article on npe.pdf

8/18/2019 article on NPE.pdf

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Indian Government’s National Policy on Education 1968:

Directives on Enrollment

Pratima Dutta

Indiana University Bloomington

!ril "1 st # $%%9


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Abstract

The goal of the study is to determine if the issue of enrollment was addressed in the National Policy on

Education (NPE) of 1968 — first policy on education legislated y the go!ernment of "ndia after

independence in 19#$% The study unco!ers the historical and socio&political agendas ehind policy

recommendations regarding 'edium of "nstruction the ommon *chool *ystem +andhi,s Education "deals

*cience and Technology Education and uilding the -emocratic *ocialist .epu lic of "ndia% The study uses

-iscourse analysis as the method to unra!el the intentions of the dictates in !iew of the socio&cultural

constructs of the time% Postcolonial theory is used to de!elop an understanding of why some dictates were

articulated whereas some ignored%


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Introduction

India is t&e 'orld’s largest democracy 'it& a !o!ulation o( 1#%$)#%1*#$+) according to t&e $%%1 Indian

census data, -&e !o!ulation estimate o( India in t&e year $%%8 'as 1#1+)#99*#9%+ and is e.!ected to reac&

1,* /illion /y t&e year $%"%, India &as a la/or (orce o( *16,+ million as estimated in $%%)# out o( '&ic&a!!ro.imately 1 million 'or0ers are in t&e service and In(ormation -ec&nology I-2 industry, It is

interesting to note t&at '&ile India is /eing unanimously &eralded as a success story (or glo/ali3ation and

vie'ed as a country t&at &as moved into t&e !remier league o( 'orld economic gro't& 'it& a GDP gro't&

rate o( 94# $*4 to "%4 o( t&e !o!ulation still lives /elo' t&e !overty line 5uce# $%%)2, -&is is indeed a

strange dic&otomy and /egs to uestion '&y India’s /ooming economic gro't& does not translate to a

decrease in !overty o( India’s masses, -&e ans'er# !er&a!s# can lie in t&e lo!sided gro't& tra7ectory, r#

!er&a!s# t&e (ault lies dee!er in t&e 'ay t&e India society and t&e system are structured '&ic& allo's

(or categorical disen(ranc&isement o( t&e less (ortunate,

-&e !ro/lem o( leaving /e&ind a signi(icant section o( t&e society in t&e ravages o( !overty# '&ile a select

(e' !rogress ra!idly t&roug& t&e 'esterni3ed conce!t o( economic !ros!erity# is mani(old, It leads not

only to an ideological sense o( des!ondency amongst citi3ens to'ards t&e government# '&ic& can lead to

!olitical and civil unrest# /ut also to lo'ered standard o( living conse uently a((ecting (actors suc& as

uality o( li(e# c&ild and in(ant mortality rate# &ealt longevity# etc, 5andes# 1998 ;eier < =auc $%%%2,

ne o( India’s many assets is its !eo!le, -&e adage >strengt& in num/ers? stands true (or t&is country# and

'&at strengt&ens t&is country even more is t&e !resence o( individual (reedom, @o'ever# t&e continuous

!resence o( a/7ect !overty &as /een 'or0ing e((iciently to'ard 'ea0ening t&is (orce, It is a/out time t&at

every citi3en is given t&e o!!ortunity and t&e a/ility to rea! t&e /ene(its o( t&e economic !ros!erity t&at

India is 'itnessing,

“Ait&out a more meritocratic and 7ust state# India’s economy 'ill su((er, -o t&rive# India’s /usinesses need

good in(rastructure# a literate and &ealt&y 'or0 (orce# a sustaina/le environment# and t&e !romise o( la'

and order? 5uce# $%%)# !,""*2, Ae &ave to create an environment '&ere t&e citi3enry is a/le to us&er in a

/igger and /etter economic revolution t&an t&e one 'e &ave 'itnessed in t&e !ast ten years, nd in order


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to do so# 'e need to create a citi3enry t&at is educated# is 'ell in(ormed in t&e 'ays o( t&e 'orld# and &as

t&e a/ility to t&in0 inde!endently and creatively, In order to dra' t&e masses out o( t&e s&ac0les o(

!overty# 'e need to address t&e /asic rig&t# vis C vis# t&e rig&t to a uality education,

Ae 0no' t&at !ossi/ly a sim!le ans'er to our !redicament is !roviding uality education to eac& andevery c&ild /orn in India irres!ective o( race# class# or creed Blaug# 196)# 19)"#19)6 Bis&o!# 199$# 1998

Psac&aro!oulos# 1986# 199" c&ult3# 196*# 198%# 19)12, Ae also 0no' t&at !lenty o( educationists since

t&e da'n o( inde!endence &ave stressed t&e need and o((ered solutions to re(orm t&e education system

ravdal# $%%+ Patel# 1996 =osem/erg < Puntc $%%" -ila0# 1988 -ila0 < Farg&ese# 19912, @o'ever#

more t&an 6% years a(ter India’s inde!endence# a t&ird o( t&e nation is still illiterate ;e&rotra# $%%62,

A&ere did t&e educationists# economists# and sc&olars go 'rong A&y did numerous e((orts at

educational re(orm (ail

=esearc&ers in t&e (ield o( education &ave tried to identi(y t&e causes underlying t&e (ailure o(

t&e Indian education system Hi, ;ost o( t&e researc& unanimously !oints to'ards t&e lac0 o( state and

central (ederal2 initiatives /eing germane to t&e under !er(orming education system, Un(ortunately# one

is &ard !ressed to (ind a commentary t&at tries to e.!lain '&y t&e Indian government &as (ailed to !rovide

an e((ective educational system (or its citi3ens,

-&e current study 'ill# t&ere(ore# attem!t to unravel t&e reasons /e&ind t&e (ailure o( t&e Indian

education system, In order to limit t&e sco!e 'e 'ill e.clusively (ocus on t&e inclusion o( t&e clause o(

1$ !u/lic sc&ool enrollment (or students, -&e study 'ill develo! an understanding o( '&et&er or not t&e

issue o( enrollment# one o( t&e many issues related to educational re(orm# 'as a concern '&en t&e

National Policy o( Education NPE2 'as dra(ted in 1968, It is im!erative# in order to develo! an

understanding o( t&e current educational crisis and t&e reasons /e&ind it# t&at a &istorical !at& to t&e

current !ro/lems /e traced, -&e !resent is# a(ter all# never inde!endent o( t&e !ast, -&ere(ore# t&e goal o(

t&is study is to gain a socio !olitical and &istorical understanding o( t&e reasons (or t&e enrollment

dictates i( t&ere 'ere any2 made /y t&e very (irst !olicy on education legislated /y t&e Indian government

in 1968,


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Potential Significance

Jindings (rom t&is study 'ill attem!t to s&ed lig&t on t&e reasons (or !olicy im!lications, Doing so

'ill t&en ena/le !olicy analysts as 'ell as educational researc&ers (ormulate !rograms and initiatives t&at

could !er&a!s /e e((ective, I( 'e develo! an understanding o( '&at circumstances &istorical# social# and!olitical2 in(luenced certain actions o( our (ounding (at&ers# 'e can t&en !er&a!s /e at a /etter !osition to

ma0e more in(ormed decisions regarding t&e ste!s 'e may# as t&e current citi3ens o( India# ta0e to re(orm

our de(icient !u/lic education system,

Research questions

In t&e current study# to /egin e.amining t&e initiatives o( t&e Government o( India in !u/lic education# t&e

National Policy on Education o( 1968 'ill /e analy3ed to address t&e (ollo'ing researc& uestion:

• Aere t&ere !olicy mandates articulating 0 1$ !u/lic sc&ool enrollment in t&e National Policy on

Education NPE2 o( 1968

• A&at 'ere t&e social# !olitical# and cultural motivations /e&ind t&e !olicy dictates

-o ans'er t&e second researc& uestion# secondary sources suc& as !olitical and !u/lic commentary in

t&e (orm o( critical analysis on !olicy directives 'ill /e used,

Design and Methodology

Discourse Analysis: An Approach Rather than a Method

Discourse analysis 'as t&e researc& met&od used in t&is study, =at&er t&an de(ining Discourse

nalysis as a researc& met&od# it is &el!(ul to c&aracteri3e it as an a!!roac& to uncover t&e &idden cultural

meaning and re(erences in a 'ritten te.t (Frohmann, 1992) , Discourses# '&et&er oral or 'ritten# are al'ays

em/edded in t&e cultural and t&e social conte.t o( t&e time Bi33ell < @er3/erg# 199% Jro&mann# 199$2

and no discourse ta0es !lace 'it&out t&e overt in(luences o( t&e &istorical time and !lace '&ere t&e

discourse is recorded,

Because t&e goal o( t&is researc& 'as to a2 identi(y t&e !olicy dictates regarding or related to t&e


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issue o( enrollment# and most im!ortantly# /2 unravel t&e &istorical# socio !olitical reasons /e&ind t&e

!resence or a/sence o( t&e !olicy dictates# t&e met&od or a!!roac& o( Discourse nalysis 'as most

e((ective, Using t&is a!!roac& and analy3ing t&e data vis C vis# t&e !olicy document2# 0ee!ing t&e !olitical

and &istorical climate o( t&e time in !ers!ective made (or an analysis t&at 'as ric& in conte.tual meaning,

Deconstruction# a term coined /y Kac ues Derrida# (orms t&e (ounding /edroc0 o( Discourse

nalysis, @o'ever# LDiscourse nalysis is not&ing /ut a deconstructive inter!retation o( a !ro/lemL

(“Discourse nalysis#? n,d,2 and does not !rovide La tangi/le ans'er to !ro/lems /ased on scienti(ic

reasonL >Discourse nalysis#? n,d,2, Discourse nalysis is a !roduct o( t&e !ostmodern !eriod Dic0ens <

Jontana# 199+2 a !eriod in &istory uite di((erent t&an ot&er !eriods suc& as t&e renaissance#

enlig&tenment# modernism# etc, -&e !ostmodern !eriod is !eculiar in t&e sense t&at it is c&aracteri3ed /y

t&e lac0 o( a universal trut&, In ot&er 'ords# t&e lac0 o( a universal trut& renders t&e time !eriod o!en to

varied and su/7ective inter!retation /ased on its &istorical and !olitical conte.t,

Discourse nalysis t&en /ecomes even more relevant in t&e (ield o( education /ecause

education# es!ecially organi3ed mass education# is a(ter all a social construct a construct o( a >civili3ed?

society# t&e industriali3ed society and most im!ortantly# a construct o( t&e !ostmodern 'orld, =esearc&ing

education is t&ere(ore not t&e same as researc&ing a natural !&enomenon# suc& as determining t&e gro't&

rate o( a !articular s!ecies o( (lora in t&e ma3onian rain (orest, Education systems 'ere designed /y

societies and actors 'it&in t&ose societies, -&ese actors are not removed (rom t&e socio !olitical or

cultural constructs o( t&eir environment, -&ere(ore# a!!roac&ing a study in an environment ram!ant 'it&

layers o( constructs 'it& a scienti(ic a!!roac attem!ting to determine t&e e((ect o( one varia/le on

anot&er# 'ill sim!ly not o((er a com!lete !icture,

A&en using Discourse nalysis as a met&od to unravel &idden meanings o( a te.t# it is largely

/ased on a t&eoretical (rame'or0, Fery o(ten t&e t&eoretical !remise is !ostmodern as 'ell, In our

researc 'e used !ostcolonialMneocolonial t&eory,

Theoretical Frame or!


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It is in t&e emergence o( t&e interstices t&e overla! and dis!lacement o( domains o( di((erence t&at t&e

intersu/7ective and collective e.!eriences o( nationness# community interest# or cultural value are

negotiated, @o' are su/7ects (ormed in /et'een # or in e.cess o(# t&e sum o( t&e !arts o( di((erence

usually intoned as raceMclassMgender# etc,2 @o' do strategies o( re!resentation or em!o'erment come

to /e (ormulated in t&e com!eting claims o( communities '&ere# des!ite s&ared &istories o( de!rivation

and discrimination# t&e e.c&ange o( values# meanings and !riorities may not al'ays /e colla/orative and

dialogical# /ut may /e !ro(oundly antagonistic# con(lictual and even incommensura/le (Bhabha, 1994, p.

2) ,

-&e uote a/ove (rom B&a/&a s L5ocation o( OultureL uite neatly aggregates t&e !redicament

t&at 'e 'ere trying to address in t&is study, It is commonly 0no'n and noted /y various educationists t&at

education systems are instruments t&roug& '&ic& nations (orge national and social identity, I( identity

(alls 'it&in t&e realm o( contention in a nation# t&e uestion t&at one is !osed 'it& is &o' t&en does t&e

education system get designed In (act# i( national consciousness as 'ell as individual a'areness o( t&e

sel( is de(ined /y t&e government# and in t&is case# t&e im!erialists# '&at &a!!ens '&en t&e im!erialist

leaves @o' does t&e nation t&en go a/out re de(iningMreviving t&e collective consciousness -&e a/ove

mentioned t&eoretical !ers!ectives# de(ined /y !ost colonial t&eorists suc& as @omi B&a/&a# Ed'ard aid#

and Gayatri !iva0 O&a0ra/orty# 'ere ado!ted in t&is study,

Site Population Selection and Data"gathering methods

Documentary data 'as collected (rom t&e National Oouncil o( Educational =esearc& and -raining

NOE=-2 rc&ives, -&e National Policy on Education o( 1968 and t&e Education Oommission =e!ort o(

196+# also 0no'n as t&e ot&ari Oommission =e!ort o( 196+# !u/lis&ed /y t&e ;inistry o( @uman

=esource Develo!ment# 'ere retrieved (or document analysis,

#imitations and Future Research

-&e current study is limited to t&e National Policy on Education o( 1968, -&ere(ore t&e results 'ill

not /e directly signi(icant to current times /ut 'ill e.!lain !ost inde!endence conditions in t&e country,


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-&ree more studies are re uired to com!lete t&e !icture 12 study analy3ing t&e Education Oommission

=e!ort o( 196+ $2 similar study analy3ing t&e National Policy on Education o( 1986 and t&e mendment

o( 199$ and "2 not&er similar study analy3ing t&e National no'ledge Oommission =e!ort o( $%%*,

Data Analysis Procedures

A&en analy3ing t&e data# codes 'ere develo!ed modeled on t&e Ooo!er and @edges descri!tion o(

lo' in(erence and &ig& in(erence coding,

L5o' in(erence coding consists o( in(ormation t&at is !resent in t&e !rimary study t&at t&e

synt&esists can readily transcri/e to coding s&eets (or (uture analysis, It is im!ossi/le to catalog all

t&e varia/le o( t&is sort t&at &ave /een used /y synt&esists# /ut some e.am!les are c&aracteristics

o( a !u/lication# e,g,# year# 7ournal2# ty!e o( researc& design# measuring instruments# su/7ect

c&aracteristics# and t&e 0ind o( setting '&ere t&e study too0 !lace? Ooo!er < @edges# 199+# !, $*2,

“-&e second o( moderator coding H&ig& in(erence coding # o(ten involving considera/le

in(erence /y t&e coder# comes not (rom t&e !rimary study directly# /ut is rat&er added /y t&e synt&esist#

usually in t&e (orm o( ratings o( study c&aracteristics? Ooo!er < @edges# 199+# !, $*2, @ig& in(erence

coding entails t&at t&e researc&er ma0es inter!retations /ased on t&e lo' in(erence codes# '&ic& are

conte.tually em/edded, Due to t&e nature o( suc& conte.tual inter!retation# validity o( suc& in(erences is

o(ten uestioned as t&ese in(erences can vary (rom researc&er to researc&er Ooo!er < @edges# 199+2,

Because t&e goal o( t&e study 'as to unravel t&e conte.tual causes o( t&e !olicy dictates# t&e

!rocess o( coding t&e data using lo' in(erence and &ig& in(erence codes 'as most a!!ro!riate, -&is

!rocess ena/led t&e researc&er to go /eyond t&e 'ritten te.t and illustrate t&e conte.t 'it&in '&ic& t&e

te.t 'as em/edded, -o counter t&e issues o( validity t&at &ig& in(erence codes raise# conte.tual

inter!retations 'as triangulated 'it& t&e &el! o( !u/lis&ed commentaries on t&e conte.tual issues

identi(ied, In addition# /ecause 'e 'ere analy3ing a !olicy document# an o!erational understanding o(

'&at !olicy is# 'as im!erative, Doing so ena/led t&e researc&er to unravel '&at t&e true intentions o( t&e

!olicy document actually 'ere, In ot&er 'ords# 'as t&e !olicy document sim!ly a !olitical statement made


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/y an administration in !o'er# as doing so 'as !ro/a/ly t&e e.!ected norm r# 'as t&e intention o( t&e

administration actually to /ring a/out t&e said c&anges t&roug& care(ully ela/orated goals and

im!lementation !lans

$perationali%ing Policy

In order to o!erationali3e !olicy# literature in t&e (ield t&at attem!ted to de(ine !olicy 'as

re(erenced Ball# 199" Oole/atc $%%$ -or7man# $%%*2, (ter &aving revie'ed t&e literature# 'e settled

on using &erri -or7man’s de(inition o( '&at !olicy is, -&e de(inition ado!ted (or t&e !ur!ose o(

o!erationali3ing !olicy is not con(ined to sim!ly de(ining '&at education !olicy is rat&er '&at is

commonly understood as !u/lic !olicy,

Policy can /e uali(ied according to t&e (ollo'ing c&aracteristics

• u/stantive vs, administrative !olicy

o *u stanti!e Policy is >concerned 'it& t&e legislation# !rograms and !ractices t&at

govern t&e su stanti!e as!ects o( community 'or0, -&is dimension o( !olicy includes#

(or e.am!le# income security# em!loyment initiatives# c&ild care services and social

e.clusion? -or7man# $%%*# !, $2,

o /dministrati!e Policy “(ocuses largely u!on administrative !rocedures, -&ese

involve# (or instance# t&e collection o( statistical in(ormation on neig&/our&oods and

t&e evaluation o( com!le. community !rograms? !, $2,

• Fertical vs, &ori3ontal !olicy

o “Fertical !olicy is '&at 'e t&in0 o( as t&e normal or traditional 'ay in '&ic&

!olicy decisions are made, Fertical !olicy is develo!ed 'it&in a single organi3ational

structure and generally starts 'it& /road overarc&ing !olicy# sometimes called

>cor!orate? or >(rame'or0? !olicy, uc& decisions are made at &ead o((ices and guide

su/se uent decisions t&roug&out t&e organi3ation, t t&e regional level 'e mig&t


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develo! regional or >strategic? !olicy# '&ic& translates t&e national decisions to t&e

regional level# ta0ing into consideration t&e s!eci(ic conte.t, Jinally# t&e regional !olicy

is made s!eci(ic enoug& to guide o!erational decision ma0ing? mit $%%"# td, in

-or7man $%%*# !, "2,

o “@ori3ontal !olicy ma0ing# /y contrast# is develo!ed /y t'o or more

organi3ations# eac& o( '&ic& &as t&e a/ility or mandate to deal 'it& only one

dimension o( a given situation, @ori3ontal or integrated !olicy is created /et'een !arts

o( an organi3ation or among organi3ational com!onents t&at are similar in &ierarc&ical

!osition? mit $%%"# td, in -or7man $%%*# !, "2,

• =eactive vs, !roactive !olicy

o “=eactive !olicy emerges in res!onse to a concern or crisis t&at must /e

addressed &ealt& emergencies and environmental disasters are t'o e.am!les?

-or7man $%%*# !, "2,

o “Proactive !olicies# /y contrast# are introduced and !ursued t&roug& deli/erate

c&oice, -&e national s0ills and learning agenda e.em!li(ies t&is a!!roac&, no'ledge

and learning increasingly &ave /een recogni3ed as vital 0eys t&at unloc0 t&e doors to

/ot& economic 'ealt& and social 'ell /eing? !, "2,

• Ourrent vs, (uture !olicy

o Ourrent !olicies are t&ose t&at are currently in t&e !u/lic agenda, n e.am!le is

!olicies related to t&e (inancial crisis o( $%%8 $%%9,

o Juture !olices are !olices t&at are not currently in t&e !u/lic agenda, -or7man#

$%%*2

s (ar as '&at a !olicy oug&t to /e li0e# -or7man notes t&at !olicies need to &ave a very clear

o/7ective and stated goals, >HP u/lic !olicy see0s to ac&ieve a desired goal t&at is considered to /e in t&e


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/est interest o( all mem/ers o( society? $%%*# !, +2, >H ny given !olicy re!resents t&e end result o( a

decision as to &o' /est to ac&ieve a s!eci(ic o/7ective? !, +2 a decision made /y a !u/licly elected or

designated /ody '&ic& is deemed to /e !u/lic interest,

&ategori%ing the Policy

-&e National Policy on Education o( 1968 is a su/stantive# vertical# and reactive !olicy, s (ar as

categori3ing it as current or (uture is concerned# it is !ro/lematic to de(ine it as eit&er /ecause o( t&e

&istorical nature o( t&e document, Because !olicy related goals in India are commonly esta/lis&ed as (ive

year !lans# determining '&et&er or not t&e !olicy 'as current or (uture in nature /ecomes di((icult, ne

could !er&a!s esta/lis& t&is category i( !olitical discourses recorded during !olicy legislation 'ere

included in t&is study (or documentation and triangulation, @o'ever# given t&e sco!e o( t&e current study#

esta/lis&ing '&et&er t&e !olicy 'as current or (uture# 'as o( little signi(icance, -&is as!ect can !er&a!s /e

(urt&er scrutini3ed in (uture studies,

A&at is a!!arent (rom an initial reading o( t&e !olicy document is t&at it seems less li0e a !olicy

'it& clear and stated goals and im!lementation !lans and more li0e a !olitical document re!lete in

!olitical r&etoric a document '&ic& almost /orders an e((ort to grati(y t&e !olitical /elie(s o( t&e

administration in !o'er, !olicy document is su!!osed to &ave clear guidelines and measura/le goals

'it& stated timelines t&e NPE o( 1968 reads more li0e a document 'it& suggestions and is /ere(t o( any

!lans on &o' to ac&ieve t&em,

#o "inference &odes

5o' in(erence codes 'ere generated in t&e (irst ste! o( t&e coding !rocess, Jollo'ing 'ere t&e lo'

in(erence codes used:

• Enrollment

• -eac&ers

• 5anguage o( instruction


12/27


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at sc&ools A&y 'as t&e medium o( instruction suc& a crucial issue es!ecially at a time '&en t&e country

'as (aced 'it& muc& larger !ro/lems suc& as !overty# (amine and illiteracy

• A&y 'as t&e develo!ment o( science and tec&nology at t&e secondary and &ig&er education levels

o( suc& crucial im!ortance '&en /asic educational in(rastructure 'as &ig&ly de(icient

Based on t&e !rocess o( &ig& in(erence coding# su/7ective in(erences 'ere made and t&en

triangulated 'it& !u/lis&ed literature t&at commented on t&ese issues as 'ell, -&e detailed analysis is

!resented in t&e discussion section,

Findings and Discussion

$bser(ed Policy Dictates in the )P* of +,-.

Enrollment

s (ar as t&e issue o( enrollment is concerned# t&ere 'as no dictate ensuring t&at every c&ild in t&e

country 'ould /e enrolled in sc&ools, Policy dictates 'ere most dominant in addressing issues related to

ocial co&esionMnational integration and language o( instruction, -&ese t'o categories 'ere (ollo'ed

closely in ran0s on dictates !ertaining to cience Education, ll in all# t&e t&ree ma7or !ur!oses o( t&e

National Policy o( Education o( 1968 'ere clearly geared to'ards develo!ing national integration#

identi(ying a common language# and develo!ment in t&e area o( science and tec&nology,

-o sum it u!# t&e !olicy dictates addressed t&e (ollo'ing:

• 'edium of "nstruction

• The ommon *chool *ystem

• +andhi,s Education "deals

• 0uilding the *ocialist Nation

• *cience and Technology Education%

'edium of "nstruction


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Ae o/served t&at t&e dictate on t&e medium o( instruction 'as most !redominant, -&e discussion /elo'

ela/orates '&y t&e Government o( India !laced suc& im!ortance on t&is issue,

In t&e early 18%%’s# t&e East India Oom!any# a trading com!any '&ic& 'as ra!idly anne.ing states and

gaining !olitical (oot&old# too0 t&e res!onsi/ility o( centrali3ing and standardi3ing education t&roug& aO&arter ct o( 181", -&e o/7ective 'as to ensure t&at t&e education im!arted to t&e natives 'as not as

strati(ied as it 'as in t&e Pat&s&alas (or @indu students2 and ;adarsa&s (or ;uslim students2, In

res!onse to t&e c&arter# t&e very (irst O&ristian missionary sc&ools# called t&e t, ;ary’s O&arity c&ools#

'ere esta/lis&ed all across t&e country, Jollo'ing t&e c&arter in 181"# t&e education system came to /e#

(or t&e (irst time# controlled /y t&e state# /ot& !olitically and /ureaucratically nnamalai# $%%* Gos

$%%1 a3i# 198) ;oo0er7ee# 19++2, -&e !ur!ose o( doing so 'as e.tremely clear,

“-&e !olitical o/7ectives o( education and t&e c&oice o( language Ho( instruction# i,e,# Englis& 'ere made in

order to im!rove t&e colonial su/7ects in t&eir tem!oral use(ulness and /e&avioral morals# and to &ave a

cadre o( !eo!le to assist t&e colonial government /y 'or0ing in su/ordinate !ositions and /y /eing t&e

/u((er /et'een t&e rulers and t&e masses? nnamalai# $%%*# !, $12,

In addition# t&e goal 'as also to ensure t&at >Ht &e Natives must eit&er /e 0e!t do'n /y t&e sense o( Ht&e

im!erialists’ !o'er# or t&ey must 'illingly su/mit (rom a conviction t&at Ht&e Britis& government is more

'ise# more 7ust# more &umane# and more an.ious to im!rove t&eir condition t&an any ot&er rulers t&ey

could !ossi/ly &ave? Jaris& td, in Fis'anat&an# 1989# !, $2, -&e education system and t&e curriculum

'ere designed to serve t&is very !ur!ose,

ver t&e years# t&e natives 'ere led to /elieve# /y t&e im!erialists# t&at t&e culture and language o( t&e

rulers 'ere muc& su!erior and conse uently 'ort&y o( as!iring to, everal Indian social re(ormers o( t&etime# suc& as =a7a =am ;o&an =oy# su!!orted t&is /elie( on t&e grounds t&at an education t&at is more in

line 'it& t&e 'estern 'orldvie'# i,e,# t&e modern 'orldvie'# 'ould &el! alleviate some o( t&e ine ualities

t&at &ad !lagued t&e Indian society (or t&ousands o( years,

By 18*+# education in India 'as com!letely centrali3ed# im!arted in Englis and regional languages 'ere


15/27

not accounted (or nnamalai# $%%* ;e&rotra# $%%6 ;oo0er7ee# 19++2,

“A&ile on t&e one &and Heducation in Englis& led to t&e introduction o( '&at &as since /ecome a ma7or

language o( international discourse Englis& into Indian Education# it also &ad t&e (ar more damaging

conse uences o( segmenting t&e Indian education system into t&ose '&o received an Englis& educationand t&ose '&o did not? ;e&rotra# $%%6# !,112,

-&ere(ore# t&e !ur!ose o( t&e language com!onent in t&e !olicy document 'as not so muc& to articulate

t&e damages done /y t&e o!!ressive im!erialist rule# rat&er it 'as to give credi/ility to t&e ot&er regional

languages, Jrom t&e !olicy discourse articulating t&e language !olicy# t&e administration ac0no'ledged

t&e u/i uitousness o( Englis& in t&e society and made a !ronounced statement to elevate t&e regional

languages to t&e same social status t&at Englis& s!ea0ing natives en7oyed, -&e assum!tion 'as# i( all

regional languages en7oyed t&e same status as did Englis t&e social strati(ication t&at t&e Indian society

encountered# /ased on an individual s language a/ilities# 'ould /e alleviated,

Jrom a !ostcolonial !ers!ective# t&e detail 'it& '&ic& t&e language o( instruction 'as articulated is

7usti(ied, -&e act o( im!osing t&e ruler’s language and culture on a coloni3ed nation is common among

coloni3ers, 5anguage is t&e cornerstone o( a culture, I( a !articular society’s language is made

insigni(icant# t&e culture t&at t&e language is lin0ed to (ollo's t&e very same (ate, -&ere(ore# i( an im!erial

!o'er 'is&es to su/7ugate an e.isting culture# t&e most e((ective manner in '&ic& to do so 'ould /e to

gradually erase t&e traces o( t&e e.isting language, -&e !olicy document# t&ere(ore# rig&tly re(lects t&e

counter attem!ts o( t&e government at t&e time, -&e goal 'as to /ring /ac0 t&e regional languages into

mainstream India in order to re7uvenate t&e nation /ac0 into unison a(ter centuries o( im!erialist

o!!ression,

In addition# t&e !olicy clearly designates @indi as t&e lingua franca o( t&e nation and recommends t&at it

s&ould /ecome t&e !rimary language o( instruction, It sti!ulates t&at t&e use o( @indi s&ould /e

encouraged across t&e nation at all levels o( education, A&at is not clear is '&y Englis& is included in t&e

t&ree language recommendation '&en t&e su!!osed eventual goal 'as to /uild a uni(ied @indi s!ea0ing


16/27

nation, t t&e same time# &o'ever# designating @indi as t&e national language 'ould not come /ere(t o(

!olitical /aggage, ( t&e $8 states and ) Union -erritories# residents in only + states &ad /een traditionally

s!ea0ing @indi, -&ere(ore# mandating t&at educational institutions es!ecially universities# use @indi as

t&eir medium o( instruction# 'ould &ave !laced a lot o( !eo!le at a disadvantage, -&e disadvantage lay not

only in terms o( s0ill and com(ort level 'it& t&e language# /ut also 'ould &ave created t&e issue o( cultural

disen(ranc&isement (or students '&o did not s!ea0 &indi, @o'ever# t&e uestion t&at one can as0 is on

'&at /asis or e!istemological grounding 'as t&e decision made to designate @indi as t&e o((icial

language Aas t&e general !u/lic in t&is democratic nation consulted on t&e c&oice o( t&e o((icial

language

The ommon *chool *ystem

-&e structure o( education# enumerated in t&e !olicy document as t&e common sc&ool system# 'as

dictated to /e ado!ted t&roug&out t&e nation, -&e e.isting education system 'as not really /eing

re(ormed or re designed it 'as sim!ly /eing re articulated and (ormali3ed in a !olitical discourse,

-&e (irst attem!t to standardi3e t&e structure o( education 'as made /y t&e Britis& government in

t&e year 188$, -&e Indian Education Oommission# a!!ointed in 188$# made several recommendations

de(ining t&e structure o( education# and t&e role o( government and missionary enter!rises in Indian

education, -&e !ro!osed structure 'as t&at Primary education /ecome a !art o( t&e system o( !u/lic

education secondary education /e /i(urcated at t'o levels# one leading to entrance e.aminations o( t&e

universities# and t&e ot&er >intended to (it yout&s (or commercial or non literary !ursuits? Bagulia# $%%+#

!, 18%2, -&e national council o( education 'as registered on Kune 1# 19%6 and t&e sc&eme o( studies t&at

included Primary tage# econdary tage lo'er# econdary tage u!!er and t&e Oollegiate tage 'ere

ado!ted,

In addition# t&e recommendation regarding t&e !rimary and secondary education structure dre'

entirely (rom t&e Indian Education Oommission =e!ort o( 188$, No recommendations 'ere made to

revisit t&e educational system to assess i( t&e system 'as serving t&e educational goals o( t&e country, -&e


17/27

only suggestion t&at t&e commission made 'as to add an additional year in secondary education at t&e

university level on to! o( '&at 'as already in !lace since t&e Indian Education Oommission directives, -&e

education structure under t&e very (irst uni(ied National Policy since inde!endence continued to /e t&e

legacy o( t&e Britis& government ;inistry o( @uman =esource Develo!ment# 19682, -&e

recommendations o( t&e Education Oommission# '&ic& 'ere ado!ted# laid t&e (oundations o( t&e Indian

education system# '&ic& is (ollo'ed until today and 'as /eing (ollo'ed at t&e time NPE o( 1968 'as /eing

dra(ted,

+andhi,s Education "deals

ince t&e 188$ Education Oommission recommendations# t&e most crucial government initiative# as (ar as

t&e Indian Education ystem is concerned# came in t&e (orm o( t&e Government o( India ct o( 19"*, -&e

19"* act 'as t&e (irst ste! to'ard India’s !olitical inde!endence '&ere it !laced !rovincial administration

under a ministry o( a ma7ority o( elected mem/ers, -&e ct# also (or t&e (irst time# divided all educational

activities into t'o categories Oentral Jederal2 and tate Provincial2, In 19")# a con(erence called t&e

Aard&a Oon(erence 'as called under t&e leaders&i! o( ;o&andas , Gand&i to address t&e issue o(

education in India, -&e con(erence !assed t&e (ollo'ing resolutions:

• Jree and com!ulsory education (or seven years on a nation'ide scale

• ;ot&er tongue as t&e medium o( instruction

• Education s&ould (ocus on manual la/or

Due to t&e !olitical clout t&at Gand&i en7oyed# a committee 'as a!!ointed '&ic& su/mitted t&e

re!ort (rom t&e Aard&a Oon(erence# 0no'n as t&e ardha *cheme of Education # to t&e Indian NationalOongress in ;arc& 19"8, -&e recommendations su/mitted /y t&e con(erence 'ere unanimously acce!ted,

-&e resolutions o( t&e Aard&a Oon(erence ring very closely 'it& t&e !olicy dictates o( t&e NPE o(

1968, s noted at t&e coding levels# u/i uitous re(erences to Gand&i and &is educational ideals 'ere 'ell

ado!ted in t&e !olicy suggestions o( 1968, Every single one o( t&e Aard&a Oon(erence resolutions o( 19")


18/27

&as /een articulated in t&e !olicy document o( 1968, It does seem strange t&at educational resolutions

esta/lis&ed in t&e year 19") s&ould /e ado!ted into a document t&at is to c&art t&e (uture o( a nation in

t&e year 1968, No em!irical studies &ad /een !u/lis&ed at t&e time to testi(y to t&e e((icacy o( t&e a/ove

mentioned resolutions yet# t&ey 'ere unanimously ado!ted into t&e design o( India s (uture in education,

-&e reason (or suc& un&indered ado!tion is e.tremely sim!le, -&e !arty in !o'er at t&e time 'as t&e

Indian National Oongress Party t&at Gand&i &ad /ecome uite an active mem/er o( since 19%1, nd t&e

Prime ;inister at t&e time 'as Ka'a&arlal Ne&ru# Gand&i’s !olitical !rotRgR, -&ere(ore# !olitical !andering

/y congress a!!ointed /ureaucrats res!onsi/le (or dra(ting t&e NPE o( 1968# could /est /e accom!lis&ed

/y ec&oing Gand&i’s educational !rinci!les and ideals,

-&roug& t&e !ro!osed structural recommendations# it /ecomes clear t&at muc& o( t&e National

Policy and t&e Oommission =e!ort dre' &eavily on t&e Gand&ian !&iloso!&y o( education enumerated in

t&e Aard&a =e!ort o( 19"), Issues suc& as (ree and com!ulsory education# '&ic& &ad /een ado!ted as

article +* in t&e constitution# 'ere re iterated in t&e recommendation as 'ell as su!!orted 'it& a !olicy

directive, -&e language !olicy as 'ell dre' &eavily on t&e Aard&a c&eme '&ere @indi and t&e maternal

-ongue 'ere recommended as t&e language o( instruction,

0uilding the *ocialist Nation

India a(ter inde!endence in 19+) emerged as t&e -emocratic *ocialist .epu lic of "ndia under t&e

leaders&i! o( Ka'a&arlal Ne&ru# t&e very (irst !rime minister, Educated at @arro's# one o( Britain’s

rare(ied !rivate sc&ools# and t&en in Oam/ridge /e(ore uali(ying as a /arrister in 5ondon# Ne&ru 'as an

Ed'ardian gentleman greatly in(luenced /y t&e Ja/ians a grou! o( le(t 'ing u!!er class Englis&men

'&o /elieved t&at socialism can /e >im!lemented !eace(ully t&roug& a state run /y a uali(ied class o(

!latonic tec&nocrats? 5uce# $%%)# !, 162, Ne&ru’s economic model and t&e educational model 'ere greatly

in(luenced /y t&is /elie(, Ne&ru vie'ed ca!italistic money ma0ing enter!rises scorn(ully and /elieved t&at

t&e country# a(ter gaining (reedom# s&ould strive (or economic sel( su((iciency, =e(lections o( t&e ideology

come t&roug& clearly# not only in t&e recommendations# /ut also in t&e National Policy, -&ere are several

instances in t&e !olicy document '&ere Lnational serviceL# Lvoluntary serviceL# etc,# are &ig&lig&ted as


19/27

some o( t&e goals educational institutions s&ould strive (or in order to /uild a socialist nation,

n t&e economic (ront# Ne&ru s0ill(ully (orged a consensus to /ear (ruit (or &is idealistic visions /y &aving

t&e state lead e((orts to'ards economic sel( su((iciency, -&e !lan 'as to create steel !lants# aluminum

re(ineries# and dams and &ave all suc& economic !ursuits controlled /y t&e state all t&is '&ile t&ecountry 'as still essentially agrarian 5uce# $%%) Farma# $%%*2, -&e man!o'er at t&e time to su!!ort

suc& ele!&antine !ro7ects 'as &ard to (ind# as a ma7ority o( t&e country’s !o!ulation 'as reeling under

e.treme !overty and im!ending (amine,

*cience and Technology Education

Ne&ru envisioned t&at in order to t&e !ull t&e lum/ering economy o( India into t&e $% t& century and into

t&e Industrial age# India needed to leave its ancient crutc&es o( tradition /e&ind and em/race modernity,

>H@ e set out to create t&e in(rastructure o( scienti(ic and tec&nical education to !rovide increasing

num/ers o( Indians 'it& t&e o!!ortunity to train as doctors# engineers# and scientists? Farma# $%%*2,

1+4 o( t&e nation’s education /udget in t&e (irst Jive Sear Plan 19*1 19*62 'as allocated to tec&nical

education com!ared to *4 dedicated to secondary education, -&e second Jive Sear Plan 19*6 to 19612

allocated 184 to tec&nical education and t&e t&ird 1961 19662# $14, s t&e years !rogressed# t&e

!ercentage o( (unds allocated to tec&nical and &ig&er education 0e!t steadily rising to t&e !oint '&ere a

uarter o( t&e /udget 'as allocated to state run institutions o((ering &ig&er and tec&nical education, >-&e

resultant educational edi(ice in '&ic& t&e (oundations 'ere relatively neglected '&ile /uilding t&e su!er

structure? Farma# $%%*# !, 1%*2 e.!lains '&y today India &as t&e largest reservoir o( tec&nologically and

scienti(ically trained and s0illed man!o'er as 'ell as t&e largest num/er o( illiterate citi3ens and out o(

sc&ool c&ildren Farma# $%%*2,

-o digress (rom t&e Ne&ruvian model o( education and to recti(y t&e system# t&e Education

Oommission o( 196+ in its re!ort made 11 recommendations in t&e area o( !rimary education and $%

recommendations in t&e areas o( secondary and &ig&er secondary education, s (ar as tec&nical education

is concerned# t&e commission made merely + recommendations, -&e recommendations ranged (rom


20/27

uni(ied educational structure at /ot& levels !rimary and secondary2# teac&er education at t&e !rimary

and secondary level# to administration# (unding# resource allocation# curriculum# im!roving attendance#

and so on, -&e National Policy on Education o( 1968# &o'ever# res!onded 'it& a r&etorical directive in t&e

realm o( /ot& !rimary and secondary education /ut 'it& very clear and 'ell articulated goals in t&e realm

o( education in science# tec&nology# and researc&,

onclusion

A&at is star0ly missing in t&e recommendations and t&e !olicy# and illustrated to t&e very last

detail in a myriad o( /oo0s and essays# is t&e analysis o( t&e needs o( t&e society at t&e time t&e

recommendations and t&e !olicies 'ere released, t t&e time o( inde!endence# 6%4 o( t&e !o!ulation 'as

illiterate, -&e !olicy# instead o( ma0ing !rovisions on &o' /est to &ave educational o!!ortunities availa/le

to every citi3en no matter &o' remote or inaccessi/le t&eir to'n or village# elected to dis!lay a/undant

r&etoric in matters o( national language and creating t&e common sc&ool system, ( course# t&ere is no

denying t&at a common language (or t&e nation to (unction as a uni(ied '&ole is e.tremely im!ortant,

@o'ever# &o' does any government decide '&at t&at language oug&t to /e in a nation o( $$ languages and

an unaccounta/le num/er o( dialects Is language really t&at im!ortant an issue '&en t&e country at t&e

time is de!endent on U (ood aid to (eed its citi3ens

n a more sym!at&etic note# India 'as (aced 'it& tremendous !ro/lems at t&e on set o(

inde!endence, Oou!led 'it& t&e a/sence o( national !ride and t&e unanimous desire to com!letely

se!arate itsel( (rom its colonial !ast# Indian !oliticians# la'ma0ers# and !olicy ma0ers 'ere indeed (aced

'it& a gargantuan tas0, ur!risingly# amidst all its mass !overty# litany o( uneducated and unem!loyed

yout and social and !olitical unrest in various !arts o( t&e country# India remained a democracy and did

not crum/le in (ace o( conditions t&at could &ave uite 'ell su!!orted an autocratic regime, Due to t&e

nature o( t&e !ro/lems t&at t&e nation (aced at t&e onset o( inde!endence# education ended u! ta0ing a

/ac0 seat, Per&a!s# none o( t&e leaders 'ere !erce!tive enoug& to reali3e t&at t&e (uture o( t&e country

de!ended on &o' com!etent its citi3ens are or 'ill /e, r# !er&a!s# due to !olitical stri(e and t&e race (or

!olitical dominance# education could never create enoug& leverage (or continued and sustained


21/27

government investment, Jor 'e all 0no'# to 'itness t&e /ene(its o( education# it sometimes ta0es more

t&an a li(etime,


22/27

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JiK -o!ics researc&ed include: vocational education Patel# 1996 -ila0# 19882# tec&nologyeducation lt/ac 199" O&andrase0&ar# $%%" Ganes& < aru!ria# 198" Go0&ale# 199*2#

!rimary education yyar# 1996 B&alotra < Tamora# $%%6 Elmore# 19)9 @eyneman# $%%"&aniya < Ailliams# $%%+ ravdal# $%%+ -aylor# 1991/ Farma# $%%*2# &ig&er educationBrats/erg < -errell# $%%$ &aniya < Ailliams# $%%+ taley# 1969 -ila0 < Farg&ese# 19912#

secondary education a/ir# 19** el( < Gra/o's0i# $%%+ Duraisamy# $%%$2# multilingualeducation nnamalai# $%%* 5aDousa# $%%*2# economics and education O&ilcott# 198)2# teac&ereducation Dyer et al,# $%%$ Gle''e < remer# $%%6 Koyce < &o'ers# 198*2# curriculum andinstruction lt/ac 199" -aylor# 1991a2# enrollment Jilmer < Pritc&ett# 19992# and literacy

Bordia < aul# 199$ Dre3e < 5o 199* Gusta(sson# 19912 ,

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