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ART & CULTURE
An initiative of Group
B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY
Civil Services Examination
Art & Culture© Copyright, by MADE EASY Publications.
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Unit – I: Visual Arts
Chapter-1
Indian Architecture .........................................................21.1 Indian Architecture in Ancient India ....................................2
Indus Valley Civilisation Architecture ..................................2
1.2 Mauryan Architecture ..........................................................4
1.3 Post-Mauryan Architecture .................................................6
1.4 Sangam Architecture ..........................................................6
1.5 Architecture in Gupta Age ..................................................6
1.6 Gupta Cave Shrines ............................................................7
1.7 Temple Architecture ............................................................9
1.8 Evolution of Temple Architecture in Gupta Period .............10
1.9 Different Styles of Temple Architecture .............................11
1.10 Indian Architecture in Medieval Times ..............................15
1.11 Prominent Indo-Islamic Architectural Styles ......................16
1.12 Provincial School of Architecture ......................................19
1.13 Mughal Architecture ..........................................................20
1.14 Early Modern Indian Architecture .....................................24
1.15 Colonial Architecture .........................................................24
Chapter 2Indian Sculpture ...........................................................282.1 Features of Indian Sculpture ............................................28
2.2 Indus Civilization Sculptures .............................................28
Metal Sculptures of Indus Valley Civilization .....................28
Stone Sculptures of Indus Valley Civilization ....................29
Terracotta Sculpture of Indus Valley Civilization ...............29
2.3 Mauryan Empire Sculptures ..............................................30
Foreign Influence on Mauryan Sculpture ..........................30
Stupa Sculpture of Mauryan Empire .................................30
Pillar Sculptures of Mauryan Empire .................................30
Figurine Sculptures of Mauryan Empire ...........................31
2.4 Post Mauryan Empire Sculptures ......................................31
Sculptures of Kushana Empire ..........................................31
Sculptures of Gandhara School ........................................31
Sculptures of Mathura School of Art .................................31
Sculptures of Amaravati School of Art ..............................32
Sculptures of Gupta Empire ..............................................33
Sculptures of Pala School .................................................34
Sculptures of Chalukyas ...................................................34
Badami Chalukya Sculptures ............................................34
Western Chalukyan Sculptures .........................................35
Eastern Chalukyan Sculptures ..........................................35
Rashtrakuta Sculptures .....................................................35
Sculptures of Hoysalas .....................................................36
Sculptures of Vijaynagara Empire .....................................36
Sculptures of Chola Empire ..............................................36
Sculptures of Pallava Empire ............................................37
2.5 Sculptures of Medieval India ............................................37
Delhi Sultanate Sculptures ................................................37
Mughal Sculptures ............................................................38
Modern Indian Sculptures .................................................38
Chapter 3Indian Paintings ............................................................403.1 Principles of Painting ........................................................40
3.2 Pre-Historic Paintings........................................................40
Upper Paleolithic Period ...................................................40
Mesolithic period ..............................................................40
Chalcolithic Period Art ......................................................41
3.3 Classification of Indian Paintings ......................................41
Mural Paintings .................................................................41
Miniature Paintings ...........................................................43
Rajput Paintings ................................................................45
3.4 Pahari Style .......................................................................47
3.5 Miniatures in South India ...................................................48
Tanjore Paintings ...............................................................48
Mysore Paintings ..............................................................48
3.6 Modern Paintings ..............................................................49
Company Paintings ...........................................................49
Bazaar Paintings ...............................................................49
3.7 Cubist Style of Painting .....................................................49
3.8 Famous Indian Painters ....................................................50
Raja Ravi Varma................................................................50
Amrita Shergill ..................................................................50
M. F. Hussain ....................................................................50
Abinandranath Tagore (1871-1951) ..................................50
Tyeb Mehta (1925-2009) ...................................................51
Satish Gujral .....................................................................51
3.9 Folk Paintings in India .......................................................51
Madhubani Paintings ........................................................51
Pattachitra Paintings .........................................................51
Kalighat Paintings .............................................................52
Warli Paintings ..................................................................52
Paitkar Paintings ...............................................................52
Kohvar and Sohrai Paintings .............................................52
Kalamkari Paintings ..........................................................53
Phad Paintings ..................................................................53
Manjusha Paintings ...........................................................53
Thangka Paintings ............................................................53
Patua Art Paintings ...........................................................54
Pithoro Paintings ...............................................................54
Pichchavi Paintings (Nathdwara Paintings) ......................54
Art & CultureContents
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Cheriyal scroll painting .....................................................54
Kalamezhuthu ...................................................................55
Geographical Indication (GI) protected Paintings of India ..............................................................................55
Chapter 4Indian Handicraft ..........................................................564.1 Textiles ..............................................................................56
Jamdani ............................................................................56
Ikat (Ikkat) .........................................................................56
4.2 Surface Decoration of Textiles ..........................................57
Textile Printing ...................................................................57
Kalamkari ..........................................................................57
Tie and Dye ......................................................................57
Batik ..................................................................................57
Applique Work ..................................................................58
4.3 Embriodery of India ..........................................................58
Phulkari .............................................................................58
Zardozi ..............................................................................58
Aari ...................................................................................58
Banjara Embroidery ..........................................................58
Chikankari ........................................................................58
Crewel ...............................................................................59
Gota Work .........................................................................59
Kantha ..............................................................................59
Karchobi ..........................................................................59
Kashidakari .......................................................................59
Kasuti ................................................................................59
Kathi (Rabari Art) ..............................................................59
Patti Ka Kaam ..................................................................60
Pichwai .............................................................................60
Shamilami ........................................................................60
Toda Embroidery ...............................................................60
4.4 Ivory Crafting ....................................................................60
4.5 Wooden Work....................................................................60
Wood Carving ...................................................................60
Wood Inlay/Marquetry .......................................................60
Wood (Turning and Lacquerware) ....................................61
4.6 Clay and Pottery Work ......................................................61
4.7 Metal Crafts ......................................................................61
4.8 Leather Products ..............................................................62
4.9 Evolution of Pottery ...........................................................62
4.10 Neolithic Age ....................................................................62
Features ............................................................................62
4.11 Chalcolithic Age ................................................................62
4.12 Harappan Civilization ........................................................63
Polished Ware Pottery with rough surface ........................63
4.13 Vedic Era–PGW .................................................................63
4.14 Later Vedic Era–NBPW .....................................................64
4.15 End of Later Vedic Era–NBPW ..........................................64
4.16 Megalithic Era ...................................................................64
Chapter 5UNESCO Tangible World Heritage Sites ....................655.1 Criteria for Selection .........................................................65
5.2 Legal Status of Designated Sites ......................................65
5.3 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India .............................65
5.4 Cultural Sites (29) .............................................................66
Agra Fort (1983) ...............................................................66
Ajanta Caves (1983) .........................................................66
Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar (2016) ......................................................................66
Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi (1989) .............................66
Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park (2004) ..........67
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (2004) .................................67
Churches and Convents (1986) ........................................67
Elephanta Caves (1987) ...................................................67
Ellora Caves (1983) ..........................................................67
Fatehpur Sikri (1986) ........................................................68
Great Living Chola Temples (1987) ...................................68
Group of Monuments at Hampi (1986) ..............................68
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984) ...............69
Group of Monument at Pattadakal (1987) .........................69
Hill Forts of Rajasthan (2013) ............................................70
Historic City of Ahmadabad (2017) ...................................70
Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi (1993) .........................................70
Khajuraho Group of Monuments (1986) ............................70
Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya (2002) ..........70
Mountain Railways of India (1999) ....................................71
Qutb Minar and it Monuments (1993) Delhi (1993) ......................................................................71
Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell), Gujrat (2014) ............71
Red Fort Complex (2007) ..................................................71
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003) ...................................71
Sun Temple, Konark (1984) ...............................................71
Taj Mahal (1983) ...............................................................72
Architectural Work of Le Corbusier (2016) ........................72
Jantar Mantar (2010) ........................................................72
Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai (2018) ..................................................................72
Natural Sites .....................................................................72
Mixed (1) ...........................................................................72
Unit – II: Performing Arts
Chapter 6Indian Music ..................................................................756.1 Origin And History Of Indian Music .................................76
6.2 Pillars of Indian Music .......................................................76
Swara ................................................................................76
Raga .................................................................................76
Tala ...................................................................................77
6.3 Classification of Indian Music ...........................................77
Classical Music .................................................................77
Carnatic Music ..................................................................81
6.4 Indian Folk Music ..............................................................82
Baul, West Bengal ............................................................82
Wanawan, Kashmir ...........................................................82
Pandavani, Chhattisgarh ...................................................82
Rasiya Geet, Uttar Pradesh ..............................................82
Pankhida, Rajasthan .........................................................82
Lotia, Rajasthan ................................................................82
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Mando, Goa ......................................................................82
Alha, Uttar Pradesh ...........................................................82
Hori, Uttar Pradesh ...........................................................82
Sohar, Uttar Pradesh .........................................................82
Chhakri, Kashmir ..............................................................82
Laman, Himachal Pradesh ................................................83
Kajri, Uttar Pradesh ...........................................................83
Powada, Maharashtra .......................................................83
Teej Songs, Rajasthan ......................................................83
Burrakatha, Andhra Pradesh ............................................83
Bhakha, Jammu and Kashmir ...........................................83
Bhuta song, Kerala ...........................................................83
Daskathia, Odisha ............................................................83
Bihu songs, Assam ...........................................................83
Sana Lamok, Manipur .......................................................83
Songs of Lai Haraoba Festival, Manipur ...........................83
Saikuti Zai (songs of Saikuti), Mizoram .............................83
Chai hia (songs of the Chai Dance), Mizoram ..................83
Ghasiyari Geet, Garhwal ...................................................83
Villu Pattu, “Bow Song”, Tamil Nadu .................................83
Lavani, Maharashtra .........................................................84
Bhangra, Punjab ...............................................................84
Dandiya, Gujrat .................................................................84
Paani Hari, Rajasthan .......................................................84
Khongjom Parva, Manipur ................................................84
6.5 Fusion of Classical and Folk Music ...................................84
Sugam Sangeet ................................................................84
Rabindra Sangeet .............................................................85
Haveli Sangeet ..................................................................85
Gana Sangeet ...................................................................85
6.6 Modern Music ...................................................................85
Rock..................................................................................85
Jazz ..................................................................................85
Psychedelic Trance ...........................................................85
Pop Music .........................................................................85
6.7 Musical Instruments ..........................................................85
Tata Vadya ........................................................................85
Sushira Vadya ...................................................................86
Awanad/Avanaddha Vadya (Percussion Instruments) ......86
Ghana Vadya (Idiophones) ...............................................86
Chapter 7Dances of India .............................................................877.1 Introduction .......................................................................87
7.2 Aspects & Elements of Various Dances ............................87
7.3 Indian Classical Dance Forms ..........................................87
Bharatnatyam ....................................................................88
Kuchipudi .........................................................................89
Kathakali ...........................................................................90
Mohiniattam ......................................................................91
Odissi................................................................................91
Manipuri ............................................................................93
Kathak ...............................................................................93
Sattriya ..............................................................................94
7.4 Folk Dances of India .........................................................95
Folk Dances of Uttar Pradesh ...........................................96
Folk Dances of Rajasthan .................................................97
Folk Dances of Kashmir ....................................................98
Folk Dances of Punjab ......................................................98
Folk Dances of Arunachal Pradesh ...................................99
Folk Dances of Haryana....................................................99
Folk Dances of Maharashtra ............................................99
Folk Dances of Gujarat ...................................................100
Folk Dances of Odisha....................................................100
Folk Dances of Madhya Pradesh ....................................101
Folk Dances of Manipur ..................................................101
Folk Dances of Mizoram .................................................101
Other Folk Dances of North Eastern States ....................102
Other Folk Dances ..........................................................102
Martial Dances of India ...................................................103
Chapter 8Indian Theatre .............................................................1058.1 Classical Sanskrit Theatre ...............................................105
8.2 Famous Sanskrit Playwrights ..........................................105
Types of Sanskrit Plays ...................................................106
Elements of Sanskrit Play ................................................106
Decline of Sanskrit Theatre .............................................106
8.3 Indian Folk Theatre .........................................................106
Theatres of Northern India ..............................................107
Theatres of Eastern India ................................................108
Theatres of Western India ...............................................110
Theatres of Southern India ..............................................110
Chapter 9Indian Puppetry ..........................................................1139.1 History associated with Puppetry in India .......................113
9.2 Types of Puppetry ...........................................................113
Glove Puppets ................................................................113
String Puppets ................................................................114
Rod puppets ...................................................................115
Shadow Puppets .............................................................116
9.3 Other Related Information ...............................................117
Union Internationale de la Marionnette (UNIMA) ............117
Digital puppetry ..............................................................117
Chapter 10UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage ......................11810.1 Intangible cultural heritage .............................................118
10.2 Kutiyattam (Sanskrit theatre) ...........................................119
10.3 The Tradition of Vedic Chanting ......................................119
10.4 Ramlila - the Traditional Performance of the Ramayana .119
10.5 Novruz ............................................................................119
10.6 Ramman .........................................................................120
10.7 Chhau Dance ..................................................................120
10.8 Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan .................120
10.9 Mudiyettu ........................................................................120
10.10 Buddhist Chanting of Ladakh .........................................121
10.11 Sankirtana of Manipur .....................................................121
10.12 Brass and Copper Utensil (Thatheras) ...........................121
10.13 Yoga ................................................................................122
10.14 Kumbh Mela ....................................................................122
Unit – III: Culture of India
Chapter 11National Symbols of India ..........................................124
Chapter 12Religions in India ........................................................12712.1 Hinduism .........................................................................127
Evolution .........................................................................127
Vaishnavism ....................................................................127
Shaivism .........................................................................128
Shaktism .........................................................................128
Smartism .........................................................................128
Varnas .............................................................................128
Ashramas ........................................................................128
Hindu texts ......................................................................128
Hindu Pilgrimage ............................................................128
Shramana Traditions .......................................................129
Philosophy of Shramana Tradition ...................................129
12.2 Jainism ............................................................................129
Principles ........................................................................129
Tirthankara ......................................................................130
Jain Sects .......................................................................130
Jaina Literature ...............................................................130
Jain Rituals .....................................................................130
12.3 Buddhism .......................................................................131
Gautama Buddha ...........................................................131
Principles ........................................................................131
Branches of Buddhism ...................................................131
The Four Noble Truths .....................................................132
Noble Eightfold Path ......................................................132
Practices .........................................................................132
Dharmachakra ................................................................133
Tibetan Buddhism ...........................................................133
12.4 Sikhism ...........................................................................134
Principles of Sikhism .......................................................134
The Khalsa and five K’s ...................................................134
Sri Guru Granth Sahib .....................................................134
12.5 Islam ...............................................................................134
Principles of Islam ...........................................................134
Basic Islamic Beliefs are: ...............................................134
Main Sects of Islam .........................................................135
Khalifah ...........................................................................135
Prophets of Islam ............................................................135
Prophet Muhammad .......................................................135
Islam in India ..................................................................135
12.6 Sufism .............................................................................136
The Origin .......................................................................136
Fundamental principles ..................................................136
Sama ...............................................................................136
12.7 Dawoodi Bohras .............................................................136
12.8 Christianity ......................................................................137
Origin ..............................................................................137
Fundamental principles of Christianity ............................137
Bible ...............................................................................137
Christian sects ................................................................137
Christianity in India .........................................................137
12.9 Judaism ..........................................................................137
History ............................................................................138
Beliefs and practices ......................................................138
Jewish sects ...................................................................138
Judaism in India ..............................................................138
12.10 Zoroastrianism ................................................................138
Practices .........................................................................139
Religious Scriptures ........................................................139
Sects ...............................................................................139
Zoroastrians of India .......................................................139
12.11 Bahai Faith ......................................................................139
Beliefs and practices ......................................................139
The Lotus Temple ............................................................139
12.12 Religious Pilgrimages of India ........................................139
Amarnath Yatra ...............................................................139
Hajj .................................................................................140
Kumbh Mela ....................................................................140
Ayyappa Temple .............................................................140
Pushkar Mela ..................................................................140
Urs of Khwaja Moin-Ud-Din Chishti .................................141
Chapter 13Languages in India .....................................................14313.1 Classification of Indian Languages .................................143
Languages Vs. Dialects ..................................................143
13.2 Indo-Aryan Group of Languages ....................................143
Old Indo-Aryan Group (1500–300 BCE) .........................143
Middle Indo-Aryan Languages ......................................143
Modern Indo-Aryan Languages .....................................144
13.3 Dravidian Group .............................................................144
13.4 Sino-Tibetan Group .........................................................144
Tibeto-Burman ................................................................144
Siamese-Chinese ............................................................144
13.5 Austric Group ..................................................................144
13.6 Others .............................................................................145
13.7 Official Languages of India .............................................145
Official Languages in States ..........................................145
Language of communication between Union and States .............................................................................145
Language of courts .........................................................145
Special directive for promotion of Hindi ..........................145
First Official Language Commission ..............................145
13.8 Scheduled languages .....................................................145
13.9 Status of Classical Language .........................................146
Calls for Classical Languages .......................................146
Criteria for Classical Languages in India .......................146
Current Classical Languages .........................................146
Benefits of the Status ......................................................146
13.10 National Translation Mission............................................146
13.11 Linguistic Diversity Index ................................................146
Chapter 14Fairs and Festivals of India .......................................14814.1 Harvest Festivals .............................................................148
14.2 Sankranti .........................................................................148
Uttar Pradesh ..................................................................148
Bengal ............................................................................148
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Section
Visual Arts
A
1Indian Architecture
Indian architecture, an expression over space and time, has evolved through centuries. It is closely associated with its history,
religion, culture, geography and socio-economic conditions. As India hosts diversity in the before mentioned respects, Indian
architectural styles also shows diversities. In this chapter, this evolution will be discussed in details beginning from ancient
Indian architecture to modern times.
The whole chapter is divided into three sections:
• Indian architecture in Ancient India
• Indian architecture in medieval times
• Modern Indian architecture
1.1 Indian Architecture in Ancient IndiaAlthough art forms like pottery, sculpture etc., had taken shape in prehistoric period, yet architecture in its present forms has its roots in Indus valley civilization in the form of town planning.
Indus Valley Civilisation Architecture• This period extending from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE
witnessed the development of some of the earliest big buildings in India. There are various important sites of Indus valley civilization each with its unique architectural features along with similarities. These sites possessed a flourishing urban architecture.
Some unique features of its urban architecture are:
Figure: Citadel of Indus Valley Civilisation
• In most sites, cities were divided into 2 parts:
� Citadel: It is smaller and higher (standing some 40 to 50 feet above) than the rest of the area and situated on the western side of the town.
� Lower town: It occupies much larger area as compared to citadel but is on a lower plain than citadel. It is situated on the eastern side. It is divided into wards like chess board
• Cities are in parallelogramic form laid out in a regular
grid pattern.
• There were large-scale use of burnt bricks of standard dimensions (4×2×1) for purpose of construction and thus there was marked difference from expectations as there was absence of stone buildings:
� These bricks were coated with plaster and also
made water tight with natural tar or gypsum.
� In Houses, kutcha bricks were used while in
bathrooms and drains pucca bricks were used
which were made waterproof by using gypsum.
• The cities comprised of well-planned and thought out architectural features:
� Underground drainage with inspection holes – Drainage system has been the most striking feature of this civilization. Small drains ran from each house and were connected to drains running along the main roads. The inspection hole, where top cover was loosely attached, was mainly to allow regular cleaning and maintenance. The picture below de-picts the drainage and houses.
� The streets were all aligned from east to west or from north to south.
Figure: Drainage Mohenjo Daro
• Citadel comprised various buildings like Great bath, pillared assembly halls, granaries etc.
Figure: Great Bath Mohenjo Daro
� Great Bath: Great bath, found at the site of Mo-henjodaro, had an ingenious hydraulic system. It denotes the prevalence of public baths and thus importance of ritualistic cleansing in that era.
� The pool used to be in the centre of a large open quadrangle surrounded by rooms on all sides. It is connected to these rooms through a flight of steps at either end. The pool was fed by a well nearby and the dirty water was drained into the city’s sewage system through a large corbelled drain.
� Granaries: The granaries were designed with strategic air ducts and raised platforms, giving us an idea of the intelligence behind its construction. The largest building in Mohenjodaro was granary. Some sites like Harappa had as many as six gra-naries.
� Pillared Assembly Hall: The pillared hall with twen-ty pillars arranged in rows of five probably carried a large roof supported on them. It might have served as the court of the city magistrate or as a secretariat of the State.
Figure: Pillared Assembly Hall
• Lower town had houses of various different sizes which, as some researchers believe that, showed people had different economic status. The class distinction between rich and poor existed where rich had private wells and toilets. � No house had windows opening up in the main
street. Even entrance of the house was through sideways.
� Most buildings were properly ventilated even as the
constructions varied from a one-roomed building to
even double-storied houses.
� A house plan is shown in the given picture.
Figure: House Plan
Other important findings are:
• Harappa � Coffin burial.
� Granary outside the fort.
� Phallus worship.
� Graveyard.
� Mother goddess.
3Art & CultureAn initiative of Group
B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY
22Indian Sculpture
The tradition of Indian sculpture extends from the Indus valley civilization of 2500 to 1800 BCE, during which time small terra-cotta figurines were produced. The great circular stone pillars and carved lions of the Mauryan period (3rd century BCE) gave way to mature Indian figurative sculpture in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. A wide range of styles and traditions subsequently flourished in different parts of India over the succeeding centuries, but by the 9th–10th centuries CE Indian sculpture had reached a form that has lasted with little change up to the present day. This sculpture is distinguished not by a sense of plastic volume and fullness but rather by its linear character; the figure is conceived from the standpoint of its outline, and the figure itself is graceful, slender, and has supple limbs.
2.1 Features of Indian Sculpture • Features of Indus Valley sculptures were entirely
disjointedly dissimilar from the later ages. The
Terracotta sculptures or architectural adornments of
the style of Indus Valley are unique.
• Features of Vedic Indian sculpture were also unique
but were rural. Mauryans emerged in Magadha. The
features of the Mauryan sculpture were mirrored
mainly in the religious monuments that were erected
during the dynasty. The features of Gupta sculpture
are found in the cave temples of India. These cave
temples include Ajanta and Ellora.
• The South Indian temples witnessed a new-fangled
sort of approach from 200 CE onwards, whether this
approach was with features of Chalukya sculptures
or the features of Pallava sculptures. The features
of Badami Chalukya sculpture developed a new
expression for itself which gained fame as the Karnata
Dravida style. This was also popular as the Vesara
architecture and sculpture. Idioms of both – southern
and northern temple building are combined in this
style. The features of Western Chalukya sculptures
over and over again incorporated the copiously carved
mandapdas, shikharas and outer walls.
• The bronze images were one of the major features of
the Chola sculptures. The Chola bronze sculptures
were well-designed and put rhythmic movements on
show.
• Features of sculpture in medieval India differed
radically from that of primeval India. The Persian art
and architecture greatly influenced the native style.
With the establishment of the Slave Dynasty in 1206 AD
till 1526 AD saw the evolution of the features of Delhi Sultanate sculptures and architectures. The tall pillars, tombs, arched doorways, and minarets, merged with the Indian architecture. With this merger the formation of Indo-Islamic sculptures and architecture came into being.
• The features of the Rajput sculptures hold evidence to this fact. The architectural elements of the monuments of the Rajput display that they were borrowed from Persian style of architecture.
• The features of Mughal sculpture and architecture would over and over again comprise of calligraphy, well maintained gardens, broad and complicated stone works, and the recurrent use of marble.
• The originality for which sculptures of India were wonderfully distinguished at a time has not changed. At that time also India was blessed with astonishing talents and the contemporary India is once again a powerhouse of architectural and sculptural talent. Sculpture has gradually evolved into installations and taken a modern character. No wonder, features of Indian sculpture are a source of versatility and varied
expression and continue to be the same.
2.2 Indus Civilization Sculptures• The forms of art excavated include various sculptures,
seals, pottery, gold jewellery, terracotta figures, and
other interesting works of art.
Metal Sculptures of Indus Valley Civilization• The Harappan artisans were dexterous in the sphere
of bronze casting and employed the lost wax process while sculpting figurines.
• Lost-wax process, also called cire-perdue is a method
of metal casting in which a molten metal is poured
into a mold that has been created by means of a
wax model. Once the mold is made, the wax model
is melted and drained away. A hollow core can be
effected by the introduction of a heat-proof core that
prevents the molten metal from totally filling the mold.
• The bronze dancing girl statue
discovered at Mohenjodaro is
perhaps the greatest surviving
achievement of the metal work
of the Harappan age. This
world-famous figure shows a
female dancing figure standing
as if relaxing after a dance,
with her right hand on her hip
and the left dangling free.
She wears a large number of
bangles, probably made of bone or ivory on her left
arm together with a couple of pairs on her right arm.
• Bronze figures of a humped bull and a buffalo are the
other metal sculptures made during this period.
Stone Sculptures of Indus Valley Civilization • Several specimens of stone sculptures which were
crafted during the civilization have been excavated.
Out of these, two statues deserve a special mention
and consist of the statue of the ‘Bearded Man’ and
‘Human Torso’.
• One will derive the idea of a high priest or a king clad
in a shawl draped over the left shoulder, with a well-
maintained beard, if he observes the figure of the
Bearded Man. Found in Mohenjodaro, it was made of
Steatite
• Another impressive stone sculpted statue is that of a
naked human male torso, made in red stone. The arms
and head of this idol have been created separately. It was found in Harappa.
Terracotta Sculpture of Indus Valley Civilization • Terracotta art was also practised by the people of
Indus Valley.
• The figure of the Mother Goddess crafted in terracotta,
discovered in Mohen-jo-Daro is one of the significant terracotta sculptures of this age.
• It consists of beautiful embellishments of the body and a punched nose, and reveals the concept of the
Mother Goddess as a sign of prosperity and fertility.
• Terracotta seals were also manufactured. These seals included the carvings of peepal leaves, female figurine with forms of deities and animals.
• The toy animal, with a moveable head from Mohenjodaro, belonging to the same period i.e. 2500 BCE, is one of the most interesting objects found during the excavations.
• Large number of seals made of steatite, terracotta and copper of various shapes and sizes have also been discovered.
• The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, usually made from the soft river stone, steatite.
• Seals bear a great variety of motifs, most often of animals including those of the bull, with or without the hump, the elephant, tiger, goat etc. Sometimes trees or human figures were also depicted. The most remarkable seal is the one depicted with a figure in the centre and animals around. This seal is identified as the Pashupati Seal. This seal depicts a human figure seated cross-legged. An elephant and a tiger are depicted to the right side of the seated figure, while on the left a rhinoceros and a buffalo are seen. In addition to these animals two antelopes are shown below the seat.
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Beads and Ornaments• The Harappan men and women decorated themselves
with a large variety of ornaments produced from every conceivable material ranging from precious metals and gemstones to bone and baked clay.
• The bead industry seems to have been well developed as evident from the factories discovered at Chanhudaro and Lothal. Beads were made of cornelian, amethyst, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, turquoise, lapis lazuli, etc.
• Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay were also used for manufacturing beads. The beads are in varying shapes—disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented. Some beads were made of two or more stones cemented together, some of stone with gold covers. Some were decorated by incising or painting and some had designs etched onto them. Great technical skill has been displayed in the manufacture of these beads.
• The Harappan people also made brilliantly naturalistic models of animals, especially monkeys and squirrels, used as pin-heads and beads.
2.3 Mauryan Empire Sculptures• Mauryan sculpture introduced new things in Indian
sculpture like the introduction of stone and brick sculptures in place of wooden sculptures. Most of the Mauryan sculptures are related to Buddhism. This can be attributed to Emperor Ashoka. After converting to Buddhism, Emperor Ashoka had built several Buddhist buildings and sculptures.
• Some of Ashoka’s edicts carved on pillars and rocks made out of shafts of sandstone, represent the earliest known stone sculptures in our country.
Foreign Influence on Mauryan Sculpture• An adaptation of Achaemenids models has been
recognised in the Edicts of Asoka. But, the Mauryan pillars are different from the Achaemenid pillars. The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars, whereas the Achaemenid pillars are constructed in pieces by a mason.
Stupa Sculpture of Mauryan Empire• The ‘stupas’ are solid dome like structures built with
bricks and stones and they were initially created as symbols of artistic tradition in Mauryan Dynasty.
• The greatest instances of the architecture of the Mauryan period is the great Sanchi Stupa, Madhya
Pradesh, surrounded by exquisitely carved stone
railings around it.
• It is also famous and notable due to the four gateways
called Toranas, since before this there was no such
tradition of carving gateways. These gateways are
elaborately carved and depict the various scenes
from the life of Buddha and also about the lifestyle of
people in that era.
Pillar Sculptures of Mauryan Empire• The Pillars were one of the major works accomplished
by Emperor Ashoka.
• The most famous Lion Capital (pillar showing four-
lions) erected by Ashoka at Sarnath in sandstone
realistically represents the artistic achievements of Indian artists and patronage of their masters.
• Two kinds of stone had been employed in the creation
of the pillars which consisted of fine grained hard
sandstone of Chunar region close to Varanasi as well
as spotted white and red sandstone belonging to
Mathura.
• Inscriptions containing principles of ‘Dhamma’ or
righteousness were embedded on all these pillars. The
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Indian Sculpture
33Indian Paintings
The tradition of painting has been carried on in the Indian subcontinent since the ancient times. Standing as a testimony
to this fact are the exquisite murals of Ajanta and Ellora, Buddhist palm leaf manuscripts, Mughal and Kangra schools of
miniature Indian paintings, etc. In fact, records have been found that indicate the usage of paintings for decorating the
doorways, guest rooms, etc. Some traditional Indian paintings, like those of Ajanta, Bagh and Sittanvasal, depict a love
for nature and its forces. With time, Indian classical paintings evolved to become a sort of blend of the various traditions
influencing them. Even the folk painting of India has become quite popular amongst art lovers, both at the national as
well as the international level. Most of the folk paintings reflect a heavy influence of the local customs and traditions.
During the colonial era, Western influences started to make an impact on Indian art. By the time of Independence in
1947, several schools of art in India provided access to modern techniques and ideas. Galleries were established to
showcase these artists. Indian Art got a boost with the economic liberalization of the country since early 1990s. Artists
from various fields now started bringing in varied styles of work. Post liberalization. Indian art thus works not only within the confines to academic traditions but also outside it
3.1 Principles of PaintingAround the 1st century BCE the Shadanga or Six Limbs of Indian Painting, were evolved, a series of canons laying down the main principles of the art. These 'Six Limbs' have been translated as follows:
1. Rupabheda: The knowledge of appearances.
2. Pramanam: Correct perception, measure and structure.
3. Bhava: Action of feelings on forms.
4. Lavanya Yojanam: Infusion of grace, artistic representation.
5. Sadrisyam: Similitude.
6. Varnikabhanga: Artistic manner of using the brush and colours.
The subsequent development of painting indicates that these ' Six Limbs ' were put into practice by Indian artists, and are the basic principles on which their art was founded.
3.2 Pre-Historic PaintingsPre-historic paintings were generally executed on rocks
and these rock engravings were called Petrogylps.
Indian Cave Paintings are regarded as the earliest evidences of Indian paintings that are made on cave walls.
Bhimbetka is a place in the state of Madhya Pradesh where pre-historic paintings are discovered in numerous caves.
Upper Paleolithic Period• Paintings are linear representations, in green and dark
red, of huge animal figures, such as Bisons, Tigers, Elephants, Rhinos and Boars beside stick-like human figures.
• Mostly they are filled with geometric patterns.
• Green paintings are of dances and red ones of hunters.
Mesolithic period• The largest number of pre-historic paintings belongs
to this period.
• Themes multiply but the paintings are small in size.
• Hunting scenes are mostly found.
• Hunters in groups armed with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows and bows.
• Trap and snares used to catch animals can be seen in some paintings.
• Mesolithic people loved to paint animals.
• In some pictures, animals are chasing men and in others they are being chased by hunter men.
• Animals painted in naturalistic style and humans were depicted in a stylistic manner.
• Women are painted both in nude and clothed.
• Young and old equally find places in paintings.
• Community dances provide a common theme.
• Sort of family life can be seen in some paintings (woman, man and children).
Figure: Bhimbetka Paintings
Chalcolithic Period Art• Copper age art.
• The paintings of this period reveal the association, contact and mutual exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled agricultural communities of the Malwa Plateau.
• Pottery and metal tools can be seen in paintings.
• Similarities with rock paintings: Common motifs (designs/patterns like cross hatched squares, lattices etc)
• Difference with rock paintings: Vividness and vitality of older periods disappear from these paintings.
3.3 Classification of Indian PaintingsIndian paintings can be broadly classified as murals and
miniatures. Murals are large works executed on the walls of
solid structures, as in the Ajanta Caves and the Kailashnath
temple in Ellora. Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale for books or albums on perishable material such as paper and cloth. Prime examples are the Rajasthani and Mughal miniatures.
Mural PaintingsThe beauty of large mural paintings can be seen in the
caves of Ajanta, Bagh, Sittanavasal, Armamalai Cave
(Tamil Nadu), Ravan Chhaya rock shelter, Kailasanatha
temple in Ellora Caves.
Technique of Mural Paintings• The technique and process of making Indian wall
paintings has been discussed in a special chapter of
the Vishnudharamotaram, a Sanskrit text of the 5th / 6th century CE
• Most of the colours were locally available. Brushes were made up from the hair of animals, such as goat, camel, mongoose, etc.
• The ground was coated with an exceedingly thin layer of lime plaster over which paintings were drawn
in water colours. In true fresco method the paintings are done when the surface wall is still wet so that the pigments go deep inside the wall surface.
• The other method of painting is known as tempora or
fresco- secco. It is a method of painting on the lime
plastered surface which has been allowed to dry
first and then drenched with fresh lime water. On the surface thus obtained the artist proceeded to sketch out his composition. This first sketch was drawn by an experienced hand and subsequently corrected in many places with a strong black or deep brown line when the final drawing was added.
Ajanta Cave Paintings• The Ajanta Caves carved out of volcanic rock in the
Maharashtra Plateau, situated near Aurangabad in Maharashtra.
• Inside many of the caves are frescoes. Frescoes are
paintings which are done on wet plaster in which colours become fixed as the plaster dries.
• They are found on the walls and ceilings at Ajanta.
• The paintings reflect different phases of Indian culture
from Buddha's birth to his Mahaparinirvana in the 8th century CE.
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• Natural colours like white, green, brown, yellow, black, and a wonderful colour of blue is found.
• The human and animal forms show a variety of graceful poses. Various methods were used to create the illusion of depth.
• The place was not far off from the ancient trade routes and attracted traders and pilgrims through whom the Ajanta art style diffused as far as China and Japan.
Figure: Ajanta Painting
Ellora Cave Paintings• The mural paintings in Ellora are found in five caves,
mostly limited to Kailasha temple.
• The paintings were done in two series – the first, at the time of carving the caves and the subsequent series was done several centuries later. The earlier paintings show Vishnu and Lakshmi borne through the clouds by Garuda, with clouds in the background.
• In the subsequent series, the main composition is that of a procession of Saiva holy men. The flying Apsaras are graceful. Very few murals in the Jain temples are well preserved.
• The sinewy figures have sharp features and pointed noses. The protruding eye typical of the later Gujarathi style appears for the first time in Ellora.
Figure: Ellora Paintings
Contrasting features of Ajanta & Ellora Caves
Dimensions Ajanta Caves Ellora Caves
Location Near Aurangabad district of Maharashtra North West of Aurangabad district of Maharashtra
Timeline Constructed between 2nd Century BCE to 6th Century CE
Constructed between 6th Century CE to 10th
Century CE
Number of caves 30 caves with one incomplete so sometimes considered 29.4 Chaityas and rest Viharas.
100 caves with 34 open for public. Caves dedicated to Hinduism are more followed by Buddhist caves. Cave 10 is the only Chaitya while rest are Viharas.
Religions Entirely Buddhism Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism
Patronage Satavahanas, Vakatakas and Chalukyas Rashtrakutas, Kalachuris, Chalukyas and the Yadavas
Chronology of Construction
2nd – 1st Century BCE – Hinayana Phase 5th – 6th; Century CE – Mahayana Phase
550 – 600 CE – Hindu Phase
600 – 730 CE – Buddhist Phase
730 – 950 CE – Hindu and Jain Phase
Major attraction Paintings, architecture and sculptures Architecture and sculptures. Especially the Kailashnath temple.
Bagh Cave Paintings• Bagh Caves of Madhya Pradesh are counted amongst the finest specimens of Buddhist art and architecture in India.
Bagh Buddhist Caves, like the caves at Ajanta, find shape on a perpendicular rock face of a hill.
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Indian Paintings
• These five Buddhist caves are situated on the bank of Baghini River and lie approximately seven km from the village of Bagh, in the Kukshi Tehsil of Dhar District. According to legends, before being discovered, they served as home to many tigers. Hence, they got the name ‘Bagh’, which means ‘Tiger’ in Hindi. Later, these caves also served as residential places, meditation centers and religious congregation sites for Buddhist monks. Thus, one can notice preponderance of Buddhist mysticism in these cave sanctuaries.
• There are residential cells inside, along with a large
central cell enshrining a Buddhist stupa at the back
end, which served as the ‘chaitya’ or prayer hall. Bagh
Caves also hold numerous sculptures of Buddha and
Boddhisattvas within their precincts. A painting of the
Bodhisattva ‘Padmapani’ housed here exemplifies the Padmapani figure found in Ajanta.
Armamalai Cave Paintings• Armamalai cave, located in Tamil Nadu, is a natural
cave which was converted to a Jain temple in 8th
century AD. The cave contains 8th century Jain
paintings, petroglyphs, rock art and the remains of Jain
saints. The mural paintings are on the roof and walls
of the cave. The paintings were created by applying
colours on the thin lime surface and over the thick mud surface.
Sittanavasal Cave Paintings• Located in Tamil Nadu, these paintings are connected
with Jaina themes.
• The ceilings have depiction of a lotus tank with natural
looking images of men, animals, flowers, birds and
fishes representing the Samavasarana faith of Jainism.
• The pillars are also carved with dancing girl and the
king and the queen.
• Enjoy the same norm and technique as that of Ajanta.
• Most paintings are made in Pandyan period – 7th century CE.
Lepakshi Paintings• Located in Andhra Pradesh.
• Beautiful paintings of Vijayanagar period.
• Provides glimpses of contemporary dress like tall
headwear (Kulavi), colored and embroidered sarees
of both men and women in the paintings.
• Earth tones and complete absence of blue color in
their painting.
• Costumes are outlined in black.
Badami Cave Paintings• Earliest Brahmanical paintings
so far known, belonging to 6th
century CE
• The technique follows that of
Ajanta and Bagh, the modelling
is much more sensitive in
texture and expression and the outline soft and elastic.
Miniature Paintings• Miniature Paintings were complex, colorful, and small
in size, with delicate brushwork. The history of Indian
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