others,

19%

Steel,

5%

18 3055.67

300

478.18

33296.121

70

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 2010

Year

Coalproduciton(milliontonne)

r = 0.735

Coal production in India in last 150 years


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Undertaking in 1956 with the collieries owned by the railways as its nucleus was the first major step towards planneddevelopment of Indian Coal Industry along with the Singareni Collieries Company Ltd. (SCCL) which was already inoperation since 1945 and which became a Government company under the control of Government of Andhra Pradesh in1956. The nationalization of coal mines was done in two phases, the first with the coking coal mines in 1971-72 and thenwith the non-coking coal mines in 1973.

Types of coal mining

Coal is extracted either through underground mining or surface mining, also known as opencast mining. When coal seamsare near the surface, the coal is extracted using open cut or open cast mining methods. In this mining method, explosivesare first use in order to break through the surface of the mining area. The coal is then removed by draglines or by shoveland truck. Some coal seams are too deep underground for opencast mining and require underground mining, whichmethod currently accounts for about 60% of world coal production. In deep mining, the room and pillar or board and pillarmethod progresses along the seam, while pil lars and timber are left standing to support the mine roof.Some of the specified techniques being used earlier and at present in India are as follows:

Mechanised opencast mining (for extraction of thick seams at shallow depth).

Bord and Pillar method of underground mining (manual).

Blasting Gallery and Cable Bolting.

Continuous minor technology (for 60% to 70% extraction)

Long wall mining technology (for 70% to 80% recovery)

Sand stowing method (for coal seams lying below built up areas)

Coal resource

There are more than 800 coal mines in India. It occupies 3rd position in the world in thefield of coal production. As a result of exploration carried out up to the maximum depthof 1200m by the GSI, CMPDI and MECL etc, a cumulative total of 267.21 Billion tonnesof Geological Resources of Coal have so far been estimated in the country as on1.4.2009.

Raniganj coal belt is an important coalfield located in Damodar river valley.Ranigunj Coalfields covers an area of 1530 sq km spreading over Burdwan, Birbhum,Bankura and Purulia Districts in West Bengal and Dhanbad District in Jharkhand.

The lignite reserves in India are estimated at around 36 billion tonnes, of which90% occur in the southern State of Tamil Nadu. 4150 million tonnes (mt) spread over

480 sq km is in the Neyveli Lignite fields in Cuddalore District of which around 2360 Mthave been proved. Geological reserves of about 1168 mof lignite have been identifiedin Jayamkondacholapuram of Trichy District of Tamilnadu. In Mannargudi and East ofVeeranam, geological reserves of around 22661.62 Mt and 1342.45 mt of lignite havebeen estimated respectively. Other states where lignite deposits have been located areRajasthan, Gujarat, Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir and Union Territory of Pondicherry.As on 01.04.2007, lignite reserves in the country have been estimated at around 38.76 billion tonnes, most of whichoccur in Tamilnadu. Other states where lignite deposits have been located are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Kerala, Jammu andKashmir and Union Territory of Pondicherry.

Coaldepositsin India

Coal resource of India

(Total of Proved, Indicated, and Inferred)

234114

240748

267210

245693247847

253301 255172257381

264535

230000

240000

250000

260000

270000

1.1.20

02

1.1.20

03

1.1.20

04

1.1.20

05

1.1.20

06

1.1.20

07

1.4.20

07

1.4.20

08

1.4.20

09

As on

Milliontonnes


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Acquisition of All Rights & Mining Rights under the CBA Act since nationalization by some of the countries major coacompanies up to December 2006 is given below:

Issue of land degradation

As defined by UNEP (1992) land degradation is the temporary or permanent lowering of the productive capacity of land.The soil is a very complex medium which displays a great diversity in physical appearance, in chemical process, and inthe flora and fauna present. The role of soil is of vital importance to mankind and the maintenance of a healthy naturalenvironment. The soil is a natural resource, which is not renewable in the short term and very expensive either to reclaimor to improve once it is eroded by water or wind, physically degraded or chemically depleted (Oldeman 1998).

The increasing human need for mineral resources is likely to accelerate further degradation of natural habitats, asmost of the mining areas are on the land which was previously occupied by forests. In removing the desired minera

Area acquired till Dec 2006

6008 1182.46

35844.06 38157.87

61517.34

22149.7814673

179532.51

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

140000

160000

180000

200000

ECL BCCL CCL WCL SECL MCL NCL Total

Companies

Ha

ECL EasternCoalfieldsLimited;BCCL BharatCokingCoalLimited;

CCL Central Coalfields Limited;WCL Western Coalfields Limited;

SECL SouthEasternCoalfields Limited;MCL MahanadiCoalfields

Limited;

NCLNorthern

Coalfields

Limited

Acquisition of all rights & mining rights by major coal companies

9194

31 3

48

0

10910

39480

8041

5255

89

9

19944

0 866

11653

6748

40

36

0

29192

30894

10295

2907

17

0

31484

58 1

96

11603

2985

19

3 160 4

381

6338

2645

1992

471

13

13799

43

05071

18927

90 3

87

160

44483

76712

20981

10154

577

22

65227

101

1062

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

90000

Andhra

Pradesh

Arunachal

Pradesh

Assam

Bihar

Chhattisgarh

Jharkhand

Madhya

Pradesh

Maharashtra

Meghalaya

Nagaland

Orissa

Sikkim

UttarPradesh

WestBengal

States

Reserve(milliontonne)

ProvedIndicatedInferredTotal

Coal reserves in different states of India as on 2009


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material the vegetation above is destroyed and the soil is lost or buried by waste, ultimately leading to complete absenceof soil in either pedological of biological sense leaving behind a skeleton of soil with full of limiting factors (Bradshaw1983). As a result of mining and coal combustion, significant areas of land are degraded and existing ecosystems arereplaced by undesirable waste materials in the form of dumps, tailing dams and ash dams (Piha et al 1995). According toCorbett et al. (1996) the mineral extraction process drastically alters the physical and biological nature of a mined area.Strip-mining, commonly practiced to recover coal reserves, destroys vegetation, causes extensive soil damage anddestruction and alters microbial communities. The Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) opines that surface mining may result inconstant decline of green and cultivable areas which is by way of blockage of land for mining and allied activities. As

estimated by IBM, this degradation is to the tune of 60% by waste dumping, 23% by pit excavation and 17% by others(Singh et al. 2007). The dumping of mine tailings and other reject materials (referred to as overburden, OB) generatedfrom opencast coal or metal mines is considered as a major contributor to the ecological and environmental degradationOB materials are nutrient-poor, loosely adhered particles of shale, stones, boulders, cobbles, and so forth and are devoidof true soil character. Mine OB materials also contain elevated concentrations of trace metals. Consequently, ecologicasuccession in a mine OB is a lengthy process (Dowarah et al. 2009).. Un-reclaimed or poorly reclaimed lands are often barren, because problematic soil material left on the surfaceafter mining would not support plant growth (Sutton & Dick 1987). This creates problems, as waste dumps can beunsightly and subject to erosion and leaching if left un-vegetated. There is an urgent need to reclaim and restore themined out land for its productive use for sustainable development of the coal mining. This will not only mitigateenvironmental degradation, but would help in creating a more congenial environment for land acquisition in future.

Land degradation in India

All human activities are based on the land which is most scarce natural resource in our country. Per capita land availabilityin India is the lowest owing to high population density and less land mass. Out of total 329 million hectare (mha) landmass of the country, coal mining is limited to only on 0.10% (0.36mha) area. As per XI Plan, to meet the energy demandof the country, coal production would be raised to 680 million tones by the end of the year 2011-2012 for which about40,000 hectare of land would have to be acquired for coal mining projects. It has been envisaged that 85% coalproduction would be from opencast mines, which causes land degradation due to ground breaking.

India's total land area is 3.29 million sq km, and within this, 20.16% of the total geographical area is occupied bythe degraded land (Kiran et al. 2009). About 0.45 % of the total (about 16,000 sq km) is coal-bearing. Of this coal-bearingarea, the active coal-mining area is about 2,500 sq km. Underground production of coal peaked in the late 1970s, and hasgradually declined since. Surface mining, on the other hand, has gone up from l6 million tonnes per annum (tpa) to 160million tpa. According to a financial daily Business Line (Internet edition, July 5, 2000) as much as 1,40,771 hectares othe total coal area is under surface mining. Additionally, 57,000 hectares of land will be required, of which 13,000 hectaresare in forestland. According to Kundu and Ghose (1997), by 2000 about 60 km

2of land per year were damaged by direct

coal mines and 75 km2 per year were affected by external overburden dumps and topsoil dumps in India. Excessiveunderground mining, especially of coal, is causing subsidence of land in many areas as a result of which such lands havebeen rendered unsafe for habitation, agriculture and grazing. In 1980s the coal mining industry became identified as amajor cause of damage to the environment, with more than 80 sq. kms. of land being destroyed every year. Damage toland can also result from underground and stockyard fires in coal mining areas.

Land reclamation

In the majority of cases, reclamation of abandoned mineral workings requires the establishment and maintenance ofvegetation on disturbed land. No other medium can achieve rapid visual integration, surface stabilization, or reduction inair and water pollution, nor offer a wide variety of land-use possibilities, which can be achieved at acceptable cost. Basedon several ecosystem restoration studies, A. D. Bradshaw, the pioneer restoration ecologist, concluded that vegetation isthe most appropriate and cost effective long- term remedy to encounter the majority of underlying problems of derelict-

mined land. Ecological restoration (ER) is the process of repairing damage caused by humans to the diversity anddynamics of indigenous ecosystems. ER implies that we wish to restore organisms and their interactions with one anotheand with the physical environment. It concentrates on processes such as persistence of species through naturarecruitment and survival, functioning food webs, system-wide nutrient conservation via relationships among plants,animals and the detrivore (who eats waste material) community. The goal of restoration is usually to develop a long-termsustainable ecosystem native to the area where mining occurred. Restoration (=rehabilitation) aims to return the degradedsystem to some form of cover that is protective, productive, aesthetically pleasing, or valuable in the sense oconservation.


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Revegetation of mined out areas is often difficult due to its chemical and physical traits. Absence of topsoil is the mostcommon feature of the mine spoils or dumps. If present, it is very poor in nitrogen, which is essential for plant growth. Thisis due to the absence of soil organic matter provided by decay of dead plant material. Moreover, dearth of soil micro florarestricts the decay of plant material. In addition, the stony nature of mine wastes aggravates the situation further forvegetation establishment by developing low infiltration rates and water retention. Since the progress of natural vegetationprocess is very slow on mine spoils, selective plantation of suitable native species is desired in most cases. In commonpractice, mining engineers, generally unguided by any ecological principle prefer to establish some greenery onwasteland. However, the development of a permanent vegetation cover should aim to establish a plant community that

will maintain itself indefinitely without attention or artificial aid, and support native fauna. To extract better results, someecological variables must be considered while selecting species for plantation. These are; their capacity to stabilize soil,increases soil organic matter and available soil nutrients, and facilitate under storey development. In the initial stages ofrevegetation quick growing grasses with short life cycle, legumes and forage crops are recommended. It will improve thenutrient and organic matter content in soil. Plantation of mixed species of economic importance should be done after 2-3years of growing grasses. Work is going on in this field and experts are providing different solutions based upon thesituation. Addition of organic wastes has been found to increase N fertility at a surface coal mine reclamation site, whichultimately stimulates microbial activity and improves the chemical and physical properties of the reclaimed soil (Coyne eal. 1998). Direct seeding of native species has proved a most useful and cost-effective restoration method (Pandey 1996,1998). This can be avoided by opting for direct sowing. Direct sowing is also advantageous as it is comparatively easier tomaintain the species mix than in a plantation (Pandey 2002). As suggested by Singh et al. (2007), assessment of pre-mining land use of the area and surroundings, and of the pre-mining surface drainage pattern is an important step for, andcomprehensive land reclamation and land use planning. Use of medicinal plants for reclaiming degraded land is also a

good option (Kiran et al. 2009). Pandey (2002) argues that to restore mine overburden, a broader vision that incorporatesholistic science and policy is called for. Sustainable science is required to address the imperilled naturesocietyinteractions as well as to construct a selfsustaining functional ecosystem capable of supporting biodiversity, performingecosystem functioning and providing ecosystem services to society. He suggested a holistic strategy for restoration ofmine-spoil including the following: (i) Policy measures and incentive mechanism to store fertile top-soil layer for use inpostmining restoration operation, (ii) protection to adjacent refugia, remnant vegetation and ancient trees, (iii) attractingseed dispersers, (iv) rainwater harvesting, (v) assisted soil remediation through addition of pond-bed silt and sediment aswell as earthworm, (vi) assistance to available persistent rootstock, if any, (vii) direct seeding, (viii) vegetative cutting, and(ix) plantations.

Success stories in India

In India, the amount of mine OB wasteland generated due to opencast coal mining is enormous (Dowarah et al. 2009).This necessitates initiation of restoration of the degraded environment. According to WWF report, in India, mining land isfrequently left in an abused state, in unclosed or abandoned mines. Considering the severe consequences of mining focommunities and local environments, it is essential that steps be taken to reduce degradation of land. Although landreclamation is presently not a priority in India there are many success stories of ecorestoration in India (Tiwary 2001; Pa2003; Ghose 2004; Maiti 2007; Juwarkar and Jumbalkar 2008), and around the world (Cunningham and Berti 1993;Mendez and Maier 2008; Gonzalez and Gonzalez-Chavez 2006; Wong 2003), and World wide there has been atremendous upsurge in restoration as a technique for reversing habitat degradation worldwide.

Centre for Applied Research & Development (CARD) is the in house R&D Centre of Neyveli Lignite Corporationand has been recognized by the Department of Science & Technology since 1975. CARD is carrying out various researchworks on wasteland reclamation etc. CARD is also carrying out various environmental Survey and ecological conservationof Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC) environment through bioremediation with tree species (Approved Cost Rs.77.01Lakhs.). It is also proposed to study phyto-remediation efficiency of the existing green belt of NLC to air borneContaminants and soil borne contaminants. The Project commenced on 01-05-2007 with project duration of three yearsPreliminary discussions were held and Research staffs recruited under the project were given orientation training. Survey

for fixing thirty two sampling locations and four to five tree species in each location, using GPS, has been completed. InNLC a project was carried out to characterize and evaluate bottom slag as a source of Sulphur and iron to crops and biodissolution studies. It was also envisaged to develop methods to use bottom slag as a source of Sulphur to crops inSulphur deficient soils and as a source of Iron to sugarcane in calcareous iron deficient soils. Tamil Nadu AgriculturalUniversity (TNAU) has also conducted field trials with bottom slag in farmers field at Trichy, Vridhachallam, Villupuram,Erode and Coimbatore on paddy, sugarcane, groundnut, sunflower etc and found to be beneficial.

The projects related to land degradation which are under implementation are bringing transformation throughintegrated farming system and pilot studies on the stabilization, revegetation and restoration of ecology in NLC mineslopes. (NLC and TNAU/Coimbatore). In Jharia coal fields, existing plantation programmes and social forestry


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programmes are encouraged. Plantation work in 278 hectare of degraded land has been done at Lodna, Bhowrah, Sijua,Govindpur and Barora areas (approx 6.95 lakhs saplings have been planted). The work has been completed andcompletion report is awaited. Plantation is started in 125 Ha in this year. The Subsidiaries of CIL have been undertakingdevelopment of Green belts. The plantation is done on waste and reclaimed land. During 2006-2007 the Coal Companieshave planted 24.90 Lakh trees. During 2006-07, SCCL has taken up planting in 252 Ha on overburden dump, 275 Ha ofthe planting on the surface area of UG mines and 24 KM of avenue plantation. In addition, 56782 seedlings of horticultureand afforestation species are distributed for planting in colonies, homesteads and institutions. In addition 27 parks and 98gardens are maintained in the company premises

for providing clean, green working and livingenvironment for all. A project was initiated in 2005-06 by Bhagalpur University for reclamation ofmining wastelands and restoration of nativevegetation through microbial technology inRajmahal Coalfields. Ledo Valley RecreationCenter (LVRC), an Eco-park in NEC is a reclaimedmine in the leasehold of Ledo Colliery of NEC. Theproduction of mine was stopped in 1986 and itsreclamation work started in 1987. Spread over anarea of 21 hectares it has over 40 species of plantsand home to many migratory birds. The plantationand conservation of lakes forms an ideal ecological

balance in the area.Central Mine Planning & Design Institute(CMPDI) Ranchi, a subsidiary of CIL has a wellequipped remote sensing facilities and capabilitiesto develop an effective system of surveillance forland reclamation/restoration for all the opencastcoal mines. It is the executive agency for satellitesurveillance of land reclamation operations. 171open cast coal projects have been identified forsurveillance out of which 49 projects will bemonitored once a year while the remaining 122projects will be monitored once every three years.As of 2009 45 projects have been covered. CMPDIundertook five projects of land reclamation of South Eastern Coalfields Ltd.; Dipka, Gevra, Manikpur, Dhanpuri, andDugga in year 2008. These projects were taken up for land restoration/reclamation monitoring based on theRESOURCESAT-1 satellite data using ERDAS Imaging digital image processing s/w in GIS platform. Land reclamationmonitoring will be carried out regularly on annual basis to assess the progressive status of land restoration/reclamation inthe above opencast mines. Out of the above five projects, land use map for Gevra, Dipka, and Manikpur were alsoprepared during year 2003 which was used for the comparison. The above figure (CMPDI 2008) shows the status of landuse with the jurisdiction of the company in year 2008 and the following table shows the increase in area.

Project 2003 2008 % IncreaseDipka

Plantation 0.56 2.67 376.79Vegetation 3.66 6.17 68.58

GevraPlantation 2.43 6.08 150.21Vegetation 4.26 11.21 163.15

ManikpurPlantation 2.11 2.18 3.32Vegetation 6.5 6.83 5.08

Area (km2) in two different years and % increase

Dipka

42%

32%

26%

Gevra

40%

42%

18%

Manikpur

44%

23%

33%

Dhanpuri

77%

23% 0%

Dugga

58%

41%

1%

Vegetation Mining area Wasteland

Comparison of mining area, vegetation, andwasteland in 5 projects of SECL as on 2008


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The study reveals that 61% of mined out area in the above mentioned projects have been reclaimed by (South EasternCoalfields Limited) SECL and balance 39% area is under active mining zone. It is observed that Dipka area showed anincrease of over 376% in the plantation cover in five years, and Gevra shows an increase in 150% in plantation and about163% increase in vegetation. Manikpur area showed very less increase (about 3 and 5 %) respectively in plantation andvegetation cover as compared to other two areas.

Conclusion

Mining operations, which involve minerals extraction from the earths crust tends to, make a notable impact on theenvironment, landscape and biological communities of the earth (Down & Stocks, 1997 and Bell et al. 2001). It can besaid that the land restoration/reclamation is an inseparable part of the coal mining. It is important to save our precious, butscarce land resource. This is more important in context of rapid increase in population. The land degradation is a chainevent which once triggered and if not prevented in time, leads to many related environmental and socioeconomicproblems. The issue of land reclamation should be incorporated in the planning phase itself with sufficient financiaallocation. It is an irony that the Coal industry (CIL) which is one of the 5 largest companies (2003-2004) with respect toturn over, largest company in the world in terms of coal production, is placed under the red category, meaning it is in thetop bracket of environmental degradation (Chaoji 2002). As said earlier, there are numerous success stories around theworld and also in India regarding the reclamation of degraded land. We can convert the waste into resource by reclaimingthe degraded land and use it for plantation (of cash generating crops for e.g. medicinal plants), rehabilitation of the nativedisplaced people (who will love to come back to their land), and intensive afforestation program etc.

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http://coal.nic.in/abtcoal.htm

http://www.cpcbenvis.nic.in/newsletter/cleancoal-june2000/jun2000iss.htm

http://www.ismenvis.nic.in/douknow.pdf

http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/minerals/coal-mines.gif

http://www.mapsofworld.com/business/industries/coal-energy/india_coal_deposits.jpg

http://www.sacw.net/article302.html

http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/businessline/2000/07/05/stories/040567mp.htm

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