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Art-Based Learning Strategies in Art TherapyGraduate Education

Sarah P. Deaver, Norfolk, VA

Abstract

This mixed methods research study examined the use ofart-based teaching methods in master’s level art therapy grad-uate education in North America. A survey of program direc-tors yielded information regarding in which courses and howfrequently art-based methods (individual in-class art making,dyad or group art making, student art projects as course assign-ments, visual journaling, and student art making as a thesis fo-cus) were employed. Qualitative data from in-depth interviewsof program directors and recent graduates were analyzed withrespect to the function, benefits, and deficits of art-based learn-ing strategies. Such strategies were found to be valued for theirintegrative function, as a means of personal growth and devel-opment, as documentation of experience, and for the transferof learning to clinical work. Participants also described privacyconcerns and ambivalence regarding the evaluation of studentartwork.

Introduction

Student art making is an essential and required teach-ing strategy in art therapy graduate education, due to anassumption among art therapy educators that the students’own art making has great educational benefit (Allen, 1992;American Art Therapy Association, 2007; Fish, 2008; Ger-ber, 2006; Julliard et al., 2000; Kapitan &Newhouse, 2000;Wix, 1996). The combination of art making in the class-room and in the studio, as well as in visual journals, isthought to increase students’ abilities to integrate diverseconcepts, conceptualize clinical work, process and workthrough the internship experience, and develop their pro-fessional identity. However, these assumptions have not beenadequately investigated through systematic inquiry and thuseducational theory specific to art therapy has not been ar-ticulated. Although literature pertaining to graduate educa-tional theory and practice in counseling, psychology, andsocial work abounds, comparatively little has been writtenabout art therapy graduate education. For example, in thelast 5 years, relatively few education-focused articles have

Editor’s Note: Sarah P. Deaver, PhD, ATR-BC, is a Professorand Research Director of the Graduate Art Therapy and Coun-seling Program at the Eastern Virginia Medical School in Norfolk,VA. Correspondence concerning this article (including requests fora copy of the interview questions if interested) may be addressedto the author at deaversp@evms.edu

been published in Art Therapy: Journal of the American ArtTherapy Association.

One article pertained to the relationship between arttherapists’ personal qualifications and education standards(Feen-Calligan, 2007), another concerned curriculum de-sign for cultural competency (Doby-Copeland, 2006), anda third described the results of surveys about teaching re-search (Kaiser, St. John, & Ball, 2006). Particularly relevantto the study of art-based teaching strategies, two recent arti-cles (Elkis-Abuhoff, Gaydos, Rose, & Goldblatt, 2010; Fish,2008) examined the use of student art making in the grad-uate educational setting, specifically in the context of theclinical internship. Fish (2008) studied the use of responseart (art made by the therapist or trainee in response to clin-ical work) in her students’ group supervision classes duringtheir clinical internships. She discovered that the majorityof the 19 students in her supervision groups appreciated art-based supervision; they felt that art making in the super-vision context was useful for exploring their experiences astherapists in training, valuable in giving and receiving peerfeedback, and effective as a self-care tool. Elkis-Abuhoff et al.(2010) measured professional identity development usingboth quantitative and qualitative means. Over the course ofseveral months, the researchers asked internship students tocomplete questionnaires and to create art pieces that embod-ied how they saw their patients and how their patients sawthem. Results of quantitative measures suggested an increasein professional identity development, self-esteem, and stress,and pointed to the importance of the supervisory relation-ship during internship. Moreover, the artwork produced bythe participants contained manifestations of these findings.

Despite the apparent value placed upon art-making ex-periences in art therapy graduate education, it has been un-clear heretofore what art-based learning strategies are actu-ally employed by graduate art therapy programs. The per-ceived value of art experiences in terms of meeting art ther-apy educational goals also is unknown. This lack of basicknowledge about what appears to be a frequently used ed-ucational approach provided the rationale for the currentstudy. The study examined the use of art-based teachingmethods in master’s level art therapy graduate education inNorth America through a survey and follow-up in-depth in-terviews. It addressed two questions:

1. What are the types of art-based learning strategies cur-rently used in art therapy master’s level graduate educa-tion in North America?

2. What are program directors’ and recent graduates’ per-ceptions and understandings of the function, benefits,

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and deficits of art-based learning strategies in art ther-apy graduate education?

Method

This mixed methods research study employed an ap-proach consisting of two phases. Procedures entailed: (a) col-lecting quantitative data from a survey of graduate programdirectors, followed by (b) collecting qualitative data in theform of semi-structured interviews with program directorsand recent graduates. Using this sequential explanatory strat-egy (Creswell, 2009), the quantitative data are collected first,after which the qualitative data are collected and analyzed asa means to interpret the broad results of the quantitative data(Hays & Singh, 2012). The different data collection meth-ods may yield results that answer different research ques-tions. In this study, the survey was designed to answer thefirst research question and the interviews were designed toanswer the second. Additionally, the quantitative and qual-itative data were collected sequentially, thereby facilitatingidentification of program directors and recent graduates whowere interested in participating in follow-up interviews.

Surveys

As the primary investigator, I sent an invitation to par-ticipate in the electronic survey via e-mail to directors of allof the North American graduate art therapy programs listedon the American Art Therapy Association (AATA) websiteas “approved” by the Education Programs Approval Board(AATA, n.d.). The survey consisted of questions about thetypes of art-based learning strategies used in each program,as well as an opportunity for respondents to indicate their in-terest in being interviewed about the function, benefits, anddeficits of art-based learning strategies in art therapy gradu-ate education. In order to increase the response rate, I sentthe survey to the list of program directors’ e-mail addressestwice, with each request about one month apart.

The survey investigated five topics: (a) frequency of in-dividual art making in specific courses, (b) frequency ofgroup or dyad art making in specific courses, (c) use of stu-dent art projects in the evaluation of learning (i.e., studentartwork that is assigned a grade in a course), (d) use of visualjournaling in specific courses, and (e) students’ personal artmaking as a thesis focus. Courses listed on the survey werebased on those described in the American Art Therapy As-sociation’s (2007) published education standards.

Interviews

It was assumed that interviews with six program direc-tors and six graduates would be sufficient to yield data thatwould reach the point of redundancy when analyzed (Seid-mann, 1998). Therefore, I sought six directors and six recentgraduates to participate in interviews. Recent graduates weredefined as members of a program’s previous two graduatingclasses. Interviews were semi-structured and thus allowedparticipants to deviate from the prepared list of questions.This approach is appropriate when little is known about a

topic because it allows for greater depth in information gath-ering (Patton, 2002). Program directors and recent graduateswere asked identical questions.

After the survey ended, I contacted the survey respon-dents who had expressed an interest in being interviewed,and conducted face-to-face interviews at the 2009 annualconference of the American Art Therapy Association. Uponcompletion of the interviews, I again contacted the programdirectors by e-mail with a request to e-mail recruitmentletters to their recent graduates, which invited them to beinterviewed about their graduate school experience withart-based learning. Recruiting recent graduates proveddifficult; it took about 18 months to locate five volunteers.I conducted face-to-face or telephone interviews with thosefive recent graduates, and digitally recorded and transcribedall interviews.

The study was approved by the Eastern Virginia Med-ical School Institutional Review Board. Survey respondentsremain anonymous unless they contacted the investigatorvolunteering for an interview. All program directors andrecent graduates who participated in interviews completedconsent forms.

Data Analysis

Online software calculated the frequency of responsesto the categorical questions on the survey. To discoveremergent categories and themes in the interview tran-scriptions, I conducted a qualitative content analysis. Thetranscribed interviews with program directors were analyzedindividually, after which a cross-case analysis was conductedto arrive at emergent overarching themes. Approximately6 months later, I analyzed the transcribed interviews of therecent graduates, both individually and across the five cases,and compared for accuracy of fit against the themes thathad emerged from the previous analysis of the programdirectors’ interviews. To increase the credibility of thequalitative results, I sent the transcribed interviews tohalf of the interviewees to check for accuracy. Data wereanalyzed to the point of redundancy, and results weretriangulated with relevant literature.

Survey Results

Of the 34 program directors e-mailed, 23 responded tothe survey, which was a 68% response rate.

The first question on the survey asked respondents toidentify courses in which individual art making (includingresponse art) was employed as an educational strategy. Re-sponse art was defined as student-generated art made in re-sponse to a specific experience or topic. Question 2 askedthem to identify courses in which group or dyad art mak-ing was employed as an educational strategy. Question 3queried respondents regarding courses in which student art-work was employed in the evaluation of learning (e.g., anend-of-semester art piece that receives a grade). Question 4queried the use of visual journaling by students, which wasdefined as the consistent use of a personal journal in whichstudent-generated journal entries combine imagery and text.

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Figure 1 Individual Art Making: Frequency of Use by Type of Course (Color figure available online)

Finally, respondents were asked whether in their programsstudents’ personal art making was an acceptable focus forthesis study.

Figures 1 through 4 display the results from all butthe last question. One can see that individual student artmaking was utilized most frequently as an educational strat-egy in courses in group art therapy, cultural competency,and studio/techniques. Group or dyad art experienceswere employed most frequently in the group art therapyand studio/techniques courses. Student art projects wereused most often to evaluate learning in courses on thehistory and theory of art therapy, group art therapy, andstudio/techniques, as well as in internship/group supervi-sion courses. Visual journaling was used most often in thegroup art therapy and studio/techniques classes. For the lastquestion, regarding whether students’ personal art makingis an acceptable focus for their research or thesis work, 13responded “yes,” 8 responded “no,” and 2 participants didnot respond to the question.

Results of Interview Analyses

Analysis of the 11 interviews (6 program directorsand 5 recent graduates) yielded six main themes regardingthe function, benefits, and deficits of art-based learningstrategies in art therapy graduate education. These aredescribed below and illustrated with verbatim quotes fromthe interviews.

Integrative Function

The concepts educators want students to learn are em-bedded in the art process. In the classroom, art making al-

lows academic concepts to come alive. Response art and end-of-semester art-based assignments integrate and concretizethe theories and concepts that students have learned. Insightand learning are deepened for students when their com-pleted artwork is considered and discussed collectively in theclassroom setting. As one program director explained:

I think the core educational benefit for students is that it asksthem to process an experience on many different levels using,of course, more parts of the brain than just the cognitive, andmore than just a rote restating of theory. . . . A reflection anda response to art that is created asks them to identify differentlevels of awareness that are emergent, to be able to reflect onwhat that might mean, and also where they might go with it.. . . It is training them to be thinking on multiple layers andlevels of awareness at the same time.

Another program director shared:

What I think about it is that they in essence have to create onthe cognitive symbolic level . . . writings are okay but whenyou put things together in a more symbolic way, it’s reallytruly not only integration, but it is meaning making. So whywe do it for several of our classes is because it truly helps thestudents make meaning about what they’ve learned and notjust write, “Oh, yes, I understand what this concept means.”

“When they’re actually making art together, somethingdifferent happens than each person making their own art,”said a third program director. “I think there’s a kind of reso-nance that begins to occur.” As a recent graduate put it:

For the end-of-semester art piece, in addition to bringing ev-erything together, it also provided something new; it repre-sented something that you gained from the course. So it wasn’t

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Figure 2 Group/Dyad Art Making: Frequency of Use by Type of Course (Color figure available online)

just that you . . . regurgitated everything you’ve learned, it wasthat you have now built something else. So [the final art piece]is conclusive . . . but also you have something there to showand to feel what you’ve gained from that course.

Another recent graduate explained:

It can help substantiate really abstract concepts that youmight be struggling with as far as maybe doing a response to

Figure 3 Art as an Evaluation of Learning: Frequency of Use by Type of Course (Color figure available online)

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Figure 4 Visual Journaling: Frequency of Use by Type of Course (Color figure available online)

something that you are talking about in class and then seeingit a little bit more clearly. It redirects or helps focus you moreon what the actual concept is.

Personal Growth and Development

Students learn about themselves through the art processand media exploration. They also learn about themselvesin relationship to others through sharing art-making expe-riences in and out of the classroom, and when discussingartwork made in class. The artwork becomes a source of re-flection, leading to increased self-awareness across variousdimensions. As one program director noted, “They are creat-ing a different sense of themselves and who they are throughthe [art making].” Another said:

What I always talk to the students about is if you keep a vi-sual journal and you keep it over time, then when you go backand look at things over time, you will see tremendous infor-mation about yourself that really informs you . . . that youwould never actually know unless you kept this journal.

Recent graduates also spoke to the value of art makingfor personal growth and development in their graduate ed-ucation. One explained:

There were times when we would go in and it was just a class,but then it turned into actually being something of a self-carefor us. Even though I know it wasn’t intended for that, I thinkthat aspect was actually pretty important.

Another recent graduate shared:

It is a growing experience whether you mean it to be or not.It was definitely personal. There was always something thatcame out of my art making [in the techniques/studio course]that had to do with whatever I was going through at the time.

Documentation of Experience

Art made inside and outside of the classroom becomesa record of personal growth throughout the master’s degreeprogram and a source of reflection after graduation. Inparticular, the student visual journal is a highly valuedcontainer for the internship experience. “It documents theclass for them, both giving them tools and documentingtheir journey,” one program director stated. A recentgraduate found visual journaling was like “a little timeline,or a little map to look back” on some of the work made thathelped to “remember . . . an incident that happened whileinterning” and was in hindsight a very useful tool that shestill uses today.

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Transfer to Clinical Work

Dyad work can mimic the individual art therapy pro-cess, and group art making in class fosters understanding ofgroup dynamics, group process, and selection of media andart processes in clinical groups. Engagement in art makingfacilitates the students’ reflection on their clinical work, lead-ing to the development of empathy. Personal insights learnedin studio/techniques classes transfer directly to clinical work.As one program director explained:

I don’t think they’ve thought about it really in depth untilthey start every single class period having to explore materialfrom a more therapeutic perspective. . . . We’re asking themto identify what materials hit them and maybe in what way,[considering] “What would you do if this would happen witha client?” And then turn it into, “How do you use that expe-rience, that personal experience [with a client]?”

A recent graduate shared:

There were multiple instances when I was able to remem-ber back about the different experiences I had [in the tech-niques/studio class] and what that felt like for me, and beingable to use that with a client—it was really important to un-derstand what it was like [for me] and to have talked about italready.

A second graduate stated:

It was kind of nice to feel exactly what that patient might befeeling if it was a very difficult topic to make art about. It’salways important to understand . . . on the other end of thespectrum, what we are asking our client to do.

Privacy Concerns

Faculty experience tension and concern, and are vigi-lant about maintaining appropriate boundaries when theyperceive student problems being manifested in student art-work. While making art in the classroom, students expe-rience heightened awareness of their instructors and mayfeel anxious about the potential for their art to reveal per-sonal matters, especially to faculty. One program directordescribed the challenge this can present for educators:

I think we have to be careful that we don’t get into “thera-pizing” them through their art and what we see . . . I thinkit’s very important to make sure there’s an understanding thatsome of the student art is personal and it’s useful for them tolearn, but it’s not useful for me to bring in too much of theirpersonal selves into their learning process unless they ask andif it seems important or necessary.

A recent graduate spoke to this issue by saying:

If you are creating art in a class or workshop, and you arewalking around and looking at the artwork, it kind of makesyou want to hide it. You don’t want to be too exposed becauseyou are around more seasoned art therapists. . . . You want tokeep a little bit of privacy.

Ambivalence Regarding GradingStudent Artwork

Faculty described having to struggle with a dilemma:acknowledging the intrinsically reflective and integrative na-ture of art-based assignments by evaluating such assignmentsusing a letter grade versus the art therapy clinical tenet ofvaluing “process over product.” Students, although awareof the usefulness of such assignments for integrating coursecontent, experience resentment about grades being assignedto their artwork unless the evaluation criteria are explicit andperceived to be fair. As one program director explained:

Pragmatically I think sometimes it’s necessary to grade thingsso that [students] realize that we’re looking at this as a seriousassignment. And then, of course, I’m of two minds and thenI look at the other side as: Can a piece of art in this way reallybe graded? But I’ve found that in general . . . we’re not grad-ing the aesthetic value of the piece, we’re really grading thethought that they put into it, their understanding of what-ever concept we’re asking them to do a piece of art about.

Another program director spoke to the need for explicitevaluation criteria. “Looking at art and grading art is verysubjective,” the program director said, emphasizing the valueof providing students with “a fairly clear grid of what needsto be included in their art expression to qualify for a certaingrade.” In this program director’s view, “you give a grid oroutline to students, and if they give you a piece of art thatis able to express [that] or if they are able to explain it, thenthey’ve met those criteria.”

In one recent graduate’s experience, “a lot of peopledon’t perform well on tests or writing papers,” so “havingthat art piece gives a nice balance to the grading process.”The graduate went on to share:

Also I think it is subjective as far as you somewhat are beingpraised for the craftsmanship, like if it looks like you’ve takena long time [making the piece]. The craftsmanship may notbe there but it doesn’t mean [the student] didn’t answer thequestion that was asked in the assignment.

Another recent graduate spoke with frustration about theprocess of receiving grades for artwork, saying:

I do not like the idea that [art projects] are graded. It was moreabout the conceptualization, which is important, but it is notan art class. So I think sometimes it sort of crossed that line,when the grade was just based on the art piece rather than onthe written part or the explanation that went with it.

Discussion

Based on the data analysis the use of art-based learningis fairly consistent across the curriculum, with most frequentuse in group art therapy classes and least frequent use in psy-chopathology and individual psychotherapy theory classes.Furthermore, interviewees’ comments coalesced around theeducational and personal advantages of using these strate-gies throughout the graduate school experience. Thus, it ap-pears that using art-based learning strategies in art therapygraduate education supports broad educational goals such as

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knowledge of specific course content, clinical sensitivity andskill, and self-awareness.

These results are congruent with and supported bymuch of the art education and counseling literature alongthese lines. For example, when integrated into counselingsupervision, visual art techniques have been noted to deepensupervisees’ knowledge (Ishiyama, 1988; Wilkins, 1995)and to increase self-awareness (Guiffrida, Jordan, Saiz, &Barnes, 2007; Harter, 2007). In learning through focusedand intentional art making, acts such as drawing, painting,or sculpting and the mental activity required to make mean-ing and gain insight from the completed art piece are insep-arable (Arnheim, 1980; Marshall, 2007). Dahlman (2007),an architect, educator, and researcher, asserted that throughthe act of making art, “the world is being articulated in newshapes. Such a process entails that when the world is ac-cepted in a new articulation, knowledge has grown and therelation to the world has changed” (p. 275). This sort of in-creased knowledge and psychological presence is a primaryobjective of educating mental health professionals (Gerber,2006; Overholser, 2004).

The results of this study point to several important con-cerns. Considering how well supported student art makingappears to be, it is striking that only about 65% of sur-vey respondents endorsed students’ personal art making asa thesis focus. The capacity for reflection, which is necessaryfor increased self-awareness and clinical competency, is theprimary personality quality for therapist professional success(Rønnestad& Skovholt, 2003). Thus, it would seem that in-depth learning through intensive artistic exploration wouldbe a highly valued thesis strategy or topic. As our professionprogresses in shifting large-scale research projects into doc-toral programs, it may be worthwhile for educators at themaster’s level to consider art-based autoethnographic stud-ies as appropriate thesis approaches.

In the interviews program directors and recentgraduates repeatedly referred to the process of reflectionwhen describing art-based learning. Reflective practice isparticularly valued and extensively described in teaching,nursing, and counseling and therapy education literature(Deaver & Shiflett, 2011; Nelson & Neufeldt, 1998;Reiman, 1999; Sprinthall & Thies-Sprinthall, 1983), yetthis important construct is not as extensively explored inthe art therapy literature. Reflection involves “internallyexamining and exploring an issue of concern, triggeredby an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning interms of self, and which results in a changed conceptualperspective” (Boyd & Fales, 1983, p. 99). Deep engagementin art making facilitates reflection (Cahn, 2000; Deaver& McAuliffe, 2009; Wadeson, 2003). Thus, there may begreat value in art therapy educators exploring the pedagogyof reflection, as it is understood in related literature, andbuilding opportunities into the curriculum for instilling instudents the capacity for reflection.

Finally, the tensions surrounding evaluation of studentartwork that emerged through the interviews warrant resolu-tion. Both program directors and recent graduates acknowl-edged the integrative value of art-based assignments; it is themanner of evaluation that seems to be contentious. Recent

graduates and some educators chafed at the idea of evaluat-ing the aesthetic aspects of art pieces, as that seemed to themto fly in the face of valuing process over product. Yet studentsare not patients or clients; students should be held to specificevaluation criteria for these projects just as they are for other,written assignments. Based on the interviews, it seems logi-cal that the evaluation criteria for art pieces should be limitedto ascertaining that the student has accurately conceptual-ized the theory or concept under study, and deemphasizingthe aesthetic aspects of the pieces. In any case, it seems im-perative for educators to be transparent regarding evaluationcriteria by placing a rubric in the syllabus, as recent gradu-ates conveyed that not knowing how they would be gradederoded trust in the student–educator relationship.

Conclusion

The small number of interview participants was a limi-tation of the study. However, such small numbers are char-acteristic of initial qualitative studies that are seeking under-standing of a little-researched topic. Credibility would havebeen enhanced through the use of a peer reviewer, and trans-ferability of findings would be improved through greater di-versity (in terms of graduate schools attended) in the inter-viewees who were recent graduates.

This study yielded initial empirical evidence of the use-fulness of various art-based learning strategies in master’slevel art therapy graduate education, and may represent afirst step toward developing art therapy education theory. Itis clear that such learning strategies are highly valued by ed-ucators and students alike. However, much further researchmust be conducted to develop a coherent art therapy edu-cation theory, including exploring the mechanics of trans-fer of learning through art-based strategies in the classroom,the neuroscience of art-based learning, and the connectionbetween focused art making and reflective clinical practice.Development of art therapy education theory will in turninform teaching and supervision, thus furthering our fieldin significant ways.

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