army suvival guide

8/8/2019 Army Suvival Guide

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There usually are more birds near land than over the open sea. The direction !rom which!locks !ly at dawn and to which they !ly at dusk may indicate the direction o! land. )uringthe day" birds are searching !or !ood and the direction o! !light has no signi!icance.

2irages occur at any latitude" but they are more likely in the tropics" especially during themiddle o! the day. 6e care!ul not to mistake a mirage !or nearby land. A mirage disappears

or its appearance and elevation change when viewed !rom slightly di!!erent heights.

(ou may be able to detect land by the pattern o! the waves 4re!racted5 as they approachland 4/igure C?$=>5. 6y traveling with the waves and parallel to the slightly turbulent areamarked ;F; on the illustration" you should reach land.

Ra!ting or 6eaching Techni0ues

7nce you have !ound land" you must get ashore sa!ely. To ra!t ashore" you can usually usethe one$man ra!t without danger. 'owever" going ashore in a strong sur! is dangerous.Take your time. Select your landing point care!ully. Try not to land when the sun is lowand straight in !ront o! you. Try to land on the lee side o! an island or on a point o! land

,utting out into the water. 8eep your eyes open !or gaps in the sur! line" and head !orthem. Avoid coral ree!s and rocky cli!!s. There are no coral ree!s near the mouths o!!reshwater streams. Avoid rip currents or strong tidal currents that may carry you !ar outto sea. +ither signal ashore !or help or sail around and look !or a sloping beach where thesur! is gentle.

I! you have to go through the sur! to reach shore" take down the mast. 8eep your clothesand shoes on to avoid severe cuts. Ad,ust and in!late your li!e vest. Trail the sea anchorover the stem using as much line as you have. Use the oars or paddles and constantlyad,ust the sea anchor to keep a strain on the anchor line. These actions will keep the ra!tpointed toward shore and prevent the sea !rom throwing the stern around and capsi%ingyou. Use the oars or paddles to help ride in on the seaward side o! a large wave.

The sur! may be irregular and velocity may vary" so modi!y your procedure as conditionsdemand. A good method o! getting through the sur! is to have hal! the men sit on one sideo! the ra!t" hal! on the other" !acing away !rom each other. hen a heavy sea bears down"hal! should row 4pull5 toward the sea until the crest passes9 then the other hal! should row4pull5 toward the shore until the ne#t heavy sea comes along.

Against a strong wind and heavy sur!" the ra!t must have all possible speed to pass rapidlythrough the oncoming crest to avoid being turned broadside or thrown end over end. I!possible" avoid meeting a large wave at the moment it breaks.

I! in a medium sur! with no wind or o!!shore wind" keep the ra!t !rom passing over a waveso rapidly that it drops suddenly a!ter topping the crest. I! the ra!t turns over in the sur!"try to grab hold o! it and ride it in.

As the ra!t nears the beach" ride in on the crest o! a large wave. -addle or row hard andride in to the beach as !ar as you can. )o not ,ump out o! the ra!t until it has grounded"then 0uickly get out and beach it.

I! you have a choice" do not land at night. I! you have reason to believe that people live onthe shore" lay away !rom the beach" signal" and wait !or the inhabitants to come out andbring you in.

I! you encounter sea ice" land only on large" stable !loes. Avoid icebergs that may capsi%eand small !loes or those obviously disintegrating. Use oars and hands to keep the ra!t !romrubbing on the edge o! the ice. Take the ra!t out o! the water and store it well back !romthe !loe3s edge. (ou may be able to use it !or shelter. 8eep the ra!t in!lated and ready !oruse. Any !loe may break up without warning.

Swimming Ashore



I! ra!ting ashore is not possible and you have to swim" wear your shoes and at least onethickness o! clothing. Use the sidestroke or breaststroke to conserve strength.

I! the sur! is moderate" ride in on the back o! a small wave by swimming !orward with it.)ive to a shallow depth to end the ride ,ust be!ore the wave breaks.

In high sur!" swim toward shore in the trough between waves. hen the seaward waveapproaches" !ace it and submerge. A!ter it passes" work toward shore in the ne#t trough. I!caught in the undertow o! a large wave" push o!! the bottom or swim to the sur!ace andproceed toward shore as above.

I! you must land on a rocky shore" look !or a place where the waves rush up onto therocks. Avoid places where the waves e#plode with a high" white spray. Swim slowly whenmaking your approach. (ou will need your strength to hold on to the rocks. (ou should be!ully clothed and wear shoes to reduce in,ury.

A!ter selecting your landing point" advance behind a large wave into the breakers. /acetoward shore and take a sitting position with your !eet in !ront" ?> to J> centimeters 4= or

!eet5 lower than your head. This position will let your !eet absorb the shock when youland or strike sub$merged boulders or ree!s. I! you do not reach shore behind the waveyou picked" swim with your hands only. As the ne#t wave approaches" take a sittingposition with your !eet !orward. Repeat the procedure until you land.

ater is 0uieter in the lee o! a heavy growth o! seaweed. Take advantage o! such growth.)o not swim through the seaweed9 crawl over the top by grasping the vegetation withoverhand movements.

ross a rocky or coral ree! as you would land on a rocky shore. 8eep your !eet closetogether and your knees slightly bent in a rela#ed sitting posture to cushion the blowsagainst the coral.

-ickup or Rescue

7n sighting rescue cra!t approaching !or pickup 4boat" ship" conventional aircra!t" orhelicopter5" 0uickly clear any lines 4!ishing lines" desalting kit lines5 or other gear thatcould cause entanglement during rescue. Secure all loose items in the ra!t. Take downcanopies and sails to ensure a sa!er pickup. A!ter securing all items" put on your helmet" i!available. /ully in!late your li!e preserver. Remain in the ra!t" unless otherwise instructed"and remove all e0uipment e#cept the preservers. I! possible" you will receive help !romrescue personnel lowered into the water. Remember" !ollow all instructions given by therescue personnel.

I! the helicopter recovery is unassisted" do the !ollowing be!ore pickup:

•

Secure all the loose e0uipment in the ra!t" accessory bag" or in pockets.• )eploy the sea anchor" stability bags" and accessory bag.• -artially de!late the ra!t and !ill it with water.• Unsnap the survival kit container !rom the parachute harness.• *rasp the ra!t handhold and roll out o! the ra!t.• Allow the recovery device or the cable to ground out on the water3s sur!ace.• 2aintain the handhold until the recovery device is in your other hand.• 2ount the recovery device" avoiding entanglement with the ra!t.• Signal the hoist operator !or pickup.

SEASHORES



Search planes or ships do not always spot a dri!ting ra!t or swimmer. (ou may have toland along the coast be!ore being rescued. Surviving along the seashore is di!!erent !romopen sea survival. /ood and water are more abundant and shelter is obviously easier tolocate and construct.

I! you are in !riendly territory and decide to travel" it is better to move along the coast

than to go inland. )o not leave the coast e#cept to avoid obstacles 4swamps and cli!!s5 orunless you !ind a trail that you know leads to human habitation.

In time o! war" remember that the enemy patrols most coastlines. These patrols maycause problems !or you i! you land on a hostile shore. (ou will have e#tremely limitedtravel options in this situation. Avoid all contact with other humans" and make every e!!ortto cover all tracks you leave on the shore.

Special 'ealth 'a%ards

oral" poisonous and aggressive !ish" crocodiles" sea urchins" sea biscuits" sponges"anemones" and tides and undertow pose special health ha%ards.

oral

oral" dead or alive" can in!lict pain!ul cuts. There are hundreds o! water ha%ards that cancause deep puncture wounds" severe bleeding" and the danger o! in!ection. lean all coralcuts thoroughly. )o not use iodine to disin!ect any coral cuts. Some coral polyps !eed oniodine and may grow inside your !lesh i! you use iodine.

-oisonous /ish

2any ree! !ish have to#ic !lesh. /or some species" the !lesh is always poisonous" !or otherspecies" only at certain times o! the year. The poisons are present in all parts o! the !ish"but especially in the liver" intestines" and eggs.

/ish to#ins are water soluble$$no amount o! cooking will neutrali%e them. They aretasteless" there!ore the standard edibility tests are use$less. 6irds are least susceptible tothe poisons. There!ore" do not think that because a bird can eat a !ish" it is a sa!e species!or you to eat.

The to#ins will produce a numbness o! the lips" tongue" toes" and tips o! the !ingers"severe itching" and a clear reversal o! temperature sensations. old items appear hot andhot items cold. There will probably also be nausea" vomiting" loss o! speech" di%%iness" anda paralysis that eventually brings death.

In addition to !ish with poisonous !lesh" there are those that are dangerous to touch. 2anystingrays have a poisonous barb in their tail. There are also species that can deliver an

electric shock. Some ree! !ish" such as stone!ish and toad!ish" have venomous spines thatcan cause very pain!ul although seldom !atal in,uries. The venom !rom these spines causesa burning sensation or even an agoni%ing pain that is out o! proportion to the apparentseverity o! the wound. Kelly!ish" while not usually !atal" can in!lict a very pain!ul sting i! ittouches you with its tentacles. See hapter CC and Appendi# / !or details on particularlydangerous !ish o! the sea and seashore.

Aggressive /ish

(ou should also avoid some !erocious !ish. The bold and in0uisitive barracuda has attackedmen wearing shiny ob,ects. It may charge lights or shiny ob,ects at night. The sea bass"which can grow to C.E meters" is another !ish to avoid. The moray eel" which has manysharp teeth and grows to C.B meters" can also be aggressive i! disturbed.

Sea Snakes



Sea snakes are venomous and sometimes !ound in mid ocean. They are unlikely to biteunless provoked. Avoid them.

rocodiles

rocodiles inhabit tropical saltwater bays and mangrove$bordered estuaries and range upto ?B kilometers into the open sea. /ew remain near inhabited areas. (ou commonly !indcrocodiles in the remote areas o! the +ast Indies and Southeast Asia. onsider specimensover C meter long dangerous" especially !emales guarding their nests. rocodile meat is ane#cellent source o! !ood when available.

Sea Urchins" Sea 6iscuits" Sponges" and Anemones

These animals can cause e#treme" though seldom !atal" pain. Usually !ound in tropicalshallow water near coral !ormations" sea urchins resemble small" round porcupines. I!stepped on" they slip !ine needles o! lime or silica into the skin" where they break o!! and!ester. I! possible" remove the spines and treat the in,ury !or in!ection. The other animalsmentioned in!lict in,ury similarly.

Tides and Undertow

These are another ha%ard to contend with. I! caught in a large wave3s undertow" push o!!the bottom or swim to the sur!ace and proceed shoreward in a trough between waves. )onot !ight against the pull o! the undertow. Swim with it or perpendicular to it until it losesstrength" then swim !or shore.

/ood

7btaining !ood along a seashore should not present a problem. There are many types o!seaweed and other plants you can easily !ind and eat. See hapter J and Appendi# 6 !or adiscussion o! these plants.

There is a great variety o! animal li!e that can supply your need !or !ood in this type o!survival situation.

2ollusks

2ussels" limpets" clams" sea snails" octopuses" s0uids" and sea slugs are all edible.Shell!ish will usually supply most o! the protein eaten by coastal survivors. Avoid the blue$ringed octopus and cone shells 4described in hapter CC and Appendi# /5. Also beware o!;red tides; that make mollusks poisonous. Apply the edibility test on each species be!oreeating.

orms

oastal worms are generally edible" but it is better to use them !or !ish bait. Avoid bristleworms that look like !u%%y caterpillars. Also avoid tubeworms that have sharp$edgedtubes. Arrowworms" alias amphio#us" are not true worms. (ou !ind them in the sand andare e#cellent either !resh or dried.

rabs" Lobsters" and 6arnacles

These animals are seldom dangerous to man and are an e#cellent !ood source. The pincerso! larger crabs or lobsters can crush a man3s !inger. 2any species have spines on theirshells" making it pre!erable to wear gloves when catching them. 6arnacles can causescrapes or cuts and are di!!icult to detach !rom their anchor" but the larger species are ane#cellent !ood source.

Sea Urchins



These are common and can cause pain!ul in,uries when stepped on or touched. They arealso a good source o! !ood. 'andle them with gloves" and remove all spines.

Sea ucumbers

This animal is an important !ood source in the Indo$-aci!ic regions. Use them whole a!terevisceration or remove the !ive muscular strips that run the length o! its body. +at themsmoked" pickled" or cooked.

CHAPTER 17 - E5PE IENT #ATER CROSSIN$S

In a survival situation" you may have to cross a water obstacle. It may be in the !orm o! ariver" a stream" a lake" a bog" 0uicksand" 0uagmire" or muskeg. +ven in the desert" !lash!loods occur" making streams an obstacle. hatever it is" you need to know how to cross itsa!ely.

RI!ERS AN STREAMS

(ou can apply almost every description to rivers and streams. They may be shallow ordeep" slow or !ast moving" narrow or wide. 6e!ore you try to cross a river or stream"develop a good plan.

(our !irst step is to look !or a high place !rom which you can get a good view o! the river orstream. /rom this place" you can look !or a place to cross. I! there is no high place" climb atree. *ood crossing locations include$$

• A level stretch where it breaks into several channels. Two or three narrow channelsare usually easier to cross than a wide river.

• A shallow bank or sandbar. I! possible" select a point upstream !rom the bank orsandbar so that the current will carry you to it i! you lose your !ooting.

• A course across the river that leads downstream so that you will cross the currentat about a DB$degree angle.

The !ollowing areas possess potential ha%ards9 avoid them" i! possible:

• 7bstacles on the opposite side o! the river that might hinder your travel. Try toselect the spot !rom which travel will be the sa!est and easiest.

• A ledge o! rocks that crosses the river. This o!ten indicates dangerous rapids orcanyons.

• A deep or rapid water!all or a deep channel. 1ever try to !ord a stream directlyabove or even close to such ha%ards.

• Rocky places. (ou may sustain serious in,uries !rom slipping or !alling on rocks.Usually" submerged rocks are very slick" making balance e#tremely di!!icult. Anoccasional rock that breaks the current" however" may help you.

• An estuary o! a river. An estuary is normally wide" has strong currents" and issub,ect to tides. These tides can in!luence some rivers many kilometers !rom theirmouths. *o back upstream to an easier crossing site.

• +ddies. An eddy can produce a power!ul backward pull downstream o! theobstruction causing the eddy and pull you under the sur!ace.

The depth o! a !ordable river or stream is no deterrent i! you can keep your !ooting. In!act" deep water sometimes runs more slowly and is there!ore sa!er than !ast$movingshallow water. (ou can always dry your clothes later" or i! necessary" you can make a ra!tto carry your clothing and e0uipment across the river.



(ou must not try to swim or wade across a stream or river when the water is at very lowtemperatures. This swim could be !atal. Try to make a ra!t o! some type. ade across i!you can get only your !eet wet. )ry them vigorously as soon as you reach the other bank.

RAPI S

I! necessary" you can sa!ely cross a deep" swi!t river or rapids. To swim across a deep"swi!t river" swim with the current" never !ight it. Try to keep your body hori%ontal to thewater. This will reduce the danger o! being pulled under.

In !ast" shallow rapids" lie on your back" !eet pointing downstream" !inning your handsalongside your hips. This action will increase buoyancy and help you steer away !romobstacles. 8eep your !eet up to avoid getting them bruised or caught by rocks.

In deep rapids" lie on your stomach" head downstream" angling toward the shorewhenever you can. atch !or obstacles and be care!ul o! backwater eddies and convergingcurrents" as they o!ten contain dangerous swirls. onverging currents occur where newwatercourses enter the river or where water has been diverted around large obstacles such

as small islands.

To !ord a swi!t" treacherous stream" apply the !ollowing steps:

• Remove your pants and shirt to lessen the water3s pull on you. 8eep your !ootgearon to protect your !eet and ankles !rom rocks. It will also provide you with !irmer!ooting.

• Tie your pants and other articles to the top o! your rucksack or in a bundle" i! youhave no pack. This way" i! you have to release your e0uipment" all your articleswill be together. It is easier to !ind one large pack than to !ind several small items.

• arry your pack well up on your shoulders and be sure you can easily remove it" i!necessary. 1ot being able to get a pack o!! 0uickly enough can drag even thestrongest swimmers under.

• /ind a strong pole about E.B centimeters in diameter and =.C to =.D meters long tohelp you !ord the stream. *rasp the pole and plant it !irmly on your upstream sideto break the current. -lant your !eet !irmly with each step" and move the pole!orward a little downstream !rom its previous position" but still upstream !rom you.

ith your ne#t step" place your !oot below the pole. 8eep the pole well slanted sothat the !orce o! the current keeps the pole against your shoulder 4/igure CE$C5.

• ross the stream so that you will cross the downstream current at a DB$degreeangle.

Using this method" you can sa!ely cross currents usually too strong !or one person to standagainst. )o not concern yoursel! about your pack3s weight" as the weight will help ratherthan hinder you in !ording the stream.

I! there are other people with you" cross the stream together. +nsure that everyone hasprepared their pack and clothing as outlined above. -osition the heaviest person on thedownstream end o! the pole and the lightest on the upstream end. In using this method"the upstream person breaks the current" and those below can move with relative ease inthe eddy !ormed by the upstream person. I! the upstream person gets temporarily swepto!! his !eet" the others can hold steady while he regains his !ooting 4/igure CE$=5.

I! you have three or more people and a rope available" you can use the techni0ue shown in/igure CE$ to cross the stream. The length o! the rope must be three times the width o!the stream.

RAFTS



I! you have two ponchos" you can construct a brush ra!t or an Australian poncho ra!t. itheither o! these ra!ts" you can sa!ely !loat your e0uipment across a slow$moving stream orriver.

6rush Ra!t

The brush ra!t" i! properly constructed" will support about CCB kilograms. To construct it"use ponchos" !resh green brush" two small saplings" and rope or vine as !ollows 4/igure CE$D5:

• -ush the hood o! each poncho to the inner side and tightly tie o!! the necks usingthe drawstrings.

• Attach the ropes or vines at the corner and side grommets o! each poncho. 2akesure they are long enough to cross to and tie with the others attached at theopposite corner or side.

• Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up. -ile !resh" green brush4no thick branches5 on the poncho until the brush stack is about DB centimetershigh. -ull the drawstring up through the center o! the brush stack.

• 2ake an F$!rame !rom two small saplings and place it on top o! the brush stack.Tie the F$!rame securely in place with the poncho drawstring.

• -ile another DB centimeters o! brush on top o! the F$!rame" then compress thebrush slightly.

• -ull the poncho sides up around the brush and" using the ropes or vines attachedto the comer or side grommets" tie them diagonally !rom comer to corner and !romside to side.

• Spread the second poncho" inner side up" ne#t to the brush bundle.• Roll the brush bundle onto the second poncho so that the tied side is down. Tie the

second poncho around the brush bundle in the same manner as you tied the !irstponcho around the brush.

• -lace it in the water with the tied side o! the second poncho !acing up.

Australian -oncho Ra!t

I! you do not have time to gather brush !or a brush ra!t" you can make an Australianponcho ra!t. This ra!t" although more waterproo! than the poncho brush ra!t" will only !loatabout B kilograms o! e0uipment. To construct this ra!t" use two ponchos" two rucksacks"two C.=$meter poles or branches" and ropes" vines" bootlaces" or comparable material as!ollows 4/igure CE$B5:

• -ush the hood o! each poncho to the inner side and tightly tie o!! the necks usingthe drawstrings.

• Spread one poncho on the ground with the inner side up. -lace and center the twoC.=$meter poles on the poncho about DB centimeters apart.

•

-lace your rucksacks or packs or other e0uipment between the poles. Also placeother items that you want to keep dry between the poles. Snap the poncho sidestogether.

• Use your buddy3s help to complete the ra!t. 'old the snapped portion o! theponcho in the air and roll it tightly down to the e0uipment. 2ake sure you roll the!ull width o! the poncho.

• Twist the ends o! the roll to !orm pigtails in opposite directions. /old the pigtailsover the bundle and tie them securely in place using ropes" bootlaces" or vines.

• Spread the second poncho on the ground" inner side up. I! you need morebuoyancy" place some !resh green brush on this poncho.

• -lace the e0uipment bundle" tied side down" on the center o! the second poncho.rap the second poncho around the e0uipment bundle !ollowing the same

procedure you used !or wrapping the e0uipment in the !irst poncho.



• Tie ropes" bootlaces" vines" or other binding material around the ra!t about >centimeters !rom the end o! each pigtail. -lace and secure weapons on top o! thera!t.

• Tie one end o! a rope to an empty canteen and the other end to the ra!t. This willhelp you to tow the ra!t.

-oncho )onut Ra!t

Another type o! ra!t is the poncho donut ra!t. It takes more time to construct than thebrush ra!t or Australian poncho ra!t" but it is e!!ective. To construct it" use one poncho"small saplings" willow or vines" and rope" bootlaces" or other binding material 4/igure CE$?5 as !ollows:

• 2ake a !ramework circle by placing several stakes in the ground that roughlyoutline an inner and outer circle.

• Using young saplings" willow" or vines" construct a donut ring within the circles o!stakes.

• rap several pieces o! cordage around the donut ring about > to ?> centimeters

apart and tie them securely.• -ush the poncho3s hood to the inner side and tightly tie o!! the neck using the

drawstring.• -lace the poncho on the ground" inner side up. -lace the donut ring on the center

o! the poncho. rap the poncho up and over the donut ring and tie o!! eachgrommet on the poncho to the ring.

• Tie one end o! a rope to an empty canteen and the other end to the ra!t. This ropewill help you to tow the ra!t.

hen launching any o! the above ra!ts" take care not to puncture or tear it by dragging iton the ground. 6e!ore you start to cross the river or stream" let the ra!t lay on the water a!ew minutes to ensure that it !loats.

I! the river is too deep to !ord" push the ra!t in !ront o! you while you are swimming. Thedesign o! the above ra!ts does not allow them to carry a person3s !ull body weight. Usethem as a !loat to get you and your e0uipment sa!ely across the river or stream.

6e sure to check the water temperature be!ore trying to cross a river or water obstacle. I!the water is e#tremely cold and you are unable to !ind a shallow !ording place in the river"do not try to !ord it. )evise other means !or crossing. /or instance" you might improvise abridge by !elling a tree over the river. 7r you might build a ra!t large enough to carry youand your e0uipment. /or this" however" you will need an a#e" a kni!e" a rope or vines" andtime.

Log Ra!t

(ou can make a ra!t using any dry" dead" standing trees !or logs. 'owever" spruce trees!ound in polar and subpolar regions make the best ra!ts. A simple method !or making ara!t is to use pressure bars lashed securely at each end o! the ra!t to hold the logstogether 4/igure CE$E5.

F"OTATION E!ICES

I! the water is warm enough !or swimming and you do not have the time or materials toconstruct one o! the poncho$type ra!ts" you can use various !lotation devices to negotiatethe water obstacle. Some items you can use !or !lotation devices are$$

•

Trousers. 8not each trouser leg at the bottom and close the !ly. ith both hands"grasp the waistband at the sides and swing the trousers in the air to trap air ineach leg. uickly press the sides o! the waistband together and hold it underwater



so that the air will not escape. (ou now have water wings to keep you a!loat asyou cross the body o! water.1ote: et the trousers be!ore in!lating to trap the air better (ou may have torein!late the trousers several times when crossing a large body o! water.

• +mpty containers. Lash together her empty gas cans" water ,ugs" ammo cans"bo#es" or other items that will trap or hold air. Use them as water wings. Use this

type o! !lotation device only in a slow$moving river or stream.• -lastic bags and ponchos. /ill two or more plastic bags with air and secure them

together at the opening. Use your poncho and roll green vegetation tightly inside itso that you have a roll at least => centimeters in diameter. Tie the ends o! the rollsecurely. (ou can wear it around your waist or across one shoulder and under theopposite arm.

• Logs. Use a stranded dri!t log i! one is available" or !ind a log near the water to useas a !loat. 6e sure to test the log be!ore starting to cross. Some tree logs" palm !ore#ample" will sink even when the wood is dead. Another method is to tie two logsabout ?> centimeters apart. Sit between the logs with your back against one andyour legs over the other 4/igure CE$@5.

• attails. *ather stalks o! cattails and tie them in a bundle =B centimeters or morein diameter. The many air cells in each stalk cause a stalk to !loat until it rots. Test

the cattail bundle to be sure it will support your weight be!ore trying to cross abody o! water.

There are many other !lotation devices that you can devise by using some imagination.Kust make sure to test the device be!ore trying to use it.

OTHER #ATER O)STAC"ES

7ther water obstacles that you may !ace are bogs" 0uagmire" muskeg" or 0uicksand. )onot try to walk across these. Trying to li!t your !eet while standing upright will make yousink deeper. Try to bypass these obstacles. I! you are unable to bypass them" you may beable to bridge them using logs" branches" or !oliage.

A way to cross a bog is to lie !ace down" with your arms and legs spread. Use a !lotationdevice or !orm pockets o! air in your clothing. Swim or pull your way across moving slowlyand trying to keep your body hori%ontal.

In swamps" the areas that have vegetation are usually !irm enough to support yourweight. 'owever" vegetation will usually not be present in open mud or water areas. I! youare an average swimmer" however" you should have no problem swimming" crawling" orpulling your way through miles o! bog or swamp.

uicksand is a mi#ture o! sand and water that !orms a shi!ting mass. It yields easily topressure and sucks down and engul!s ob,ects resting on its sur!ace. It varies in depth andis usually locali%ed. uicksand commonly occurs on !lat shores" in silt$choked rivers with

shi!ting watercourses" and near the mouths o! large rivers. I! you are uncertain whether asandy area is 0uicksand" toss a small stone on it. The stone will sink in 0uicksand.Although 0uicksand has more suction than mud or muck" you can cross it ,ust as youwould cross a bog. Lie !ace down" spread your arms and legs" and move slowly across.

!E$ETATION O)STAC"ES

Some water areas you must cross may have underwater and !loating plants that will makeswimming di!!icult. 'owever" you can swim through relatively dense vegetation i! youremain calm and do not thrash about. Stay as near the sur!ace as possible and use thebreaststroke with shallow leg and arm motion. Remove the plants around you as youwould clothing. hen you get tired" !loat or swim on your back until you have rested

enough to continue with the breaststroke.



The mangrove swamp is another type o! obstacle that occurs along tropical coastlines.2angrove trees or shrubs throw out many prop roots that !orm dense masses. To getthrough a mangrove swamp" wait !or low tide. I! you are on the inland side" look !or anarrow grove o! trees and work your way seaward through these. (ou can also try to !indthe bed o! a waterway or creek through the trees and !ollow it to the sea. I! you are on theseaward side" work inland along streams or channels. 6e on the lookout !or crocodiles that

you !ind along channels and in shallow water. I! there are any near you" leave the waterand scramble over the mangrove roots. hile crossing a mangrove swamp" it is possible togather !ood !rom tidal pools or tree roots.

To cross a large swamp area" construct some type o! ra!t.

CHAPTER 1 - FIE" -E5PE IENT IRECTION FIN IN$

In a survival situation" you will be e#tremely !ortunate i! you happen to have a map andcompass. I! you do have these two pieces o! e0uipment" you will most likely be able tomove toward help. I! you are not pro!icient in using a map and compass" you must takethe steps to gain this skill.

There are several methods by which you can determine direction by using the sun and thestars. These methods" however" will give you only a general direction. (ou can come upwith a more nearly true direction i! you know the terrain o! the territory or country.

(ou must learn all you can about the terrain o! the country or territory to which you oryour unit may be sent" especially any prominent !eatures or landmarks. This knowledge o!the terrain together with using the methods e#plained below will let you come up with!airly true directions to help you navigate.

USIN$ THE SUN AN SHA O#S

The earth3s relationship to the sun can help you to determine direction on earth. The sunalways rises in the east and sets in the west" but not e#actly due east or due west. Thereis also some seasonal variation. In the northern hemisphere" the sun will be due southwhen at its highest point in the sky" or when an ob,ect casts no appreciable shadow. In thesouthern hemisphere" this same noonday sun will mark due north. In the northernhemisphere" shadows will move clockwise. Shadows will move counterclockwise in thesouthern hemisphere. ith practice" you can use shadows to determine both direction andtime o! day. The shadow methods used !or direction !inding are the shadow$tip and watchmethods.

Shadow$Tip 2ethods

In the !irst shadow$tip method" !ind a straight stick C meter long" and a level spot !ree o!

brush on which the stick will cast a de!inite shadow. This method is simple and accurateand consists o! !our steps:

• Step C. -lace the stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where it will cast adistinctive shadow. 2ark the shadow3s tip with a stone" twig" or other means. This!irst shadow mark is always west$$everywhere on earth.

• Step =. ait C> to CB minutes until the shadow tip moves a !ew centimeters. 2arkthe shadow tip3s new position in the same way as the !irst.

• Step . )raw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an appro#imate east$west line.

• Step D. Stand with the !irst mark 4west5 to your le!t and the second mark to yourright$$you are now !acing north. This !act is true everywhere on earth.

An alternate method is more accurate but re0uires more time. Set up your shadow stickand mark the !irst shadow in the morning. Use a piece o! string to draw a clean arc



through this mark and around the stick. At midday" the shadow will shrink and disappear.In the a!ternoon" it will lengthen again and at the point where it touches the arc" make asecond mark. )raw a line through the two marks to get an accurate east$west line 4see/igure C@$C5.

The atch 2ethod

(ou can also determine direction using a common or analog watch$$one that has hands.The direction will be accurate i! you are using true local time" without any changes !ordaylight savings time. Remember" the !urther you are !rom the e0uator" the more accuratethis method will be. I! you only have a digital watch" you can overcome this obstacle.

uickly draw a watch on a circle o! paper with the correct time on it and use it todetermine your direction at that time.

In the northern hemisphere" hold the watch hori%ontal and point the hour hand at the sun.6isect the angle between the hour hand and the C= o3clock mark to get the north$southline 4/igure C@$=5. I! there is any doubt as to which end o! the line is north" remember thatthe sun rises in the east" sets in the west" and is due south at noon. The sun is in the eastbe!ore noon and in the west a!ter noon.

1ote: I! your watch is set on daylight savings time" use the midway point between thehour hand and C o3clock to determine the north$south line.

In the southern hemisphere" point the watch3s C= o3clock mark toward the sun and amidpoint hal!way between C= and the hour hand will give you the north$south line 4/igureC@$=5.

USIN$ THE MOON

6ecause the moon has no light o! its own" we can only see it when it re!lects the sun3slight. As it orbits the earth on its =@$day circuit" the shape o! the re!lected light varies

according to its position. e say there is a new moon or no moon when it is on theopposite side o! the earth !rom the sun. Then" as it moves away !rom the earth3s shadow"it begins to re!lect light !rom its right side and wa#es to become a !ull moon be!orewaning" or losing shape" to appear as a sliver on the le!t side. (ou can use this in!ormationto identi!y direction.

I! the moon rises be!ore the sun has set" the illuminated side will be the west. I! the moonrises a!ter midnight" the illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery providesus with a rough east$west re!erence during the night.

USIN$ THE STARS

(our location in the 1orthern or Southern 'emisphere determines which constellation youuse to determine your north or south direction.

The 1orthern Sky

The main constellations to learn are the Ursa 2a,or" also known as the 6ig )ipper or the-low" and assiopeia 4/igure C@$ 5. 1either o! these constellations ever sets. They arealways visible on a clear night. Use them to locate -olaris" also known as the polestar orthe 1orth Star. The 1orth Star !orms part o! the Little )ipper handle and can be con!usedwith the 6ig )ipper. -revent con!usion by using both the 6ig )ipper and assiopeiatogether. The 6ig )ipper and assiopeia are always directly opposite each. other androtate counterclockwise around -olaris" with -olaris in the center. The 6ig )ipper is aseven star constellation in the shape o! a dipper. The two stars !orming the outer lip o! this

dipper are the ;pointer stars; because they point to the 1orth Star. 2entally draw a line!rom the outer bottom star to the outer top star o! the 6ig )ipper3s bucket. +#tend this line



about !ive times the distance between the pointer stars. (ou will !ind the 1orth Star alongthis line.

assiopeia has !ive stars that !orm a shape like a ; ; on its side. The 1orth Star is straightout !rom assiopeia3s center star.

A!ter locating the 1orth Star" locate the 1orth -ole or true north by drawing an imaginaryline directly to the earth.

The Southern Sky

6ecause there is no star bright enough to be easily recogni%ed near the south celestialpole" a constellation known as the Southern ross is used as a signpost to the South4/igure C@$D5. The Southern ross or ru# has !ive stars. Its !our brightest stars !orm across that tilts to one side. The two stars that make up the cross3s long a#is are the pointerstars. To determine south" imagine a distance !ive times the distance between These starsand the point where this imaginary line ends is in the general direction o! south. Lookdown to the hori%on !rom this imaginary point and select a landmark to steer by. In astatic survival situation" you can !i# this location in daylight i! you drive stakes in theground at night to point the way.

MA&IN$ IMPRO!ISE COMPASSES

(ou can construct improvised compasses using a piece o! !errous metal that can be needleshaped or a !lat double$edged ra%or blade and a piece o! nonmetallic string or long hair!rom which to suspend it. (ou can magneti%e or polari%e the metal by slowly stroking it inone direction on a piece o! silk or care!ully through your hair using deliberate strokes. (oucan also polari%e metal by stroking it repeatedly at one end with a magnet. Always rub inone direction only. I! you have a battery and some electric wire" you can polari%e the metalelectrically. The wire should be insulated. I! not insulated" wrap the metal ob,ect in asingle" thin strip o! paper to prevent contact. The battery must be a minimum o! = volts.

/orm a coil with the electric wire and touch its ends to the battery3s terminals. Repeatedlyinsert one end o! the metal ob,ect in and out o! the coil. The needle will become anelectromagnet. hen suspended !rom a piece o! nonmetallic string" or !loated on a smallpiece o! wood in water" it will align itsel! with a north$south line.

(ou can construct a more elaborate improvised compass using a sewing needle or thinmetallic ob,ect" a nonmetallic container 4!or e#ample" a plastic dip container5" its lid withthe center cut out and waterproo!ed" and the silver tip !rom a pen. To construct thiscompass" take an ordinary sewing needle and break in hal!. 7ne hal! will !orm yourdirection pointer and the other will act as the pivot point. -ush the portion used as thepivot point through the bottom center o! your container9 this portion should be !lush onthe bottom and not inter!ere with the lid. Attach the center o! the other portion 4thepointer5 o! the needle on the pen3s silver tip using glue" tree sap" or melted plastic.2agneti%e one end o! the pointer and rest it on the pivot point.

OTHER MEANS OF ETERMININ$ IRECTION

The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not accurate because mossgrows completely around some trees. Actually" growth is more lush on the side o! the tree!acing the south in the 1orthern 'emisphere and vice versa in the Southern 'emisphere.I! there are several !elled trees around !or comparison" look at the stumps. *rowth is morevigorous on the side toward the e0uator and the tree growth rings will be more widelyspaced. 7n the other hand" the tree growth rings will be closer together on the side towardthe poles.

ind direction may be help!ul in some instances where there are prevailing directions andyou know what they are.



Recogni%ing the di!!erences between vegetation and moisture patterns on north$ andsouth$!acing slopes can aid in determining direction. In the northern hemisphere" north$!acing slopes receive less sun than south$!acing slopes and are there!ore cooler anddamper. In the summer" north$!acing slopes retain patches o! snow. In the winter" thetrees and open areas on south$!acing slopes are the !irst to lose their snow" and groundsnowpack is shallower.

CHAPTER 1. - SI$NA"IN$ TECHNI*UES

7ne o! your !irst concerns when you !ind yoursel! in a survival situation is to communicatewith your !riends or allies. *enerally" communication is the giving and receiving o!in!ormation. As a survivor" you must get your rescuer3s attention !irst" and second" send amessage your rescuer understands. Some attention$getters are man$made geometricpatterns such as straight lines" circles" triangles" or F3s displayed in uninhabited areas9 alarge !ire or !lash o! light9 a large" bright ob,ect moving slowly9 or contrast" whether !romcolor or shadows. The type o! signal used will depend on your environment and the enemysituation.

APP"ICATIONI! in a noncombat situation" you need to !ind the largest available clear and !lat area onthe highest possible terrain. Use as obvious a signal as you can create. 7n the other hand"you will have to be more discreet in combat situations. (ou do not want to signal andattract the enemy. -ick an area that is visible !rom the air" but ensure there are hidingplaces nearby. Try to have a hill or other ob,ect between the signal site and the enemy tomask your signal !rom the enemy. -er!orm a thorough reconnaissance o! the area toensure there are no enemy !orces nearby.

hatever signaling techni0ue or device you plan to use" know how to use it and be readyto put it into operation on short notice. I! possible" avoid using signals or signalingtechni0ues that can physically endanger you. 8eep in mind that signals to your !riendsmay alert the enemy o! your presence and location. 6e!ore signaling" care!ully weigh yourrescue chances by !riends against the danger o! capture by the enemy.

A radio is probably the surest and 0uickest way to let others know where you are and tolet you receive their messages. 6ecome !amiliar with the radios in your unit. Learn how tooperate them and how to send and receive messages.

(ou will !ind descriptions o! other signaling techni0ues" devices" and articles you can use.Learn how to use them. Think o! ways in which you can adapt or change them !or di!!erentenvironments. -ractice using these signaling techni0ues" devices" and articles be!ore youneed them. -lanned" prearranged signaling techni0ues may improve your chance o!rescue.

MEANS FOR SI$NA"IN$

There are two main ways to get attention or to communicate$$visual and audio. The meansyou use will depend on your situation and the material you have available. hatever themeans" always have visual and audio signals ready !or use.

Visual Signals

These signals are materials or e0uipment you use to make your presence known torescuers.

/ire



)uring darkness" !ire is the most e!!ective visual means !or signaling. 6uild three !ires in atriangle 4the international distress signal5 or in a straight line with about =B metersbetween the !ires. 6uild them as soon as time and the situation permit and protect themuntil you need them. I! you are alone" maintaining three !ires may be di!!icult. I! so"maintain one signal !ire.

hen constructing signal !ires" consider your geographic location. I! in a ,ungle" !ind anatural clearing or the edge o! a stream where you can build !ires that the ,ungle !oliagewill not hide. (ou may even have to clear an area. I! in a snow$covered area" you mayhave to clear the ground o! snow or make a plat!orm on which to build the !ire so thatmelting snow will not e#tinguish it.

A burning tree 4tree torch5 is another way to attract attention 4/igure CJ$C5. (ou can setpitch$bearing trees a!ire" even when green. (ou can get other types o! trees to burn byplacing dry wood in the lower branches and igniting it so that the !lames !lare up and ignitethe !oliage. 6e!ore the primary tree is consumed" cut and add more small green trees tothe !ire to produce more smoke. Always select an isolated tree so that you do not start a!orest !ire and endanger yoursel!.

Smoke

)uring daylight" build a smoke generator and use smoke to gain attention 4/igure CJ$=5.The international distress signal is three columns o! smoke. Try to create a color o! smokethat contrasts with the background9 dark smoke against a light background and vice versa.I! you practically smother a large !ire with green leaves" moss" or a little water" the !ire willproduce white smoke. I! you add rubber or oil$soaked rags to a !ire" you will get blacksmoke.

In a desert environment" smoke hangs close to the ground" but a pilot can spot it in opendesert terrain.

Smoke signals are e!!ective only on comparatively calm" clear days. 'igh winds" rain" orsnow disperse smoke" lessening its chances o! being seen.

Smoke *renades

I! you have smoke grenades with you" use them in the same pattern as described !or !ires.8eep them dry so that they will work when you need them. Take care not to ignite thevegetation in the area when you use them.

-en /lares

These !lares are part o! an aviator3s survival vest. The device consists o! a pen$shaped gunwith a !lare attached by a nylon cord. hen !ired" the pen !lare sounds like a pistol shot

and !ires the !lare about CB> meters high. It is about centimeters in diameter.

To have the pen !lare ready !or immediate use" take it out o! its wrapper" attach the !lare"leave the gun uncocked" and wear it on a cord or chain around your neck. 6e ready to !ireit in !ront o! search aircra!t and be ready with a secondary signal. Also" be ready to takecover in case the pilot mistakes the !lare !or enemy !ire.

Tracer Ammunition

(ou may use ri!le or pistol tracer ammunition to signal search aircra!t. )o not !ire theammunition in !ront o! the aircra!t. As with pen !lares" be ready to take cover i! the pilotmistakes your tracers !or enemy !ire.

Star lusters



Red is the international distress color9 there!ore" use a red star cluster whenever possible.Any color" however" will let your rescuers know where you are. Star clusters reach a heighto! =>> to =CB meters" burn an average o! ? to C> seconds" and descend at a rate o! CDmeters per second.

Star -arachute /lares

These !lares reach a height o! =>> to =CB meters and descend at a rate o! =.C meters persecond. The 2C=? 4red5 burns about B> seconds and the 2C=E 4white5 about =B seconds.At night you can see these !lares at D@ to B? kilometers.

2irrors or Shiny 7b,ects

7n a sunny day" a mirror is your best signaling device. I! you don3t have a mirror" polishyour canteen cup" your belt buckle" or a similar ob,ect that will re!lect the sun3s rays.)irect the !lashes in one area so that they are secure !rom enemy observation. -racticeusing a mirror or shiny ob,ect !or signaling now9 do not wait until you need it. I! you havean 28$ signal mirror" !ollow the instructions on its back 4/igure CJ$ 5.

ear the signal mirror on a cord or chain around your neck so that it is ready !orimmediate use. 'owever" be sure the glass side is against your body so that it will not!lash9 the enemy can see the !lash.

CAUTION

)o not !lash a signal mirror rapidly because a pilot may mistake the !lashes !or enemy !ire.)o not direct the beam in the aircra!t3s cockpit !or more than a !ew seconds as it may blindthe pilot.

'a%e" ground !og" and mirages may make it hard !or a pilot to spot signals !rom a !lashingob,ect. So" i! possible" get to the highest point in your area when signaling. I! you can3tdetermine the aircra!t3s location" !lash your signal in the direction o! the aircra!t noise.

1ote: -ilots have reported seeing mirror !lashes up to C?> kilometers away under idealconditions.

/igures CJ$D and CJ$B show methods o! aiming a signal mirror !or signaling.

/lashlight or Strobe Light

At night you can use a !lashlight or a strobe light to send an S7S to an aircra!t. henusing a strobe light" take care to prevent the pilot !rom mistaking it !or incoming ground!ire. The strobe light !lashes ?> times per minute. Some strobe lights have in!rared covers

and lenses. 6lue !lash collimators are also available !or strobe lights.

VS$CE -anel

)uring daylight you can use a VS$CE panel to signal. -lace the orange side up as it iseasier to see !rom the air than the violet side. /lashing the panel will make it easier !or theaircrew to spot. (ou can use any bright orange or violet cloth as a substitute !or the VS$CE.

lothing

Spreading clothing on the ground or in the top o! a tree is another way to signal. Selectarticles whose color will contrast with the natural surroundings. Arrange them in a largegeometric pattern to make them more likely to attract attention.



1atural 2aterial

I! you lack other means" you can use natural materials to !orm a symbol or message thatcan be seen !rom the air. 6uild mounds that cast shadows9 you can use brush" !oliage o!any type" rocks" or snow blocks.

In snow$covered areas" tramp the snow to !orm letters or symbols and !ill the depressionwith contrasting material 4twigs or branches5. In sand" use boulders" vegetation" orseaweed to !orm a symbol or message. In brush$covered areas" cut out patterns in thevegetation or sear the ground. In tundra" dig trenches or turn the sod upside down.

In any terrain" use contrasting materials that will make the symbols visible to the aircrews.

Sea )ye 2arkers

All Army aircra!t involved in operations near or over water will normally carry a watersurvival kit that contains sea dye markers. I! you are in a water survival situation" use seadye markers during daylight to indicate your location. These spots o! dye stay conspicuous!or about hours" e#cept in very rough seas. Use them only i! you are in a !riendly area.8eep the markers wrapped until you are ready to use them. Use them only when you hearor sight an aircra!t. Sea dye markers are also very e!!ective on snow$covered ground9 usethem to write distress code letters.

Audio Signals

Radios" whistles" and gunshots are some o! the methods you can use to signal yourpresence to rescuers.

Radio +0uipment

The A1G-R $J> survival radio is a part o! the Army aviator3s survival vest. The A1G-R $

CC= will eventually replace the A1G-R $J>. 6oth radios can transmit either tone or voice.Any other type o! Army radio can do the same. The ranges o! the di!!erent radios varydepending on the altitude o! the receiving aircra!t" terrain" vegetation density" weather"battery strength" type o! radio" and inter!erence. To obtain ma#imum per!ormance !romradios" use the !ollowing procedures:

• Try to transmit only in clear" unobstructed terrain. Since radios are line$o!$sightcommunications devices" any terrain between the radio and the receiver will blockthe signal.

• 8eep the antenna at right angles to the rescuing aircra!t. There is no signal !romthe tip o! the antenna.

• I! the radio has tone capability" place it upright on a !lat" elevated sur!ace so thatyou can per!orm other survival tasks.

• 1ever let the antenna touch your clothing" body" !oliage" or the ground. Suchcontact greatly reduces the range o! the signal.

• onserve battery power. Turn the radio o!! when you are not using it. )o nottransmit or receive constantly. In hostile territory" keep transmissions short toavoid enemy radio direction !inding.

• In cold weather" keep the battery inside your clothing when not using the radio.old 0uickly drains the battery3s power. )o not e#pose the battery to e#treme heat

such as desert sun. 'igh heat may cause the battery to e#plode. Try to keep theradio and battery as dry as possible" as water may destroy the circuitry.

histles

histles provide an e#cellent way !or close up signaling. In some documented cases" theyhave been heard up to C.? kilometers away. 2anu!actured whistles have more range thana human whistle.



*unshots

In some situations you can use !irearms !or signaling. Three shots !ired at distinct intervalsusually indicate a distress signal. )o not use this techni0ue in enemy territory. The enemywill surely come to investigate shots.

CO ES AN SI$NA"S

1ow that you know how to let people know where you are" you need to know how to givethem more in!ormation. It is easier to !orm one symbol than to spell out an entiremessage. There!ore" learn the codes and symbols that all aircra!t pilots understand.

SOS

(ou can use lights or !lags to send an S7S$$three dots" three dashes" three dots. The S7Sis the internationally recogni%ed distress signal in radio 2orse code. A dot is a short" sharppulse9 a dash is a longer pulse. 8eep repeating the signal. hen using !lags" hold !lags on

the le!t side !or dashes and on the right side !or dots.

*round$to$Air +mergency ode

This code 4/igure CJ$?5 is actually !ive de!inite" meaning!ul symbols. 2ake these symbols aminimum o! C meter wide and ? meters long. I! you make them larger" keep the same C:? ratio. +nsure the signal contrasts greatly with the ground it is on. -lace it in an openarea easily spotted !rom the air.

6ody Signals

hen an aircra!t is close enough !or the pilot to see you clearly" use body movements orpositions 4/igure CJ$E5 to convey a message.

-anel Signals

I! you have a li!e ra!t cover or sail" or a suitable substitute" use the symbols shown in/igure CJ$@ to convey a message.

Aircra!t Acknowledgments

7nce the pilot o! a !i#ed$wing aircra!t has sighted you" he will normally indicate he hasseen you by !lying low" moving the plane" and !lashing lights as shown in /igure CJ$J. 6eready to relay other messages to the pilot once he acknowledges that he received andunderstood your !irst message. Use a radio" i! possible" to relay !urther messages. I! no

radio is available" use the codes covered in the previous paragraphs.

AIRCRAFT !ECTORIN$ PROCE URES

I! you can contact a !riendly aircra!t with a radio" guide the pilot to your location. Use the!ollowing general !ormat to guide the pilot:

• 2ayday" 2ayday.• all sign 4i! any5.• 1ame.• Location.•

1umber o! survivors.• Available landing sites.



• Any remarks such as medical aid or other speci!ic types o! help neededimmediately.

Simply because you have made contact with rescuers does not mean you are sa!e. /ollowinstructions and continue to use sound survival and evasion techni0ues until you areactually rescued.

CHAPTER 24 - SUR!I!A" MO!EMENT IN HOSTI"E AREAS

The ;rescue at any cost; philosophy o! previous con!licts is not likely to be possible in!uture con!licts. 7ur potential adversaries have made great progress in air de!ensemeasures and radio direction !inding 4R)/5 techni0ues. e must assume that U.S. military!orces trapped behind enemy lines in !uture con!licts may not e#perience 0uick recovery by!riendly elements. Soldiers may have to move !or e#tended times and distances to placesless threatening to the recovery !orces. The soldier will not likely know the type o!recovery to e#pect. +ach situation and the available resources determine the type o!recovery possible. Since no one can be absolutely sure until the recovery e!!ort begins"soldiers !acing a potential cuto!! !rom !riendly !orces should be !amiliar with all the possible

types o! recovery" their related problems" and their responsibilities to the recovery e!!ort.-reparation and training can improve the chances o! success.

PHASES OF P"ANNIN$

-reparation is a re0uirement !or all missions. hen planning" you must consider how toavoid capture and return to your unit. ontingency plans must be prepared in con,unctionwith unit standing operating procedures 4S7-s5. ourses o! action you or your unit willtake must also be considered.

ontingency -lan o! Action 4 -A5

Intelligence sections can help prepare personnel !or contingency actions throughin!ormation supplied in area studies" S+R+ 4survival" evasion" resistance" and escape5contingency guides" threat brie!ings" current intelligence reports" and current contact andauthentication procedures. -re$mission preparation includes the completion o! a -A. Thestudy and research needed to develop the -A will make you aware o! the currentsituation in your mission area. (our -A will let recovery !orces know your probableactions should you have to move to avoid capture.

Start preparing even be!ore pre$mission planning. 2any parts o! the -A are S7- !or yourunit. Include the -A in your training. -lanning starts in your daily training.

The -A is your entire plan !or your return to !riendly control. It consists o! !iveparagraphs written in the operation order !ormat. (ou can take most o! paragraph C"

Situation" with you on the mission. Appendi# ' contains the -A !ormat. It also indicateswhat portion o! the -A you can take with you.

A comprehensive -A is a valuable asset to the soldier trapped behind enemy lines whomust try to avoid capture. To complete paragraph C" know your unit3s assigned area orconcentrate on potential mission areas o! the world. 2any open or closed sources containthe in!ormation you need to complete a -A. 7pen sources may include newspapers"maga%ines" country or area handbooks" area studies" television" radio" persons !amiliarwith the area" and libraries. losed sources may include area studies" area assessments"S+R+ contingency guides" various classi!ied !ield manuals" and intelligence reports.

-repare your -A in three phases. )uring your normal training" prepare paragraph C"Situation. -repare paragraphs =" " D" and B during your pre$mission planning. A!ter

deployment into an area" continually update your -A based on mission changes andintelligence updates.



The -A is a guide. (ou may add or delete certain portions based on the mission. The -Amay be a recovery !orce3s only means o! determining your location and intentions a!teryou start to move. It is an essential tool !or your survival and return to !riendly control.

Standing 7perating -rocedures

Unit S7-s are valuable tools your unit has that will help your planning. hen !aced with adangerous situation re0uiring immediate action" it is not the time to discuss options9 it isthe time to act. 2any o! the techni0ues used during small unit movement can be carriedover to !it re0uirements !or moving and returning to !riendly control. Items !rom the S7-should include" but are not limited to$$

• 2ovement team si%e 4three to !our persons per team5.• Team communications 4technical and nontechnical5.• +ssential e0uipment.• Actions at danger areas.• Signaling techni0ues.• Immediate action drills.• Linkup procedures.• 'elicopter recovery devices and procedures.• Security procedures during movement and at hide sites.• Rally points.

Rehearsals work e!!ectively !or rein!orcing these S7- skills and also provide opportunities!or evaluation and improvement.

1oti!ication to 2ove and Avoid apture

An isolated unit has several general courses o! action it can take to avoid the capture o!the group or individuals. These courses o! action are not courses the commander can

choose instead o! his original mission. 'e cannot arbitrarily abandon the assigned mission.Rather" he may adopt these courses o! action a!ter completing his mission when his unitcannot complete its assigned mission 4because o! combat power losses5 or when hereceives orders to e#tract his unit !rom its current position. I! such actions are notpossible" the commander may decide to have the unit try to move to avoid capture andreturn to !riendly control. In either case" as long as there is communication with higherhead0uarters" that head0uarters will make the decision.

I! the unit commander loses contact with higher head0uarters" he must make the decisionto move or wait. 'e bases his decision on many !actors" including the mission" rations andammunition on hand" casualties" the chance o! relie! by !riendly !orces" and the tacticalsituation. The commander o! an isolated unit !aces other 0uestions. hat course o! actionwill in!lict ma#imum damage on the enemy& hat course o! action will assist in completing

the higher head0uarters3 overall mission&

2ovement teams conduct the e#ecution portion o! the plan when noti!ied by higherhead0uarters or" i! there is no contact with higher head0uarters" when the highest rankingsurvivor decides that the situation re0uires the unit to try to escape capture or destruction.2ovement team leaders receive their noti!ication through prebrie!ed signals. 7nce thesignal to try to avoid capture is given" it must be passed rapidly to all personnel. 1oti!yhigher head0uarters" i! possible. I! unable to communicate with higher head0uarters"leaders must recogni%e that organi%ed resistance has ended" and that organi%ationalcontrol has ceased. ommand and control is now at the movement team or individual leveland is returned to higher organi%ational control only a!ter reaching !riendly lines.

E5ECUTION



Upon noti!ication to avoid capture" all movement team members will try to link up at theinitial movement point. This point is where team members rally and actually begin theirmovement. Tentatively select the initial movement point during your planning phasethrough a map recon. 7nce on the ground" the team veri!ies this location or selects abetter one. All team members must know its location. The initial movement point shouldbe easy to locate and occupy !or a minimum amount o! time.

7nce the team has rallied at the initial movement point" it must$$

• *ive !irst aid.• Inventory its e0uipment 4decide what to abandon" destroy" or take along5.• Apply camou!lage.• 2ake sure everyone knows the tentative hide locations.• +nsure everyone knows the primary and alternate routes and rally points en route

to the hide locations.• Always maintain security.• Split the team into smaller elements. The ideal element should have two to three

members9 however" it could include more depending on team e0uipment and

e#perience.

The movement portion o! returning to !riendly control is the most dangerous as you arenow most vulnerable. It is usually better to move at night because o! the concealmentdarkness o!!ers. +#ceptions to such movement would be when moving through ha%ardousterrain or dense vegetation 4!or e#ample" ,ungle or mountainous terrain5. hen moving"avoid the !ollowing even i! it takes more time and energy to bypass:

• 7bstacles and barriers.• Roads and trails.• Inhabited areas.• aterways and bridges.•

1atural lines o! dri!t.• 2an$made structures.• All civilian and military personnel.

2ovement in enemy$held territory is a very slow and deliberate process. The slower youmove and the more care!ul you are" the better. (our best security will be using yoursenses. Use your eyes and ears to detect people be!ore they detect you. 2ake !re0uentlistening halts. In daylight" observe a section o! your route be!ore you move along it. Thedistance you travel be!ore you hide will depend on the enemy situation" your health" theterrain" the availability o! cover and concealment !or hiding" and the amount o! darknessle!t.

7nce you have moved into the area in which you want to hide 4hide area5" select a hidesite. 8eep the !ollowing !ormula in mind when selecting a hide site: 6LISS.

6 $ 6lends in with the surroundings.

L $ Low in silhouette.

I $ Irregular in shape.

S $ Small in si%e.

S $ Secluded.

Avoid the use o! e#isting buildings or shelters. Usually" your best option will be to crawlinto the thickest vegetation you can !ind. onstruct any type o! shelter within the hide area



only in cold weather and desert environments. I! you build a shelter" !ollow the 6LISS!ormula.

'ide Site Activities

A!ter you have located your hide site" do not move straight into it. Use a button hook orother deceptive techni0ue to move to a position outside o! the hide site. onduct alistening halt be!ore moving individually into the hide site. 6e care!ul not to disturb or cutany vegetation. 7nce you have occupied the hide site" limit your activities to maintainingsecurity" resting" camou!laging" and planning your ne#t moves.

2aintain your security through visual scanning and listening. Upon detection o! the enemy"the security personnel alert all personnel" even i! the team3s plan is to stay hidden and notmove upon sighting the enemy. Take this action so that everyone is aware o! the dangerand ready to react.

I! any team member leaves the team" give him a !ive$point contingency plan. Take suchsteps especially when a recon team or a work party is out o! the hole$up or hide site.

It is e#tremely important to stay healthy and alert when trying to avoid capture. Takeevery opportunity to rest" but do not sacri!ice security. Rotate security so that all memberso! your movement team can rest. Treat all in,uries" no matter how minor. Loss o! yourhealth will mean loss o! your ability to continue to avoid capture.

amou!lage is an important aspect o! both moving and securing a hide site. Always use abuddy system to ensure that camou!lage is complete. +nsure that team members blendwith the hide site. Use natural or man$made materials. I! you add any additionalcamou!lage material to the hide site" do not cut vegetation in the immediate area.

-lan your ne#t actions while at the hide site. Start your planning process immediately uponoccupying the hide site. In!orm all team members o! their current location and designatean alternate hide site location. 7nce this is done" start planning !or the team3s ne#tmovement.

-lanning the team3s movement begins with a map recon. hoose the ne#t hide area !irst.Then choose a primary and an alternate route to the hide area. In choosing the routes" donot use straight lines. Use one or two radical changes in direction. -ick the routes thato!!er the best cover and concealment" the !ewest obstacles" and the least likelihood o!contact with humans. There should be locations along the route where the team can getwater. To aid team navigation" use a%imuths" distances" checkpoints or steering marks"and corridors. -lan rally points and rende%vous points at intervals along the route.

7ther planning considerations may !all under what the team already has in the team S7-.+#amples are immediate action drills" actions on sighting the enemy" and hand$and$armsignals.

7nce planning is complete" ensure everyone knows and memori%es the entire plan. Theteam members should know the distances and a%imuths !or the entire route to the ne#thide area. They should study the map and know the various terrain they will be movingacross so that they can move without using the map.

)o not occupy a hide site !or more than =D hours. In most situations" hide during the dayand move at night. Limit your actions in the hide site to those discussed above. 7nce inthe hide site" restrict all movement to less than DB centimeters above the ground. )o notbuild !ires or prepare !ood. Smoke and !ood odors will reveal your location. 6e!ore leavingthe hide site" sterili%e it to prevent tracking.

'ole$Up Areas



A!ter moving and hiding !or several days" usually three or !our" you or the movement teamwill have to move into a hole$up area. This is an area where you can rest" recuperate" andget and prepare !ood. hoose an area near a water source. (ou then have a place to getwater" to place !ishing devices" and to trap game. Since waterways are a line o!communication" locate your hide site well away !rom the water.

The hole$up area should o!!er plenty o! cover and concealment !or movement in andaround the area. Always maintain security while in the hole$up area. Always man the hole$up area. Actions in the hole$up area are the same as in hide site" e#cept that you canmove away !rom the hole$up area to get and prepare !ood. Actions in the hole$up areainclude$$

• Selecting and occupying the ne#t hide site 4remember you are still in a dangeroussituation9 this is not a !riendly area5.

• Reconnoitering the area !or resources and potential concealed movement routes tothe alternate hide site.

• *athering !ood 4nuts" berries" vegetables5. hen moving around the area !or !ood"maintain security and avoid leaving tracks or other signs. hen setting traps andsnares" keep them well$camou!laged and in areas where people are not likely todiscover them. Remember" the local population sometimes heavily travels trailsnear water sources.

• *etting water !rom sources within the hide area. 6e care!ul not to leave tracks o!signs along the banks o! water sources when getting water. 2oving on hard rocksor logs along the banks to get water will reduce the signs you leave.

• Setting clandestine !ishing devices" such as stakeouts" below the sur!ace o! thewater to avoid detection.

• Locating a !ire site well away !rom the hide site. Use this site to prepare !ood orboil water. amou!lage and sterili%e the !ire site a!ter each use. 6e care!ul thatsmoke and light !rom the !ire does not compromise the hole$up area.

hile in the hole$up area" security is still your primary concern. )esignate team membersto per!orm speci!ic tasks. To limit movement around the area" you may have a two$manteam per!orm more than one task. /or e#ample" the team getting water could also set the!ishing devices. )o not occupy the hole$up area longer than E= hours.

RETURN TO FRIEN "% CONTRO"

+stablishing contact with !riendly lines or patrols is the most crucial part o! movement andreturn to !riendly control. All your patience" planning" and hardships will be in vain i! youdo not e#ercise caution when contacting !riendly !rontline !orces. /riendly patrols havekilled personnel operating behind enemy lines because they did not make contact properly.2ost o! the casualties could have been avoided i! caution had been e#ercised and a !ewsimple procedures !ollowed. The normal tendency is to throw caution to the winds when insight o! !riendly !orces. (ou must overcome this tendency and understand that linkup is avery sensitive situation.

6order rossings

I! you have made your way to a !riendly or neutral country" use the !ollowing proceduresto cross the border and link up with !riendly !orces on the other side:

• 7ccupy a hide site on the near side o! the border and send a team out toreconnoiter the potential crossing site.

• Surveil the crossing site !or at least =D hours" depending on the enemy situation.• 2ake a sketch o! the site" taking note o! terrain" obstacles" guard routines and

rotations" and any sensor devices or trip wires. 7nce the recon is complete" the

team moves to the hide site" brie!s the rest o! the team" and plans to cross theborder at night.



• A!ter crossing the border" set up a hide site on the !ar side o! the border and try tolocate !riendly positions. )o not reveal your presence.

• )epending on the si%e o! your movement team" have two men surveil the potentiallinkup site with !riendly !orces until satis!ied that the personnel are indeed !riendly.

• 2ake contact with the !riendly !orces during daylight. -ersonnel chosen to makecontact should be unarmed" have no e0uipment" and have positive identi!icationreadily available. The person who actually makes the linkup should be someonewho looks least like the enemy.

• )uring the actual contact" have only one person make the contact. The otherperson provides the security and observes the linkup area !rom a sa!e distance.The observer should be !ar enough away so that he can warn the rest o! themovement team i! something goes wrong.

• ait until the party he is contacting looks in his direction so that he does notsurprise the contact. 'e stands up !rom behind cover" with hands overhead andstates that he is an American. A!ter this" he !ollows any instructions given him. 'eavoids answering any tactical 0uestions and does not give any indication that thereare other team members.

• Reveal that there are other personnel with him only a!ter veri!ying his identity andsatis!ying himsel! he has made contact with !riendly !orces.

Language problems or di!!iculties con!irming identities may arise. The movement teamshould maintain security" be patient" and have a contingency plan.

1ote: I! you are moving to a neutral country" you are surrendering to that power andbecome a detained person.

Linkup at the /+6AG/L7T

I! caught between !riendly and enemy !orces and there is heavy !ighting in the area" youmay choose to hide and let the !riendly lines pass over you. I! overrun by !riendly !orces"you may try to link up !rom their rear during daylight hours. I! overrun by enemy !orces"

you may move !urther to the enemy rear" try to move to the !orward edge o! the battlearea 4/+6A5G!orward line o! own troops 4/L7T5 during a lull in the !ighting" or move toanother area along the !ront.

The actual linkup will be done as !or linkup during a border crossing. The only di!!erence isthat you must be more care!ul on the initial contact. /rontline personnel are more likely toshoot !irst and ask 0uestions later" especially in areas o! heavy !ighting. (ou should benear or behind cover be!ore trying to make contact.

Linkup ith /riendly -atrols

I! !riendly lines are a circular perimeter or an isolated camp" !or e#ample" any directionyou approach !rom will be considered enemy territory. (ou do not have the option o!

moving behind the lines and trying to link up. This move makes the linkup e#tremelydangerous. 7ne option you have is to place the perimeter under observation and wait !or a!riendly patrol to move out in your direction" providing a chance !or a linkup. (ou may alsooccupy a position outside o! the perimeter and call out to get the attention o! the !riendly!orces. Ideally" display anything that is white while making contact. I! nothing else isavailable" use any article o! clothing. The idea is to draw attention while staying behindcover. 7nce you have drawn attention to your signal and called out" !ollow instructionsgiven to you.

6e constantly on the alert !or !riendly patrols because these provide a means !or return to!riendly control. /ind a concealed position that allows you ma#imum visual coverage o! thearea. Try to memori%e every terrain !eature so that" i! necessary" you can in!iltrate to!riendly positions under the cover o! darkness. Remember" trying to in!iltrate in darkness is

e#tremely dangerous.



6ecause o! the missions o! combat and recon patrols and where they are operating"making contact can be dangerous. I! you decide not to make contact" you can observetheir route and approach !riendly lines at about the same location. Such observation willenable you to avoid mines and booby traps.

7nce you have spotted a patrol" remain in position and" i! possible" allow the patrol to

move toward you. hen the patrol is =B to B> meters !rom your position" signal them andcall out a greeting that is clearly and unmistakably o! American origin.

I! you have nothing white" an article o! clothing will su!!ice to draw attention. I! thedistance is greater than B> meters" a recon patrol may avoid contact and bypass yourposition. I! the distance is less than =B meters" a patrol member may react instantly by!iring a !atal shot.

It is crucial" at the time o! contact" that there is enough light !or the patrol to identi!y youas an American.

hatever linkup techni0ue you decide to use" use e#treme caution. /rom the perspectiveo! the !riendly patrol or !riendly personnel occupying a perimeter" you are hostile until theymake positive identi!ication.

CHAPTER 21 - CAMOUF"A$E

In a survival situation" especially in a hostile environment" you may !ind it necessary tocamou!lage yoursel!" your e0uipment" and your movement. It may mean the di!!erencebetween survival and capture by the enemy. amou!lage and movement techni0ues" suchas stalking" will also help you get animals or game !or !ood using primitive weapons andskills.

PERSONA" CAMOUF"A$E

hen camou!laging yoursel!" consider that certain shapes are particular to humans. Theenemy will look !or these shapes. The shape o! a hat" helmet" or black boots can give youaway. +ven animals know and run !rom the shape o! a human silhouette. 6reak up youroutline by placing small amounts o! vegetation !rom the surrounding area in your uni!orm"e0uipment" and headgear. Try to reduce any shine !rom skin or e0uipment. 6lend in withthe surrounding colors and simulate the te#ture o! your surroundings.

Shape and 7utline

hange the outline o! weapons and e0uipment by tying vegetation or strips o! cloth ontothem. 2ake sure the added camou!lage does not hinder the e0uipment3s operation. henhiding" cover yoursel! and your e0uipment with leaves" grass" or other local debris.

onceal any signaling devices you have prepared" but keep them ready !or use.

olor and Te#ture

+ach area o! the world and each climatic condition 4arcticGwinter" temperateG,ungle" orswampGdesert5 has color patterns and te#tures that are natural !or that area. hile color issel!$e#planatory" te#ture de!ines the sur!ace characteristics o! something when looking atit. /or e#ample" sur!ace te#tures may be smooth" rough" rocky" lea!y" or many otherpossible combinations. Use color and te#ture together to camou!lage yoursel! e!!ectively. Itmakes little sense to cover yoursel! with dead" brown vegetation in the middle o! a largegrassy !ield. Similarly" it would be useless to camou!lage yoursel! with green grass in themiddle o! a desert or rocky area.

To hide and camou!lage movement in any speci!ic area o! the world" you must take on thecolor and te#ture o! the immediate surroundings. Use natural or man$made materials to



camou!lage yoursel!. amou!lage paint" charcoal !rom burned paper or wood" mud" grass"leaves" strips o! cloth or burlap" pine boughs" and camou!laged uni!orms are a !ewe#amples.

over all areas o! e#posed skin" including !ace" hands" neck" and ears. Use camou!lagepaint" charcoal" or mud to camou!lage yoursel!. over with a darker color areas that stick

out more and catch more light 4!orehead" nose" cheekbones" chin" and ears5. over otherareas" particularly recessed or shaded areas 4around the eyes and under the chin5" withlighter colors. 6e sure to use an irregular pattern. Attach vegetation !rom the area or stripso! cloth o! the proper color to clothing and e0uipment. I! you use vegetation" replace it asit wilts. As you move through an area" be alert to the color changes and modi!y yourcamou!lage colors as necessary.

/igure =C$C gives a general idea o! how to apply camou!lage !or various areas andclimates. Use appropriate colors !or your surroundings. The blotches or slashes will help tosimulate te#ture.

Shine

As skin gets oily" it becomes shiny. +0uipment with worn o!! paint is also shiny. +venpainted ob,ects" i! smooth" may shine. *lass ob,ects such as mirrors" glasses" binoculars"and telescopes shine. (ou must cover these glass ob,ects when not in use. Anything thatshines automatically attracts attention and will give away your location.

henever possible" wash oily skin and reapply camou!lage. Skin oil will wash o!!camou!lage" so reapply it !re0uently. I! you must wear glasses" camou!lage them byapplying a thin layer o! dust to the outside o! the lenses. This layer o! dust will reduce there!lection o! light. over shiny spots on e0uipment by painting" covering with mud" orwrapping with cloth or tape. -ay particular attention to covering boot eyelets" buckles one0uipment" watches and ,ewelry" %ippers" and uni!orm insignia. arry a signal mirror in itsdesigned pouch or in a pocket with the mirror portion !acing your body.

Shadow

hen hiding or traveling" stay in the deepest part o! the shadows. The outer edges o! theshadows are lighter and the deeper parts are darker. Remember" i! you are in an areawhere there is plenty o! vegetation" keep as much vegetation between you and a potentialenemy as possible. This action will make it very hard !or the enemy to see you as thevegetation will partially mask you !rom his view. /orcing an enemy to look through manylayers o! masking vegetation will !atigue his eyes very 0uickly.

hen traveling" especially in built$up areas at night" be aware o! where you cast yourshadow. It may e#tend out around the comer o! a building and give away your position.Also" i! you are in a dark shadow and there is a light source to one side" an enemy on theother side can see your silhouette against the light.

2ovement

2ovement" especially !ast movement" attracts attention. I! at all possible" avoid movementin the presence o! an enemy. I! capture appears imminent in your present location and youmust move" move away slowly" making as little noise as possible. 6y moving slowly in asurvival situation" you decrease the chance o! detection and conserve energy that you mayneed !or long$term survival or long$distance evasion.

hen moving past obstacles" avoid going over them. I! you must climb over an obstacle"keep your body level with its top to avoid silhouetting yoursel!. )o not silhouette yoursel!against the skyline when crossing hills or ridges. hen you are moving" you will havedi!!iculty detecting the movement o! others. Stop !re0uently" listen" and look around slowlyto detect signs o! hostile movement.



1oise

1oise attracts attention" especially i! there is a se0uence o! loud noises such as severalsnapping twigs. I! possible" avoid making any noise at all. Slow down your pace as muchas necessary to avoid making noise when moving around or away !rom possible threats.

Use background noises to cover the noise o! your movement. Sounds o! aircra!t" trucks"generators" strong winds" and people talking will cover some or all the sounds produced byyour movement. Rain will mask a lot o! movement noise" but it also reduces your ability todetect potential enemy noise.

Scent

hether hunting animals or avoiding the enemy" it is always wise to camou!lage the scentassociated with humans. Start by washing yoursel! and your clothes without using soap.This washing method removes soap and body odors. Avoiding strong smelling !oods" suchas garlic" helps reduce body odors. )o not use tobacco products" candy" gum" orcosmetics.

(ou can use aromatic herbs or plants to wash yoursel! and your clothing" to rub on yourbody and clothing" or to chew on to camou!lage your breath. -ine needles" mint" or anysimilar aromatic plant will help camou!lage your scent !rom both animals and humans.Standing in smoke !rom a !ire can help mask your scent !rom animals. hile animals area!raid o! !resh smoke !rom a !ire" older smoke scents are normal smells a!ter !orest !iresand do not scare them.

hile traveling" use your sense o! smell to help you !ind or avoid humans. -ay attention tosmells associated with humans" such as !ire" cigarettes" gasoline" oil" soap" and !ood. Suchsmells may alert you to their presence long be!ore you can see or hear them" dependingon wind speed and direction. 1ote the wind3s direction and" when possible" approach !romor skirt around on the downwind side when nearing humans or animals.

METHO S OF STA"&IN$

Sometimes you need to move" undetected" to or !rom a location. (ou need more than ,ustcamou!lage to make these moves success!ully. The ability to stalk or move without makingany sudden 0uick movement or loud noise is essential to avoiding detection.

(ou must practice stalking i! it is to be e!!ective. Use the !ollowing techni0ues whenpracticing.

Upright Stalking

Take steps about hal! your normal stride when stalking in the upright position. Suchstrides help you to maintain your balance. (ou should be able to stop at any point in thatmovement and hold that position as long as necessary. url the toes up out o! the waywhen stepping down so the outside edge o! the ball o! the !oot touches the ground. /eel!or sticks and twigs that may snap when you place your weight on them. I! you start tostep on one" li!t your !oot and move it. A!ter making contact with the outside edge o! theball o! your !oot" roll to the inside ball o! your !oot" place your heel down" !ollowed by yourtoes. Then gradually shi!t your weight !orward to the !ront !oot. Li!t the back !oot to aboutknee height and start the process over again.

8eep your hands and arms close to your body and avoid waving them about or hittingvegetation. hen moving in a crouch" you gain e#tra support by placing your hands onyour knees. 7ne step usually takes C minute to complete" but the time it takes will dependon the situation.

rawling



rawl on your hands and knees when the vegetation is too low to allow you to walk uprightwithout being seen. 2ove one limb at a time and be sure to set it down so!tly" !eeling !oranything that may snap and make noise. 6e care!ul that your toes and heels do not catchon vegetation.

-rone Staking

To stalk in the prone position" you do a low" modi!ied push$up on your hands and toes"moving yoursel! !orward slightly" and then lowering yoursel! again slowly. Avoid draggingand scraping along the ground as this makes e#cessive noise and leaves large trails !ortrackers to !ollow.

Animal Stalking

6e!ore stalking an animal" select the best route. I! the animal is moving" you will need anintercepting route. -ick a route that puts ob,ects between you and the animal to concealyour movement !rom it. 6y positioning yoursel! in this way" you will be able to move!aster" until you pass that ob,ect. Some ob,ects" such as large rocks and trees" may totallyconceal you" and others" such as small bushes and grass" may only partially conceal you.-ick the route that o!!ers the best concealment and re0uires the least amount o! e!!ort.

8eep your eyes on the animal and stop when it looks your way or turns its ears your way"especially i! it suspects your presence. As you get close" s0uint your eyes slightly toconceal both the light$dark contrast o! the whites o! the eyes and any shine !rom youreyes. 8eep your mouth closed so that the animal does not see the whiteness or shine o!your teeth.

CHAPTER 22 - CONTACT #ITH PEOP"E

Some o! the best and most !re0uently given advice" when dealing with local peoples" is !orthe survivor to accept" respect" and adapt to their ways. Thus" ;when in Rome" do as the

Romans do.; This is e#cellent advice" but there are several considerations involved inputting this advice into practice.

CONTACT #ITH "OCA" PEOP"E

(ou must give serious consideration to dealing with the local people. )o they have aprimitive culture& Are they !armers" !ishermen" !riendly people" or enemy& As a survivor";cross$cultural communication; can vary radically !rom area to area and !rom people topeople. It may mean interaction with people o! an e#tremely primitive culture or contactwith people who have a relatively modem culture. A culture is identi!ied by standards o!behavior that its members consider proper and acceptable but may or may not con!orm toyour idea o! what is proper. 1o matter who these people are" you can e#pect they will

have laws" social and economic values" and political and religious belie!s that may beradically di!!erent !rom yours. 6e!ore deploying into your area o! operations" study thesedi!!erent cultural aspects. -rior study and preparation will help you make or avoid contacti! you have to deal with the local population.

-eople will be !riendly" un!riendly" or they will choose to ignore you. Their attitude may beunknown. I! the people are known to be !riendly" try to keep them !riendly through yourcourtesy and respect !or their religion" politics" social customs" habits" and all otheraspects o! their culture. I! the people are known to be enemies or are unknowns" makeevery e!!ort to avoid any contact and leave no sign o! your presence. A basic knowledge o!the daily habits o! the local people will be essential in this attempt. I! a!ter care!ulobservation you determine that an unknown people are !riendly" you may contact them i!you absolutely need their help.

Usually" you have little to !ear and much to gain !rom cautious and respect!ul contact withlocal people o! !riendly or neutral countries. I! you become !amiliar with the local customs"



display common decency" and most important" show respect !or their customs" you shouldbe able to avoid trouble and possibly gain needed help. To make contact" wait until onlyone person is near and" i! possible" let that person make the initial approach. 2ost peoplewill be willing to help a survivor who appears to be in need. 'owever" local politicalattitudes" instruction" or propaganda e!!orts may change the attitudes o! otherwise !riendlypeople. onversely" in un!riendly countries" many people" especially in remote areas" may

!eel animosity toward their politicians and may be more !riendly toward a survivor.

The key to success!ul contact with local peoples is to be !riendly" courteous" and patient.)isplaying !ear" showing weapons" and making sudden or threatening movements cancause a local person to !ear you. Such actions can prompt a hostile response. henattempting a contact" smile as o!ten as you can. 2any local peoples are shy and seemunapproachable" or they may ignore you. Approach them slowly and do not rush yourcontact.

THE SUR!I!OR S )EHA!IOR

Use salt" tobacco" silver money" and similar items discreetly when trading with localpeople. -aper money is well$known worldwide. )o not overpay9 it may lead toembarrassment and even danger. Always treat people with respect. )o not bully them orlaugh at them.

Using sign language or acting out needs or 0uestions can be very e!!ective. 2any peopleare used to such language and communicate using nonverbal sign language. Try to learn a!ew words and phrases o! the local language in and around your potential area o!operations. Trying to speak someone3s language is one o! the best ways to show respect!or his culture. Since +nglish is widely used" some o! the local people may understand a!ew words o! +nglish.

Some areas may be taboo. They range !rom religious or sacred places to diseased ordanger areas. In some areas" certain animals must not be killed. Learn the rules and !ollowthem. atch and learn as much as possible. Such actions will help to strengthen relationsand provide new knowledge and skills that may be very important later. Seek advice onlocal ha%ards and !ind out !rom !riendly people where the hostile people are. Alwaysremember that people !re0uently insist that other peoples are hostile" simply because theydo not understand di!!erent cultures and distant peoples. The people they can usually trustare their immediate neighbors$$much the same as in our own neighborhood.

/re0uently" local people" like ourselves" will su!!er !rom contagious diseases. 6uild aseparate shelter" i! possible" and avoid physical contact without giving the impression o!doing so. -ersonally prepare your !ood and drink" i! you can do so without giving o!!ense./re0uently" the local people will accept the use o! ;personal or religious custom; as ane#planation !or isolationist behavior.

6arter" or trading" is common in more primitive societies. 'ard coin is usually good"whether !or its e#change value or as ,ewelry or trinkets. In isolated areas" matches"tobacco" salt" ra%or blades" empty containers" or cloth may be worth more than any !ormo! money.

6e very cautious when touching people. 2any people consider ;touching; taboo and suchactions may be dangerous. Avoid se#ual contact.

'ospitality among some people is such a strong cultural trait that they may seriouslyreduce their own supplies to !eed a stranger. Accept what they o!!er and share it e0uallywith all present. +at in the same way they eat and" most important" try to eat all theyo!!er.

I! you make any promises" keep them. Respect personal property and local customs andmanners" even i! they seem odd. 2ake some kind o! payment !or !ood" supplies" and so!orth. Respect privacy. )o not enter a house unless invited.



CHAN$ES TO PO"ITICA" A""E$IANCE

In today3s world o! !ast$paced international politics" political attitudes and commitmentswithin nations are sub,ect to rapid change. The population o! many countries" especiallypolitically hostile countries" must not be considered !riendly ,ust because they do notdemonstrate open hostility. Unless brie!ed to the contrary9 avoid all contact with suchpeople.

CHAPTER 2' - SUR!I!A" IN MAN-MA E HA3AR S

1uclear" chemical" and biological weapons have become potential realities on any modernbattle!ield. Recent e#perience in A!ghanistan" ambodia" and other areas o! con!lict hasproved the use o! chemical and biological weapons 4such as mycoto#ins5. The war!ightingdoctrine o! the 1AT7 and arsaw -act nations addresses the use o! both nuclear andchemical weapons. The potential use o! these weapons intensi!ies the problems o! survivalbecause o! the serious dangers posed by either radioactive !allout or contaminationproduced by persistent biological or chemical agents.

(ou must use special precautions i! you e#pect to survive in these man$made ha%ards. I!you are sub,ected to any o! the e!!ects o! nuclear" chemical" or biological war!are" thesurvival procedures recommended in this chapter may save your li!e. This chapter presentssome background in!ormation on each type o! ha%ard so that you may better understandthe true nature o! the ha%ard. Awareness o! the ha%ards" knowledge o! this chapter" andapplication o! common sense should keep you alive.

THE NUC"EAR EN!IRONMENT

-repare yoursel! to survive in a nuclear environment. 8now how to react to a nuclearha%ard.

+!!ects o! 1uclear eapons

The e!!ects o! nuclear weapons are classi!ied as either initial or residual. Initial e!!ectsoccur in the immediate area o! the e#plosion and are ha%ardous in the !irst minute a!terthe e#plosion. Residual e!!ects can last !or days or years and cause death. The principalinitial e!!ects are blast and radiation.

6last

)e!ined as the brie! and rapid movement o! air away !rom the e#plosion3s center and thepressure accompanying this movement. Strong winds accompany the blast. 6last hurlsdebris and personnel" collapses lungs" ruptures eardrums" collapses structures and

positions" and causes immediate death or in,ury with its crushing e!!ect.

Thermal Radiation

The heat and light radiation a nuclear e#plosion3s !ireball emits. Light radiation consists o!both visible light and ultraviolet and in!rared light. Thermal radiation produces e#tensive!ires" skin burns" and !lash blindness.

1uclear Radiation

1uclear radiation breaks down into two categories$initial radiation and residual radiation.

Initial nuclear radiation consists o! intense gamma rays and neutrons produced during the!irst minute a!ter the e#plosion. This radiation causes e#tensive damage to cellsthroughout the body. Radiation damage may cause headaches" nausea" vomiting"



diarrhea" and even death" depending on the radiation dose received. The ma,or problem inprotecting yoursel! against the initial radiation3s e!!ects is that you may have received alethal or incapacitating dose be!ore taking any protective action. -ersonnel e#posed tolethal amounts o! initial radiation may well have been killed or !atally in,ured by blast orthermal radiation.

Residual radiation consists o! all radiation produced a!ter one minute !rom the e#plosion. Ithas more e!!ect on you than initial radiation. A discussion o! residual radiation takes placein a subse0uent paragraph.

Types o! 1uclear 6ursts

There are three types o! nuclear bursts$$airburst" sur!ace burst" and subsur!ace burst. Thetype o! burst directly a!!ects your chances o! survival. A subsur!ace burst occurscompletely underground or underwater. Its e!!ects remain beneath the sur!ace or in theimmediate area where the sur!ace collapses into a crater over the burst3s location.Subsur!ace bursts cause you little or no radioactive ha%ard unless you enter the immediatearea o! the crater. 1o !urther discussion o! this type o! burst will take place.

An airburst occurs in the air above its intended target. The airburst provides the ma#imumradiation e!!ect on the target and is" there!ore" most dangerous to you in terms o!immediate nuclear e!!ects.

A sur!ace burst occurs on the ground or water sur!ace. Large amounts o! !allout result"with serious long$term e!!ects !or you. This type o! burst is your greatest nuclear ha%ard.

1uclear In,uries

2ost in,uries in the nuclear environment result !rom the initial nuclear e!!ects o! thedetonation. These in,uries are classed as blast" thermal" or radiation in,uries. /urtherradiation in,uries may occur i! you do not take proper precautions against !allout.Individuals in the area near a nuclear e#plosion will probably su!!er a combination o! allthree types o! in,uries.

6last In,uries

6last in,uries produced by nuclear weapons are similar to those caused by conventionalhigh$e#plosive weapons. 6last overpressure can produce collapsed lungs and rupturedinternal organs. -ro,ectile wounds occur as the e#plosion3s !orce hurls debris at you. Largepieces o! debris striking you will cause !ractured limbs or massive internal in,uries. 6lastover$pressure may throw you long distances" and you will su!!er severe in,ury upon impactwith the ground or other ob,ects. Substantial cover and distance !rom the e#plosion arethe best protection against blast in,ury. over blast in,ury wounds as soon as possible toprevent the entry o! radioactive dust particles.

Thermal In,uries

The heat and light the nuclear !ireball emits causes thermal in,uries. /irst$" second$" orthird$degree burns may result. /lash blindness also occurs. This blindness may bepermanent or temporary depending on the degree o! e#posure o! the eyes. Substantialcover and distance !rom the e#plosion can prevent thermal in,uries. lothing will providesigni!icant protection against thermal in,uries. over as much e#posed skin as possiblebe!ore a nuclear e#plosion. /irst aid !or thermal in,uries is the same as !irst aid !or burns.

over open burns 4second$or third$degree5 to prevent the entry o! radioactive particles.ash all burns be!ore covering.

Radiation In,uries

1eutrons" gamma radiation" alpha radiation" and beta radiation cause radiation in,uries.1eutrons are high$speed" e#tremely penetrating particles that actually smash cells within



your body. *amma radiation is similar to F rays and is also a highly penetrating radiation.)uring the initial !ireball stage o! a nuclear detonation" initial gamma radiation andneutrons are the most serious threat. 6eta and alpha radiation are radioactive particlesnormally associated with radioactive dust !rom !allout. They are short$range particles andyou can easily protect yoursel! against them i! you take precautions. See 6odily Reactionsto Radiation" below" !or the symptoms o! radiation in,uries.

Residual Radiation

Residual radiation is all radiation emitted a!ter C minute !rom the instant o! the nucleare#plosion. Residual radiation consists o! induced radiation and !allout.

Induced Radiation

It describes a relatively small" intensely radioactive area directly underneath the nuclearweapon3s !ireball. The irradiated earth in this area will remain highly radioactive !or ane#tremely long time. (ou should not travel into an area o! induced radiation.

/allout

/allout consists o! radioactive soil and water particles" as well as weapon !ragments.)uring a sur!ace detonation" or i! an airburst3s nuclear !ireball touches the ground" largeamounts o! soil and water are vapori%ed along with the bomb3s !ragments" and !orcedupward to altitudes o! =B">>> meters or more. hen these vapori%ed contents cool" theycan !orm more than =>> di!!erent radioactive products. The vapori%ed bomb contentscondense into tiny radioactive particles that the wind carries and they !all back to earth asradioactive dust. /allout particles emit alpha" beta" and gamma radiation. Alpha and betaradiation are relatively easy to counteract" and residual gamma radiation is much lessintense than the gamma radiation emitted during the !irst minute a!ter the e#plosion./allout is your most signi!icant radiation ha%ard" provided you have not received a lethalradiation dose !rom the initial radiation.

6odily Reactions to Radiation

The e!!ects o! radiation on the human body can be broadly classed as either chronic oracute. hronic e!!ects are those that occur some years a!ter e#posure to radiation.+#amples are cancer and genetic de!ects. hronic e!!ects are o! minor concern inso!ar asthey a!!ect your immediate survival in a radioactive environment. 7n the other hand" acutee!!ects are o! primary importance to your survival. Some acute e!!ects occur within hoursa!ter e#posure to radiation. These e!!ects result !rom the radiation3s direct physicaldamage to tissue. Radiation sickness and beta burns are e#amples o! acute e!!ects.Radiation sickness symptoms include nausea" diarrhea" vomiting" !atigue" weakness" andloss o! hair. -enetrating beta rays cause radiation burns9 the wounds are similar to !ireburns.

Recovery apability

The e#tent o! body damage depends mainly on the part o! the body e#posed to radiationand how long it was e#posed" as well as its ability to recover. The brain and kidneys havelittle recovery capability. 7ther parts 4skin and bone marrow5 have a great ability torecover !rom damage. Usually" a dose o! ?>> centigrams 4cgys5 to the entire body willresult in almost certain death. I! only your hands received this same dose" your overallhealth would not su!!er much" although your hands would su!!er severe damage.

+#ternal and Internal 'a%ards

An e#ternal or an internal ha%ard can cause body damage. 'ighly penetrating gamma

radiation or the less penetrating beta radiation that causes burns can cause e#ternaldamage. The entry o! alpha or beta radiation$emitting particles into the body can causeinternal damage. The e#ternal ha%ard produces overall irradiation and beta burns. The



internal ha%ard results in irradiation o! critical organs such as the gastrointestinal tract"thyroid gland" and bone. A very small amount o! radioactive material can cause e#tremedamage to these and other internal organs. The internal ha%ard can enter the body eitherthrough consumption o! contaminated water or !ood or by absorption through cuts orabrasions. 2aterial that enters the body through breathing presents only a minor ha%ard.(ou can greatly reduce the internal radiation ha%ard by using good personal hygiene and

care!ully decontaminating your !ood and water.

Symptoms

The symptoms o! radiation in,uries include nausea" diarrhea" and vomiting. The severity o!these symptoms is due to the e#treme sensitivity o! the gastrointestinal tract to radiation.The severity o! the symptoms and the speed o! onset a!ter e#posure are good indicators o!the degree o! radiation damage. The gastrointestinal damage can come !rom either thee#ternal or the internal radiation ha%ard.

ountermeasures Against -enetrating +#ternal Radiation

8nowledge o! the radiation ha%ards discussed earlier is e#tremely important in surviving ina !allout area. It is also critical to know how to protect yoursel! !rom the most dangerous!orm o! residual radiation$$penetrating e#ternal radiation.

The means you can use to protect yoursel! !rom penetrating e#ternal radiation are time"distance" and shielding. (ou can reduce the level o! radiation and help increase yourchance o! survival by controlling the duration o! e#posure. (ou can also get as !ar away!rom the radiation source as possible. /inally you can place some radiation$absorbing orshielding material between you and the radiation.

Time

Time is important to you" as the survivor" in two ways. /irst" radiation dosages arecumulative. The longer you are e#posed to a radioactive source" the greater the dose youwill receive. 7bviously" spend as little time in a radioactive area as possible. Second"radioactivity decreases or decays over time. This concept is known as radioactive hal!$li!e.Thus" a radioactive element decays or loses hal! o! its radioactivity within a certain time.The rule o! thumb !or radioactivity decay is that it decreases in intensity by a !actor o! ten!or every seven!old increase in time !ollowing the peak radiation level. /or e#ample" i! anuclear !allout area had a ma#imum radiation rate o! =>> cgys per hour when !allout iscomplete" this rate would !all to => cgys per hour a!ter E hours9 it would !all still !urther to= cgys per hour a!ter DJ hours. +ven an untrained observer can see that the greatestha%ard !rom !allout occurs immediately a!ter detonation" and that the ha%ard decreases0uickly over a relatively short time. As a survivor" try to avoid !allout areas until theradioactivity decays to sa!e levels. I! you can avoid !allout areas long enough !or most o!the radioactivity to decay" you enhance your chance o! survival.

)istance

)istance provides very e!!ective protection against penetrating gamma radiation becauseradiation intensity decreases by the s0uare o! the distance !rom the source. /or e#ample" i!e#posed to C">>> cgys o! radiation standing > centimeters !rom the source" at ?>centimeters" you would only receive =B> cgys. Thus" when you double the distance"radiation decreases to 4>.B5= or >.=B the amount. hile this !ormula is valid !orconcentrated sources o! radiation in small areas" it becomes more complicated !or largeareas o! radiation such as !allout areas.

Shielding

Shielding is the most important method o! protection !rom penetrating radiation. 7! thethree countermeasures against penetrating radiation" shielding provides the greatest



protection and is the easiest to use under survival conditions. There!ore" it is the mostdesirable method.

I! shielding is not possible" use the other two methods to the ma#imum e#tent practical.

Shielding actually works by absorbing or weakening the penetrating radiation" therebyreducing the amount o! radiation reaching your body. The denser the material" the betterthe shielding e!!ect. Lead" iron" concrete" and water are good e#amples o! shieldingmaterials.

Special 2edical Aspects

The presence o! !allout material in your area re0uires slight changes in !irst aid procedures.(ou must cover all wounds to prevent contamination and the entry o! radioactive particles.(ou must !irst wash burns o! beta radiation" then treat them as ordinary burns. Take e#trameasures to prevent in!ection. (our body will be e#tremely sensitive to in!ections due tochanges in your blood chemistry. -ay close attention to the prevention o! colds orrespiratory in!ections. Rigorously practice personal hygiene to prevent in!ections. overyour eyes with improvised goggles to prevent the entry o! particles.

Shelter

As stated earlier" the shielding material3s e!!ectiveness depends on its thickness anddensity. An ample thickness o! shielding material will reduce the level o! radiation tonegligible amounts.

The primary reason !or !inding and building a shelter is to get protection against the high$intensity radiation levels o! early gamma !allout as !ast as possible. /ive minutes to locatethe shelter is a good guide. Speed in !inding shelter is absolutely essential. ithoutshelter" the dosage received in the !irst !ew hours will e#ceed that received during the resto! a week in a contaminated area. The dosage received in this !irst week will e#ceed thedosage accumulated during the rest o! a li!etime spent in the same contaminated area.

Shielding 2aterials

The thickness re0uired to weaken gamma radiation !rom !allout is !ar less than thatneeded to shield against initial gamma radiation. /allout radiation has less energy than anuclear detonation3s initial radiation. /or !allout radiation" a relatively small amount o!shielding material can provide ade0uate protection. /igure = $C gives an idea o! thethickness o! various materials needed to reduce residual gamma radiation transmission byB> percent.

The principle o! hal!$value layer thickness is use!ul in understanding the absorption o!gamma radiation by various materials. According to this principle" i! B centimeters o! brick

reduce the gamma radiation level by one$hal!" adding another B centimeters o! brick4another hal!$value layer5 will reduce the intensity by another hal!" namely" to one$!ourththe original amount. /i!teen centimeters will reduce gamma radiation !allout levels to one$eighth its original amount" => centimeters to one$si#teenth" and so on. Thus" a shelterprotected by C meter o! dirt would reduce a radiation intensity o! C">>> cgys per hour onthe outside to about >.B cgy per hour inside the shelter.

1atural Shelters

Terrain that provides natural shielding and easy shelter construction is the ideal location!or an emergency shelter. *ood e#amples are ditches" ravines" rocky outcropping" hills"and river banks. In level areas without natural protection" dig a !ighting position or slittrench.

Trenches



hen digging a trench" work !rom inside the trench as soon as it is large enough to coverpart o! your body thereby not e#posing all your body to radiation. In open country" try todig the trench !rom a prone position" stacking the dirt care!ully and evenly around thetrench. 7n level ground" pile the dirt around your body !or additional shielding. )ependingupon soil conditions" shelter construction time will vary !rom a !ew minutes to a !ew hours.I! you dig as 0uickly as possible" you will reduce the dosage you receive.

7ther Shelters

hile an underground shelter covered by C meter or more o! earth provides the bestprotection against !allout radiation" the !ollowing unoccupied structures 4in order listed5o!!er the ne#t best protection:

• aves and tunnels covered by more than C meter o! earth.• Storm or storage cellars.• ulverts.• 6asements or cellars o! abandoned buildings.• Abandoned buildings made o! stone or mud.

Roo!s

It is not mandatory that you build a roo! on your shelter. 6uild one only i! the materialsare readily available with only a brie! e#posure to outside contamination. I! building a roo!would re0uire e#tended e#posure to penetrating radiation" it would be wiser to leave theshelter roo!less. A roo!3s sole !unction is to reduce radiation !rom the !allout source to yourbody. Unless you use a thick roo!" a roo! provides very little shielding.

(ou can construct a simple roo! !rom a poncho anchored down with dirt" rocks" or otherre!use !rom your shelter. (ou can remove large particles o! dirt and debris !rom the top o!the poncho by beating it o!! !rom the inside at !re0uent intervals. This cover will not o!!ershielding !rom the radioactive particles deposited on the sur!ace" but it will increase the

distance !rom the !allout source and keep the shelter area !rom !urther contamination.

Shelter Site Selection and -reparation

To reduce your e#posure time and thereby reduce the dosage received" remember the!ollowing !actors when selecting and setting up a shelter:

• here possible" seek a crude" e#isting shelter that you can improve. I! none isavailable" dig a trench.

• )ig the shelter deep enough to get good protection" then enlarge it as re0uired !orcom!ort.

• over the top o! the !ighting position or trench with any readily available material

and a thick layer o! earth" i! you can do so without leaving the shelter. hile a roo!and camou!lage are both desirable" it is probably sa!er to do without them than toe#pose yoursel! to radiation outside your !ighting position.

• hile building your shelter" keep all parts o! your body covered with clothing toprotect it against beta burns.

• lean the shelter site o! any sur!ace deposit using a branch or other ob,ect thatyou can discard. )o this cleaning to remove contaminated materials !rom the areayou will occupy. The cleaned area should e#tend at least C.B meters beyond yourshelter3s area.

• )econtaminate any materials you bring into the shelter. These materials includegrass or !oliage that you use as insulation or bedding" and your outer clothing4especially !ootgear5. I! the weather permits and you have heavily contaminatedouter clothing" you may want to remove it and bury it under a !oot o! earth at the

end o! your shelter. (ou may retrieve it later 4a!ter the radioactivity decays5 whenleaving the shelter. I! the clothing is dry" you may decontaminate it by beating orshaking it outside the shelter3s entrance to remove the radioactive dust. (ou may



use any body o! water" even though contaminated" to rid materials o! e#cess!allout particles. Simply dip the material into the water and shake it to get rid o!the e#cess water. )o not wring it out" this action will trap the particles.

• I! at all possible and without leaving the shelter" wash your body thoroughly withsoap and water" even i! the water on hand may be contaminated. This washing willremove most o! the harm!ul radioactive particles that are likely to cause beta

burns or other damage. I! water is not available" wipe your !ace and any othere#posed skin sur!ace to remove contaminated dust and dirt. (ou may wipe your!ace with a clean piece o! cloth or a hand!ul o! uncontaminated dirt. (ou get thisuncontaminated dirt by scraping o!! the top !ew inches o! soil and using the ;clean;dirt.

• Upon completing the shelter" lie down" keep warm" and sleep and rest as much aspossible while in the shelter.

• hen not resting" keep busy by planning !uture actions" studying your maps" ormaking the shelter more com!ortable and e!!ective.

• )on3t panic i! you e#perience nausea and symptoms o! radiation sickness. (ourmain danger !rom radiation sickness is in!ection. There is no !irst aid !or thissickness. Resting" drinking !luids" taking any medicine that prevents vomiting"maintaining your !ood intake" and preventing additional e#posure will help avoid

in!ection and aid recovery. +ven small doses o! radiation can cause thesesymptoms which may disappear in a short time.

+#posure Timetable

The !ollowing timetable provides you with the in!ormation needed to avoid receivingserious dosage and still let you cope with survival problems:

• omplete isolation !rom D to ? days !ollowing delivery o! the last weapon.• A very brie! e#posure to procure water on the third day is permissible" but

e#posure should not e#ceed > minutes.• 7ne e#posure o! not more than > minutes on the seventh day.•

7ne e#posure o! not more than C hour on the eighth day.• +#posure o! = to D hours !rom the ninth day through the twel!th day.• 1ormal operation" !ollowed by rest in a protected shelter" !rom the thirteenth day

on.• In all instances" make your e#posures as brie! as possible. onsider only

mandatory re0uirements as valid reasons !or e#posure. )econtaminate at everystop.

The times given above are conservative. I! !orced to move a!ter the !irst or second day"you may do so" 2ake sure that the e#posure is no longer than absolutely necessary.

ater -rocurement

In a !allout$contaminated area" available water sources may be contaminated. I! you waitat least D@ hours be!ore drinking any water to allow !or radioactive decay to take place andselect the sa!est possible water source" you will greatly reduce the danger o! ingestingharm!ul amounts o! radioactivity.

Although many !actors 4wind direction" rain!all" sediment5 will in!luence your choice inselecting water sources" consider the !ollowing guidelines.

Sa!est ater Sources

ater !rom springs" wells" or other underground sources that undergo natural !iltration willbe your sa!est source. Any water !ound in the pipes or containers o! abandoned houses or

stores will also be !ree !rom radioactive particles. This water will be sa!e to drink" althoughyou will have to take precautions against bacteria in the water.



Snow taken !rom CB or more centimeters below the sur!ace during the !allout is also a sa!esource o! water.

Streams and Rivers

ater !rom streams and rivers will be relatively !ree !rom !allout within several days a!terthe last nuclear e#plosion because o! dilution. I! at all possible" !ilter such water be!oredrinking to get rid o! radioactive particles. The best !iltration method is to dig sedimentholes or seepage basins along the side o! a water source. The water will seep laterally intothe hole through the intervening soil that acts as a !iltering agent and removes thecontaminated !allout particles that settled on the original body o! water. This method canremove up to JJ percent o! the radioactivity in water. (ou must cover the hole in someway in order to prevent !urther contamination. See /igure ?$J !or an e#ample o! a water!ilter.

Standing ater

ater !rom lakes" pools" ponds" and other standing sources is likely to be heavilycontaminated" though most o! the heavier" long$lived radioactive isotopes will settle to thebottom. Use the settling techni0ue to puri!y this water. /irst" !ill a bucket or other deepcontainer three$!ourths !ull with contaminated water. Then take dirt !rom a depth o! C> ormore centimeters below the ground sur!ace and stir it into the water. Use about =.Bcentimeters o! dirt !or every C> centimeters o! water. Stir the water until you see most dirtparticles suspended in the water. Let the mi#ture settle !or at least ? hours. The settlingdirt particles will carry most o! the suspended !allout particles to the bottom and coverthem. (ou can then dip out the clear water. -uri!y this water using a !iltration device.

Additional -recautions

As an additional precaution against disease" treat all water with water puri!ication tablets!rom your survival kit or boil it.

/ood -rocurement

Although it is a serious problem to obtain edible !ood in a radiation$contaminated area" it isnot impossible to solve. (ou need to !ollow a !ew special procedures in selecting andpreparing rations and local !oods !or use. Since secure packaging protects your combatrations" they will be per!ectly sa!e !or use. Supplement your rations with any !ood you can!ind on trips outside your shelter. 2ost processed !oods you may !ind in abandonedbuildings are sa!e !or use a!ter decontaminating them. These include canned and packaged!oods a!ter removing the containers or wrappers or washing them !ree o! !allout particles.These processed !oods also include !ood stored in any closed container and !ood stored inprotected areas 4such as cellars5" i! you wash them be!ore eating. ash all !ood containersor wrappers be!ore handling them to prevent !urther contamination.

I! little or no processed !ood is available in your area" you may have to supplement yourdiet with local !ood sources. Local !ood sources are animals and plants.

Animals as a /ood Source

Assume that all animals" regardless o! their habitat or living conditions" were e#posed toradiation. The e!!ects o! radiation on animals are similar to those on humans. Thus" mosto! the wild animals living in a !allout area are likely to become sick or die !rom radiationduring the !irst month a!ter the nuclear e#plosion. +ven though animals may not be !ree!rom harm!ul radioactive materials" you can and must use them in survival conditions as a!ood source i! other !oods are not available. ith care!ul preparation and by !ollowingseveral important principles" animals can be sa!e !ood sources.



/irst" do not eat an animal that appears to be sick. It may have developed a bacterialin!ection as a result o! radiation poisoning. ontaminated meat" even i! thoroughly cooked"could cause severe illness or death i! eaten.

are!ully skin all animals to prevent any radioactive particles on the skin or !ur !romentering the body. )o not eat meat close to the bones and ,oints as an animal3s skeleton

contains over J> percent o! the radioactivity. The remaining animal muscle tissue"however" will be sa!e to eat. 6e!ore cooking it" cut the meat away !rom the bone" leavingat least a $millimeter thickness o! meat on the bone. )iscard all internal organs 4heart"liver" and kidneys5 since they tend to concentrate beta and gamma radioactivity.

ook all meat until it is very well done. To be sure the meat is well done" cut it into lessthan C $millimeter$thick pieces be!ore cooking. Such cuts will also reduce cooking timeand save !uel.

The e#tent o! contamination in !ish and a0uatic animals will be much greater than that o!land animals. This is also true !or water plants" especially in coastal areas. Use a0uatic!ood sources only in conditions o! e#treme emergency.

All eggs" even i! laid during the period o! !allout" will be sa!e to eat. ompletely avoid milk!rom any animals in a !allout area because animals absorb large amounts o! radioactivity!rom the plants they eat.

-lants as a /ood Source

-lant contamination occurs by the accumulation o! !allout on their outer sur!aces or byabsorption o! radioactive elements through their roots. (our !irst choice o! plant !oodshould be vegetables such as potatoes" turnips" carrots" and other plants whose edibleportion grows underground. These are the sa!est to eat once you scrub them and removetheir skins.

Second in order o! pre!erence are those plants with edible parts that you candecontaminate by washing and peeling their outer sur!aces. +#amples are bananas"apples" tomatoes" prickly pears" and other such !ruits and vegetables.

Any smooth$skinned vegetable" !ruit" or plant that you cannot easily peel or e!!ectivelydecontaminate by washing will be your third choice o! emergency !ood.

The e!!ectiveness o! decontamination by scrubbing is inversely proportional to theroughness o! the !ruit3s sur!ace. Smooth$sur!aced !ruits have lost J> percent o! theircontamination a!ter washing" while washing rough$sur!aced plants removes only about B>percent o! the contamination.

(ou eat rough$sur!aced plants 4such as lettuce5 only as a last resort because you cannot

e!!ectively decontaminate them by peeling or washing. 7ther di!!icult !oods todecontaminate by washing with water include dried !ruits 4!igs" prunes" peaches" apricots"pears5 and soya beans.

In general" you can use any plant !ood that is ready !or harvest i! you can e!!ectivelydecontaminate it. *rowing plants" however" can absorb some radioactive materialsthrough their leaves as well as !rom the soil" especially i! rains have occurred during ora!ter the !allout period. Avoid using these plants !or !ood e#cept in an emergency.

)IO"O$ICA" EN!IRONMENTS

The use o! biological agents is real. -repare yoursel! !or survival by being pro!icient in the

tasks identi!ied in your Soldier3s 2anuals o! ommon Tasks 4S2 Ts5. 8now what to do toprotect yoursel! against these agents.



6iological Agents and +!!ects

6iological agents are microorganisms that can cause disease among personnel" animals" orplants. They can also cause the deterioration o! material. These agents !all into two broadcategories$pathogens 4usually called germs5 and to#ins. -athogens are livingmicroorganisms that cause lethal or incapacitating diseases. 6acteria" rickettsiae" !ungi"

and viruses are included in the pathogens. To#ins are poisons that plants" animals" ormicroorganisms produce naturally. -ossible biological war$!are to#ins include a variety o!neuroto#ic 4a!!ecting the central nervous system5 and cytoto#ic 4causing cell death5compounds.

*erms

*erms are living organisms. Some nations have used them in the past as weapons. 7nly a!ew germs can start an in!ection" especially i! inhaled into the lungs. 6ecause germs are sosmall and weigh so little" the wind can spread them over great distances9 they can alsoenter un!iltered or nonairtight places. 6uildings and bunkers can trap them thus causing ahigher concentration. *erms do not a!!ect the body immediately. They must multiply insidethe body and overcome the body3s de!enses$$a process called the incubation period.

Incubation periods vary !rom several hours to several months" depending on the germ.2ost germs must live within another living organism 4host5" such as your body" to surviveand grow. eather conditions such as wind" rain" cold" and sunlight rapidly kill germs.

Some germs can !orm protective shells" or spores" to allow survival outside the host.Spore$producing agents are a long$term ha%ard you must neutrali%e by decontaminatingin!ected areas or personnel. /ortunately" most live agents are not spore$producing. Theseagents must !ind a host within roughly a day o! their delivery or they die. *erms havethree basic routes o! entry into your body: through the respiratory tract" through a breakin the skin" and through the digestive tract. Symptoms o! in!ection vary according to thedisease.

To#ins

To#ins are substances that plants" animals" or germs produce naturally. These to#ins arewhat actually harm man" not bacteria. 6otulin" which produces botulism" is an e#ample.2odern science has allowed large$scale production o! these to#ins without the use o! thegerm that produces the to#in. To#ins may produce e!!ects similar to those o! chemicalagents. To#ic victims may not" however" respond to !irst aid measures used againstchemical agents. To#ins enter the body in the same manner as germs. 'owever" someto#ins" unlike germs" can penetrate unbroken skin. Symptoms appear almost immediately"since there is no incubation period. 2any to#ins are e#tremely lethal" even in very smalldoses. Symptoms may include any o! the !ollowing:

• )i%%iness.• 2ental con!usion.• 6lurred or double vision.• 1umbness or tingling o! skin.• -aralysis.• onvulsions.• Rashes or blisters.• oughing.• /ever.• Aching muscles.• Tiredness.• 1ausea" vomiting" andGor diarrhea.• 6leeding !rom body openings.•

6lood in urine" stool" or saliva.• Shock.



• )eath.

)etection o! 6iological Agents

6iological agents are" by nature" di!!icult to detect. (ou cannot detect them by any o! the!ive physical senses. 7!ten" the !irst sign o! a biological agent will be symptoms o! thevictims e#posed to the agent. (our best chance o! detecting biological agents be!ore theycan a!!ect you is to recogni%e their means o! delivery. The three main means o! deliveryare$$

• 6ursting$type munitions. These may be bombs or pro,ectiles whose burst causesvery little damage. The burst will produce a small cloud o! li0uid or powder in theimmediate impact area. This cloud will disperse eventually9 the rate o! dispersiondepends on terrain and weather conditions.

• Spray tanks or generators. Aircra!t or vehicle spray tanks or ground$level aerosolgenerators produce an aerosol cloud o! biological agents.

• Vectors. Insects such as mos0uitoes" !leas" lice" and ticks deliver pathogens. Largein!estations o! these insects may indicate the use o! biological agents.

Another sign o! a possible biological attack is the presence o! unusual substances on theground or on vegetation" or sick$looking plants" crops" or animals.

In!luence o! eather and Terrain

(our knowledge o! how weather and terrain a!!ect the agents can help you avoidcontamination by biological agents. 2a,or weather !actors that a!!ect biological agents aresunlight" wind" and precipitation. Aerosol sprays will tend to concentrate in low areas o!terrain" similar to early morning mist.

Sunlight contains visible and ultraviolet solar radiation that rapidly kills most germs usedas biological agents. 'owever" natural or man$made cover may protect some agents !romsunlight. 7ther man$made mutant strains o! germs may be resistant to sunlight.

'igh wind speeds increase the dispersion o! biological agents" dilute their concentration"and dehydrate them. The !urther downwind the agent travels" the less e!!ective it becomesdue to dilution and death o! the pathogens. 'owever" the downwind ha%ard area o! thebiological agent is signi!icant and you cannot ignore it.

-recipitation in the !orm o! moderate to heavy rain tends to wash biological agents out o!the air" reducing downwind ha%ard areas. 'owever" the agents may still be very e!!ectivewhere they were deposited on the ground.

-rotection Against 6iological Agents

hile you must maintain a healthy respect !or biological agents" there is no reason !or youto panic. (ou can reduce your susceptibility to biological agents by maintaining currentimmuni%ations" avoiding contaminated areas" and controlling rodents and pests. (ou mustalso use proper !irst aid measures in the treatment o! wounds and only sa!e or properlydecontaminated sources o! !ood and water. (ou must ensure that you get enough sleep toprevent a run$down condition. (ou must always use proper !ield sanitation procedures.

Assuming you do not have a protective mask" always try to keep your !ace covered withsome type o! cloth to protect yoursel! against biological agent aerosols. )ust may containbiological agents9 wear some type o! mask when dust is in the air.

(our uni!orm and gloves will protect you against bites !rom vectors 4mos0uitoes and ticks5

that carry diseases. ompletely button your clothing and tuck your trousers tightly intoyour boots. ear a chemical protective overgarment" i! available" as it provides betterprotection than normal clothing. overing your skin will also reduce the chance o! the



agent entering your body through cuts or scratches. Always practice high standards o!personal hygiene and sanitation to help prevent the spread o! vectors.

6athe with soap and water whenever possible. Use germicidal soap" i! available. ash yourhair and body thoroughly" and clean under your !ingernails. lean teeth" gums" tongue"and the roo! o! your mouth !re0uently. ash your clothing in hot" soapy water i! you can.

I! you cannot wash your clothing" lay it out in an area o! bright sunlight and allow the lightto kill the microorganisms. A!ter a to#in attack" decontaminate yoursel! as i! !or a chemicalattack using the 2=B@A= kit 4i! available5 or by washing with soap and water.

Shelter

(ou can build e#pedient shelters under biological contamination conditions using the sametechni0ues described in hapter B. 'owever" you must make slight changes to reduce thechance o! biological contamination. )o not build your shelter in depressions in the ground.Aerosol sprays tend to concentrate in these depressions. Avoid building your shelter inareas o! vegetation" as vegetation provides shade and some degree o! protection tobiological agents. Avoid using vegetation in constructing your shelter. -lace your shelter3sentrance at a J>$degree angle to the prevailing winds. Such placement will limit the entry

o! airborne agents and prevent air stagnation in your shelter. Always keep your shelterclean.

ater -rocurement

ater procurement under biological conditions is di!!icult but not impossible. heneverpossible" try to use water that has been in a sealed container. (ou can assume that thewater inside the sealed container is not contaminated. ash the water containerthoroughly with soap and water or boil it !or at least C> minutes be!ore breaking the seal.

I! water in sealed containers is not available" your ne#t choice" only under emergencyconditions" is water !rom springs. Again" boil the water !or at least C> minutes be!oredrinking. 8eep the water covered while boiling to prevent contamination by airbornepathogens. (our last choice" only in an e#treme emergency" is to use standing water.Vectors and germs can survive easily in stagnant water. 6oil this water as long as practicalto kill all organisms. /ilter this water through a cloth to remove the dead vectors. Usewater puri!ication tablets in all cases.

/ood -rocurement

/ood procurement" like water procurement" is not impossible" but you must take specialprecautions. (our combat rations are sealed" and you can assume they are notcontaminated. (ou can also assume that sealed containers or packages o! processed !oodare sa!e. To ensure sa!ety" decontaminate all !ood containers by washing with soap andwater or by boiling the container in water !or C> minutes.

(ou consider supplementing your rations with local plants or animals only in e#tremeemergencies. 1o matter what you do to prepare the !ood" there is no guarantee thatcooking will kill all the biological agents. Use local !ood only in li!e or death situations.Remember" you can survive !or a long time without !ood" especially i! the !ood you eatmay kill you<

I! you must use local !ood" select only healthy$looking plants and animals. )o not selectknown carriers o! vectors such as rats or other vermin. Select and prepare plants as youwould in radioactive areas. -repare animals as you do plants. Always use gloves andprotective clothing when handling animals or plants. ook all plant and animal !ood byboiling only. 6oil all !ood !or at least C> minutes to kill all pathogens. )o not try to !ry"bake" or roast local !ood. There is no guarantee that all in!ected portions have reached there0uired temperature to kill all pathogens. )o not eat raw !ood.

CHEMICA" EN!IRONMENTS



hemical agent war!are is real. It can create e#treme problems in a survival situation" butyou can overcome the problems with the proper e0uipment" knowledge" and training. As asurvivor" your !irst line o! de!ense against chemical agents is your pro!iciency in individualnuclear" biological" and chemical 416 5 training" to include donning and wearing theprotective mask and overgarment" personal decontamination" recognition o! chemicalagent symptoms" and individual !irst aid !or chemical agent contamination. The S2 Ts

cover these sub,ects. I! you are not pro!icient in these skills" you will have little chance o!surviving a chemical environment.

The sub,ect matter covered below is not a substitute !or any o! the individual tasks inwhich you must be pro!icient. The S2 Ts address the various chemical agents" theire!!ects" and !irst aid !or these agents. The !ollowing in!ormation is provided under theassumption that you are pro!icient in the use o! chemical protective e0uipment and knowthe symptoms o! various chemical agents.

)etection o! hemical Agents

The best method !or detecting chemical agents is the use o! a chemical agent detector. I!you have one" use it. 'owever" in a survival situation" you will most likely have to rely

solely on the use o! all o! your physical senses. (ou must be alert and able to detect anyclues indicating the use o! chemical war!are. *eneral indicators o! the presence o! chemicalagents are tears" di!!icult breathing" choking" itching" coughing" and di%%iness. ith agentsthat are very hard to detect" you must watch !or symptoms in !ellow survivors. (oursurroundings will provide valuable clues to the presence o! chemical agents9 !or e#ample"dead animals" sick people" or people and animals displaying abnormal behavior.

(our sense o! smell may alert you to some chemical agents" but most will be odorless. Theodor o! newly cut grass or hay may indicate the presence o! choking agents. A smell o!almonds may indicate blood agents.

Sight will help you detect chemical agents. 2ost chemical agents in the solid or li0uid statehave some color. In the vapor state" you can see some chemical agents as a mist or thin

!og immediately a!ter the bomb or shell bursts. 6y observing !or symptoms in others andby observing delivery means" you may be able to have some warning o! chemical agents.2ustard gas in the li0uid state will appear as oily patches on leaves or on buildings.

The sound o! enemy munitions will give some clue to the presence o! chemical weapons.2u!!led shell or bomb detonations are a good indicator.

Irritation in the nose or eyes or on the skin is an urgent warning to protect your body !romchemical agents. Additionally" a strange taste in !ood" water" or cigarettes may serve as awarning that they have been contaminated.

-rotection Against hemical Agents

As a survivor" always use the !ollowing general steps" in the order listed" to protectyoursel! !rom a chemical attack:

• Use protective e0uipment.• *ive 0uick and correct sel!$aid when contaminated.• Avoid areas where chemical agents e#ist.• )econtaminate your e0uipment and body as soon as possible.

(our protective mask and overgarment are the key to your survival. ithout these" youstand very little chance o! survival. (ou must take care o! these items and protect them!rom damage. (ou must practice and know correct sel!$aid procedures be!ore e#posure tochemical agents. The detection o! chemical agents and the avoidance o! contaminatedareas is e#tremely important to your survival. Use whatever detection kits may beavailable to help in detection. Since you are in a survival situation" avoid contaminated



areas at all costs. (ou can e#pect no help should you become contaminated. I! you dobecome contaminated" decontaminate yoursel! as soon as possible using properprocedures.

Shelter

I! you !ind yoursel! in a contaminated area" try to move out o! the area as !ast as possible.Travel crosswind or upwind to reduce the time spent in the downwind ha%ard area. I! youcannot leave the area immediately and have to build a shelter" use normal shelterconstruction techni0ues" with a !ew changes. 6uild the shelter in a clearing" away !rom allvegetation. Remove all topsoil in the area o! the shelter to decontaminate the area. 8eepthe shelter3s entrance closed and oriented at a J>$degree angle to the prevailing wind. )onot build a !ire using contaminated wood$$the smoke will be to#ic. Use e#treme cautionwhen entering your shelter so that you will not bring contamination inside.

ater -rocurement

As with biological and nuclear environments" getting water in a chemical environment isdi!!icult. 7bviously" water in sealed containers is your best and sa!est source. (ou mustprotect this water as much as possible. 6e sure to decontaminate the containers be!oreopening.

I! you cannot get water in sealed containers" try to get it !rom a closed source such asunderground water pipes. (ou may use rainwater or snow i! there is no evidence o!contamination. Use water !rom slow$moving streams" i! necessary" but always check !irst!or signs o! contamination" and always !ilter the water as described under nuclearconditions. Signs o! water source contamination are !oreign odors such as garlic" mustard"geranium" or bitter almonds9 oily spots on the sur!ace o! the water or nearby9 and thepresence o! dead !ish or animals. I! these signs are present" do not use the water. Alwaysboil or puri!y the water to prevent bacteriological in!ection.

/ood -rocurement

It is e#tremely di!!icult to eat while in a contaminated area. (ou will have to break the sealon your protective mask to eat. I! you eat" !ind an area in which you can sa!ely unmask.The sa!est source o! !ood is your sealed combat rations. /ood in sealed cans or bottles willalso be sa!e. )econtaminate all sealed !ood containers be!ore opening" otherwise you willcontaminate the !ood.

I! you must supplement your combat rations with local plants or animals" do not use plants!rom contaminated areas or animals that appear to be sick. hen handling plants oranimals" always use protective gloves and clothing.

APPEN I5 A - SUR!I!A" &ITS

The Army has several basic survival kits" primarily !or issue to aviators. There are kits !orcold climates" hot climates" and overwater. There is also an individual survival kit withgeneral packet and medical packet. The cold climate" hot climate" and overwater kits are incanvas carrying bags. These kits are normally stowed in the helicopter3s cargoGpassengerarea.

An aviator3s survival vest 4SRU$=C-5" worn by helicopter crews" also contains survivalitems.

U.S. Army aviators !lying !i#ed$wing aircra!t e0uipped with e,ection seats use the SR/U$CG- survival vest. The individual survival kits are stowed in the seat pan. Like all other

kits" the rigid seat survival kit 4RSS85 used depends on the environment.



Items contained in the kits may be ordered separately through supply channels. Allsurvival kits and vests are TA B>$J>> items and can be ordered by authori%ed units.

APPEN I5 ) - E I)"E AN ME ICINA" P"ANTS

In a survival situation" plants can provide !ood and medicine. Their sa!e usage re0uiresabsolutely positive identi!ication" knowing how to prepare them !or eating" and knowingany dangerous properties they might have. /amiliarity with botanical structures o! plantsand in!ormation on where they grow will make them easier to locate and identi!y.

Abal

alligonum comosum

)escription: The abal is one o! the !ew shrubby plants that e#ists in the shady deserts.This plant grows to about C.= meters" and its branches look like wisps !rom a broom. Thesti!!" green branches produce an abundance o! !lowers in the early spring months 42arch"April5.

'abitat and )istribution: This plant is !ound in desert scrub and waste in any climatic %one.It inhabits much o! the 1orth A!rican desert. It may also be !ound on the desert sands o!the 2iddle +ast and as !ar eastward as the Ra,putana desert o! western India.

+dible -arts: This plant3s general appearance would not indicate its use!ulness to thesurvivor" but while this plant is !lowering in the spring" its !resh !lowers can be eaten. Thisplant is common in the areas where it is !ound. An analysis o! the !ood value o! this planthas shown it to be high in sugar and nitrogenous components.

Acacia

Acacia !arnesiana

)escription: Acacia is a spreading" usually short tree with spines and alternate compoundleaves. Its individual lea!lets are small. Its !lowers are ball$shaped" bright yellow" and very!ragrant. Its bark is a whitish$gray color. Its !ruits are dark brown and podlike.

'abitat and )istribution: Acacia grows in open" sunny areas. It is !ound throughout alltropical regions.

1ote: There are about B>> species o! acacia. These plants are especially prevalent inA!rica" southern Asia" and Australia" but many species are !ound in the warmer and drierparts o! America.

+dible -arts: Its young leaves" !lowers" and pods are edible raw or cooked.

Agave

Agave species

)escription: These plants have large clusters o! thick" !leshy leaves borne close to theground and surrounding a central stalk. The plants !lower only once" then die. Theyproduce a massive !lower stalk.



'abitat and )istribution: Agaves pre!er dry" open areas. They are !ound throughoutentral America" the aribbean" and parts o! the western deserts o! the United States and

2e#ico.

+dible -arts: Its !lowers and !lower buds are edible. 6oil them be!ore eating.

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The ,uice o! some species causes dermatitis in some individuals.

7ther Uses: ut the huge !lower stalk and collect the ,uice !or drinking. Some species havevery !ibrous leaves. -ound the leaves and remove the !ibers !or weaving and makingropes. 2ost species have thick" sharp needles at the tips o! the leaves. Use them !orsewing or making hacks. The sap o! some species contains a chemical that makes the sapsuitable !or use as a soap.

Almond

-runus amygdalus

)escription: The almond tree" which sometimes grows to C=.= meters" looks like a peachtree. The !resh almond !ruit resembles a gnarled" unripe peach and grows in clusters. Thestone 4the almond itsel!5 is covered with a thick" dry" woolly skin.

'abitat and )istribution: Almonds are !ound in the scrub and thorn !orests o! the tropics"the evergreen scrub !orests o! temperate areas" and in desert scrub and waste in allclimatic %ones. The almond tree is also !ound in the semidesert areas o! the 7ld orld insouthern +urope" the eastern 2editerranean" Iran" the 2iddle +ast" hina" 2adeira" theA%ores" and the anary Islands.

+dible -arts: The mature almond !ruit splits open lengthwise down the side" e#posing theripe almond nut. (ou can easily get the dry kernel by simply cracking open the stone.Almond meats are rich in !ood value" like all nuts. *ather them in large 0uantities and shellthem !or !urther use as survival !ood. (ou could live solely on almonds !or rather longperiods. hen you boil them" the kernel3s outer covering comes o!! and only the whitemeat remains.

Amaranth

Amaranthus species

)escription: These plants" which grow J> centimeters to CB> centimeters tall" areabundant weeds in many parts o! the world. All amaranth have alternate simple leaves.They may have some red color present on the stems. They bear minute" greenish !lowersin dense clusters at the top o! the plants. Their seeds may be brown or black in weedyspecies and light$colored in domestic species.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or amaranth along roadsides" in disturbed waste areas" oras weeds in crops throughout the world. Some amaranth species have been grown as agrain crop and a garden vegetable in various parts o! the world" especially in SouthAmerica.

+dible -arts: All parts are edible" but some may have sharp spines you should removebe!ore eating. The young plants or the growing tips o! alder plants are an e#cellent

vegetable. Simply boil the young plants or eat them raw. Their seeds are very nutritious.



Shake the tops o! alder plants to get the seeds. +at the seeds raw" boiled" ground into!lour" or popped like popcorn.

Arctic willow

Sali# arctica

)escription: The arctic willow is a shrub that never e#ceeds more than ?> centimeters inheight and grows in clumps that !orm dense mats on the tundra.

'abitat and )istribution: The arctic willow is common on tundras in 1orth America.+urope" and Asia. (ou can also !ind it in some mountainous areas in temperate regions.

+dible -arts: (ou can collect the succulent" tender young shoots o! the arctic willow inearly spring. Strip o!! the outer bark o! the new shoots and eat the inner portion raw. (oucan also peel and eat raw the young underground shoots o! any o! the various kinds o!arctic willow. (oung willow leaves are one o! the richest sources o! vitamin " containing E

to C> times more than an orange.

Arrowroot

2aranta and Sagittaria species

)escription: The arrowroot is an a0uatic plant with arrow$shaped leaves and potatoliketubers in the mud.

'abitat and )istribution: Arrowroot is !ound worldwide in temperate %ones and the tropics.It is !ound in moist to wet habitats.

+dible -arts: The rootstock is a rich source o! high 0uality starch. 6oil the rootstock andeat it as a vegetable.

Asparagus

Asparagus o!!icinalis

)escription: The spring growth o! this plant resembles a cluster o! green !ingers. Themature plant has !ernlike" wispy !oliage and red berries. Its !lowers are small and greenishin color. Several species have sharp" thornlike structures.

'abitat and )istribution: Asparagus is !ound worldwide in temperate areas. Look !or it in!ields" old homesites" and !encerows.

+dible -arts: +at the young stems be!ore leaves !orm. Steam or boil them !or C> to CBminutes be!ore eating. Raw asparagus may cause nausea or diarrhea. The !leshy roots area good source o! starch.

AR1I1*

)o not eat the !ruits o! any since some are to#ic

6ael !ruit



Aegle marmelos

)escription: This is a tree that grows !rom =.D to D.? meters tall" with a dense spinygrowth. The !ruit is B to C> centimeters in diameter" gray or yellowish" and !ull o! seeds.

'abitat and )istribution: 6ael !ruit is !ound in rain !orests and semievergreen seasonal!orests o! the tropics. It grows wild in India and 6urma.

+dible -arts: The !ruit" which ripens in )ecember" is at its best when ,ust turning ripe. The ,uice o! the ripe !ruit" diluted with water and mi#ed with a small amount o! tamarind andsugar or honey" is sour but re!reshing. Like other citrus !ruits" it is rich in vitamin .

6amboo

Various species including 6ambusa" )endrocalamus" -hyllostachys

)escription: 6amboos are woody grasses that grow up to CB meters tall. The leaves aregrasslike and the stems are the !amiliar bamboo used in !urniture and !ishing poles.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or bamboo in warm" moist regions in open or ,unglecountry" in lowland" or on mountains. 6amboos are native to the /ar +ast 4Temperate andTropical %ones5 but have bean widely planted around the world.

+dible -arts: The young shoots o! almost all species are edible raw or cooked. Raw shootshave a slightly bitter taste that is removed by boiling. To prepare" remove the toughprotective sheath that is coated with tawny or red hairs. The seed grain o! the !loweringbamboo is also edible. 6oil the seeds like rice or pulveri%e them" mi# with water" and makeinto cakes.

7ther Uses: Use the mature bamboo to build structures or to make containers" ladles"spoons" and various other cooking utensils. Also use bamboo to make tools and weapons.(ou can make a strong bow by splitting the bamboo and putting several pieces together.

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*reen bamboo may e#plode in a !ire. *reen bamboo has an internal membrane you mustremove be!ore using it as a !ood or water container.

6anana and plantain

2usa species

)escription: These are treelike plants with several large leaves at the top. Their !lowersare borne in dense hanging clusters.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or bananas and plantains in open !ields or margins o!!orests where they are grown as a crop. They grow in the humid tropics.

+dible -arts: Their !ruits are edible raw or cooked. They may be boiled or baked. (ou canboil their !lowers and eat them like a vegetable. (ou can cook and eat the rootstocks andlea! sheaths o! many species. The center or ;heart; or the plant is edible year$round"cooked or raw.

7ther Uses: (ou can use the layers o! the lower third o! the plants to cover coals to roast!ood. (ou can also use their stumps to get water 4see hapter ?5. (ou can use their leavesto wrap other !oods !or cooking or storage.



6aobab

Adansonia digitata

)escription: The baobab tree may grow as high as C@ meters and may have a trunk Jmeters in diameter. The tree has short" stubby branches and a gray" thick bark. Its leavesare compound and their segments are arranged like the palm o! a hand. Its !lowers" whichare white and several centimeters across" hang !rom the higher branches. Its !ruit isshaped like a !ootball" measures up to DB centimeters long" and is covered with shortdense hair.

'abitat and )istribution: These trees grow in savannas. They are !ound in A!rica" in partso! Australia" and on the island o! 2adagascar.

+dible -arts: (ou can use the young leaves as a soup vegetable. The tender root o! theyoung baobab tree is edible. The pulp and seeds o! the !ruit are also edible. Use onehand!ul o! pulp to about one cup o! water !or a re!reshing drink. To obtain !lour" roast theseeds" then grind them.

7ther Uses: )rinking a mi#ture o! pulp and water will help cure diarrhea. 7!ten the hollowtrunks are good sources o! !resh water. The bark can be cut into strips and pounded toobtain a strong !iber !or making rope.

6atoko plum

/lacourtia inermis

)escription: This shrub or small tree has dark green" alternate" simple leaves. Its !ruits arebright red and contain si# or more seeds.

'abitat and )istribution: This plant is a native o! the -hilippines but is widely cultivated !orits !ruit in other areas. It can be !ound in clearings and at the edges o! the tropical rain!orests o! A!rica and Asia.

+dible -arts: +at the !ruit raw or cooked.

6earberry or kinnikinnick

Arctostaphylos uvaursi

)escription: This plant is a common evergreen shrub with reddish" scaly bark and thick"leathery leaves D centimeters long and C centimeter wide. It has white !lowers and brightred !ruits.

'abitat and )istribution: This plant is !ound in arctic" subarctic" and temperate regions"most o!ten in sandy or rocky soil.

+dible -arts: Its berries are edible raw or cooked. (ou can make a re!reshing tea !rom itsyoung leaves.

6eech

/agus species



)escription: 6eech trees are large 4J to =D meters5" symmetrical !orest trees that havesmooth" light$gray bark and dark green !oliage. The character o! its bark" plus its clusterso! prickly seedpods" clearly distinguish the beech tree in the !ield.

'abitat and )istribution: This tree is !ound in the Temperate Mone. It grows wild in theeastern United States" +urope" Asia" and 1orth A!rica. It is !ound in moist areas" mainly in

the !orests. This tree is common throughout southeastern +urope and across temperateAsia. 6eech relatives are also !ound in hile" 1ew *uinea" and 1ew Mealand.

+dible -arts: The mature beechnuts readily !all out o! the husklike seedpods. (ou can eatthese dark brown triangular nuts by breaking the thin shell with your !ingernail andremoving the white" sweet kernel inside. 6eechnuts are one o! the most delicious o! allwild nuts. They are a most use!ul survival !ood because o! the kernel3s high oil content.(ou can also use the beechnuts as a co!!ee substitute. Roast them so that the kernelbecomes golden brown and 0uite hard. Then pulveri%e the kernel and" a!ter boiling orsteeping in hot water" you have a passable co!!ee substitute.

6ignay

Antidesma bunius

)escription: 6ignay is a shrub or small tree" to C= meters tall" with shiny" pointed leavesabout CB centimeters long. Its !lowers are small" clustered" and green. It has !leshy" darkred or black !ruit and a single seed. The !ruit is about C centimeter in diameter.

'abitat and )istribution: This plant is !ound in rain !orests and semievergreen seasonal!orests in the tropics. It is !ound in open places and in secondary !orests. It grows wild!rom the 'imalayas to eylon and eastward through Indonesia to northern Australia.'owever" it may be !ound anywhere in the tropics in cultivated !orms.

+dible -arts: The !ruit is edible raw. )o not eat any other parts o! the tree. In A!rica" theroots are to#ic. 7ther parts o! the plant may be poisonous.

AUTI71

+aten in large 0uantities" the !ruit may have a la#ative e!!ect.

6lackberry" raspberry" and dewberry

Rubus species

)escription: These plants have prickly stems 4canes5 that grow upward" arching backtoward the ground. They have alternate" usually compound leaves. Their !ruits may be red"black" yellow" or orange.

'abitat and )istribution: These plants grow in open" sunny areas at the margin o! woods"lakes" streams" and roads throughout temperate regions. There is also an arctic raspberry.

+dible -arts: The !ruits and peeled young shoots are edible. /lavor varies greatly.

7ther Uses: Use the leaves to make tea. To treat diarrhea" drink a tea made by brewingthe dried root bark o! the blackberry bush.

6lueberry and huckleberry



Vaccinium and *aylussacia species

)escription: These shrubs vary in si%e !rom > centimeters to .E meters tall. All havealternate" simple leaves. Their !ruits may be dark blue" black" or red and have many smallseeds.

'abitat and )istribution: These plants pre!er open" sunny areas. They are !oundthroughout much o! the north temperate regions and at higher elevations in entralAmerica.

+dible -arts: Their !ruits are edible raw.

6read!ruit

Artocarpus incisa

)escription: This tree may grow up to J meters tall. It has dark green" deeply dividedleaves that are EB centimeters long and > centimeters wide. Its !ruits are large" green"ball$like structures up to > centimeters across when mature.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or this tree at the margins o! !orests and homesites in thehumid tropics. It is native to the South -aci!ic region but has been widely planted in the

est Indies and parts o! -olynesia.

+dible -arts: The !ruit pulp is edible raw. The !ruit can be sliced" dried" and ground into!lour !or later use. The seeds are edible cooked.

7ther Uses: The thick sap can serve as glue and caulking material. (ou can also use it asbirdlime 4to entrap small birds by smearing the sap on twigs where they usually perch5.

6urdock

Arctium lappa

)escription: This plant has wavy$edged" arrow$shaped leaves and !lower heads in burrlikeclusters. It grows up to = meters tall" with purple or pink !lowers and a large" !leshy root.

'abitat and )istribution: 6urdock is !ound worldwide in the 1orth Temperate Mone. Look!or it in open waste areas during the spring and summer.

+dible -arts: -eel the tender lea! stalks and eat them raw or cook them like greens. Theroots are also edible boiled or baked.

AUTI71

)o not con!use burdock with rhubarb that has poisonous leaves.

7ther Uses: A li0uid made !rom the roots will help to produce sweating and increaseurination. )ry the root" simmer it in water" strain the li0uid" and then drink the strainedli0uid. Use the !iber !rom the dried stalk to weave cordage.

6url -alm

orypha elata



)escription: This tree may reach C@ meters in height. It has large" !an$shaped leaves up to meters long and split into about C>> narrow segments. It bears !lowers in huge dusters

at the top o! the tree. The tree dies a!ter !lowering.

'abitat and )istribution: This tree grows in coastal areas o! the +ast Indies.

+dible -arts: The trunk contains starch that is edible raw. The very tip o! the trunk is alsoedible raw or cooked. (ou can get large 0uantities o! li0uid by bruising the !lowering stalk.The kernels o! the nuts are edible.

AUTI71

The seed covering may cause dermatitis in some individuals.

7ther Uses: (ou can use the leaves as weaving material.

anna lily

anna indica

)escription: The canna lily is a coarse perennial herb" J> centimeters to meters tall. Theplant grows !rom a large" thick" underground rootstock that is edible. Its large leavesresemble those o! the banana plant but are not so large. The !lowers o! wild canna lily areusually small" relatively inconspicuous" and brightly colored reds" oranges" or yellows.

'abitat and )istribution: As a wild plant" the canna lily is !ound in all tropical areas"especially in moist places along streams" springs" ditches" and the margins o! woods. Itmay also be !ound in wet temperate" mountainous regions. It is easy to recogni%e becauseit is commonly cultivated in !lower gardens in the United States.

+dible -arts: The large and much branched rootstocks are !ull o! edible starch. Theyounger parts may be !inely chopped and then boiled or pulveri%ed into a meal. 2i# in theyoung shoots o! palm cabbage !or !lavoring.

arob tree

eratonia sili0ua

)escription: This large tree has a spreading crown. Its leaves are compound and alternate.Its seedpods" also known as Saint Kohn3s bread" are up to DB centimeters long and are!illed with round" hard seeds and a thick pulp.

'abitat and )istribution: This tree is !ound throughout the 2editerranean" the 2iddle +ast"and parts o! 1orth A!rica.

+dible -arts: The young tender pods are edible raw or boiled. (ou can pulveri%e the seedsin mature pods and cook as porridge.

ashew nut

Anacardium occidentale

)escription: The cashew is a spreading evergreen tree growing to a height o! C= meters"with leaves up to => centimeters long and C> centimeters wide. Its !lowers are yellowish$



pink. Its !ruit is very easy to recogni%e because o! its peculiar structure. The !ruit is thickand pear$shaped" pulpy and red or yellow when ripe. This !ruit bears a hard" green"kidney$shaped nut at its tip. This nut is smooth" shiny" and green or brown according to itsmaturity.

'abitat and )istribution: The cashew is native to the est Indies and northern South

America" but transplantation has spread it to all tropical climates. In the 7ld orld" it hasescaped !rom cultivation and appears to be wild at least in parts o! A!rica and India.

+dible -arts: The nut encloses one seed. The seed is edible when roasted. The pear$shaped !ruit is ,uicy" sweet$acid" and astringent. It is 0uite sa!e and considered deliciousby most people who eat it.

AUTI71

The green hull surrounding the nut contains a resinous irritant poison that will blister thelips and tongue like poison ivy. 'eat destroys this poison when roasting the nuts.

attail

Typha lati!olia

)escription: attails are grasslike plants with strap$shaped leaves C to B centimeters wideand growing up to C.@ meters tall. The male !lowers are borne in a dense mass above the!emale !lowers. These last only a short time" leaving the !emale !lowers that develop intothe brown cattail. -ollen !rom the male !lowers is o!ten abundant and bright yellow.

'abitat and )istribution: attails are !ound throughout most o! the world. Look !or them in!ull sun areas at the margins o! lakes" streams" canals" rivers" and brackish water.

+dible -arts: The young tender shoots are edible raw or cooked. The rhi%ome is o!ten verytough but is a rich source o! starch. -ound the rhi%ome to remove the starch and use as a!lour. The pollen is also an e#ceptional source o! starch. hen the cattail is immature andstill green" you can boil the !emale portion and eat it like corn on the cob.

7ther Uses: The dried leaves are an e#cellent source o! weaving material you can use tomake !loats and ra!ts. The cottony seeds make good pillow stu!!ing and insulation. The !lu!!makes e#cellent tinder. )ried cattails are e!!ective insect repellents when burned.

ereus cactus

ereus species

)escription: These cacti are tall and narrow with angled stems and numerous spines.

'abitat and )istribution: They may be !ound in true deserts and other dry" open" sunnyareas throughout the aribbean region" entral America" and the western United States.

+dible -arts: The !ruits are edible" but some may have a la#ative e!!ect.

7ther Uses: The pulp o! the cactus is a good source o! water. 6reak open the stem andscoop out the pulp.

hestnut



astanea sativa

)escription: The +uropean chestnut is usually a large tree" up to C@ meters in height.

'abitat and )istribution: In temperate regions" the chestnut is !ound in both hardwoodand coni!erous !orests. In the tropics" it is !ound in semievergreen seasonal !orests. Theyare !ound over all o! middle and south +urope and across middle Asia to hina and Kapan.They are relatively abundant along the edge o! meadows and as a !orest tree. The+uropean chestnut is one o! the most common varieties. ild chestnuts in Asia belong tothe related chestnut species.

+dible -arts: hestnuts are highly use!ul as survival !ood. Ripe nuts are usually picked inautumn" although unripe nuts picked while green may also be used !or !ood. -erhaps theeasiest way to prepare them is to roast the ripe nuts in embers. ooked this way" they are0uite tasty" and you can eat large 0uantities. Another way is to boil the kernels a!terremoving the outer shell. A!ter being boiled until !airly so!t" you can mash the nuts likepotatoes.

hicory

ichorium intybus

)escription: This plant grows up to C.@ meters tall. It has leaves clustered at the base o!the stem and some leaves on the stem. The base leaves resemble those o! the dandelion.The !lowers are sky blue and stay open only on sunny days. hicory has a milky ,uice.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or chicory in old !ields" waste areas" weedy lots" and alongroads. It is a native o! +urope and Asia" but is also !ound in A!rica and most o! 1orthAmerica where it grows as a weed.

+dible -arts: All parts are edible. +at the young leaves as a salad or boil to eat as avegetable. ook the roots as a vegetable. /or use as a co!!ee substitute" roast the rootsuntil they are dark brown and then pulveri%e them.

hu!a

yperus esculentus

)escription: This very common plant has a triangular stem and grasslike leaves. It growsto a height o! => to ?> centimeters. The mature plant has a so!t !urlike bloom that e#tends!rom a whorl o! leaves. Tubers C to =.B centimeters in diameter grow at the ends o! the

roots.

'abitat and )istribution: hu!a grows in moist sandy areas throughout the world. I t iso!ten an abundant weed in cultivated !ields.

+dible -arts: The tubers are edible raw" boiled" or baked. (ou can also grind them and usethem as a co!!ee substitute.

oconut

ocos nuci!era

)escription: This tree has a single" narrow" tall trunk with a cluster o! very large leaves atthe top. +ach lea! may be over ? meters long with over C>> pairs o! lea!lets.



'abitat and )istribution: oconut palms are !ound throughout the tropics. They are mostabundant near coastal regions.

+dible -arts: The nut is a valuable source o! !ood. The milk o! the young coconut is rich insugar and vitamins and is an e#cellent source o! li0uid. The nut meat is also nutritious butis rich in oil. To preserve the meat" spread it in the sun until it is completely dry.

7ther Uses: Use coconut oil to cook and to protect metal ob,ects !rom corrosion. Also usethe oil to treat saltwater sores" sunburn" and dry skin. Use the oil in improvised torches.Use the tree trunk as building material and the leaves as thatch. 'ollow out the largestump !or use as a !ood container. The coconut husks are good !lotation devices and thehusk3s !ibers are used to weave ropes and other items. Use the gau%elike !ibers at the lea!bases as strainers or use them to weave a bug net or to make a pad to use on wounds.The husk makes a good abrasive. )ried husk !iber is an e#cellent tinder. A smolderinghusk helps to repel mos0uitoes. Smoke caused by dripping coconut oil in a !ire also repelsmos0uitoes. To render coconut oil" put the coconut meat in the sun" heat it over a slow!ire" or boil it in a pot o! water. oconuts washed out to sea are a good source o! !reshli0uid !or the sea survivor.

ommon ,u,ube

Mi%iphus ,u,uba

)escription: The common ,u,ube is either a deciduous tree growing to a height o! C=meters or a large shrub" depending upon where it grows and how much water is available!or growth. Its branches are usually spiny. Its reddish$brown to yellowish$green !ruit isoblong to ovoid" centimeters or less in diameter" smooth" and sweet in !lavor" but hasrather dry pulp around a comparatively large stone. Its !lowers are green.

'abitat and )istribution: The ,u,ube is !ound in !orested areas o! temperate regions and indesert scrub and waste areas worldwide. It is common in many o! the tropical andsubtropical areas o! the 7ld orld. In A!rica" it is !ound mainly bordering the2editerranean. In Asia" it is especially common in the drier parts o! India and hina. The

,u,ube is also !ound throughout the +ast Indies. It can be !ound bordering some desertareas.

+dible -arts: The pulp" crushed in water" makes a re!reshing beverage. I! time permits"you can dry the ripe !ruit in the sun like dates. Its !ruits are high in vitamins A and .

ranberry

Vaccinium macrocarpon

)escription: This plant has tiny leaves arranged alternately. Its stem creeps along theground. Its !ruits are red berries.

'abitat and )istribution: It only grows in open" sunny" wet areas in the colder regions o!the 1orthern 'emisphere.

+dible -arts: The berries are very tart when eaten raw. ook in a small amount o! waterand add sugar" i! available" to make a ,elly.

7ther Uses: ranberries may act as a diuretic. They are use!ul !or treating urinary tractin!ections.



rowberry

+mpetrum nigrum

)escription: This is a dwar! evergreen shrub with short needlelike leaves. It has small"shiny" black berries that remain on the bush throughout the winter.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or this plant in tundra throughout arctic regions o! 1orthAmerica and +urasia.

+dible -arts: The !ruits are edible !resh or can be dried !or later use.

uipo tree

avanillesia platani!olia

)escription: This is a very dominant and easily detected tree because it e#tends above theother trees. Its height ranges !rom DB to ?> meters. It has leaves only at the top and is

bare CC months out o! the year. It has rings on its bark that e#tend to the top to make iseasily recogni%able. Its bark is reddish or gray in color. Its roots are light reddish$brown oryellowish$brown.

'abitat and )istribution: The cuipo tree is located primarily in entral American tropicalrain !orests in mountainous areas.

+dible -arts: To get water !rom this tree" cut a piece o! the root and clean the dirt andbark o!! one end" keeping the root hori%ontal. -ut the clean end to your mouth or canteenand raise the other. The water !rom this tree tastes like potato water.

7ther Uses: Use young saplings and the branches3 inner bark to make rope.

)andelion

Tara#acum o!!icinale

)escription: )andelion leaves have a ,agged edge" grow close to the ground" and areseldom more than => centimeters long. Its !lowers are bright yellow. There are severaldandelion species.

'abitat and )istribution: )andelions grow in open" sunny locations throughout the1orthern 'emisphere.

+dible -arts: All parts are edible. +at the leaves raw or cooked. 6oil the roots as avegetable. Roots roasted and ground are a good co!!ee substitute. )andelions are high invitamins A and and in calcium.

7ther Uses: Use the white ,uice in the !lower stems as glue.

)ate palm

-hoeni# dactyli!era

)escription: The date palm is a tall" unbranched tree with a crown o! huge" compoundleaves. Its !ruit is yellow when ripe.



'abitat and )istribution: This tree grows in arid semitropical regions. It is native to 1orthA!rica and the 2iddle +ast but has been planted in the arid semitropics in other parts o!the world.

+dible -arts: Its !ruit is edible !resh but is very bitter i! eaten be!ore it is ripe. (ou can drythe !ruits in the sun and preserve them !or a long time.

7ther Uses: The trunks provide valuable building material in desert regions where !ewother treelike plants are !ound. The leaves are durable and you can use them !or thatchingand as weaving material. The base o! the leaves resembles coarse cloth that you can use!or scrubbing and cleaning.

)aylily

'emerocallis !ulva

)escription: This plant has unspotted" tawny blossoms that open !or C day only. It has

long" swordlike" green basal leaves. Its root is a mass o! swollen and elongated tubers.

'abitat and )istribution: )aylilies are !ound worldwide in Tropic and Temperate Mones.They are grown as a vegetable in the 7rient and as an ornamental plant elsewhere.

+dible -arts: The young green leaves are edible raw or cooked. Tubers are also edible rawor cooked. (ou can eat its !lowers raw" but they taste better cooked. (ou can also !ry the!lowers !or storage.

AUTI71

+ating e#cessive amounts o! raw !lowers may cause diarrhea.

)uchesnea or Indian strawberry

)uchesnea indica

)escription: The duchesnea is a small plant that has runners and three$parted leaves. Its!lowers are yellow and its !ruit resembles a strawberry.

'abitat and )istribution: It is native to southern Asia but is a common weed in warmertemperate regions. Look !or it in lawns" gardens" and along roads.

+dible -arts: Its !ruit is edible. +at it !resh.

+lderberry

Sambucus canadensis

)escription: +lderberry is a many$stemmed shrub with opposite" compound leaves. Itgrows to a height o! ? meters. Its !lowers are !ragrant" white" and borne in large !lat$topped clusters up to > centimeters across. Its berrylike !ruits are dark blue or blackwhen ripe.

'abitat and )istribution: This plant is !ound in open" usually wet areas at the margins o!marshes" rivers" ditches" and lakes. It grows throughout much o! eastern 1orth Americaand anada.



+dible -arts: The !lowers and !ruits are edible. (ou can make a drink by soaking the !lowerheads !or @ hours" discarding the !lowers" and drinking the li0uid.

AUTI71

All other parts o! the plant are poisonous and dangerous i! eaten.

/ireweed

+pilobium angusti!olium

)escription: This plant grows up to C.@ meters tall. It has large" showy" pink !lowers andlance$shaped leaves. Its relative" the dwar! !ireweed 4+pilobium lati!olium5" grows > to ?>centimeters tall.

'abitat and )istribution: Tall !ireweed is !ound in open woods" on hillsides" on streambanks" and near seashores in arctic regions. It is especially abundant in burned$overareas. )war! !ireweed is !ound along streams" sandbars" and lakeshores and on alpine andarctic slopes.

+dible -arts: The leaves" stems" and !lowers are edible in the spring but become tough insummer. (ou can split open the stems o! old plants and eat the pith raw.

/ishtail palm

aryota urens

)escription: /ishtail palms are large trees" at least C@ meters tall. Their leaves are unlike

those o! any other palm9 the lea!lets are irregular and toothed on the upper margins. Allother palms have either !an$shaped or !eatherlike leaves. Its massive !lowering shoot isborne at the top o! the tree and hangs downward.

'abitat and )istribution: The !ishtail palm is native to the tropics o! India" Assam" and6urma. Several related species also e#ist in Southeast Asia and the -hilippines. Thesepalms are !ound in open hill country and ,ungle areas.

+dible -arts: The chie! !ood in this palm is the starch stored in large 0uantities in its trunk.The ,uice !rom the !ishtail palm is very nourishing and you have to drink it shortly a!tergetting it !rom the palm !lower shoot. 6oil the ,uice down to get a rich sugar syrup. Usethe same method as !or the sugar palm to get the ,uice. The palm cabbage may be eatenraw or cooked.

/o#tail grass

Setaria species

)escription: This weedy grass is readily recogni%ed by the narrow" cylindrical headcontaining long hairs. Its grains are small" less than ? millimeters long. The dense heads o!grain o!ten droop when ripe.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or !o#tail grasses in open" sunny areas" along roads" and atthe margins o! !ields. Some species occur in wet" marshy areas. Species o! Setaria are

!ound throughout the United States" +urope" western Asia" and tropical A!rica. In someparts o! the world" !o#tail grasses are grown as a !ood crop.



+dible -arts: The grains are edible raw but are very hard and sometimes bitter. 6oilingremoves some o! the bitterness and makes them easier to eat.

*oa bean

-sophocarpus tetragonolobus

)escription: The goa bean is a climbing plant that may cover small shrubs and trees. Itsbean pods are == centimeters long" its leaves CB centimeters long" and its !lowers arebright blue. The mature pods are D$angled" with ,agged wings on the pods.

'abitat and )istribution: This plant grows in tropical A!rica" Asia" the +ast Indies" the-hilippines" and Taiwan. This member o! the bean 4legume5 !amily serves to illustrate akind o! edible bean common in the tropics o! the 7ld orld. ild edible beans o! this sortare most !re0uently !ound in clearings and around abandoned garden sites. They are morerare in !orested areas.

+dible -arts: (ou can eat the young pods like string beans. The mature seeds are avaluable source o! protein a!ter parching or roasting them over hot coals. (ou cangerminate the seeds 4as you can many kinds o! beans5 in damp moss and eat the resultantsprouts. The thickened roots are edible raw. They are slightly sweet" with the !irmness o!an apple. (ou can also eat the young leaves as a vegetable" raw or steamed.

'ackberry

eltis species

)escription: 'ackberry trees have smooth" gray bark that o!ten has corky warts or ridges.The tree may reach J meters in height. 'ackberry trees have long$pointed leaves thatgrow in two rows. This tree bears small" round berries that can be eaten when they areripe and !all !rom the tree. The wood o! the hackberry is yellowish.

'abitat and )istribution: This plant is widespread in the United States" especially in andnear ponds.

+dible -arts: Its berries are edible when they are ripe and !all !rom the tree.

'a%elnut or wild !ilbert

orylus species

)escription: 'a%elnuts grow on bushes C.@ to .? meters high. 7ne species in Turkey andanother in hina are large trees. The nut itsel! grows in a very bristly husk thatconspicuously contracts above the nut into a long neck. The di!!erent species vary in thisrespect as to si%e and shape.

'abitat and )istribution: 'a%elnuts are !ound over wide areas in the United States"especially the eastern hal! o! the country and along the -aci!ic coast. These nuts are also!ound in +urope where they are known as !ilberts. The ha%elnut is common in Asia"especially in eastern Asia !rom the 'imalayas to hina and Kapan. The ha%elnut usuallygrows in the dense thickets along stream banks and open places. They are not plants o!the dense !orest.



+dible -arts: 'a%elnuts ripen in the autumn when you can crack them open and eat thekernel. The dried nut is e#tremely delicious. The nut3s high oil content makes it a goodsurvival !ood. In the unripe stage" you can crack them open and eat the !resh kernel.

'orseradish tree

2oringa pterygosperma

)escription: This tree grows !rom D.B to CD meters tall. Its leaves have a !ernlikeappearance. Its !lowers and long" pendulous !ruits grow on the ends o! the branches. Its!ruit 4pod5 looks like a giant bean. Its =B$to ?>$centimeter$long pods are triangular incross section" with strong ribs. Its roots have a pungent odor.

'abitat and )istribution: This tree is !ound in the rain !orests and semievergreen seasonal!orests o! the tropical regions. It is widespread in India" Southeast Asia" A!rica" and entralAmerica. Look !or it in abandoned !ields and gardens and at the edges o! !orests.

+dible -arts: The leaves are edible raw or cooked" depending on their hardness. ut theyoung seedpods into short lengths and cook them like string beans or !ry them. (ou canget oil !or !rying by boiling the young !ruits o! palms and skimming the oil o!! the sur!aceo! the water. (ou can eat the !lowers as part o! a salad. (ou can chew !resh" youngseedpods to eat the pulpy and so!t seeds. The roots may be ground as a substitute !orseasoning similar to horseradish.

Iceland moss

etraria islandica

)escription: This moss grows only a !ew inches high. Its color may be gray" white" or evenreddish.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or it in open areas. It is !ound only in the arctic.

+dible -arts: All parts o! the Iceland moss are edible. )uring the winter or dry season" it isdry and crunchy but so!tens when soaked. 6oil the moss to remove the bitterness. A!terboiling" eat by itsel! or add to milk or grains as a thickening agent. )ried plants store well.

Indian potato or +skimo potato

laytonia species

)escription: All laytonia species are somewhat !leshy plants only a !ew centimeters tall"with showy !lowers about =.B centimeters across.

'abitat and )istribution: Some species are !ound in rich !orests where they areconspicuous be!ore the leaves develop. estern species are !ound throughout most o! thenorthern United States and in anada.

+dible -arts: The tubers are edible but you should boil them be!ore eating.

Kuniper

Kuniperus species



)escription: Kunipers" sometimes called cedars" are trees or shrubs with very small"scalelike leaves densely crowded around the branches. +ach lea! is less than C.=centimeters long. All species have a distinct aroma resembling the well$known cedar. Theberrylike cones are usually blue and covered with a whitish wa#.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or ,unipers in open" dry" sunny areas throughout 1orth

America and northern +urope. Some species are !ound in southeastern +urope" across Asiato Kapan" and in the mountains o! 1orth A!rica.

+dible -arts: The berries and twigs are edible. +at the berries raw or roast the seeds to useas a co!!ee substitute. Use dried and crushed berries as a seasoning !or meat. *atheryoung twigs to make a tea.

AUTI71

2any plants may be called cedars but are not related to ,unipers and may be harm!ul.Always look !or the berrylike structures" needle leaves" and resinous" !ragrant sap to besure the plant you have is a ,uniper.

Lotus

1elumbo species

)escription: There are two species o! lotus: one has yellow !lowers and the other pink!lowers. The !lowers are large and showy. The leaves" which may !loat on or rise above thesur!ace o! the water" o!ten reach C.B meters in radius. The !ruit has a distinctive !lattenedshape and contains up to => hard seeds.

'abitat and )istribution: The yellow$!lowered lotus is native to 1orth America. The pink$!lowered species" which is widespread in the 7rient" is planted in many other areas o! theworld. Lotuses are !ound in 0uiet !resh water.

+dible -arts: All parts o! the plant are edible raw or cooked. The underwater parts containlarge 0uantities o! starch. )ig the !leshy portions !rom the mud and bake or boil them. 6oilthe young leaves and eat them as a vegetable. The seeds have a pleasant !lavor and arenutritious. +at them raw" or parch and grind them into !lour.

2alanga

Fanthosoma caracu

)escription: This plant has so!t" arrow$shaped leaves" up to ?> centimeters long. Theleaves have no aboveground stems.

'abitat and )istribution: This plant grows widely in the aribbean region. Look !or it inopen" sunny !ields.

+dible -arts: The tubers are rich in starch. ook them be!ore eating to destroy a poisoncontained in all parts o! the plant.

AR1I1*

Always cook be!ore eating.



2ango

2angi!era indica

)escription: This tree may reach > meters in height. It has alternate" simple" shiny" darkgreen leaves. Its !lowers are small and inconspicuous. Its !ruits have a large single seed.There are many cultivated varieties o! mango. Some have red !lesh" others yellow ororange" o!ten with many !ibers and a kerosene taste.

'abitat and )istribution: This tree grows in warm" moist regions. It is native to northernIndia" 6urma" and western 2alaysia. It is now grown throughout the tropics.

+dible -arts: The !ruits area nutritious !ood source. The unripe !ruit can be peeled and its!lesh eaten by shredding it and eating it like a salad. The ripe !ruit can be peeled and eatenraw. Roasted seed kernels are edible.

AUTI71

I! you are sensitive to poison ivy" avoid eating mangoes" as they cause a severe reactionin sensitive individuals.

2anioc

2anihot utillissima

)escription: 2anioc is a perennial shrubby plant" C to meters tall" with ,ointed stems anddeep green" !ingerlike leaves. It has large" !leshy rootstocks.

'abitat and )istribution: 2anioc is widespread in all tropical climates" particularly in moist

areas. Although cultivated e#tensively" it maybe !ound in abandoned gardens and growingwild in many areas.

+dible -arts: The rootstocks are !ull o! starch and high in !ood value. Two kinds o! maniocare known: bitter and sweet. 6oth are edible. The bitter type contains poisonoushydrocyanic acid. To prepare manioc" !irst grind the !resh manioc root into a pulp" thencook it !or at least C hour to remove the bitter poison !rom the roots. Then !latten the pulpinto cakes and bake as bread. 2anioc cakes or !lour will keep almost inde!initely i!protected against insects and dampness. rap them in banana leaves !or protection.

AUTI71

/or sa!ety" always cook the roots o! either type.

2arsh marigold

altha palustris

)escription: This plant has rounded" dark green leaves arising !rom a short stem. It hasbright yellow !lowers.

'abitat and )istribution: This plant is !ound in bogs" lakes" and slow$moving streams. It isabundant in arctic and subarctic regions and in much o! the eastern region o! the northernUnited States.

+dible -arts: All parts are edible i! boiled.



AUTI71

As with all water plants" do not eat this plant raw. Raw water plants may carry dangerousorganisms that are removed only by cooking.

2ulberry

2orus species

)escription: This tree has alternate" simple" o!ten lobed leaves with rough sur!aces. Its!ruits are blue or black and many seeded.

'abitat and )istribution: 2ulberry trees are !ound in !orests" along roadsides" and inabandoned !ields in Temperate and Tropical Mones o! 1orth America" South America"+urope" Asia" and A!rica.

+dible -arts: The !ruit is edible raw or cooked. It can be dried !or eating later.

AUTI71

hen eaten in 0uantity" mulberry !ruit acts as a la#ative. *reen" unripe !ruit can behallucinogenic and cause e#treme nausea and cramps.

7ther Uses: (ou can shred the inner bark o! the tree and use it to make twine or cord.

1ettle

Urtica and Laportea species

)escription: These plants grow several !eet high. They have small" inconspicuous !lowers./ine" hairlike bristles cover the stems" lea!stalks" and undersides o! leaves. The bristlescause a stinging sensation when they touch the skin.

'abitat and )istribution: 1ettles pre!er moist areas along streams or at the margins o!!orests. They are !ound throughout 1orth America" entral America" the aribbean" andnorthern +urope.

+dible -arts: (oung shoots and leaves are edible. 6oiling the plant !or C> to CB minutesdestroys the stinging element o! the bristles. This plant is very nutritious.

7ther Uses: 2ature stems have a !ibrous layer that you can divide into individual !ibersand use to weave string or twine.

1ipa palm

1ipa !ruticans

)escription: This palm has a short" mainly underground trunk and very large" erect leavesup to ? meters tall. The leaves are divided into lea!lets. A !lowering head !orms on a shorterect stern that rises among the palm leaves. The !ruiting 4seed5 head is dark brown andmay be > centimeters in diameter.

'abitat and )istribution: This palm is common on muddy shores in coastal regionsthroughout eastern Asia.



+dible -arts: The young !lower stalk and the seeds provide a good source o! water and!ood. ut the !lower stalk and collect the ,uice. The ,uice is rich in sugar. The seeds arehard but edible.

7ther Uses: The leaves are e#cellent as thatch and coarse weaving material.

7ak

uercus species

)escription: 7ak trees have alternate leaves and acorn !ruits. There are two main groupso! oaks: red and white. The red oak group has leaves with bristles and smooth bark in theupper part o! the tree. Red oak acorns take = years to mature. The white oak group hasleaves without bristles and a rough bark in the upper portion o! the tree. hite oak acornsmature in C year.

'abitat and )istribution: 7ak trees are !ound in many habitats throughout 1orth America"

entral America" and parts o! +urope and Asia.

+dible -arts: All parts are edible" but o!ten contain large 0uantities o! bitter substances.hite oak acorns usually have a better !lavor than red oak acorns. *ather and shell the

acorns. Soak red oak acorns in water !or C to = days to remove the bitter substance. (oucan speed up this process by putting wood ashes in the water in which you soak theacorns. 6oil the acorns or grind them into !lour and use the !lour !or baking. (ou can useacorns that you baked until very dark as a co!!ee substitute.

AUTI71

Tannic acid gives the acorns their bitter taste. +ating an e#cessive amount o! acorns highin tannic acid can lead to kidney !ailure. 6e!ore eating acorns" leach out this chemical.

7ther Uses: 7ak wood is e#cellent !or building or burning. Small oaks can be split and cutinto long thin strips 4 to ? millimeters thick and C.= centimeters wide5 used to weavemats" baskets" or !rameworks !or packs" sleds" !urniture" etc. 7ak bark soaked in waterproduces a tanning solution used to preserve leather.

7rach

Atriple# species

)escription: This plant is vinelike in growth and has arrowhead$shaped" alternate leaves

up to B cenitmeters long. (oung leaves maybe silver$colored. Its !lowers and !ruits aresmall and inconspicuous.

'abitat and )istribution: 7rach species are entirety restricted to salty soils. They are !oundalong 1orth America3s coasts and on the shores o! alkaline lakes inland. They are also!ound along seashores !rom the 2editerranean countries to inland areas in 1orth A!ricaand eastward to Turkey and central Siberia.

+dible -arts: The entire plant is edible raw or boiled.

-almetto palm

Sabal palmetto



)escription: The palmetto palm is a tall" unbranched tree with persistent lea! bases onmost o! the trunk. The leaves are large" simple" and palmately lobed. Its !ruits are darkblue or black with a hard seed.

'abitat and )istribution: The palmetto palm is !ound throughout the coastal regions o! thesoutheastern United States.

+dible -arts: The !ruits are edible raw. The hard seeds may be ground into !lour. The hearto! the palm is a nutritious !ood source at any time. ut o!! the top o! the tree to obtain thepalm heart.

-apaya or pawpaw

arica papaya

)escription: The papaya is a small tree C.@ to ? meters tall" with a so!t" hollow trunk.hen cut" the entire plant e#udes a milky ,uice. The trunk is rough and the leaves are

crowded at the trunk3s ape#. The !ruit grows directly !rom the trunk" among and below theleaves. The !ruit is green be!ore ripening. hen ripe" it turns yellow or remains greenishwith a s0uashlike appearance.

'abitat and )istribution: -apaya is !ound in rain !orests and semievergreen seasonal!orests in tropical regions and in some temperate regions as well. Look !or it in moist areasnear clearings and !ormer habitations. It is also !ound in open" sunny places in uninhabited

,ungle areas.

+dible -arts: The ripe !ruit is high in vitamin . +at it raw or cock it like s0uash. -lacegreen !ruit in the sun to make it ripen 0uickly. ook the young papaya leaves" !lowers" andstems care!ully" changing the water as !or taro.

AUTI71

6e care!ul not to get the milky sap !rom the unripe !ruit into your eyes. It will causeintense pain and temporary$$sometimes even permanent$$blindness.

7ther Uses: Use the milky ,uice o! the unripe !ruit to tenderi%e tough meat. Rub the ,uiceon the meat.

-ersimmon

)iospyros virginiana and other species

)escription: These trees have alternate" dark green" elliptic leaves with entire margins.The !lowers are inconspicuous. The !ruits are orange" have a sticky consistency" and haveseveral seeds.

'abitat and )istribution: The persimmon is a common !orest margin tree. It is wide spreadin A!rica" eastern 1orth America" and the /ar +ast.

+dible -arts: The leaves are a good source o! vitamin . The !ruits are edible raw or baked.To make tea" dry the leaves and soak them in hot water. (ou can eat the roasted seeds.

AUTI71

Some persons are unable to digest persimmon pulp. Unripe persimmons are highlyastringent and inedible.



-incushion cactus

2ammilaria species

)escription: 2embers o! this cactus group are round" short" barrel$shaped" and withoutleaves. Sharp spines cover the entire plant.

'abitat and )istribution: These cacti are !ound throughout much o! the desert regions o!the western United States and parts o! entral America.

+dible -arts: They are a good source o! water in the desert.

-ine

-inus species

)escription: -ine trees are easily recogni%ed by their needlelike leaves grouped in bundles.+ach bundle may contain one to !ive needles" the number varying among species. Thetree3s odor and sticky sap provide a simple way to distinguish pines !rom similar lookingtrees with needlelike leaves.

'abitat and )istribution: -ines pre!er open" sunny areas. They are !ound throughout 1orthAmerica" entral America" much o! the aribbean region" 1orth A!rica" the 2iddle +ast"+urope" and some places in Asia.

+dible -arts: The seeds o! all species are edible. (ou can collect the young male cones"which grow only in the spring" as a survival !ood. 6oil or bake the young cones. The barko! young twigs is edible. -eel o!! the bark o! thin twigs. (ou can chew the ,uicy inner bark9

it is rich in sugar and vitamins. +at the seeds raw or cooked. *reen pine needle tea is highin vitamin .

7ther Uses : Use the resin to waterproo! articles. Also use it as glue. ollect the resin !romthe tree. I! there is not enough resin on the tree" cut a notch in the bark so more sap willseep out. -ut the resin in a container and heat it. The hot resin is your glue. Use it as is oradd a small amount o! ash dust to strengthen it. Use it immediately. (ou can use hardenedpine resin as an emergency dental !illing.

-lantain" broad and narrow lea!

-lantago species

)escription: The broad lea! plantain has leaves over =.B centimeters across that growclose to the ground. The !lowers are on a spike that rises !rom the middle o! the cluster o!leaves. The narrow lea! plantain has leaves up to C= centimeters long and =.B centimeterswide" covered with hairs. The leaves !orm a rosette. The !lowers are small andinconspicuous.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or these plants in lawns and along roads in the 1orthTemperate Mone. This plant is a common weed throughout much o! the world.

+dible -arts: The young tender leaves are edible raw. 7lder leaves should be cooked.Seeds are edible raw or roasted.

7ther Uses: To relieve pain !rom wounds and sores" wash and soak the entire plant !or ashort time and apply it to the in,ured area. To treat diarrhea" drink tea made !rom =@



grams 4C ounce5 o! the plant leaves boiled in >.B liter o! water. The seeds and seed husksact as la#atives.

-okeweed

-hytolacca americana

)escription: This plant may grow as high as meters. Its leaves are elliptic and up to Cmeter in length. It produces many large clusters o! purple !ruits in late spring.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or this plant in open" sunny areas in !orest clearings" in!ields" and along roadsides in eastern 1orth America" entral America" and the aribbean.

+dible -arts: The young leaves and stems are edible cooked. 6oil them twice" discardingthe water !rom the !irst boiling. The !ruits are edible i! cooked.

AUTI71

All parts o! this plant are poisonous i! eaten raw. 1ever eat the underground portions o!the plant as these contain the highest concentrations o! the poisons. )o not eat any plantover =B centimeters tall or when red is showing in the plant.

7ther Uses: Use the ,uice o! !resh berries as a dye.

-rickly pear cactus

7puntia species

)escription: This cactus has !lat" padlike stems that are green. 2any round" !urry dots thatcontain sharp$pointed hairs cover these stems.

'abitat and )istribution: This cactus is !ound in arid and semiarid regions and in dry"sandy areas o! wetter regions throughout most o! the United States and entral and SouthAmerica. Some species are planted in arid and semiarid regions o! other parts o! the world.

+dible -arts: All parts o! the plant are edible. -eel the !ruits and eat them !resh or crushthem to prepare a re!reshing drink. Avoid the tiny" pointed hairs. Roast the seeds andgrind them to a !lour.

AUTI71

Avoid any prickly pear cactus like plant with milky sap.

7ther Uses: The pad is a good source o! water. -eel it care!ully to remove all sharp hairsbe!ore putting it in your mouth. (ou can also use the pads to promote healing. Split themand apply the pulp to wounds.

-urslane

-ortulaca oleracea

)escription: This plant grows close to the ground. It is seldom more than a !ewcentimeters tall. Its stems and leaves are !leshy and o!ten tinged with red. It has



paddleshaped leaves" =.B centimeter or less long" clustered at the tips o! the stems. Its!lowers are yellow or pink. Its seeds are tiny and black.

'abitat and )istribution: It grows in !ull sun in cultivated !ields" !ield margins" and otherweedy areas throughout the world.

+dible -arts: All parts are edible. ash and boil the plants !or a tasty vegetable or eatthem raw. Use the seeds as a !lour substitute or eat them raw.

Rattan palm

alamus species

)escription: The rattan palm is a stout" robust climber. It has hooks on the midrib o! itsleaves that it uses to remain attached to trees on which it grows. Sometimes" maturestems grow to J> meters. It has alternate" compound leaves and a whitish !lower.

'abitat and )istribution: The rattan palm is !ound !rom tropical A!rica through Asia to the+ast Indies and Australia. It grows mainly in rain !orests.

+dible -arts: Rattan palms hold a considerable amount o! starch in their young stem tips.(ou can eat them roasted or raw. In other kinds" a gelatinous pulp" either sweet or sour"surrounds the seeds. (ou can suck out this pulp. The palm heart is also edible raw orcooked.

7ther Uses: (ou can obtain large amounts o! potable water by cutting the ends o! the longstems 4see hapter ?5. The stems can be used to make baskets and !ish traps.

Reed

-hragmites australis

)escription: This tall" coarse grass grows to .B meters tall and has gray$green leavesabout D centimeters wide. It has large masses o! brown !lower branches in early summer.These rarely produce grain and become !lu!!y" gray masses late in the season.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or reed in any open" wet area" especially one that has beendisturbed through dredging. Reed is !ound throughout the temperate regions o! both the1orthern and Southern 'emispheres.

+dible -arts: All parts o! the plant are edible raw or cooked in any season. 'arvest thestems as they emerge !rom the soil and boil them. (ou can also harvest them ,ust be!orethey produce !lowers" then dry and beat them into !lour. (ou can also dig up and boil theunderground stems" but they are o!ten tough. Seeds are edible raw or boiled" but they arerarely !ound.

Reindeer moss

ladonia rangi!erina

)escription: Reindeer moss is a low$growing plant only a !ew centimeters tall. It does not!lower but does produce bright red reproductive structures.



'abitat and )istribution: Look !or this lichen in open" dry areas. It is very common inmuch o! 1orth America.

+dible -arts: The entire plant is edible but has a crunchy" brittle te#ture. Soak the plant inwater with some wood ashes to remove the bitterness" then dry" crush" and add it to milkor to other !ood.

Rock tripe

Umbilicaria species

)escription: This plant !orms large patches with curling edges. The top o! the plant isusually black. The underside is lighter in color.

'abitat and )istribution: Look on rocks and boulders !or this plant. It is commonthroughout 1orth America.

+dible -arts: The entire plant is edible. Scrape it o!! the rock and wash it to remove grit.The plant may be dry and crunchy9 soak it in water until it becomes so!t. Rock tripes maycontain large 0uantities o! bitter substances9 soaking or boiling them in several changes o!water will remove the bitterness.

AUTI71

There are some reports o! poisoning !rom rock tripe" so apply the Universal +dibility Test.

Rose apple

+ugenia ,ambos

)escription: This tree grows to J meters high. It has opposite" simple" dark green" shinyleaves. hen !resh" it has !lu!!y" yellowish$green !lowers and red to purple egg$shaped!ruit.

'abitat and )istribution: This tree is widely planted in all o! the tropics. It can also be!ound in a semiwild state in thickets" waste places" and secondary !orests.

+dible -arts: The entire !ruit is edible raw or cooked.

Sago palm

2etro#ylon sagu

)escription: These palms are low trees" rarely over J meters tall" with a stout" spiny trunk.The outer rind is about B centimeters thick and hard as bamboo. The rind encloses aspongy inner pith containing a high proportion o! starch. It has typical palmlike leavesclustered at the tip.

'abitat and )istribution: Sago palm is !ound in tropical rain !orests. It !lourishes in damplowlands in the 2alay -eninsula" 1ew *uinea" Indonesia" the -hilippines" and ad,acentislands. It is !ound mainly in swamps and along streams" lakes" and rivers.

+dible -arts: These palms" when available" are o! great use to the survivor. 7ne trunk" cut ,ust be!ore it !lowers" will yield enough sago to !eed a person !or C year. 7btain sago



starch !rom non!lowering palms. To e#tract the edible sage" cut away the bark lengthwise!rom one hal! o! the trunk" and pound the so!t" whitish inner part 4pith5 as !ine as possible.8nead the pith in water and strain it through a coarse cloth into a container. The !ine"white sago will settle in the container. 7nce the sago settles" it is ready !or use. S0uee%eo!! the e#cess water and let it dry. ook it as pancakes or oatmeal. Two kilograms o! sagois the nutritional e0uivalent o! C.B kilograms o! rice. The upper part o! the trunk3s core

does not yield sage" but you can roast it in lumps over a !ire. (ou can also eat the youngsago nuts and the growing shoots or palm cabbage.

7ther Uses: Use the stems o! tall sorghums as thatching materials.

Sassa!ras

Sassa!ras albidum

)escription: This shrub or small tree bears di!!erent leaves on the same plant. Someleaves will have one lobe" some two lobes" and some no lobes. The !lowers" which appearin early spring" are small and yellow. The !ruits are dark blue. The plant parts have acharacteristics root beer smell.

'abitat and )istribution: Sassa!ras grows at the margins o! roads and !orests" usually inopen" sunny areas. It is a common tree throughout eastern 1orth America.

+dible -arts: The young twigs and leaves are edible !resh or dried. (ou can add driedyoung twigs and leaves to soups. )ig the underground portion" peel o!! the bark" and let itdry. Then boil it in water to prepare sassa!ras tea.

7ther Uses: Shred the tender twigs !or use as a toothbrush.

Sa#aul

'alo#ylon ammondendron

)escription: The sa#aul is !ound either as a small tree or as a large shrub with heavy"coarse wood and spongy" water$soaked bark. The branches o! the young trees are vividgreen and pendulous. The !lowers are small and yellow.

'abitat and )istribution: The sa#aul is !ound in desert and arid areas. It is !ound on thearid salt deserts o! entral Asia" particularly in the Turkestan region and east o! the

aspian Sea.

+dible -arts: The thick bark acts as a water storage organ. (ou can get drinking water by

pressing 0uantities o! the bark. This plant is an important some o! water in the arid regionsin which it grows.

Screw pine

-andanus species

)escription: The screw pine is a strange plant on stilts" or prop roots" that support theplant above$ground so that it appears more or less suspended in midair. These plants areeither shrubby or treelike" to J meters tall" with sti!! leaves having sawlike edges. The!ruits are large" roughened balls resembling pineapples" but without the tu!t o! leaves atthe end.



'abitat and )istribution: The screw pine is a tropical plant that grows in rain !orests andsemievergreen seasonal !orests. It is !ound mainly along seashores" although certain kindsoccur inland !or some distance" !rom 2adagascar to southern Asia and the islands o! thesouthwestern -aci!ic. There are about C@> types.

+dible -arts: 8nock the ripe !ruit to the ground to separate the !ruit segments !rom the

hard outer covering. hew the inner !leshy part. ook !ruit that is not !ully ripe in an earthoven. 6e!ore cooking" wrap the whole !ruit in banana leaves" bread!ruit leaves" or anyother suitable thick" leathery leaves. A!ter cooking !or about = hours" you can chew !ruitsegments like ripe !ruit. *reen !ruit is inedible.

Sea orach

Atriple# halimus

)escription: The sea orach is a sparingly branched herbaceous plant with small" gray$colored leaves up to =.B centimeters long. Sea orach resembles Iamb3s 0uarter" a commonweed in most gardens in the United States. It produces its !lowers in narrow" denselycompacted spikes at the tips o! its branches.

'abitat and )istribution: The sea orach is !ound in highly alkaline and salty areas alongseashores !rom the 2editerranean countries to inland areas in 1orth A!rica and eastwardto Turkey and central Siberia. *enerally" it can be !ound in tropical scrub and thorn!orests" steppes in temperate regions" and most desert scrub and waste areas.

+dible -arts: Its leaves are edible. In the areas where it grows" it has the healthyreputation o! being one o! the !ew native plants that can sustain man in times o! want.

Sheep sorrel

Rume# acerosella

)escription: These plants are seldom more than > centimeters tall. They have alternateleaves" o!ten with arrowlike bases" very small !lowers" and !re0uently reddish stems.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or these plants in old !ields and other disturbed areas in1orth America and +urope.

+dible -arts: The plants are edible raw or cooked.

AUTI71

These plants contain o#alic acid that can be damaging i! too many plants are eaten raw.ooking seems to destroy the chemical.

Sorghum

Sorghum species

)escription: There are many di!!erent kinds o! sorghum" all o! which bear grains in headsat the top o! the plants. The grains are brown" white" red" or black. Sorghum is the main!ood crop in many parts o! the world.

'abitat and )istribution: Sorghum is !ound worldwide" usually in warmer climates. Allspecies are !ound in open" sunny areas.



+dible -arts: The grains are edible at any stage o! development. hen young" the grainsare milky and edible raw. 6oil the older grains. Sorghum is a nutritious !ood.

7ther Uses: Use the stems o! tall sorghum as building materials.

Spatterdock or yellow water lily

1uphar species

)escription: This plant has leaves up to ?> centimeters long with a triangular notch at thebase. The shape o! the leaves is somewhat variable. The plant3s yellow !lowers are =.Bcentimeter across and develop into bottle$shaped !ruits. The !ruits are green when ripe.

'abitat and )istribution: These plants grow throughout most o! 1orth America. They are!ound in 0uiet" !resh" shallow water 4never deeper than C.@ meters5.

+dible -arts: All parts o! the plant are edible. The !ruits contain several dark brown seedsyou can parch or roast and then grind into !lour. The large rootstock contains starch. )ig itout o! the mud" peel o!! the outside" and boil the !lesh. Sometimes the rootstock containslarge 0uantities o! a very bitter compound. 6oiling in several changes o! water mayremove the bitterness.

Sterculia

Sterculia !oetida

)escription: Sterculias are tall trees" rising in some instances to > meters. Their leavesare either undivided or palmately lobed. Their !lowers are red or purple. The !ruit o! all

sterculias is similar in aspect" with a red" segmented seedpod containing many edible blackseeds.

'abitat and )istribution: There are over C>> species o! sterculias distributed through allwarm or tropical climates. They are mainly !orest trees.

+dible -arts: The large" red pods produce a number o! edible seeds. The seeds o! allsterculias are edible and have a pleasant taste similar to cocoa. (ou can eat them likenuts" either raw or roasted.

AUTI71

Avoid eating large 0uantities. The seeds may have a la#ative e!!ect.

Strawberry

/ragaria species

)escription: Strawberry is a small plant with a three$leaved growth pattern. It has small"white !lowers usually produced during the spring. Its !ruit is red and !leshy.

'abitat and )istribution: Strawberries are !ound in the 1orth Temperate Mone and also inthe high mountains o! the southern estern 'emisphere. Strawberries pre!er open" sunnyareas. They are commonly planted.



+dible -arts: The !ruit is edible !resh" cooked" or dried. Strawberries are a good source o!vitamin . (ou can also eat the plant3s leaves or dry them and make a tea with them.

AR1I1*

+at only white$!lowering true strawberries. 7ther similar plants without white !lowers canbe poisonous.

Sugarcane

Saccharum o!!icinarum

)escription: This plant grows up to D.B meters tall. It is a grass and has grasslike leaves.Its green or reddish stems are swollen where the leaves grow. ultivated sugarcaneseldom !lowers.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or sugarcane in !ields. It grows only in the tropics4throughout the world5. 6ecause it is a crop" it is o!ten !ound in large numbers.

+dible -arts: The stem is an e#cellent source o! sugar and is very nutritious. -eel the outerportion o!! with your teeth and eat the sugarcane raw. (ou can also s0uee%e ,uice out o!the sugarcane.

Sugar palm

Arenga pinnata

)escription: This tree grows about CB meters high and has huge leaves up to ? meters

long. 1eedlelike structures stick out o! the bases o! the leaves. /lowers grow below theleaves and !orm large conspicuous dusters !rom which the !ruits grow.

'abitat and )istribution: This palm is native to the +ast Indies but has been planted inmany parts o!! the tropics. It can be !ound at the margins o! !orests.

+dible -arts: The chie! use o! this palm is !or sugar. 'owever" its seeds and the tip o! itsstems are a survival !ood. 6ruise a young !lower stalk with a stone or similar ob,ect andcollect the ,uice as it comes out. It is an e#cellent source o! sugar. 6oil the seeds. Use thetip o! the stems as a vegetable.

AUTI71

The !lesh covering the seeds may cause dermatitis.

7ther Uses: The shaggy material at the base o! the leaves makes an e#cellent rope as it isstrong and resists decay.

Sweetsop

Annona s0uamosa

)escription: This tree is small" seldom more than ? meters tall" and multi$branched. It has

alternate" simple" elongate" dark green leaves. Its !ruit is green when ripe" round in shape"and covered with protruding bumps on its sur!ace. The !ruit3s !lesh is white and creamy.



'abitat and )istribution: Look !or sweetsop at margins o! !ields" near villages" and aroundhomesites in tropical regions.

+dible -arts: The !ruit !lesh is edible raw.

7ther Uses: (ou can use the !inely ground seeds as an insecticide.

AUTI71

The ground seeds are e#tremely dangerous to the eyes.

Tamarind

Tamarindus indica

)escription: The tamarind is a large" densely branched tree" up to =B meters tall. Its haspinnate leaves 4divided like a !eather5 with C> to CB pairs o! lea!lets.

'abitat and )istribution: The tamarind grows in the drier parts o! A!rica" Asia" and the-hilippines. Although it is thought to be a native o! A!rica" it has been cultivated in India!or so long that it looks like a native tree. It is also !ound in the American tropics" the estIndies" entral America" and tropical South America.

+dible -arts: The pulp surrounding the seeds is rich in vitamin and is an importantsurvival !ood. (ou can make a pleasantly acid drink by mi#ing the pulp with water andsugar or honey and letting the mi#ture mature !or several days. Suck the pulp to relievethirst. ook the young" unripe !ruits or seedpods with meat. Use the young leaves in soup.(ou must cook the seeds. Roast them above a !ire or in ashes. Another way is to removethe seed coat and soak the seeds in salted water and grated coconut !or =D hours" thencook them. (ou can peel the tamarind bark and chew it.

Taro" cocoyam" elephant ears" eddo" dasheen

olocasia and Alocasia species

)escription: All plants in these groups have large leaves" sometimes up to C.@ meters tall"that grow !rom a very short stem. The rootstock is thick and !leshy and !illed with starch.

'abitat and )istribution: These plants grow in the humid tropics. Look !or them in !ieldsand near homesites and villages.

+dible -arts: All parts o! the plant are edible when boiled or roasted. hen boiling" changethe water once to get rid o! any poison.

AUTI71

I! eaten raw" these plants will cause a serious in!lammation o! the mouth and throat.

Thistle

irsium species

)escription: This plant may grow as high as C.B meters. Its leaves are long$pointed"deeply lobed" and prickly.



'abitat and )istribution: Thistles grow worldwide in dry woods and !ields.

+dible -arts: -eel the stalks" cut them into short sections" and boil them be!ore eating. Theroots are edible raw or cooked.

AUTI71

Some thistle species are poisonous.

7ther Uses: Twist the tough !ibers o! the stems to make a strong twine.

Ti

ordyline terminalis

)escription: The ti has unbranched stems with straplike leaves o!ten clustered at the tip o!the stem. The leaves vary in color and may be green or reddish. The !lowers grow at theplant3s top in large" plumelike clusters. The ti may grow up to D.B meters tall.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or this plant at the margins o! !orests or near homesites intropical areas. It is native to the /ar +ast but is now widely planted in tropical areasworldwide.

+dible -arts: The roots and very tender young leaves are good survival !ood. 6oil or bakethe short" stout roots !ound at the base o! the plant. They are a valuable source o! starch.6oil the very young leaves to eat. (ou can use the leaves to wrap other !ood to cook overcoals or to steam.

7ther Uses: Use the leaves to cover shelters or to make a rain cloak. ut the leaves into

liners !or shoes9 this works especially well i! you have a blister. /ashion temporary sandals!rom the ti leaves. The terminal lea!" i! not completely un!urled" can be used as a sterilebandage. ut the leaves into strips" then braid the strips into rope.

Tree !ern

Various genera

)escription: Tree !erns are tall trees with long" slender trunks that o!ten have a veryrough" barklike covering. Large" lacy leaves uncoil !rom the top o! the trunk.

'abitat and )istribution: Tree !erns are !ound in wet" tropical !orests.

+dible -arts: The young leaves and the so!t inner portion o! the trunk are edible. 6oil theyoung leaves and eat as greens. +at the inner portion o! the trunk raw or bake it.

Tropical almond

Terminalia catappa

)escription: This tree grows up to J meters tall. Its leaves are evergreen" leathery" DBcentimeters long" CB centimeters wide" and very shiny. It has small" yellowish$green

!lowers. Its !ruit is !lat" C> centimeters long" and not 0uite as wide. The !ruit is green whenripe.



'abitat and )istribution: This tree is usually !ound growing near the ocean. It is a commonand o!ten abundant tree in the aribbean and entral and South America. It is also !oundin the tropical rain !orests o! southeastern Asia" northern Australia" and -olynesia.

+dible -arts: The seed is a good source o! !ood. Remove the !leshy" green covering and eatthe seed raw or cooked.

alnut

Kuglans species

)escription: alnuts grow on very large trees" o!ten reaching C@ meters tall. The dividedleaves characteri%e all walnut spades. The walnut itsel! has a thick outer husk that must beremoved to reach the hard inner shell o! the nut.

'abitat and )istribution: The +nglish walnut" in the wild state" is !ound !rom southeastern+urope across Asia to hina and is abundant in the 'imalayas. Several other species o!

walnut are !ound in hina and Kapan. The black walnut is common in the eastern UnitedStates.

+dible -arts: The nut kernel ripens in the autumn. (ou get the walnut meat by cracking theshell. alnut meats are highly nutritious because o! their protein and oil content.

7ther Uses: (ou can boil walnuts and use the ,uice as an anti!ungal agent. The husks o!;green; walnuts produce a dark brown dye !or clothing or camou!lage. rush the husks o!;green; black walnuts and sprinkle them into sluggish water or ponds !or use as !ishpoison.

ater chestnut

Trapa natans

)escription: The water chestnut is an a0uatic plant that roots in the mud and has !inelydivided leaves that grow underwater. Its !loating leaves are much larger and coarselytoothed. The !ruits" borne underwater" have !our sharp spines on them.

'abitat and )istribution: The water chestnut is a !reshwater plant only. It is a native o!Asia but has spread to many parts o! the world in both temperate and tropical areas.

+dible -arts: The !ruits are edible raw and cooked. The seeds are also a source o! !ood.

ater lettuce

eratopteris species

)escription: The leaves o! water lettuce are much like lettuce and are very tender andsucculent. 7ne o! the easiest ways o! distinguishing water lettuce is by the little plantletsthat grow !rom the margins o! the leaves. These little plantlets grow in the shape o! arosette. ater lettuce plants o!ten cover large areas in the regions where they are !ound.

'abitat and )istribution: /ound in the tropics throughout the 7ld orld in both A!rica andAsia. Another kind is !ound in the 1ew orld tropics !rom /lorida to South America. ater

lettuce grows only in very wet places and o!ten as a !loating water plant. Look !or waterlettuce in still lakes" ponds" and the backwaters o! rivers.



+dible -arts: +at the !resh leaves like lettuce. 6e care!ul not to dip the leaves in thecontaminated water in which they are growing. +at only the leaves that are well out o! thewater.

AUTI71

This plant has carcinogenic properties and should only be used as a last resort.

ater lily

1ymphaea odorata

)escription: These plants have large" triangular leaves that !loat on the water3s sur!ace"large" !ragrant !lowers that are usually white" or red" and thick" !leshy rhi%omes that growin the mud.

'abitat and )istribution: ater lilies are !ound throughout much o! the temperate andsubtropical regions.

+dible -arts: The !lowers" seeds" and rhi%omes are edible raw or cooked. To preparerhi%omes !or eating" peel o!! the corky rind. +at raw" or slice thinly" allow to dry" and thengrind into !lour. )ry" parch" and grind the seeds into !lour.

7ther Uses: Use the li0uid resulting !rom boiling the thickened root in water as a medicine!or diarrhea and as a gargle !or sore throats.

ater plantain

Alisma plantago$a0uatica

)escription: This plant has small" white !lowers and heart$shaped leaves with pointed tips.The leaves are clustered at the base o! the plant.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or this plant in !resh water and in wet" !ull sun areas inTemperate and Tropical Mones.

+dible -arts: The rootstocks are a good source o! starch. 6oil or soak them in water toremove the bitter taste.

AUTI71

To avoid parasites" always cook a0uatic plants.

ild caper

apparis aphylla

)escription: This is a thorny shrub that loses its leaves during the dry season. Its stemsare gray$green and its !lowers pink.

'abitat and )istribution: These shrubs !orm large stands in scrub and thorn !orests and in

desert scrub and waste. They are common throughout 1orth A!rica and the 2iddle +ast.



+dible -arts: The !ruit and the buds o! young shoots are edible raw.

ild crab apple or wild apple

2alus species

)escription: 2ost wild apples look enough like domestic apples that the survivor can easilyrecogni%e them. ild apple varieties are much smaller than cultivated kinds9 the largestkinds usually do not e#ceed B to E.B centimeters in diameter" and most o!ten less. Theyhave small" alternate" simple leaves and o!ten have thorns. Their !lowers are white or pinkand their !ruits reddish or yellowish.

'abitat and )istribution: They are !ound in the savanna regions o! the tropics. Intemperate areas" wild apple varieties are !ound mainly in !orested areas. 2ost !re0uently"they are !ound on the edge o! woods or in !ields. They are !ound throughout the 1orthern'emisphere.

+dible -arts: -repare wild apples !or eating in the same manner as cultivated kinds. +atthem !resh" when ripe" or cooked. Should you need to store !ood" cut the apples into thinslices and dry them. They are a good source o! vitamins.

AUTI71

Apple seeds contain cyanide compounds. )o not eat.

ild desert gourd or colocynth

itrullus colocynthis

)escription: The wild desert gourd" a member o! the watermelon !amily" produces an =.D$to $meter$long ground$trailing vine. The per!ectly round gourds are as large as anorange. They are yellow when ripe.

'abitat and )istribution: This creeping plant can be !ound in any climatic %one" generallyin desert scrub and waste areas. It grows abundantly in the Sahara" in many Arabcountries" on the southeastern coast o! India" and on some o! the islands o! the AegeanSea. The wild desert gourd will grow in the hottest localities.

+dible -arts: The seeds inside the ripe gourd are edible a!ter they are completelyseparated !rom the very bitter pulp. Roast or boil the seeds$$their kernels are rich in oil.The !lowers are edible. The succulent stem tips can be chewed to obtain water.

ild dock and wild sorrel

Rume# crispus and Rume# acetosella

)escription: ild dock is a stout plant with most o! its leaves at the base o! its stem that iscommonly CB to > centimeters brig. The plants usually develop !rom a strong" !leshy"carrotlike taproot. Its !lowers are usually very small" growing in green to purplishplumelike clusters. ild sorrel similar to the wild dock but smaller. 2any o! the basalleaves are arrow$shaped but smaller than those o! the dock and contain a sour ,uice.

'abitat and )istribution: These plants can be !ound in almost all climatic %ones o! theworld" in areas o! high as well as low rain!all. 2any kinds are !ound as weeds in !ields"along roadsides" and in waste places.



+dible -arts: 6ecause o! tender nature o! the !oliage" the sorrel and the dock are use!ulplants" especially in desert areas. (ou can eat their succulent leaves !resh or slightlycooked. To take away the strong taste" change the water once or twice during cooking.This latter tip is a use!ul hint in preparing many kinds o! wild greens.

ild !ig

/icus species

)escription: These trees have alternate" simple leaves with entire margins. 7!ten" theleaves are dark green and shiny. All !igs have a milky" sticky ,uice. The !ruits vary in si%edepending on the species" but are usually yellow$brown when ripe.

'abitat and )istribution: /igs are plants o! the tropics and semitropics. They grow inseveral di!!erent habitats" including dense !orests" margins o! !orests" and around humansettlements.

+dible -arts: The !ruits are edible raw or cooked. Some !igs have little !lavor.

ild gourd or lu!!a sponge

Lu!!a cylindrica

)escription: The lu!!a sponge is widely distributed and !airly typical o! a wild s0uash. Thereare several do%en kinds o! wild s0uashes in tropical regions. Like most s0uashes" the lu!!ais a vine with leaves E.B to => centimeters across having lobes. Some s0uashes haveleaves twice this si%e. Lu!!a !ruits are oblong or cylindrical" smooth" and many$seeded.Lu!!a !lowers are bright yellow. The lu!!a !ruit" when mature" is brown and resembles thecucumber.

'abitat and )istribution: A member o! the s0uash !amily" which also includes thewatermelon" cantaloupe" and cucumber" the lu!!a sponge is widely cultivated throughoutthe Tropical Mone. It may be !ound in a semiwild state in old clearings and abandonedgardens in rain !orests and semievergreen seasonal !orests.

+dible -arts: (ou can boil the young green 4hal!$ripe5 !ruit and eat them as a vegetable.Adding coconut milk will improve the !lavor. A!ter ripening" the lu!!a sponge develops aninedible spongelike te#ture in the interior o! the !ruit. (ou can also eat the tender shoots"!lowers" and young leaves a!ter cooking them. Roast the mature seeds a little and eatthem like peanuts.

ild grape vine

Vitis species

)escription: The wild grape vine climbs with the aid o! tendrils. 2ost grape vines producedeeply lobed leaves similar to the cultivated grape. ild grapes grow in pyramidal"hanging bunches and are black$blue to amber" or white when ripe.

'abitat and )istribution: ild grapes are distributed worldwide. Some kinds are !ound indeserts" others in temperate !orests" and others in tropical areas. ild grapes arecommonly !ound throughout the eastern United States as well as in the southwesterndesert areas. 2ost kinds are rampant climbers over other vegetation. The best place tolook !or wild grapes is on the edges o! !orested areas. ild grapes are also !ound in



2e#ico. In the 7ld orld" wild grapes are !ound !rom the 2editerranean region eastwardthrough Asia" the +ast Indies" and to Australia. A!rica also has several kinds o! wild grapes.

+dible -arts: The ripe grape is the portion eaten. *rapes are rich in natural sugars and" !orthis reason" are much sought a!ter as a source o! energy$giving wild !ood. 1one arepoisonous.

7ther Uses: (ou can obtain water !rom severed grape vine stems. ut o!! the vine at thebottom and place the cut end in a container. 2ake a slant$wise cut into the vine about C.@meters upon the hanging part. This cut will allow water to !low !rom the bottom end. Aswater diminishes in volume" make additional cuts !urther down the vine.

AUTI71

To avoid poisoning" do not eat grapelike !ruits with only a single seed 4moonseed5.

ild onion and garlic

Allium species

)escription: Allium cernuum is an e#ample o! the many species o! wild onions and garlics"all easily recogni%ed by their distinctive odor.

'abitat and )istribution: ild onions and garlics are !ound in open" sunny areasthroughout the temperate regions. ultivated varieties are !ound anywhere in the world.

+dible -arts: The bulbs and young leaves are edible raw or cooked. Use in soup or to !lavormeat.

AUTI71

There are several plants with onionlike bulbs that are e#tremely poisonous. 6e certain thatthe plant you are using is a true onion or garlic. )o not eat bulbs with no onion smell.

7ther Uses: +ating large 0uantities o! onions will give your body an odor that will help torepel insects. *arlic ,uice works as an antibiotic on wounds

ild pistachio

-istacia species

)escription: Some kinds o! pistachio trees are evergreen" while others lose their leavesduring the dry season. The leaves alternate on the stem and have either three large leavesor a number o! lea!lets. The !ruits or nuts are usually hard and dry at maturity.

'abitat and )istribution: About seven kinds o! wild pistachio nuts are !ound in desert" orsemidesert areas surrounding the 2editerranean Sea to Turkey and A!ghanistan. It isgenerally !ound in evergreen scrub !orests or scrub and thorn !orests.

+dible -arts: (ou can eat the oil nut kernels a!ter parching them over coals.

ild rice

Mi%ania a0uatica



)escription: ild rice is a tall grass that averages C to C.B meters in height" but may reachD.B meters. Its grain grows in very loose heads at the top o! the plant and is dark brownor blackish when ripe.

'abitat and )istribution: ild rice grows only in very wet areas in tropical and temperateregions.

+dible -arts: )uring the spring and summer" the central portion o! the lower sterns androot shoots are edible. Remove the tough covering be!ore eating. )uring the late summerand !ail" collect the straw$covered husks. )ry and parch the husks" break them" andremove the rice. 6oil or roast the rice and then beat it into !lour.

ild rose

Rosa species

)escription: This shrub grows ?> centimeters to =.B meters high. It has alternate leaves

and sharp prickles. Its !lowers may be red" pink" or yellow. Its !ruit" called rose hip" stayson the shrub year$round.

'abitat and )istribution: Look !or wild roses in dry !ields and open woods throughout the1orthern 'emisphere.

+dible -arts: The !lowers and buds are edible raw or boiled. In an emergency" you can peeland eat the young shoots. (ou can boil !resh" young leaves in water to make a tea. A!terthe !lower petals !all" eat the rose hips9 the pulp is highly nutritious and an e#cellentsource o! vitamin . rush or grind dried rose hips to make !lour.

AUTI71

+at only the outer portion o! the !ruit as the seeds o! some species are 0uite prickly andcan cause internal distress.

ood sorrel

7#alis species

)escription: ood sorrel resembles shamrock or !our$lea! clover" with a bell$shaped pink"yellow" or white !lower.

'abitat and )istribution: ood sorrel is !ound in Temperate Mones worldwide" in lawns"open areas" and sunny woods.

+dible -arts: ook the entire plant.

AUTI71

+at only small amounts o! this plant as it contains a !airly high concentration o! o#alic acidthat can be harm!ul.

(am

)ioscorea species



)escription: These plants are vines that creep along the ground. They have alternate"heart$or arrow$shaped leaves. Their rootstock may be very large and weigh manykilograms.

'abitat and )istribution: True yams are restricted to tropical regions where they are animportant !ood crop. Look !or yams in !ields" clearings" and abandoned gardens. They are

!ound in rain !orests" semievergreen seasonal !orests" and scrub and thorn !orests in thetropics. In warm temperate areas" they are !ound in seasonal hardwood or mi#edhardwood$coni!erous !orests" as well as some mountainous areas.

+dible -arts: 6oil the rootstock and eat it as a vegetable.

(am bean

-achyrhi%us erosus

)escription: The yam bean is a climbing plant o! the bean !amily" with alternate" three$parted leaves and a turniplike root. The bluish or purplish !lowers are pealike in shape. Theplants are o!ten so rampant that they cover the vegetation upon which they are growing.

'abitat and )istribution: The yam bean is native to the American tropics" but it wascarried by man years ago to Asia and the -aci!ic islands. 1ow it is commonly cultivated inthese places" and is also !ound growing wild in !orested areas. This plant grows in wetareas o! tropical regions.

+dible -arts: The tubers are about the si%e o! a turnip and they are crisp" sweet" and ,uicyand have a nutty !lavor. They are nourishing and at the same time 0uench the thirst. +atthem raw or boiled. To make !lour" slice the raw tubers" let them dry in the sun" and grindinto a !lour that is high in starch and may be used to thicken soup.

AUTI71

The raw seeds are poisonous

A--+1)IF $ -7IS717US -LA1TS

-lants basically poison on contact" ingestion" or by absorption or inhalation. They causepain!ul skin irritations upon contact" they cause internal poisoning when eaten" and theypoison through skin absorption or inhalation in respiratory system. 2any edible plantshave deadly relatives and look$alikes. -reparation !or military missions includes learning toidenti!y those harm!ul plants in the target area. -ositive identi!ication o! edible plants willeliminate the danger o! accidental poisoning. There is no room !or e#perimentation whereplants are concerned" especially in un!amiliar territory.

astor bean" castor$oil plant" palma hristi

Ricinus communis

Spurge 4+uphorbiaceae5 /amily

)escription: The castor bean is a semiwoody plant with large" alternate" starlike leavesthat grows as a tree in tropical regions and as an annual in temperate regions. Its !lowersare very small and inconspicuous. Its !ruits grow in clusters at the tops o! the plants.

AUTI71



All parts o! the plant are very poisonous to eat. The seeds are large and may be mistaken!or a beanlike !ood.

'abitat and )istribution: This plant is !ound in all tropical regions and has been introducedto temperate regions.

hinaberry

2elia a%edarach

2ahogany 42eliaceae5 /amily

)escription: This tree has a spreading crown and grows up to CD meters tall. It hasalternate" compound leaves with toothed lea!lets. Its !lowers are light purple with a darkcenter and grow in ball$like masses. It has marble$si%ed !ruits that are light orange when!irst !ormed but turn lighter as they become older.

AUTI71

All parts o! the tree should be considered dangerous i! eaten. Its leaves are a naturalinsecticide and will repel insects !rom stored !ruits and grains. Take care not to eat leavesmi#ed with the stored !ood.

'abitat and )istribution: hinaberry is native to the 'imalayas and eastern Asia but is nowplanted as an ornamental tree throughout the tropical and subtropical regions. It has beenintroduced to the southern United States and has escaped to thickets" old !ields" anddisturbed areas.

owhage" cowage" cowitch

2ucuna pruritum

Leguminosae 4/abaceae5 /amily

)escription: A vinelike plant that has oval lea!lets in groups o! three and hairy spikes withdull purplish !lowers. The seeds are brown" hairy pods.

AUTI71

ontact with the pods and !lowers causes irritation and blindness i! in the eyes.

'abitat and )istribution: Tropical areas and the United States.

)eath camas" death lily

Migadenus species

Lily 4Liliaceae5 /amily

)escription: This plant arises !rom a bulb and may be mistaken !or an onionlike plant. Itsleaves are grasslike. Its !lowers are si#$parted and the petals have a green" heart$shaped

structure on them. The !lowers grow on showy stalks above the leaves.



AUTI71

All parts o! this plant are very poisonous. )eath camas does not have the onion smell.

'abitat and )istribution: )eath camas is !ound in wet" open" sunny habitats" althoughsome species !avor dry" rocky slopes. They are common in parts o! the western UnitedStates. Some species are !ound in the eastern United States and in parts o! the 1orthAmerican western subarctic and eastern Siberia.

Lantana

Lantana camara

Vervain 4Verbenaceae5 /amily

)escription: Lantana is a shrublike plant that may grow up to DB centimeters high. It hasopposite" round leaves and !lowers borne in !lat$topped clusters. The !lower color 4whichvaries in di!!erent areas5 may be white" yellow" orange" pink" or red. It has a dark blue orblack berrylike !ruit. A distinctive !eature o! all parts o! this plant is its strong scent.

AUTI71

All parts o! this plant are poisonous i! eaten and can be !atal. This plant causes dermatitisin some individuals.

'abitat and )istribution: Lantana is grown as an ornamental in tropical and temperateareas and has escaped cultivation as a weed along roads and old !ields.

2anchineel

'ippomane mancinella

Spurge 4+uphorbiaceae5 /amily

)escription: 2anchineel is a tree reaching up to CB meters high with alternate" shiny greenleaves and spikes o! small greenish !lowers. Its !ruits are green or greenish$yellow whenripe.

AUTI71

This tree is e#tremely to#ic. It causes severe dermatitis in most individuals a!ter only .Bhour. +ven water dripping !rom the leaves may cause dermatitis. The smoke !rom burningit irritates the eyes. 1o part o! this plant should be considered a !ood.

'abitat and )istribution: The tree pre!ers coastal regions. /ound in south /lorida" thearibbean" entral America" and northern South America.

7leander

1erium oleander

)ogbane 4Apocynaceae5 /amily



)escription: This shrub or small tree grows to about J meters" with alternate" verystraight" dark green leaves. Its !lowers may be white" yellow" red" pink" or intermediatecolors. Its !ruit is a brown" podlike structure with many small seeds.

AUTI71

All parts o! the plant are very poisonous. )o not use the wood !or cooking9 it gives o!!poisonous !umes that can poison !ood.

'abitat and )istribution: This native o! the 2editerranean area is now grown as anornamental in tropical and temperate regions.

-angi

-angium edule

-angi /amily

)escription: This tree" with heart$shaped leaves in spirals" reaches a height o! C@ meters.Its !lowers grow in spikes and are green in color. Its large" brownish" pear$shaped !ruitsgrow in clusters.

AUTI71

All parts are poisonous" especially the !ruit.

'abitat and )istribution: -angi trees grow in southeast Asia

-hysic nut

Katropha curcas

Spurge 4+uphoriaceae5 /amily

)escription: This shrub or small tree has large" $ to B$parted alternate leaves. It hassmall" greenish$yelllow !lowers and its yellow" apple$si%ed !ruits contain three large seeds.

AUTI71

The seeds taste sweet but their oil is violently purgative. All parts o! the physic nut arepoisonous.

'abitat and )istribution: Throughout the tropics and southern United States.

-oison hemlock" !ool3s parsley

onium maculatum

-arsley 4Apiaceae5 /amily

)escription: This biennial herb may grow to =.B meters high. The smooth" hollow stemmay or may not be purple or red striped or mottled. Its white !lowers are small and grow

in small groups that tend to !orm !lat umbels. Its long" turniplike taproot is solid.



AUTI71

This plant is very poisonous and even a very small amount may cause death. This plant iseasy to con!use with wild carrot or ueen Anne3s lace" especially in its !irst stage o!growth. ild carrot or ueen Anne3s lace has hairy leaves and stems and smells likecarrot. -oison hemlock does not.

'abitat and )istribution: -oison hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like swamps" wetmeadows" stream banks" and ditches. 1ative to +urasia" it has been introduced to theUnited States and anada.

-oison ivy and poison oak

To#icodendron radicans and To#icodendron diversibba

ashew 4Anacardiacese5 /amily

)escription: These two plants are 0uite similar in appearance and will o!ten crossbreed tomake a hybrid. 6oth have alternate" compound leaves with three lea!lets. The leaves o!poison ivy are smooth or serrated. -oison oak3s leaves are lobed and resemble oak leaves.-oison ivy grows as a vine along the ground or climbs by red !eeder roots. -oison oakgrows like a bush. The greenish$white !lowers are small and inconspicuous and are!ollowed by wa#y green berries that turn wa#y white or yellow" then gray.

AUTI71

All parts" at all times o! the year" can cause serious contact dermatitis.

'abitat and )istribution: -oison ivy and oak can be !ound in almost any habitat in 1orthAmerica.

-oison sumac

To#icodendron verni#


)escription: -oison sumac is a shrub that grows to @.B meters tall. It has alternate"pinnately compound lea!stalks with E to C lea!lets. /lowers are greenish$yellow andinconspicuous and are !ollowed by white or pale yellow berries.

AUTI71

All parts can cause serious contact dermatitis at all times o! the year.

'abitat and )istribution: -oison sumac grows only in wet" acid swamps in 1orth America.

Renghas tree" rengas tree" marking nut" black$varnish tree

*luta


)escription: This !amily comprises about D@ species o! trees or shrubs with alternatingleaves in terminal or a#illary panicles. /lowers are similar to those o! poison ivy and oak.



AUTI71

an cause contact dermatitis similar to poison ivy and oak.

'abitat and )istribution: India" east to Southeast Asia.

Rosary pea or crab3s eyes

Abrus precatorius

Leguminosae 4/abaceae5 /amily

)escription: This plant is a vine with alternate compound leaves" light purple !lowers" andbeauti!ul seeds that are red and black.

AUTI71

This plant is one o! the most dangerous plants. 7ne seed may contain enough poison tokill an adult.

'abitat and )istribution: This is a common weed in parts o! A!rica" southern /lorida"'awaii" *uam" the aribbean" and entral and South America.

Strychnine tree

1u# vomica

Logania 4Loganiaceae5 /amily

)escription: The strychnine tree is a medium$si%ed evergreen" reaching a height o! aboutC= meters" with a thick" !re0uently crooked trunk. Its deeply veined oval leaves grow inalternate pairs. Small" loose clusters o! greenish !lowers appear at the ends o! branchesand are !ollowed by !leshy" orange$red berries about D centimeters in diameter.

AUTI71

The berries contain the dislike seeds that yield the poisonous substance strychnine. Allparts o! the plant are poisonous.

'abitat and )istribution: A native o! the tropics and subtropics o! southeastern Asia andAustralia.

Trumpet vine or trumpet creeper

ampsis radicans

Trumpet creeper 46ignoniaceae5 /amily

)escription: This woody vine may climb to CB meters high. It has pealike !ruit capsules.The leaves are pinnately compound" E to CC toothed leaves per lea! stock. The trumpet$shaped !lowers are orange to scarlet in color.

AUTI71



This plant causes contact dermatitis.

'abitat and )istribution: This vine is !ound in wet woods and thickets throughout easternand central 1orth America.

ater hemlock or spotted cowbane

icuta maculata

-arsley 4Apiaceae5 /amily

)escription: This perennial herb may grow to C.@ meters high. The stem is hollow andsectioned o!! like bamboo. It may or may not be purple or red striped or mottled. Its!lowers are small" white" and grow in groups that tend to !orm !lat umbels. Its roots mayhave hollow air chambers and" when cut" may produce drops o! yellow oil.

AUTI71

This plant is very poisonous and even a very small amount o! this plant may cause death.Its roots have been mistaken !or parsnips.

'abitat and )istribution: ater hemlock grows in wet or moist ground like swamps" wetmeadows" stream banks" and ditches throughout the Unites States and anada.

APPEN I5 - AN$EROUS INSECTS AN ARACHNI S

Insects are o!ten overlooked as a danger to the survivor. 2ore people in the United Statesdie each year !rom bee stings" and resulting anaphylactic shock" than !rom snake bites. A!ew other insects are venomous enough to kill" but o!ten the greatest danger is thetransmission o! disease.

Scorpion

Scorpionidae order

)escription: )ull brown" yellow" or black. 'ave E.B$ to =>$centimeter long lobsterlikepincers and,ointed tail usually held over the back. There are @>> species o! scorpions.

'abitat: )ecaying matter" under debris" logs" and rocks. /eeds at night. Sometimes hidesin boots.

)istribution: orldwide in temperate" arid" and tropical regions.

AUTI71

Scorpions sting with their tails" causing local pain" swelling" possible incapacitation" anddeath.

6rown house spider or brown recluse spider

La#osceles reclusa

)escription: 6rown to black with obvious ;!iddle; on back o! head and thora#. hunky body

with long" slim legs =.B to D centimeters long.



'abitat: Under debris" rocks" and logs. In caves and dark places.

)istribution: 1orth America.

/unnelweb spider

Atra# species 4A. robustus" A. !ormidablis5

)escription: Large" brown" bulky spiders. Aggressive when disturbed.

'abitat: oods" ,ungles" and brushy areas. eb has a !unnellike opening.

)istribution: Australia. 47ther nonvenemous species worldwide.5

Tarantula

Theraphosidae and Lycosa species

)escription: Very large" brown" black" reddish" hairy spiders. Large !angs in!lict pain!ulbite.

'abitat: )esert areas" tropics.

)istribution: Americas" southern +urope.

idow spider

Latrodectus species

)escription: )ark spiders with light red or orange markings on !emale3s abdomen.

'abitat: Under logs" rocks" and debris. In shaded places.

)istribution: Varied species worldwide. 6lack widow in United States" red widow in 2iddle+ast" and brown widow in Australia.

1ote: /emales are the poisonous gender. Red idow in the 2iddle +ast is the only spiderknown to be deadly to man.

entipede

)escription: 2ulti,oined body to > centimeters long. )ull orange to brown" with blackpoint eyes at the base o! the antenna. There are ="@>> species worldwide.

'abitat: Under bark and stones by day. Active at night.

)istribution: orldwide.

6ee

)escription: Insect with brown or black" hairy bodies. *enerally !ound in colonies. 2anybuil wa# combs.

'abitat: 'ollow trees" caves" dwellings. 1ear water in desert areas.




1ote: 6ees have barbed stingers and die a!ter stinging because their venom sac andinternal organs are pulled out during the attack.

asps and hornets

)escription: *enerally smooth bodied" slender stinging insects. 2any nest individually inmud nests or in paper nest colonies. Smooth stinger permits multiple attacks. There areseveral hundred species worldwide.

'abitat: 2ay be !ound anywhere in various species.


1ote: An e#ception to general appearance is the velvet ant o! the southern United States.It is a !lightless wasp with red and black alternating velvety bands.

Tick

)escription: Round body !rom si%e o! pinhead to =.B centimeters. 'as @ legs and suckingmouth parts. There are @B> species worldwide.

'abitat: 2ainly in !orests and grasslands. Also in urban areas and !armlands.


A--+1)IF + $ -7IS717US S1A8+S A1) LIMAR)S

I! you !ear snakes" it is probably because you are un!amiliar with them or you have wrongin!ormation about them. There is no need !or you to !ear snakes i! you know$$

Their habits. How to identify the dangerous kinds. Precautions to take to prevent snakebite. What actions to take in case of snakebite (Chapter 3).

/or a man wearing shoes and trousers and living in a camp" the danger o! being bitten bya poisonous snake is small compared to the ha%ards o! malaria" cholera" dysentery" orother diseases.

1early all snakes avoid man i! possible. Reportedly" however" a !ew$$the king cobra o!Southeast Asia" the bushmaster and tropical rattlesnake o! South America" and the mambao! A!rica$$sometimes aggressively attack man" but even these snakes do so only

occasionally. 2ost snakes get out o! the way and are seldom seen.

A(S T7 AV7I) S1A8+6IT+

Snakes are widely distributed. They are !ound in all tropical" subtropical" and mosttemperate regions. Some species o! snakes have speciali%ed glands that contain a to#icvenom and long hollow !angs to in,ect their venom.

Although venomous snakes use their venom to secure !ood" they also use it !or sel!$de!ense. 'uman accidents occur when you don3t see or hear the snake" when you step onthem" or when you walk too close to them.

/ollow these simple rules to reduce the chance o! accidental snakebite:



• )on3t sleep ne#t to brush" tall grass" large boulders" or trees. They provide hidingplaces !or snakes. -lace your sleeping bag in a clearing. Use mos0uito nettingtucked well under the bag. This netting should provide a good barrier.

• )on3t put your hands into dark places" such as rock crevices" heavy brush" orhollow logs" without !irst investigating.

• )on3t step over a !allen tree. Step on the log and look to see i! there is a snake

resting on the other side.• )on3t walk through heavy brush or tall grass without looking down. Look where

you are walking.• )on3t pick up any snake unless you are absolutely positive it is not venomous.• )on3t pick up !reshly killed snakes without !irst severing the head. The nervous

system may still be active and a dead snake can deliver a bite.

S1A8+ *R7U-S

Snakes dangerous to man usually !all into two groups: proteroglypha and solenoglypha.Their !angs and their venom best describe these two groups 4/igure +$C5.

/angs

The proteroglypha have" in !ront o! the upper ,aw and preceding the ordinary teeth"permanently erect !angs. These !angs are called !i#ed !angs.

The solenoglypha have erectile !angs9 that is" !angs they can raise to an erect position.These !angs are called !olded !angs.

Venom

The !i#ed$!ang snakes 4proteroglypha5 usually have neuroto#ic venoms. These venomsa!!ect the nervous system" making the victim unable to breathe.

The !olded$!ang snakes 4solenoglypha5 usually have hemoto#ic venoms. These venomsa!!ect the circulatory system" destroying blood cells" damaging skin tissues" and causinginternal hemorrhaging.

Remember" however" that most poisonous snakes have both neuroto#ic and hemoto#icvenom. Usually one type o! venom in the snake is dominant and the other is weak.

-oisonous Versus 1onpoisonous Snakes

1o single characteristic distinguishes a poisonous snake !rom a harmless one e#cept thepresence o! poison !angs and glands. 7nly in dead specimens can you determine thepresence o! these !angs and glands without danger.

)+S RI-TI71S 7/ -7IS717US S1A8+S

There are many di!!erent poisonous snakes throughout the world. It is unlikely you will seemany e#cept in a %oo. This manual describes only a !ew poisonous snakes. (ou should"however" be able to spot a poisonous snake i! you$$

• Learn about the two groups o! snakes and the !amilies in which they !all 4/igure +$=5.

• +#amine the pictures and read the descriptions o! snakes in this appendi#.

Viperidae



The viperidae or true vipers usually have thick bodies and heads that are much wider thantheir necks 4/igure +$ 5. 'owever" there are many di!!erent si%es" markings" andcolorations.

This snake group has developed a highly sophisticated means !or delivering venom. Theyhave long" hollow !angs that per!orm like hypodermic needles. They deliver their venom

deep into the wound.

The !angs o! this group o! snakes are movable. These snakes !old their !angs into the roo!o! their mouths. hen they strike" their !angs come !orward" stabbing the victim. Thesnake controls the movement o! its !angs9 !ang movement is not automatic. The venom isusually hemoto#ic. There are" however" several species that have large 0uantities o!neuroto#ic elements" thus making them even more dangerous. The vipers are responsible!or many human !atalities around the world.

rotalidae

The crotalids" or pit vipers 4/igure +$D5" may be either slender or thick$bodied. Their headsare usually much wider than their necks. These snakes take their name !rom the deep pitlocated between the eye and the nostril. They are commonly brown with dark blotches"though some kinds are green.

Rattlesnakes" copperheads" cottonmouths" and several species o! dangerous snakes !romentral and South America" Asia" hina" and India !all into the pit viper group. The pit is a

highly sensitive organ capable o! picking up the slightest temperature variance. 2ost pitvipers are nocturnal. They hunt !or !ood at night with the aid o! these speciali%ed pits thatlet them locate prey in total darkness. Rattlesnakes are the only pit vipers that possess arattle at the tip o! the tail.

India has about C= species o! these snakes. (ou !ind them in trees or on the ground in alltypes o! terrain. The tree snakes are slender9 the ground snakes are heavy$bodied. All aredangerous.

hina has a pit viper similar to the cottonmouth !ound in 1orth America. (ou !ind it in therocky areas o! the remote mountains o! South hina. It reaches a length o! C.D meters butis not vicious unless irritated. (ou can also !ind a small pit viper" about DB centimeterslong" on the plains o! eastern hina. It is too small to be dangerous to a man wearingshoes.

There are about =E species o! rattlesnakes in the United States and 2e#ico. They vary incolor and may or may not have spots or blotches. Some are small while others" such asthe diamondbacks" may grow to =.B meters long.

There are !ive kinds o! rattlesnakes in entral and South America" but only the tropicalrattlesnake is widely distributed. The rattle on the tip o! the tail is su!!icient identi!ication!or a rattlesnake.

2ost will try to escape without a !ight when approached" but there is always a chance onewill strike at a passerby. They do not always give a warning9 they may strike !irst andrattle a!terwards or not at all.

The genus Trimeresurus is a subgroup o! the crotalidae. These are Asian pit vipers. Thesepit vipers are normally tree$loving snakes with a !ew species living on the ground. Theybasically have the same characteristics o! the crotalidae$$slender build and verydangerous. Their bites usually are on the upper e#tremities$$head" neck" and shoulders.Their venom is largely hemoto#ic.

+lapidae



A group o! highly dangerous snakes with power!ul neuroto#ic venom that a!!ects thenervous system" causing respiratory paralysis. Included in this !amily are coral snakes"cobras" mambas" and all the Australian venomous snakes. The coral snake is small andhas caused human !atalities. The Australian death adder" tiger" taipan" and king brownsnakes are among the most venomous in the world" causing many human !atalities.

7nly by e#amining a dead snake can you positively determine i! it is a cobra or a nearrelative 4/igure +$B5. 7n cobras" kraits" and coral snakes" the third scale on the upper liptouches both the nostril scale and the eye. The krait also has a row o! enlarged scalesdown its ridged back.

(ou can !ind the cobras o! A!rica and the 1ear +ast in almost any habitat. 7ne kind maylive in or near water" another in trees. Some are aggressive and savage. The distance acobra can strike in a !orward direction is e0ual to the distance its head is raised above theground. Some cobras" however" can spit venom a distance o! to .B meters. This venomis harmless unless it gets into your eyes9 then it may cause blindness i! not washed outimmediately. -oking around in holes and rock piles is dangerous because o! the chance o!encountering a spitting cobra.

Laticaudinae and 'ydrophidae

A sub!amily o! elapidae" these snakes are speciali%ed in that they !ound a betterenvironment in the oceans. hy they are in the oceans is not clear to science.

Sea snakes di!!er in appearance !rom other snakes in that they have an oarlike tail to aidin swimming. Some species o! sea snakes have venom several times more to#ic than thecobra3s. 6ecause o! their marine environment" sea snakes seldom come in contact withhumans. The e#ceptions are !isherman who capture these dangerous snakes in !ish netsand scuba divers who swim in waters where sea snakes are !ound.

There are many species o! sea snakes. They vary greatly in color and shape. Their scalesdistinguish them !rom eels that have no scales.

Sea snakes occur in salt water along the coasts throughout the -aci!ic. There are also seasnakes on the east coast o! A!rica and in the -ersian *ul!. There are no sea snakes in theAtlantic 7cean.

There is no need to !ear sea snakes. They have not been known to attack a manswimming. /ishermen occasionally get bit by a sea snake caught in a net. The bite isdangerous.

olubridae

The largest group o! snakes worldwide. In this !amily there are species that are rear$

!anged9 however" most are completely harmless to man. They have a venom$producinggland and enlarged" grooved rear !angs that allow venom to !low into the wound. Theine!!icient venom apparatus and the speciali%ed venom is e!!ective on cold$blooded animals4such as !rogs and li%ards5 but not considered a threat to human li!e. The boomslang andthe twig snake o! A!rica have" however" caused human deaths.

LIMAR)S

There is little to !ear !rom li%ards as long as you !ollow the same precautions as !oravoiding snakebite. Usually" there are only two poisonous li%ards: the *ila monster and the2e#ican beaded li%ard. The venom o! both these li%ards is neuroto#ic. The two li%ards arein the same !amily" and both are slow moving with a docile nature.

The komodo dragon 4Varanus komodoensis5" although not poisonous" can be dangerousdue to its large si%e. These li%ards can reach lengths o! meters and weigh over CCBkilograms. )o not try to capture this li%ard.



'abitat: /ound in a variety o! habitats including wooded areas" swamps" palmetto andscrub areas. oral snakes o!ten venture into residential locations.

Length: Average ?> centimeters" ma#imum CCB centimeters.

)istribution: Southeast 1orth arolina" *ul! States" west central 2ississippi" /lorida"/lorida 8eys" and west to Te#as. Another genus o! coral snake is !ound in Ari%ona. oralsnakes are also !ound throughout entral and most South America.

ottonmouth

Agkistrodon piscivorus

)escription: olors are variable. Adults are uni!ormly olive brown or black. The young andsubadults are strongly crossbanded with dark brown.

haracteristics: These dangerous semia0uatic snakes closely resemble harmless watersnakes that have the same habitat. There!ore" it is best to leave all water snakes alone.

ottonmouths o!ten stand their ground. An aroused cottonmouth will draw its head closeto its body and open its mouth showing its white interior. ottonmouth venom ishemoto#ic and potent. 6ites are prone to gangrene.

'abitat: /ound in swamps" lakes" rivers" and ditches.

Length: Average J> centimeters" ma#imum C.@ meters.

)istribution: Southeast Virginia" west central Alabama" south *eorgia" Illinois" east central8entucky" south central 7klahoma" Te#as" 1orth and South arolina" /lorida" and the/lorida 8eys.

+astern diamondback rattlesnake

rotalus adamanteus

)escription: )iamonds are dark brown or black" outlined by a row o! cream or yellowishscales. *round color is olive to brown.

haracteristics: The largest venomous snake in the United States. Large individual snakescan have !angs that measure =.B centimeters in a straight line. This species has a sullendisposition" ready to de!end itsel! when threatened. Its venom is potent and hemoto#ic"causing great pain and damage to tissue.

'abitat: /ound in palmettos and scrubs" swamps" pine woods" and !latwoods. It has beenobserved swimming many miles out in the *ul! o! 2e#ico" reaching some o! the islands o!!the /lorida coast.

Length: Average C.D meters" ma#imum =.D meters.

)istribution: oastal areas o! 1orth arolina" South arolina" Louisiana" /lorida" and the/lorida 8eys.

+yelash pit viper

6othrops schlegeli



)escription: Identi!ied by several spiny scales over each eye. olor is highly variable" !rombright yellow over its entire body to reddish$yellow spots throughout the body.

haracteristics: Arboreal snake that seldom comes to the ground. It !eels more secure inlow$hanging trees where it looks !or tree !rogs and birds. It is a dangerous species becausemost o! its bites occur on the upper e#tremities. It has an irritable disposition. It will strike

with little provocation. Its venom is hemoto#ic" causing severe tissue damage. )eathshave occurred !rom the bites o! these snakes.

'abitat: Tree$loving species !ound in rain !orests9 common on plantations and in palmtrees.

Length: Average DB centimeters" ma#imum EB centimeters.

)istribution: Southern 2e#ico" throughout entral America" olumbia" +cuador" andVene%uela.

/er$de$lance

6othrops atro#

There are several closely related species in this group. All are very dangerous to man.

)escription: Variable coloration" !rom gray to olive" brown" or reddish" with dark trianglesedged with light scales. Triangles are narrow at the top and wide at the bottom.

haracteristics: This highly dangerous snake is responsible !or a high mortality rate. It hasan irritable disposition" ready to strike with little provocation. The !emale !er$de$lance ishighly proli!ic" producing up to ?> young born with a dangerous bite. The venom o! thisspecies is hemoto#ic" pain!ul" and hemorrhagic 4causing pro!use internal bleeding5. Thevenom causes massive tissue destruction.

'abitat: /ound on cultivated land and !arms" o!ten entering houses in search o! rodents.

Length: Average C.D meters" ma#imum =.D meters.

)istribution: Southern 2e#ico" throughout entral and South America.

Kumping viper

6othrops nummi!er

)escription: It has a stocky body. Its ground color varies !rom brown to gray and it hasdark brown or black dorsal blotches. It has no pattern on its head.

haracteristics: It is chie!ly a nocturnal snake. It comes out in the early evening hours to!eed on li%ards" rodents" and !rogs. As the name implies" this species can strike with !orceas it actually leaves the ground. Its venom is hemoto#ic. 'umans have died !rom the bitesin!licted by large ,umping vipers. They o!ten hide under !allen logs and piles o! leaves andare di!!icult to see.

'abitat: /ound in rain !orests" on plantations" and on wooded hillsides.

Length: Average ?> centimeters" ma#imum C=> centimeter.



)istribution: Southern 2e#ico" 'onduras" *uatemala" osta Rica" -anama" and +lSalvador.

2o,ave rattlesnake

rotalus scutulatus

)escription: This snake3s entire body is a pallid or sandy odor with darker diamond$shapedmarkings bordered by lighter$colored scales and black bands around the tail.

haracteristics: Although this rattlesnake is o! moderate si%e" its bite is very serious. Itsvenom has 0uantities o! neuroto#ic elements that a!!ect the central nervous system.)eaths have resulted !rom this snake3s bite.

'abitat: /ound in arid regions" deserts" and rocky hillsides !rom sea level to =D>>$meterelevations.

Length: Average EB centimeters" ma#imum C.= meters.

)istribution: 2o,ave )esert in ali!ornia" 1evada" southwest Ari%ona" and Te#as into2e#ico.

Tropical rattlesnake

rotalus terri!icus

)escription: oloration is light to dark brown with a series o! darker rhombs or diamondsbordered by a bu!! color.

haracteristics: +#tremely dangerous with an irritable disposition" ready to strike with littleor no warning 4use o! its rattle5. This species has a highly to#ic venom containingneuroto#ic and hemoto#ic components that paraly%e the central nervous system and causegreat damage to tissue.

'abitat: /ound in sandy places" plantations" and dry hillsides.

Length: Average C.D meters" ma#imum =.C meters.

)istribution: Southern 2e#ico" entral America" and 6ra%il to Argentina.

estern diamondback rattlesnake

rotalus atro#

)escription: The body is a light bu!! color with darker brown diamond$shaped markings.The tail has heavy black and white bands.

haracteristics: This bold rattlesnake holds its ground. hen coiled and rattling" it is readyto de!end itsel!. It in,ects a large amount o! venom when it bites" making it one o! themost dangerous snakes. Its venom is hemoto#ic" causing considerable pain and tissuedamage.

'abitat: It is a very common snake over its range. It is !ound in grasslands" deserts"woodlands" and canyons.



Length: Average C.B meters" ma#imum = meters.

)istribution: Southeast ali!ornia" 7klahoma" Te#as" 1ew 2e#ico" and Ari%ona.

POISONOUS SNA&ES OF EUROPE

ommon adder

Vipera berus

)escription: Its color is variable. Some adult specimens are completely black while othershave a dark %ig%ag pattern running along the back.

haracteristics: The common adder is a small true viper that has a short temper and o!tenstrikes without hesitation. Its venom is hemoto#ic" destroying blood cells and causingtissue damage. 2ost in,uries occur to campers" hikers" and !ield workers.

'abitat: ommon adders are !ound in a variety o! habitats" !rom grassy !ields to rockyslopes" and on !arms and cultivated lands.

Length: Average DB centimeters" ma#imum ?> centimeters.

)istribution: Very common throughout most o! +urope.

Long$nosed adder

Vipera ammodytes

)escription: oloration is gray" brown" or reddish with a dark brown or black %ig%agpattern running the length o! its back. A dark stripe is usually !ound behind each eye.

haracteristics: A small snake commonly !ound in much o! its range. The term ;long$nosed; comes !rom the pro,ection o! tiny scales located on the tip o! its nose. This viper isresponsible !or many bites. )eaths have been recorded. Its venom is hemoto#ic" causingsevere pain and massive tissue damage. The rate o! survival is good with medical aid.

'abitat: 7pen !ields" cultivated lands" !arms" and rocky slopes.

Length: Average DB centimeters" ma#imum J> centimeters.

)istribution: Italy" (ugoslavia" northern Albania" and Romania.

-allas3 viper

Agkistrodon halys

)escription: oloration is gray" tan" or yellow" with markings similar to those o! theAmerican copperhead.

haracteristics: This snake is timid and rarely strikes. Its venom is hemoto#ic but rarely!atal.

'abitat: /ound in open !ields" hillsides" and !arming regions.




)istribution: Throughout southeastern +urope.

Ursini3s viper

Vipera ursinii

)escription: The common adder" long$nosed adder" and Ursini3s viper basically have thesame coloration and dorsal %ig%ag pattern. The e#ception among these adders is that thecommon adder and Ursini3s viper lack the pro,ection o! tiny scales on the tip o! the nose.

haracteristics: These little vipers have an irritable disposition. They will readily strikewhen approached. Their venom is hemoto#ic. Although rare" deaths !rom the bites o! thesevipers have been recorded.

'abitat: 2eadows" !armlands" rocky hillsides" and open" grassy !ields.


)istribution: 2ost o! +urope" *reece" *ermany" (ugoslavia" /rance" Italy" 'ungary"Romania" 6ulgaria" and Albania.

POISONOUS SNA&ES OF AFRICA AN ASIA

6oomslang

)ispholidus typus

)escription: oloration varies but is generally green or brown" which makes it very hard tosee in its habitat.

haracteristics: ill strike i! molested. Its venom is hemoto#ic9 even small amounts causesevere hemorrhaging" making it dangerous to man.

'abitat: /ound in !orested areas. It will spend most o! its time in trees or looking !orchameleons and other prey in bushes.

Length: *enerally less than ?> centimeters.

)istribution: /ound throughout sub$Saharan A!rica.

6ush viper

Atheris s0uamiger

)escription: 7!ten called lea! viper" its color varies !rom ground colors o! pale green toolive" brown" or rusty brown. It uses it prehensile tail to secure itsel! to branches.

haracteristics: An aboreal species that o!ten comes down to the ground to !eed on smallrodents. It is not aggressive" but it will de!end itsel! when molested or touched. Its venomis hemoto#ic9 healthy adults rarely die !rom its bite.



'abitat: /ound in rain !orests and woodlands bordering swamps and !orests. 7!ten !oundin trees" low$hanging branches" or brush.


)istribution: 2ost o! A!rica" Angola" ameroon" Uganda" 8enya" and Maire.

ommon cobra

1a,a na,a

)escription: Also known as the Asiatic cobra. Usually slate gray to brown overall. The backo! the hood may or may not have a pattern.

haracteristics: A very common species responsible !or many deaths each year. henaroused or threatened" the cobra will li!t its head o!! the ground and spread its hood"making it more menacing. Its venom is highly neuroto#ic" causing respiratory paralysiswith some tissue damage. The cobra would rather retreat i! possible" but i! escape is shuto!!" it will be a dangerous creature to deal with.

'abitat: /ound in any habitat cultivated !arms" swamps" open !ields" and human dwellingwhere it searches !or rodents.

Length: Average C.= meters" ma#imum =.C meters.

)istribution: All o! Asia.

+gyptian cobra

1a,a ha,e

)escription: (ellowish" dark brown" or black uni!orm top with brown crossbands. Its headis sometimes black.

haracteristics: It is e#tremely dangerous. It is responsible !or many human deaths. 7ncearoused or threatened" it will attack and continue the attack until it !eels an escape ispossible. Its venom is neuroto#ic and much stronger than the common cobra. Its venomcauses paralysis and death due to respiratory !ailure.

'abitat: ultivated !armlands" open !ields" and arid countrysides. It is o!ten seen around

homes searching !or rodents.

Length: Average C.B meters" ma#imum =.B meters.

)istribution: A!rica" Ira0" Syria" and Saudi Arabia.

*aboon viper

6itis gabonica

)escription: -ink to brown with a vertebral series o! elongated yellowish or light brown

spots connected by hourglass$shaped markings on each side. It has a dark brown stripebehind each eye. This dangerous viper is almost invisible on the !orest !loor. A C.@$meter$long *aboon viper could weigh C? kilograms.



haracteristics: The largest and heaviest o! all true vipers" having a very large triangularhead. It comes out in the evening to !eed. /ortunately" it is not aggressive" but it will standits ground i! approached. It bites when molested or stepped on. Its !angs are enormous"o!ten measuring B centimeters long. It in,ects a large amount o! venom when it strikes. Itsvenom is neuroto#ic and hemoto#ic.

'abitat: )ense rain !orests. 7ccasionally !ound in open country.

Length: Average C.= meters" ma#imum C.@ meters.

)istribution: 2ost o! A!rica.

*reen mamba

)endraspis angusticeps

)escription: 2ost mambas are uni!ormly bright green over their entire body. The blackmamba" the largest o! the species" is uni!ormly olive to black.

haracteristics: The mamba is the dreaded snake species o! A!rica. Treat it with greatrespect. It is considered one o! the most dangerous snakes known. 1ot only is it highlyvenomous but it is aggressive and its victim has little chance to escape !rom a bite. Itsvenom is highly neuroto#ic.

'abitat: 2ambas are at home in brush" trees" and low$hanging branches looking !or birds"a usual diet !or this species.

Length: Average C.@ meters" ma#imum .E meters.

)istribution: 2ost o! A!rica.

*reen tree pit viper

Trimeresurus gramineus

)escription: Uni!orm bright or dull green with light yellow on the !acial lips.

haracteristics: A small arboreal snake o! some importance" though not considered adeadly species. It is a dangerous species because most o! its bites occur in the head"shoulder" and neck areas. It seldom comes to the ground. It !eeds on young birds" li%ards"

and tree !rogs.

'abitat: /ound in dense rain !orests and plantations.


)istribution: India" 6urma" 2alaya" Thailand" Laos" ambodia" Vietnam" hina" Indonesia"and /ormosa.

'abu pit viper

Trimeresurus !lavoviridis



)escription: Light brown or olive$yellow with black markings and a yellow or greenish$white belly.

haracteristics: This snake is responsible !or biting many humans and its bite could be!atal. It is an irritable species ready to de!end itsel!. Its venom is hemoto#ic" causing painand considerable tissue damage.

'abitat: /ound in a variety o! habitats" ranging !rom lowlands to mountainous regions.7!ten encountered in old houses and rock walls surroundings buildings.

Length: Average C meter" ma#imum C.B meters.

)istribution: 7kinawa and neighboring islands and 8yushu.

'orned desert viper

erastes cerastes

)escription: -ale bu!! color with obscure markings and a sharp spine 4scale5 over eacheye.

haracteristics: As with all true vipers that live in the desert" it !inds re!uge by burrowingin the heat o! the day" coming out at night to !eed. I t is di!!icult to detect when buried9there!ore" many bites result !rom the snake being accidentally stepped on. Its venom ishemoto#ic" causing severe damage to blood cells and tissue.

'abitat: 7nly !ound in very arid places within its range.


)istribution: Arabian -eninsula" A!rica" Iran" and Ira0.

8ing cobra

7phiophagus hannah

)escription: Uni!ormly olive" brown" or green with ringlike crossbands o! black.

haracteristics: Although it is the largest venomous snake in the world and it has adisposition to go with this honor" it causes relatively !ew bites on humans. It appears to

have a degree o! intelligence. It avoids attacking another venomous snake !or !ear o! beingbitten. It !eeds e#clusively on harmless species. The !emale builds a nest then deposits hereggs. Lying close by" she guards the nest and is highly aggressive toward anything thatclosely approaches the nest. Its venom is a power!ul neuroto#in. ithout medical aid"death is certain !or its victims.

'abitat: )ense ,ungle and cultivated !ields.

Length: Average .B meters" ma#imum B.B meters.

)istribution: Thailand" southern hina" 2alaysia -eninsula" and -hilippines.

8rait



6ungarus caeruleus

)escription: 6lack or bluish$black with white narrow crossbands and a narrow head.

haracteristics: 8raits are !ound only in Asia. This snake is o! special concern to man. It isdeadly$$about CB times more deadly than the common cobra It is active at night andrelatively passive during the day. The native people o!ten step on kraits while walkingthrough their habitats. The krait has a tendency to seek shelter in sleeping bags" boots"and tents. Its venom is a power!ul neuroto#in that causes respiratory !ailure.

'abitat: 7pen !ields" human settlements" and dense ,ungle.

Length: Average J> centimeters" ma#imum C.B meters.

)istribution: India" Sri Lanka" and -akistan.

Levant viper

Vipera lebetina

)escription: *ray to pale brown with large dark brown spots on the top o! the black and a; ; mark on top o! the head.

haracteristics: This viper belongs to a large group o! true vipers. Like its cousins" it islarge and dangerous. Its venom is hemoto#ic. 2any deaths have been reported !rom biteso! this species. It is a strong snake with an irritable disposition9 it hisses loudly when readyto strike.

'abitat: Varies greatly" !rom !armlands to mountainous areas.

Length: Average C meter" ma#imum C.B meters.

)istribution: *reece" Ira0" Syria" Lebanon" Turkey" A!ghanistan" lower portion o! the!ormer USSR" and Saudi Arabia.

2alayan pit viper

allaselasma rhodostoma

)escription: Reddish running into pink tinge toward the belly with triangular$shaped"

brown markings bordered with light$colored scales. The base o! the triangular$shapedmarkings end at the midline. It has dark brown" arrow$shaped markings on the top andeach side o! its head.

haracteristics: This snake has long !angs" is ill$tempered" and is responsible !or manybites. Its venom is hemoto#ic" destroying blood cells and tissue" but a victim3s chances o!survival are good with medical aid. This viper is a ground dweller that moves into manyareas in search o! !ood. The greatest danger is in stepping on the snake with bare !eet.

'abitat: Rubber plantations" !arms" rural villages" and rain !orests.

Length: Average ?> centimeters" ma#imum C meter.

)istribution: Thailand" Laos" ambodia" Kava" Sumatra" 2alaysia" Vietnam" 6urma" andhina.



2c2ahon3s viper

+risticophis macmahonii

)escription: Sandy bu!! color dominates the body with darker brown spots on the side o!the body. Its nose shield is broad" aiding in burrowing.

haracteristics: Very little is known about this species. It apparently is rare or seldomseen. This viper is very irritable9 it hisses" coils" and strikes at any intruder that venturestoo close. Its venom is highly hemoto#ic" causing great pain and tissue damage.

'abitat: Arid or semidesert. It hides during the day3s sun" coming out only at night to !eedon rodents.

Length: Average DB centimeters" ma#imum C meter.

)istribution: est -akistan and A!ghanistan.

2ole viper or burrowing viper

Atracaspis microlepidota

)escription: Uni!ormly black or dark brown with a small" narrow head.

haracteristics: A viper that does not look like one. It is small in si%e" and its small headdoes not indicate the presence o! venom glands. It has a rather ino!!ensive disposition9however" it will 0uickly turn and bite i! restrained or touched. Its venom is a potenthemoto#in !or such a small snake. Its !angs are e#ceptionally long. A bite can result even

when picking it up behind the head. It is best to leave this snake alone.

'abitat: Agricultural areas and arid localities

Length: Average BB centimeters" ma#imum EB centimeters

)istribution: Sudan" +thiopia" Somaliland" 8enya" Tanganyika" Uganda" ameroon" 1iger"ongo" and Urundi.

-alestinian viper

Vipera palaestinae

)escription: 7live to rusty brown with a dark V$shaped mark on the head and a brown"%ig%ag band along the back.

haracteristics: The -alestinian viper is closely related to the Russell3s viper o! Asia. Likeits cousin" it is e#tremely dangerous. It is active and aggressive at night but !airly placidduring the day. hen threatened or molested" it will tighten its coils" hiss loudly" andstrike 0uickly.

'abitat: Arid regions" but may be !ound around barns and stables. It has been seenentering houses in search o! rodents.

Length: Average >.@ meter" ma#imum C. meters.



)istribution: Turkey" Syria" -alestine" Israel" Lebanon" and Kordan.

-u!! adder

6itis arietans

)escription: (ellowish" light brown" or orange with chevron$shaped dark brown or blackbars.

haracteristics: The pu!! adder is the second largest o! the dangerous vipers. It is one o!the most common snakes in A!rica. It is largely nocturnal" hunting at night and seekingshelter during the day3s heat. It is not shy when approached. It draws its head close to itscoils" makes a loud hissing sound" and is 0uick to strike any intruder. Its venom is stronglyhemoto#ic" destroying bloods cells and causing e#tensive tissue damage.

'abitat: Arid regions to swamps and dense !orests. ommon around human settlements.


)istribution: 2ost o! A!rica" Saudi Arabia" Ira0" Lebanon" Israel" and Kordan.

Rhinoceros viper or river ,ack

6itis nasicornis

)escription: 6rightly colored with purplish to reddish$brown markings and black and lightolive markings along the back. 7n its head it has a triangular marking that starts at the tipo! the nose. It has a pair o! long horns 4scales5 on the tip o! its nose.

haracteristics: Its appearance is awesome9 its horns and very rough scales give it asinister look. It has an irritable disposition. It is not aggressive but will stand its groundready to strike i! disturbed. Its venom is neuroto#ic and hemoto#ic.

'abitat: Rain !orests" along waterways" and in swamps.

Length: Average EB centimeters" ma#imum C meter.

)istribution: +0uatorial A!rica.

Russell3s viper

Vipera russellii

)escription: Light brown body with three rows o! dark brown or black splotches borderedwith white or yellow e#tending its entire length.

haracteristics: This dangerous species is abundant over its entire range. It is responsible!or more human !atalities than any other venomous snake. It is irritable. hen threatened"it coils tightly" hisses" and strikes with such speed that its victim has little chance o!escaping. Its hemoto#ic venom is a power!ul coagulant" damaging tissue and blood cells.

'abitat: Variable" !rom !armlands to dense rain !orests. It is commonly !ound aroundhuman settlements.



Length: Average C meter" ma#imum C.B meters

)istribution: Sri Lanka" south hina" India" 2alaysian -eninsula" Kava" Sumatra" 6orneo"and surrounding islands.

Sand viper

erastes vipera

)escription: Usually uni!ormly very pallid" with three rows o! darker brown spots

haracteristics: A very small desert dweller that can bury itsel! in the sand during theday3s heat. It is nocturnal" coming out at night to !eed on li%ards and small desert rodents.It has a short temper and will strike several times. Its venom is hemoto#ic.

'abitat: Restricted to desert areas.


)istribution: 1orthern Sahara" Algeria" +gypt" Sudan" 1igeria" had" Somalia" and centralA!rica.

Saw$scaled viper

+chis carinatus

)escription: olor is light bu!! with shades o! brown" dull red" or gray. Its sides have awhite or light$colored pattern. Its head usually has two dark stripes that start behind theeye and e#tend to the rear.

haracteristics: A small but e#tremely dangerous viper. It gets the name saw$scaled !romrubbing the sides o! its body together" producing a rasping sound. This ill$tempered snakewill attack any intruder. Its venom is highly hemoto#ic and 0uite potent. 2any deaths areattributed to this species.

'abitat: /ound in a variety o! environments. It is common in rural settlements" cultivated!ields" arid regions" barns" and rock walls.


)istribution: Asia" Syria" India" A!rica" Ira0" Iran" Saudi Arabia" -akistan" Kordan" Lebanon"Sri Lanka" Algeria" +gypt" and Israel.

agler3s pit viper or temple viper

Trimeresurus wagleri

)escription: *reen with white crossbands edged with blue or purple. It has two dorsal lineson both sides o! its head.

haracteristics: It is also known as the temple viper because certain religious cults have

placed venomous snakes in their temples. 6ites are not uncommon !or the species9!ortunately" !atalities are very rare. It has long !angs. Its venom is hemoto#ic causing cell



and tissue destruction. It is an arboreal species and its bites o!ten occur on the uppere#tremities.

'abitat: )ense rain !orests" but o!ten !ound near human settlements.

Length: Average ?> centimeters" ma#imum C>> centimeters.

)istribution: 2alaysian -eninsula and Archipelago" Indonesia" 6orneo" the -hilippines" andRyuku Islands.

POISONOUS SNA&ES OF AUSTRA"ASIA

Australian copperhead

)enisonia superba

)escription: oloration is reddish brown to dark brown. A !ew !rom ueensland are black.

haracteristics: Rather sluggish disposition but will bite i! stepped on. hen angry" rearsits head a !ew inches !rom the ground with its neck slightly arched. Its venom isneuroto#ic.

'abitat: Swamps.


)istribution: Tasmania" South Australia" ueensland" and 8angaroo Island.

)eath adder

Acanthophis antarcticus

)escription: Reddish" yellowish" or brown color with distinct dark brown crossbands Theend o! its tail is black" ending in a hard spine.

haracteristics: hen aroused" this highly dangerous snake will !latten its entire body"ready to strike over a short distance. It is nocturnal" hiding by day and coming out to !eedat night. Although it has the appearance o! a viper" it is related to the cobra !amily. Itsvenom is a power!ul neuroto#in9 its causes mortality in about B> percent o! the victims"even with treatment.

'abitat: Usually !ound in arid regions" !ields" and wooded lands.


)istribution: Australia" 1ew *uinea" and 2oluccas.

Taipan

7#yuranus scutellatus

)escription: *enerally uni!ormly olive or dark brown" the head is somewhat darker brown.



haracteristics: onsidered one o! the most deadly snakes. It has an aggressivedisposition. hen aroused" it can display a !earsome appearance by !lattening its head"raising it o!! the ground" waving it back and !orth" and suddenly striking with such speedthat the victim may receive several bites be!ore it retreats. Its venom is a power!ulneuroto#in" causing respiratory paralysis. Its victim has little chance !or recovery withoutprompt medical aid.

'abitat: At home in a variety o! habitats" it is !ound !rom the savanna !orests to the inlandplains.

Length: Average C.@ meters" ma#imum .E meters.

)istribution: 1orthern Australia and southern 1ew *uinea.

Tiger snake

1otechis scutatus

)escription: 7live to dark brown above with yellowish or olive belly and crossbands. Thesubspecies in Tasmania and Victoria is uni!ormly black.

haracteristics: It is the most dangerous snake in Australia. It is very common and bitesmany humans. It has a very potent neuroto#ic venom that attacks the nervous system.

hen aroused" it is aggressive and attacks any intruder. It !lattens its neck making anarrow band.

'abitat: /ound in many habitats !rom arid regions to human settlements along waterwaysto grasslands.


)istribution: Australia" Tasmania" 6ass Strait islands" and 1ew *uinea.

POISONOUS SEA SNA&ES

6anded sea snake

Laticauda colubrina

)escription: Smooth$scaled snake that is a pale shade o! blue with black bands. Its oarliketail provides propulsion in swimming.

haracteristics: 2ost active at night" swimming close to shore and at times entering tidepools. Its venom is a very strong neuroto#in. Its victims are usually !ishermen whountangle these deadly snakes !rom large !ish nets.

'abitat: ommon in all oceans" absent in the Atlantic 7cean.

Length: Average EB centimeters" ma#imum C.= meters.

)istribution: oastal waters o! 1ew *uinea" -aci!ic islands" the -hilippines" Southeast Asia"Sri Lanka" and Kapan.

(ellow$bellied sea snake



-elamis platurus

)escription: Upper part o! body is black or dark brown and lower part is bright yellow.

haracteristics: A highly venomous snake belonging to the cobra !amily. This snake is trulyo! the pelagic species$$it never leaves the water to come to shore. It has an oarlike tail toaid its swimming. This species is 0uick to de!end itsel!. Sea snakes do not really strike" butdeliberately turn and bite i! molested. A small amount o! their neuroto#ic venom can causedeath.

'abitat: /ound in all oceans e#cept the Atlantic 7cean.

Length: Average >.E meter" ma#imum C.C meters.

)istribution: Throughout the -aci!ic 7cean !rom many o! the -aci!ic islands to 'awaii andto the coast o! osta Rica and -anama.

POISONOUS "I3AR S

*ila monster

'eloderma suspectum

)escription: Robust" with a large head and a heavy tail. Its body is covered with beadlikescales. It is capable o! storing !at against lean times when !ood is scarce. Its color isstriking in rich blacks laced with yellow or pinkish scales.

haracteristics: 1ot an aggressive li%ard" but it is ready to de!end itsel! when provoked. I!approached too closely" it will turn toward the intruder with its mouth open. I! it bites" ithangs on tenaciously and must be pried o!!. Its venom glands and grooved teeth are on its

bottom ,aw.

'abitat: /ound in arid areas" coming out at night or early morning hours in search o! smallrodents and bird eggs. )uring the heat o! the day it stays under brush or rocks.

Length: Average > centimeters" ma#imum B> centimeters.

)istribution: Ari%ona" 1ew 2e#ico" Utah" 1evada" northern 2e#ico" and e#treme corner o!southeast ali!ornia.

2e#ican beaded li%ard

'eloderma horridum

)escription: Less color!ul than its cousin" the gila monster. It has black or pale yellowbands or is entirely black.

haracteristics: Very strong legs let this li%ard crawl over rocks and dig burrows. It isshort$tempered. It will turn and open its mouth in a threatening manner when molested.Its venom is hemoto#ic and potentially dangerous to man.

'abitat: /ound in arid or desert areas" o!ten in rocky hillsides" coming out during eveningand early morning hours.

Length: Average ?> centimeters" ma#imum J> centimeters.



)istribution: 2e#ico through entral America.

APPEN I5 F - AN$EROUS FISH AN MO""US&S

Since !ish and mollusks may be one o! your ma,or sources o! !ood" it is wise to know which

ones are dangerous to you should you catch them. 8now which ones are dangerous" whatthe dangers o! the various !ish are" what precautions to take" and what to do i! you arein,ured by one o! these !ish.

/ish and mollusks will present a danger in one o! three ways: by attacking and biting you"by in,ecting to#ic venom into you through its venomous spines or tentacles" and througheating !ish or mollusks whose !lesh is to#ic.

The danger o! actually encountering one o! these dangerous !ish is relatively small" but it isstill signi!icant. Any one o! these !ish can kill you. Avoid them i! at all possible.

FISH THAT ATTAC& MAN

The shark is usually the !irst !ish that comes to mind when considering !ish that attackman. 7ther !ish also !all in this category" such as the barracuda" the moray eel" and thepiranha.

Sharks

Sharks are potentially the most dangerous !ish that attack people. The obvious danger o!sharks is that they are capable o! seriously maiming or killing you with their bite. 7! themany shark species" only a relative !ew are dangerous. 7! these" !our species areresponsible !or most cases o! shark attacks on humans. These are the white" tiger"hammerhead" and blue sharks. There are also records o! attacks by ground" gray nurse"and mako sharks. See /igure /$C !or illustrations o! sharks.

Avoid sharks i! at all possible. /ollow the procedures discussed in hapter C? to de!endyoursel! against a shark attack.

Sharks vary in si%e" but there is no relationship between the si%e o! the shark andlikelihood o! attack. +ven the smaller sharks can be dangerous" especially when they aretraveling in schools.

I! bitten by a shark" the most important measure !or you to take is to stop the bleeding0uickly. 6lood in the water attracts sharks. *et yoursel! or the victim into a ra!t or to shoreas soon as possible. I! in the water" !orm a circle around the victim 4i! not alone5" and stopthe bleeding with a tourni0uet.

7ther /erocious /ish

In salt water" other !erocious !ish include the barracuda" sea bass" and moray eel 4/igure/$=5. The sea bass is usually an open water !ish. It is dangerous due to its large si%e. Itcan remove large pieces o! !lesh !rom a human. 6arracudas and moray eels have beenknown to attack man and in!lict vicious bites. 6e care!ul o! these two species when nearree!s and in shallow water. 2oray eels are very aggressive when disturbed.

In !resh water" piranha are the only signi!icantly dangerous !ish. They are inhabitants o!the tropics and are restricted to northern South America. These !ish are !airly small" aboutB to E.B centimeters" but they have very large teeth and travel in large schools. They candevour a C B$kilogram hog in minutes.

!ENOMOUS FISH AN IN!ERTE)RATES



There are several species o! venomous !ish and invertebrates" all o! which live in saltwater. All o! these are capable o! in,ecting poisonous venom through spines located in their!ins" tentacles" or bites. Their venoms cause intense pain and are potentially !atal. I!in,ured by one o! these !ish or invertebrates" treat the in,ury as !or snakebite.

Stingrays

)asyatidae species

Stingrays inhabit shallow water" especially in the tropics and in temperate regions as well.All have a distinctive ray shape but coloration may make them hard to spot unless they areswimming. The venomous" barbed spines in their tails can cause severe or !atal in,ury.

Rabbit!ish

Siganidae species

Rabbit!ish are !ound predominantly on the ree!s in the -aci!ic and Indian oceans. They

average about > centimeters long and have very sharp spines in their !ins. The spines arevenomous and can in!lict intense pain.

Scorpion !ish or %ebra !ish

Scorpaenidae species

Scorpion !ish live mainly in the ree!s in the -aci!ic and Indian oceans. They vary !rom > toJ> centimeters long" are usually reddish in coloration" and have long wavy !ins and spines.They in!lict an intensely pain!ul sting.

Siganus !ish

The siganus !ish is small" about C> to CB centimeters long" and looks much like a smalltuna. It has venemous spines in its dorsal and ventral !ins. These spines can in!lict pain!ulstings.

Stone!ish

Synance,a species

Stone!ish are !ound in the tropical waters o! the -aci!ic and Indian oceans. Averagingabout > centimeters in length" their subdued colors and lumpy shape provide them withe#ceptional camo!lauge. hen stepped on" the !ins in the dorsal spine in!lict an e#tremelypain!ul and sometimes !atal wound.

Tang or surgeon!ish

Acanthuridae species

Tang or surgeon!ish average => to =B centimeters in length" with a deep body" smallmouth" and bright coloration. They have needlelike spines on the side o! the tail that causee#tremely pain!ul wounds. This !ish is !ound in all tropical waters.

Toad!ish

6atrachoididae species

Toad!ish are !ound in the tropical waters o!! the coasts o! South and entral America. Theyare between CE.B and =B centimeters long and have a dull color and large mouths. They



bury themselves in the sand and may be easily stepped on. They have very sharp"e#tremely poisonous spines on the dorsal !in 4back5.

eever !ish

Trachinidae species

The weever !ish is a tropical !ish that is !airly slim and about > centimeters long. All its!ins have venomous spines that cause a pain!ul wound.

6lue$ringed octopus

'apalochlaena species

This small octopus is usually !ound on the *reat 6arrier Ree! o!! eastern Australia. It isgrayish$white with iridescent blue ringlike markings. This octopus usually will not biteunless stepped on or handled. Its bite s e#tremely poisonous and !re0uently lethal.

-ortuguese man$o!$war

-hysalis species

Although it resembles a ,elly!ish" the -ortuguese man$o!$war is actually a colony o! seaanimals. 2ainly !ound in tropical regions" the *ul! stream current can carry it as !ar as+urope. It is also !ound as !ar south as Australia. The !loating portion o! the man$o!$warmay be as small as CB centimeters" but the tentacles can reach C= meters in length. Thesetentacles in!lict a pain!ul and incapacitating sting" but the sting is rarely !atal.

one shells

onidae species

These cone$shaped shells have smooth" color!ul mottling and long" narrow openings in thebase o! the shell. They live under rocks" in crevices and coral ree!s" and along rocky shoresand protected bays in tropical areas. All have tiny teeth that are similar to hypodermicneedles. They can in,ect an e#tremely poisonous venom that acts very swi!tly" causingacute pain" swelling" paralysis" blindness" and possible death within hours. Avoid handlingall cone shells.

Terebra shells

Terebridae species

These shells are !ound in both temperate and tropical waters. They are similar to coneshells but much thinner and longer. They poison in the same way as cone shells" but theirvenom is not as poisonous.

FISH #ITH TO5IC F"ESH

There are no simple rules to tell edible !ish !rom those with poisonous !lesh. The mostcommon to#ic !ish are shown in /igure @$=. All o! these !ish contain various types o!poisonous substances or to#ins in their !lesh and are dangerous to eat. They have the!ollowing common characteristics:

• 2ost live in shallow water around ree!s or lagoons.



• 2any have bo#y or round bodies with hard shell$like skins covered with bonyplates or spines. They have small parrotlike mouths" small gills" and small orabsent belly !ins. Their names suggest their shape.

In addition to the above !ish and their characteristics" barracuda and red snapper !ish maycarry ciguatera" a to#in that accumulates in the systems o! !ish that !eed on tropical

marine ree!s.

ithout speci!ic local in!ormation" take the !ollowing precautions:

• 6e very care!ul with !ish taken !rom normally shallow lagoons with sandy or brokencoral bottoms. Ree!$!eeding species predominate and some may be poisonous.

• Avoid poisonous !ish on the leeward side o! an island. This area o! shallow waterconsists o! patches o! living corals mi#ed with open spaces and may e#tendseaward !or some distance. 2any di!!erent types o! !ish inhabit these shallowwaters" some o! which are poisonous.

• )o not eat !ish caught in any area where the water is unnaturally discolored. Thismay be indicative o! plankton that cause various types o! to#icity in plankton$

!eeding !ish.• Try !ishing on the windward side or in deep passages leading !rom the open sea tothe lagoon" but be care!ul o! currents and waves. Live coral ree!s drop o!! sharplyinto deep water and !orm a dividing line between the suspected !ish o! the shallowsand the desirable deep$water species. )eepwater !ish are usually not poisonous.(ou can catch the various to#ic !ish even in deep water. )iscard all suspected ree!!ish" whether caught on the ocean or the ree! side.

APPEN I5 $ - C"OU S8 FORETE""ERS OF #EATHER

About =>> years ago an +nglishman classi!ied clouds ac cording to what they looked like toa person seeing them !rom the ground. 'e grouped them into three classes and gave themLatin names: cirrus" cumulus" and stratus. These three names" alone and combined withother Latin words" are still used to identi!y di!!erent cloud !ormations.

6y being !amiliar with the di!!erent cloud !ormation and what weather they portend" youcan take appropriate action !or your protection.

irrus clouds

irrus clouds are the very high clouds that look like thin streaks or curls. They are usually? kilometers or more above the earth and are usually a sign o! !air weather. In coldclimates" however" cirrus clouds that begin to multiply and are accompanied by increasingwinds blowing steadily !rom a northerly direction indicate an oncoming bli%%ard.

umulus clouds

umulus clouds are !lu!!y" white" heaped$up clouds. These clouds" which are much lowerthan cirrus clouds" are o!ten !air weather clouds. They are apt to appear around midday ona sunny day" looking like large cotton balls with !lat bottoms. As the day advances" theymay become bigger and push higher into the atmosphere. -iling up to appear like amountain o! clouds. These can turn into storm clouds.

Stratus clouds



Stratus clouds are very low" gray clouds" o!ten making an even gray layer over the wholesky. These clouds generally mean rain.

1imbus clouds

1imbus clouds are ram clouds o! uni!orm grayness that e#tend over the entire sky

umulonimbus clouds

umulonimbus is the cloud !ormation resulting !rom a cumulus cloud building up"e#tending to great heights" and !orming in the shape o! an anvil. (ou can e#pect athunderstorm i! this cloud is moving in your direction.

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