Volume 7, No. i

WATER RESOURCEThe University ofArizona Museum ofArt

f&ztured the photographs ofAnn Simmons-Myers and thepaintings ofDavidAndres inan exhibit titled "Immersions, " shown May17-August 9. The theme of «Immersions"was watei, and the exhibit was scheduled toprovide reliefduring the hot summermonths. Ms. Simmons-Myers often photo-graphs southwestern water scenes - lakes,pools, or arroyos - and even her dry desertphotos often show evidence that water wasonce present The shrouded models she in-dudes in her photographs are an importantelement in her compositions. Lacking distinctfeatures, they almost seem abstract, but yetare veiy recognizably human. The humanform becomes part ofthe waterscape.

Thephoto to the rzht is titkd "Oasis."The shroudedfigure posed on the stone struct-ure in the midst ofthepond resembles astatue on a pedestaL The darkness of thebackground vegetation blends with the dark-ness ofthe water. Water lilies are in the

foregrouni In this scene, the human formseems not so much to blend into the naturalsetting as to be a distinctfeature within thecomposition. Thefigure however, does notcontrast with the naturalfeatures - trees,water, water lilies, douds - but takes itsplace among them. The humanform is seena.spart ofthe natural world At the sametime, the scene also has a mysterious, almostgothic mood to it.

C O N T E N T S

ARIZONA

September-October 1998

Safe Yield Goal Proving Elusive

_/\.chieving safe yield, the fundamental objective ofArizona's 1980 GroundwaterManagement Act (GMA), may prove to be a more elusive goal than once expected.The GMA mandated that the Phoenix, Tucson and Prescott Active ManagementAreas (AMAs) achieve safe yield, a balancing ofgroundwater withdrawals withrecharge, by the year 2025. Some ofthe assumptions and projections used to set thegoal, however, have not held up after 20 years, with the result that safe yield may be adifficult target for some AMAs to reach.

A note ofwarning was sounded during recent Arizona Department of WaterResources (ADWR) efforts to draft third management plans for the AMAs. The draftplan for the Tucson AMA concludes that "given current projections, the AMA willnot reach safe-yield by 2025." Estimates show that overdraft will still be 46,600 acre-feet per year. The draft plan for the Phoenix AMA shows potential overdraft of372,932 acre-feet in 2025.

This concern has caused safe yield to become a topic for renewed discussion,continued on page 2

WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH CENTER THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

Water Vapors 3

News Briefs 4-5

History/Conservation 6

El Niño Supplement . . . . 7-10

Special Projects i i

Publications 12

Web Sites 13

Announcements 14

Calendar 15

Safe-Yield..continuedfrom page 1

with various questions now arising such as: How likely is it thatArizonas metropolitan areas will be at safe yield by 2025? If safeyield is not reached by 2025, can it be achieved later? Even ifsafe yield is reached in 2025, will population growth cause over-draft to resume shortly thereafter? How important is reachingsafe yield, if overdraft is substantially reduced? Does ADWRneed new regulatory tools to assure safe yield, or does the goalneed to be redefined?

Meanwhile, it is becoming more evident how later develop-ments threw off GMA water demand and supply projections.Unfortunately, from a water management perspective, nearly allsuch deviations have either increased water demand or slowed theswitch from groundwater to renewable supplies. Both factorsaffect the ability to reach safe yield.

A critical determinant ofwater demand in the urban AMAsis population. Municipal water demand is the largest category ofusage in the Tucson AMA and is second to agriculture in thePhoenix AMA. More importantly, it is the water demand corn-ponent that is growing over time. As official population projec-tions have been revised over the last two decades, the populationforecast for Maricopa County in 2025 has continually beenadjusted upward. Current projections show 4,948,423 MaricopaCounty residents by 2025. By contrast, population projectionsfor Pima County have been revised downward, with the 2025population pegged at 1,290,966.

Equally important is average municipal water demand,measured in gallons per capita per day (gpcd). In the 1980s,certain demographic trends seemed to guarantee significantreductions in gpcd rates. Conservation efforts were expected toyield further reductions. Existing residences were primarilysingle family homes, many with turf and poois, and most withevaporative coolers. By contrast, new housing was primarilymulti-family rental units and townhouses with much less land-scaping. Also, new construction favored refrigeration air condi-tioning over evaporative coolers.

These "trends" didn't last. An expanding economy and lowinterest rates have helped push home ownership rates to recordlevels, and reduced the number of apartments being built. Also,some of the apparent water savings among apartment dwellersproved to have been merely shifted off-site, to Laundromats andcar washes.

New apartment complexes tend to be larger, have lusherlandscaping, and offer more water-using amenities like pools,spas, gyms, garbage disposals and laundry facilities. Many newand existing single family residences have new water-using de-vices, such as outdoor misting systems. Pools, Jacuzzi, andwhirlpool tubs continue to grow in popularity.

Water conservation has not lived up to its early promise inmany areas. Significant reductions in gpcd rates occurred ini-tially, as the easiest, most cost-effective measures were undertaken.But now conservation gains are coming harder, and some conser-vation devices lack durability. For example, many drip irrigationsystems deteriorate after five to 10 years, as do some models ofultra-low-flush (ULF) toilets. The lack of available parts forrepair and maintenance of some ULF toilets has forced manyhomeowners to simply use the toilet as is or replace with non-ULF parts, which can render the toilet a virtual water guzzler.

The human element has proven problematic as well. Studiesnow indicate that residents who irrigate their landscapes manu-

TheArizona Hydrological Sociqy presented Dr. Sol Resnick its LfèTime AchievementAward during its annual symposium September 23-26. TheAHSpresents the award eachyear to an outstanding memberoftheArLzona hydrologic communiy. Dr. Resnick was appointedassociate director ofthe Univers4y ofArizona's Water ResouroesResearch Center in 1964 and director in 1972. He ha a worldwidereputation among hydrologists and water managers. Dr. Resnick, whoretired in 1983, is WRRCprofessor emeritus. He currently teaches inthe UA Elderhostel Program and represents the university in an Israeli-sponsoredproject teaching Hopi Indians to irrzate with brackish water.

ally may be more water efficient than those using drip systemsbecause the systems need to be well managed and carefully main-tamed to provide efficiency. The average homeowner, or theaverage landscape worker isn't doing either. Timers are notregularly being re-set, and systems are not being repaired andupgraded as needed and are therefore less efficient over time.Swimming pooi covers are used primarily in spring and fall toprolong the swim season, but not in summer when potentialwater savings are the greatest, because a covered pool becomes toowarm for comfort.

Another prediction that hasn't borne out was that municipalwater rates would rise significantly faster than the inflation rate,providing a financial incentive to conserve. While rates havegone up in some areas, rates in other areas, such as Tucson, have

actually gone up more slowly than overall inflation, therebyreducing the real price ofwater. Also, incomes have risen, mak-ing people less sensitive to the price ofwater. In addition, withrefrigeration largely replacing evaporative cooling in new resi-dences, summer electric bills now may be so much higher thanwater bills that the latter may not seem excessive.

Water demand in non-municipal sectors likewise has devi-ated from expectations. In the 1980s, Arizona copper minesappeared unable to compete with foreign companies, which hadthe advantage of cheaper labor, higher grade ore bodies and fewerenvironmental restrictions. Copper mining was viewed as atemporary activity, likely to disappear as early as the year 2000, asexisting ore bodies played out or became uneconomical to mine.Thus, copper mines were granted the right to pump groundwaterwithout much restriction.

continuedonpage 16

2 Arizona Water Resource September-October 1998

Water VaporsEi Niño's numerous and severe impactson global weather clearly establish thephenomenon as water event of the year.In honor of the event - or more preciselyto provide El Niño news and informationrelevant to Arizona and the Southwest -the Water Resources Research Centerpublished four issues of a special El NiñoNews.

This edition of the Arizona WaterResource contains a bonus El Niño News,with information summarizing eventsand research throughout the past year.Future editions ofAWR will containother centerfold supplements, to betterprovide various kinds of water informa-tion to our readers.

Something NewAlso new to this edition ofAWR are

several features that will appear as regularcolumns. Each deals with a differentwater theme and all are written by WRRCstaff members. "Stream of History," byBarbara Telinian, will discuss some aspectof water in history. Val Little's "1120Conservation Notes," another new col-umn, is concerned with water conserva-tion as a public policy issue. KenSeasholes' 'Water on the Web" columnreviews web sites containing particularlyrelevant or useful water information.

Email - Reach Out andTouch Someone

Among its many and varied services,from producing a CD-ROM and an Ari-zona water map to incidental and regularpublications, the WRRC also responds toinquiries about water. At one time, mostof the inquires were made by phone.People who called for water informationgenerally had relatively simple and un-complicated requests. "Where can I getmy water tested?" "Does the Santa CruzRiver really flow north?" "How is CAPwater treated?"

Changes are occurring with the use ofemail as a communication tool. For one,we get requests from all over the world,from people who have become acquainted

with us through our home page. Wereceived email from someone in Franceinterested in bottled water use in theUnited States, from a man in Rome whowas interested in decorative water foun-tains of the Southwest, and a student inBelgium with questions about fish farm-ing in the desert.

Not only are requests coming fromfarther afield geographically, but someemail requests are seeking vast quantitiesof information, much more than wouldusually be requested by phone. For exam-ple, a single email message requested theannual rate of evaporative loss for theArizona Canal, Central Arizona Project,Colorado River Aqueduct and CaliforniaAqueduct, the economic loss this evapora-tion represents, along with the method ofcomputation to determine the loss, andthe total surface area of each of the aboveprojects.

That we receive such robust informa-tion requests might in some ways be ex-pected. Email has greatly increased accessto many and varied resources includingthe WRRC, and those in search of waterinformation can easily get in touch withus. But there is more to the situationthan that.

Part phone call and part written mes-sage, email is a media very well suited forconducting extensive informationsearches. Inquiries arriving by phone, anaccessible and informal means of commu-nication, tend to be relatively undemand-ing. In contrast, when a message or in-quiry is put in writing, greater purposeful-ness is implied. When a written messagegains the fluidity and accessibility oftelephoning, heavy-duty requests make therounds.

Also, email partakes of the aura of the

much vaunted communications and in-formation revolution. The movementencourages expectations that great poolsof information are forming and are read-ily accessible. Email is viewed as a way todip into that pool.

Drink Your WaterBeing human, people usually have no

trouble coming up with reasons why theydo not do what is good for them. TheCornell Medical Center and the Interna-tional Bottled Water Association lookedinto why Americans do not drink recom-mended quantities of water. They foundthat six percent prefer other beverages;seven percent forget to drink water; eightpercent do not like the taste; and 11 per-cent do not feel thirsty. The reason that27 percent of Americans do not drinkenough water, however, is the same reasonoften provided to explain a multitude ofother shortcomings, from a failure towrite letters to broken marriages; i.e., theydon't have enough time.

If I had a HammerSledgehammer-toting Secretary of

Interior Bruce Babbitt has given newmeaning to the term "hit list." Oncemainly a figure of speech - e.g. PresidentCarter's infamous hit list of western waterprojects - hit list has taken on a moreforceful physical meaning in water affairs,thanks to Babbitt's crusade to rid thecountry of harmful dams. On a recentwestern trip Babbitt said, "I arrive withsledgehammer in hand to celebrate thedestruction of dams." Critiquing thedams on the Colorado River, Babbitt saidtheir effect on the river is to give it, "theregularity, and the predictability of agiant toilet."

September-October 1998 Arizona Water Resource 3

News B rieft

Santa Cruz AMA DelaysManagement PlanA dispute between the Santa Cruz andTucson Active Management Areas(AMAs) has contributed to a one-yeardelay in the release of the Santa CruzAMA's Third Management Plan. At issueis the surface flow of the Santa CruzRiver and its allocation in the water bud-gets of each active management area. Thecontroversy has roots in the founding ofSCAMA when it split off from the Tuc-son AMA in 1994 and allocation of SantaCruz River flow was left unsettled.

At its July meeting, the Santa CruzGroundwater Users Advisory Councilquestioned future lAMA claims on theSanta Cruz River, including effluentoutflow from the international wastewatertreatment plant. TAMA claiming surfaceflow as part of its "natural water" couldlimit SCAMA's management options.

In response, the Santa Cruz GUACvoted 3-0 to recommend a one-year delayin promulgating its Third Management -

Plan. Large water users in the area alreadyhad requested a delay. Arizona Depart-ment of Water Resources Director RitaPearson approved the request.

Meanwhile work is underway toresolve the controversy of surface flowsentering the TAMA from the SCAMA.Tucson AMA Director Katharine Jacobsis scheduled to meet with SCAMA staff toexplain the accounting in lAMA's man-agement plan. The bulk of Santa Cruzflow entering the TAMA is stormwaterdischarge, with minimal amounts origi-nating from the international wastewaterplant SCAMA GUAC members, how-ever, are concerned about legal precedentsthat could be set.

The management plan delay also wasmotivated by expectations that a ground-water model for the AMA would soon becompleted. Also, Director AlejandroBarcenas indicated that an ad hoc groupof large water users, including the City ofNogales, has been working on a settle-ment of suthce water rights. ThoughBarcenas indicated that major obstacleshave to be overcome, a settlement wouldbe a significant boost to long-range plan-

fling efforts and would affect the manage-ment plan.

The state's five active managementareas originally were to complete thirdmanagement plans by September.

Beavers to Return toSan Pedro River

Beavers soon will be seen on the SanPedro River, after an absence of 100 years.Their return is the result of a final envi-ronmental study report recently issued bythe U.S. Bureau of Land Management.The beavers are expected to be releasedthis fall or winter.

The beavers' homecoming to theirformer habitat raises some concerns withthe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service how-ever. The service is concerned that thebeaver's activities benefit and not harmthe endangered southwestern willow fly-catchers' habitat. To that end, the bureaumust monitor the beavers' work.

Beavers at first make themselves athome at a river site by cutting down wil-low and cottonwood trees for food andbuilding dams. Once darn building iscomplete, however, bureau biologists saybeavers will eat just enough trees to en-sure survival. They say their activitiesactually improve wildlife species numbersand diversity. For example, a study show-ed that when beavers arrived in the nest-ing territory of a willow flycatcher speciesin Idaho, the birds' numbers increased.

Beavers disappeared from the SanPedro River in the 1890s. Some say cattlegrazing reduced vegetation and caused thedecline of the beavers

DDT Found in Fish,Wildlife on Lower Gua

Although banned for over 25 years,DDT residues have been found in fish,birds, and other wildlife on the lowerGila River according to a study by theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Concen-trations are sufficiently high to possiblyharm wildlife.

A follow-up to a 1986 report thatdocumented contaminants in the area,the study focused on the effects oforganochlorine pesticides and metal con-taminants in fish and wildlife betweenPhoenix and Painted Rock Dam. Thestudy indicated that concentrations ofDDE, a metabolite of DDT, exceed fed-

Author's Query

For a history of water conservation inArizona, I would appreciate receivingany information relevant to the topic.The history is to be based on thepremise that water conservation is notstrictly a modern movement and thatconserving water has been a concernlong before the invention of low-flowtoilets and drip irrigation. I would begrateful for information aboutpersonal, domestic, agricultural andindustrial practices, early laws andpublic policy, social or culturalattitudes, strategies, reminiscences andanecdotes that have to do with waterconservation in the state, especiallyduring the nineteenth and early 20"centuries. Joe Gek, Water ResourcesResearch Center, University ofArizona, 350 N. Campbell, Tucson,,Arizona 85721; 520-792-9591; email:jgeltag.arizona.edu

-

eral and state human health guidelines.Discovering unmetabolized DDT in

fish concerns officials because it indicatesthat fish continue to be exposed to thebanned compound. This could pose ahuman health risk if fishermen consumetheir catch. The report did not identi&the source of the unmetabolized DDT.

Further, the study found that al-though high levels of aluminum andcopper were found in fish, mercury levelsin fish were generally low. High accumu-lations of mercury, however, were foundin fish-eating herons.

Fish and wildlife were found to con-tain 11 potentially toxic metals, withconcentrations of most metals remainingunchanged from 1985 to 1994-95. Carpfrom Allenville, however, contained thesecond highest level of aluminum everrecorded in Arizona. Also, copper con-centrations in most fish were sufficientlyhigh to cause concern.

Some good news was reported. Thepresence of pesticides other than DDT/DDE significantly declined in local wild-life over the past decade. Of the 16organochiorine pesticides found in fish,lizards, turtles and birds in 1985, only sixwere detected in the recent study, andthey were found in fewer animals than adecade earlier. An exception was chlor-dane, now found in a greater number of

Arizona Water Resource September-October 1998

carp and turtles.The Arizona Department of Environ-

mental Quality designated portions of theGua River study area as eligible for Ari-zona's Water Quality Assurance Revolv-ing Fund. This fund was established toidentifr pollution sources and clean uphazardous substances.

The report is available from the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, Arizona Ecolog-ical Services Field Office, 2321 W. RoyalPalm Rd., Suite 103, Phoenix, AZ 85021;http://ifw2es.fws.gov/arizona/

State Agency SuppliesWater Works Bonds

The state Water Infrastructure FinanceAuthority issued $38 million in bonds tofund drinking water and wastewater con-struction projects across Arizona. Bull-head City, Tucson, Safford, Williams andCave Creek will use the funding to up-

date and improve existing systems.A $24.4-million loan will enable Bull-

head City to fund portions of the firstphase of construction of a collection andtransmission system for wastewater. Theproject will enable some residents toswitch from septic tanks to the centralizedtreatment system. Bullhead City's contri-bution to the project is $22 million,funded by property assessments.

Tucson will receive $6 million to beused to replace 20 miles of galvanizedsteel water lines. This is part of a largerproject to replace 275 miles of water lines.The replacement project is underway be-cause Arizona soils are corrosive to galva-nized steel.

Safford is pooling its $2 millionWIFA funding with $3.5 million receivedfrom the Rural Development Division ofthe U.S. Department of Agriculture toimprove the city water system. Improve- -

ments include constructing approximatelyseven miles of 24-inch transmission main

from the well field to a storage reservoir.Williams is undertaking a $5-million

project funded equally by WIFA andUSDA's Rural Development Division toreplace most of its sewer lines and man-holes. The project is in response to anADEQconsent degree.

With $2.7 million received fromWIFA, Cave Creek will construct a new2 33,000 gallon-per-day wastewater treat-ment plant and rehabilitate the sewercollection system.

WIFA administers the Clean WaterRevolving Fund (CWRF) for wastewaterfacilities and water reclamation construc-tion projects and also the Drinking WaterRevolving Fund (DWRF) for communitydrinking water construction projects.Qualifring communities can seek lowinterest subsidies for eligible projects. In1998, the Arizona Legislature appropri-ated $4.3 million to match federal contri-butions to CWRF and $4.9 million forthe state's share of DWRF.

Prescott Debates Safe Yield Status

A public hearing in response to the Arizona Department ofWater Resources's (ADWR) preliminary declaration that thePrescott Active Management Area (PAMA) is not at safe yield -Le., it is now pumpìng more groundwater than is naturally andartificially being recharged - has attracted varied opinions.Many speakers requested an independent review of opposingstudies and/or a delay in the final decision. Others called thepotential declaration "overdue" and urged ADWR to make thedetermination. A final determination is expected by April.

ADWR is required by law to declare groundwater miningin PAMA if data for three consecutive years show more ground-water is being pumped than is replenished. A groundwatermining declaration would force PAMA to follow Assured WaterSupply (AWS) rules, requiring developers of new subdivisionsto prove the availability of sufficient water supplies for at least100 years. This in effect forces them to use renewable or im-ported supplies.

ADWR has determined that since 1995 groundwater over-draft has occurred in PAMA at an average rate of 10,800 acre-feet per year. Its report also indicated that in. the last five yearswater levels have declined in more than 73 percent of moni-tored wells, with groundwater use increasing in PAMA by 25percent during the l990s.

Meanwhile, the State Legislature passed a bill this springmodif,ing the timetable for implementing the groundwatermining declaration. The bill set interim guidelines restrictinggroundwater use until final determination of groundwatermining is made The interim guidelines include a grand-fathering provision to allow approval of a final subdivision platifa preliminary plat was approved before the effective date ofthe act, Au& 21, 1998. These newly-approved subdivisions canreserve groundwater as "committed demand" under AWS rules.

In response to the August 21 deadline, and due toexpectations that the City of Prescott would declare a morato-rium on certain types of new development, there was a "madrush" by developers to submit requests for approval of prelimi-nary subdivision plats and annexation applications. When thedust finally settled, new subdivision approval created 8,338acre-feet of committed demand, bringing the total potentialcommitted demand to almost 13,000 acre-feet, or almost doublethe current municipal groundwater use in l'AMA.

At the September26 public hearing, Southwest Groundwa-ter Consultants' hydrologist William Greenslade, commissionedby Shamrock Water Co. of Prescott Valley, presented a studyconcluding that PAMA is in fuct at safe yield. The study esti-mates that natural groundwater recharge is occurring in l'AMAfour times greater than the amount ADWR used in its calcula-tions. In another major departure from ADWR calculations,the consultants' study does not consider underground flowdischarges in determining safe yield. ADWR lias hired anoutside consultant to review its data and other data submittedat the hearing.

The public has until October 26to submit written com-ments, and ADWR will then have up to 180 days to reviewcomments and challenges and to issue a final decision.

Prescott was one of four original Active Management Areasunder the 1980 Groundwater Management Act, and was one ofthree original AMAs with safe yield as a management goaLWith agricultural groundwater demand declining in the late1970s and early 1980s, moderate population increases, andabove-average precipitation, groundwater levels appeared tostabilize. In the early 1990s, ADWR found no clear evidenceeither way to determine whether the stabilization of groundwa-ter levels was a result of achieving safe yield or a combinationof short-term factors. ADWR now believes that l'AMA neverreached safe yield.

September-October 1998 Arizona Water Resource 5

trea in of Historyby Barbara lehman

"The Water's In!"

Before there were government agencies, rules, regulations andmanagement plans, there was water. The following is from anarticle by Juanita Brooks that appeared in Harperc, May 1941,and tells of life along the Virgin River in Bunkerville, Nevada, afew miles from the Arizona border. It appears to describe amuch simpler time when rules and regulations were few. Despitethe great difference between that era and the present, both sharea concern about the wise use of water.

"You who live in cities and need only turn a tap to have allthe clear water you need will wonder at my theme. You haveprobably accepted water as one of the essentials, like electricity,which comes to you for a small monthly fee. You who live onfarms where there is plenty of rainfall will scarcely understandeither. But all who live in the arid lands of the West will appre-ciate the significance of the words, 'The water's in!' »

"In my childhood that shout was the most welcome news weever heard. We children would gather on the banks of the towncanal to watch the water's arrival and to throw in sticks andboards. Some of the most daring would get into the ditch andwait until the first little waves, darting into the low places, lickedat their bare toes, then run on again.

20 Conservation Notes

J WULJJ U LrLru-LrLru-.ru-u-Lru-Lru,

by Val Little

Water CASA - Dedicated to Save WaterResearch, education and friendly persuasion are the water-savingstrategies adopted by the Water Conservation Alliance of South-ern Arizona, a consortium of five Tucson area water providers.Organized last year by the University of Arizona's Water Re--

sources Research Center, Water CASA pools the resources andinterests of Avra Water Co-op. Community Water of GreenValley, Flowing Wells Irrigation District, Town of Marana WaterDepartment and Metro Water District. Pima County Wastewaterand the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation also are members.

To better target conservation programs to individual watercustomers, Water CASA developed Welcome Packets for newcustomers of its member utilities. The Welcome Packets containa wealth of print material to help residents manage their wateruse more effectively and also include coupons for a variety ofdiscounts. For example, the Water Resources Research Centeroffers a coupon for a 50-percent discount on its acclaimed DesertLandscaping CD-Rom.

Water CASA also arranged bulk ordering of conservationdevices such as low-flow shower heads and faucet aerators, to begiven to interested customers. Customers moving into residences

"As far back as I can remember, the whole routine of mychores was determined by whether or not the water was in theditch. When it was, my duty was to fill the barrels from the littlestream which ran along the sidewalk. We always had our drink-ing barrel, swathed in burlap, set under the cottonwood trees tokeep cool.

"To what economies we were forced! Water was literallymeasured by the drip. You must never dip a full cup from thebarrel; you should take only a little bit, just what you coulddrink. If you were handed a full cup you drank what you want-ed and gave the rest back to the host to dispose of. Usually hehanded it to the next person, or poured it carefully into a bucketkept for waste water, to be given later to the chickens.

"The Saturday bath water had an interesting history. Forcedto serve more than one person, it must be used to wash out socksor overalls or to wipe up the floor before it was finally pouredinto the hollow around discouraged rosebush or young tree.

"Such water as it was! Always muddy, sometimes it seemedfully one-fourth silt. Not for hours did it become clear. Usuallywe just dipped it up and gave it its time; but we learned that atablespoon of milk would separate a flaky, red precipitate, or abit of the inner pulp of cactus would settle it quickly withoutaffecting the taste. Worse than the silt was the mineral dissolvedin the water which gave it such a peculiar taste and earned for itthe title 'Virgin Bloat."

with old, high-water-use fixtures also are provided without chargea leak detection kit for their toilets and also a displacementdevice for the toilet.

Also involved with public policy issues, Water CASA hosteda Conservation Alternatives Workshop for water providersthroughout Arizona to clarify the following Arizona Departmentof Water Resources options: Gallons Per-Capita per Day (GPCD),Non-Per-Capita (NPC), and the Alternate Conservation Program(ACP). Background information was provided on each program.Sessions outlined characteristics of water providers most likely tobenefit from each program option.

Water CASA is responding to a Pima County request tosuggest ordinance and policy language to increase countywidewater conservation efforts.

Water CASA's agenda also includes research. ADWR pro- -

vided funding for the alliance to conduct a one-year study todetermine which conservation measures (e.g. toilet rebates,xeriscape retrofits, public education, rate structures) are mosteffective for water providers with certain customer profiles. Forexample, if water customers are primarily Snow Birds, how can autility best encourage them to save water during their winter stay.

Water CASA also is about to embark on a residential gray-water reuse study. This will provide valuable data about resident-ial use of graywater and determine whether health risks increasewith graywater use.

6 Arizona Water Resource September-October 1998

The topic ofwater is multifaceted, with subjects ranging from augmentation to the zebra mussel. WRRC expertise may not cover theentire gamut from A to Z, but it does include such specialities as water history and conservation. In each issue of AWR BarbaraTellman, WRRC senior research specialist, will contribute a column about water history, and Val Little, water conservation specialist,will discuss some aspect of water conservation.

Studies Focus on ElNiño and Beyond

ofall the effects attributable to ElNiño, the most significant is an in-creased awareness that climate has acomplicated, far-reaching influence onhuman affairs. This raises the questionwhether adequate information andresources were available for citizensto prepare for various El Niñooccurrences.

To determine ifsufficient El Niñoinformation was provided, the Office ofGlobal Change at the National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration con-ducted a pilot project in Californiaduring the recent event. The agencyprovided information packets with ElNiño forecasts, along with instructionson interpreting them, to representa-tives of public agencies and privatecompanies.

The government agency conducteda July postmortem session to determinewhether access to this information en-abled participants to better cope with ElNiño hazards and thereby reduce riskand financial loss. Participants affirmed

El Niño News Supplement

(Photo: Educational Communications and Technologies (ECA7), University ofArizona)

Arizona Cotton Growers Cope With El Niño

Ifnot the sole cause ofall their woes, El Niño certainly contributed to problemsbesetting Arizona cotton farmers this year. The much-heralded El Niño rains finallyarrived in Southern Arizona in December, at a time when cotton farmers usually preptheir lands in anticipation of a spring planting. As a result, some farmers were unable toproperly work their land for the next planting season.

The February-March rains then further contributed to the problem. March 1, theofficial date for cotton planting in Arizona, came and went, with only about i i percentof cotton farmers able to plant their crop. According to the Arizona AgriculturalStatistics Service, 23 percent had planted their crop by that time last year. Cotton farmerstry to plant relatively early since this ensures an optimal crop. This year much of thecotton was planted two to four weeks late compared to normal due to wet conditions.

Possibly more troublesome to cotton growers than the spring precipitation was thecold air that followed the storms. Cotton responds best to warmth and heat, with itsmost favorable planting time occurring when soil temperature is between 55 and 60degrees. The colder conditions this year adversely affected germination ofthe cottonplant.

The cumulative effect ofthese various factors was to delay spring development of thestate's cotton plants. This can set the plant up for further damage later in the season bydelaying the bloom cycle, possibly causing the cotton bole to develop during the mon-soon season. The added heat of the monsoon produces heat stress and fruit shedding,further lessening cotton yields.

continuedonpage 10

CONTENTS

El Niño Studies 7

Cotton Growers Cope 7

Ski Resorts Receive Bonus . . . 8

Cold Boosts AZ Energy Sales 8

Streamfiows Spiked 9

USGS Studies Recharge 9

El Niño Overrated 10

No.5 September-October 1998

El Niño Snow Brightens Arizona Resorts

Thanks to El Niño, Arizona ski resorts got plenty of snow lastseason, with Arizona's three biggest resorts - Sunrise, ArizonaSnowbowl and Mt. Lemmon Ski Valley - each recording amongtheir highest total snowfall and visitor counts in recent years.Levels ofsnowfall conformed to El Niño precipitation pattern,with Southern Arizona exceeding its average precipitation bymore than other areas of the state.

Mt. Lemmon Ski Valley, located in the Santa CatalinaMountains north of Tucson, may have received the greatest ElNiño snow bonus. Total snowfall for the year reached 301inches, or 1 15 inches greater than normal, and snowpack remain-ed high throughout the ski season. Because of these ideal condi-tions, 98 to 99 percent of ski days were high quality compared tothe more usual 75 percent, according to George Davies of Mt.Lemmon Ski Valley. Ski season was 20 days longer than innormal years. It was not a lack of snow that finally closed thearea, but a lack ofskiers. Skiers do not normally think of Mt.Lemmon as having good snow so late in the year. Skier visitsincreased 240 percent over last year.

Sunrise Ski Area, located in the White Mountains nearGreer, Arizona, reported more frequent, smaller storms duringthe winter. Good snow brought over 300,000 skier days, thehighest total in 28 years, which was 50,000 skier days over theprevious record. Sunrise also closed with good snowpack due tolack oflate-season skier interest.

Arizona Snowbowl, located outside of Flagstaff, had over300 inches ofsnow, compared to an average of260 inches. Theeffect ofEl Niño came late to Snowbowl, which opened onChristmas day - several weeks late. The arrival of storms later inthe year, with fewer large storms and more wind than normal,

1997-98 Average Monthly Temperature, December - AprilAs Deviation in Degrees Fahrenheit from i 02-Year Normal

Average Monthly Temperature

La Paz-0.97

Yuma-0.97

Gila-1.08 'f--- Green\.,__4 lee

Pinat Graha 19

___::_87j

-1 .98

Pima-1.98 I

Cochise___J -1.98

uz

Mohave0.75

1997-98 Precipitation, December - AprilAs a Percentage of 102 - Year Normal

made up for the slow start at Snowbowl. Snowbowl closedseveral weeks later than normal with over 160,000 visitor days,the third highest visitor count under current ownership. Thehighest visitor count was during 1992-1993 with about 180,000visitor days. Good snow was reported at closing.

Colder Winter Boosts AZ Energy Sales

.A.r izona utilities recorded inreased revenue this winter, par-tially due to El Niño conditions which brought cooler, wetterweather to the state. While much of the country was experienc-ing record warm temperatures, Arizonans used more natural gasand electricity compared to the previous winter.

Arizona electricity end-use was up 5.6 , 3.9 and 0.2 percentfor December, January and February respectively compared to thesame months a year earlier, according to the Energy Office of theArizona Department of Commerce. End-use of natural gas inArizona was up 16.7, 10.8 and 7.1 percent for December, Januaryand February compared to the same months a year earlier. Salesof both natural gas and electricity were down nationally duringthe winter 1997-1998 compared to the same months in 1996-97.

Southwest Gas Corporation had record first quarter netincome in 1998. Operating margin increased 21 percent over thesame quarter in i 997, with one quarter of that increase attributedto colder than normal weather during 1998. Southwest Gasserves customers in Arizona, Nevada and California.

At Arizona Public Service, $3 million ofincreases in operat-ing revenue in first quarter 1998 was attributed to weathereffects. Similarly, Tucson Electric Power's operating revenuefrom sales to customers increased 7.8 percent in first quarter1998 compared to the same quarter in 1997. The companyattributed higher sales to colder than normal weather duringFebruary and March, as well as continued customer growth.

8 El Niño News September-October 1998

El Niño Spikes AZ Streamfiowsstreamfiow in the Salt, Verde and Gua rivers was above nor-mal for much of the spring runoff period and snowpack wasabove normal. The timing of the rains and the snowmelt wasoptimal for operation ofSalt River Project reservoirs, accord-ing to Dallas Reigel ofSRP, partially because SRP had drawndown its reservoirs in anticipation of increased El Niño-relatedrunoff and partially because cooler weather prevented a quickmelting of snowpack.

O2

3000

25O0

g2000

i 500

t) 1000

C

Gila River Above San Carlos Dam

nier'Days

---- 50-YearAvg 1997-98

Salt River Above Roosevelt Dam Verde River Above Horseshoe Dam

USGS Studies El Niño's Recharge

Ei Niño holds promise of replenishing the water resources ofthe state, but the question is to what extent? Surface flows aredirectly measurable, but figuring out El Niño's contribution togroundwater recharge is a greater challenge. U.S. GeologicalSurvey scientists have taken on the task.

In their work they are relying on a new application ofgeophysical technology for assessing the effect ofEl Niño precip-itation on groundwater storage in the Tucson Active Manage-ment Area (TAMA). First used during the 1992-93 El Niño andagain applied during the current event, the microgravity studiesnot only provide data about each El Niño, but also enable USGSscientists to make comparisons between the two events.

Microgravity methods are based on the principle of New-ton's Law of Gravitation, according to which acceleration due togravity within an object's gravitational field is directly related tothe mass of the object and inversely related to the distance to thecenter of the object. In other words, the greater an object's mass,the stronger its gravitational field. The principle has provenuseftil for measuring changes in an aquifer.

Groundwater is stored within the pore spaces of aquifers.As an aquifer is drained by pumpage or filled by recharge, itsmass changes. This fluctuation ofwater volume results in slightchanges in the strength of its gravitational field. These extremelysmall gravitational changes can be measured thanks to recenttechnological advances in geophysical techniques.

Microgravity studies in the TAMA began in 1992, with 50measuring stations established in a 6-square-mile area centered onRillito Creek along the north edge ofTucson. This was a cooper-ave project involving USGS and the Pima County Department

ofTransportation and Flood Control District. The heavy ElNiño-related precipitation in the area during the winter of 1992-93 provided a timely opportunity for using microgravity tomeasure the amount of recharge resulting from the precipitation.

El Niño precipitation contributed to sustained highstreamfiows throughout southern Arizona, including RillitoCreek. The normally dry creek had substantial streamflow fromDecember 1992 to March 1993. Repeated gravity measurementsat the 50 stations within the study area between December 1992and January 1 994 enabled scientists to calculate changes ingroundwater storage and to estimate recharge for each period.

Microgravity studies showed that the greatest initial rechargeoccurred in normally unsaturated surficial deposits along RillitoCreek as a direct result of the winter streamfiows. Throughoutthe winter of 1992-93, gravity values increased over a 0.5-mile-wide strip of flood plain adjacent to Rillito Creek and reachedtheir maximum by April 1993. Microgravity data enabled USGSscientists to estimate that about 10,900 acre-feet of rechargeoccurred along the Rillito Creek during the winter of 1992-93.

In anticipation of the return of El Niño conditions in late1997, USGS scientists surveyed 9 ofthe stations established in1992-93 and established 1 1 new stations. This work enabledUSGS scientists to estimate groundwater storage changes relatedto infiltration in Rilhito Creek alluvium that resulted fromprecipitation during the winter of 1997-98.

The recent El Niño did not result in widespread flooding,but above-average precipitation caused normally dry washes toflow for days to weeks. Although final data are not yet available,a preliminary evaluation indicates that gravity changes adjacentto Rillito Creek were similar to changes in 1992-93. The same

continuedonpage 10

-

= A

I

/3,

6000

EE'

:: - ,,t'. ..p

September-October 1998 El Niño News 9

Days Days

50-Year Avg _ i 997-98 --- 50-YearAvg _ 1997-98

16000

14000

.

12000

U) 10000

8000

C 6000

4000o

2000

USGS Studies El Niño Recharge...continuedfrom page 9

pattern of recharge occurred, with the large bulge in gravityvalues at Rillito Creek caused by saturation ofsurficial depositsadjacent to the channel.

A basinwide network established prior to the 1997-98 ElNiño will be surveyed annually to monitor changes in ground-water conditions throughout the Tucson Basin and Avra Valley.

Skeptic Claims El Niño is Overrated

ACanadian sociologist claims that American scientists areexaggerating El I\ño's effects to better garner more researchmonies. Addressing the 14th Congress ofSociology in Montrealin July, University ofToronto professor John Hannigan said thatoceanographers and meteorologists have fueled an El Niño mediablitz, to the extent the phenomenon has become a culturalfixation. "(It) probably wouldn't have reached this level if (ElNiño) hadn't been promoted by a powerful group within thescientific community," said Hannigan.

He noted that althouh scientists have known about thephenomenon since the 16 century, El Niño has not become

Special El Niño editions ofArizona Water

LResourcewere published during the 1997-98

El Niño season with financial support fromthe U.S. Geological Survey, Water ResourcesDivision, Arizona District.

newsworthy until the last quarter-century. With more studies

providing more information to an eager public, El Niño hasbecome visible, easy to understand and spectacular.

"El Niño has been given almost human identity," Hannigansaid. "It's become an invader that menaces our peace and stabil-ity.',

Hannigan is not denying the occurrence of El Niño, butbelieves it has been unduly exploited to profit certain segmentsofthe scientific community. He noted that the event has pro-vided a boost to oceanography and climatology, two fields thathave been moribund of late.

Hannigan believes that since it was the United States thatexpected to experience strong El Niño effects this event gainedthe spotlight. Further, that El Niño especially threatened South-em California, a major media center, made the event a super star.

Hannigan is an author of textbooks used in many environ-

Studies Focus on El Niño...continuedfrom page 7

that the information was valuable. For example, emergencymanagement and wastewater management personnel were ableto reduce flooding and avert sewage/storm water processingproblems. An agribusiness official relied on the forecasts todecide whether to plant in California, Arizona, New Mexico orMexico.

Thomas Pagano, a graduate student in the University ofArizona's Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, isstudying the responses ofArizona water managers to El Niño.He is identifying what sources of El Niño information Arizonawater managers consulted - e.g., commercial TV, Internet,government agencies, newsletters - and determining how theinformation was used, specifically whether it was used to decidea particular course ofaction. Part ofhis study also is to findout whether managers were satisfied with the information theyreceived.

Pagano is concentrating mainly on Southern Arizona,interviewing officials in Nogales and Santa Cruz County,Tucson, Safford, and Phoenix and Maricopa County. He isseeking a broad range of information, including managers'general understanding of the El Niño phenomenon, the type ofEl Niño information available to them and the processes in-volved for agencies to apply the information to their opera-tions. The goal ofhis study is to determine El Niño's effect onpeople of this region and to identifr what kind of informationthey need to cope with such events.

Officials he has interviewed thus far have expressed satis-faction with the amount of El Niño information that wasavailable to them. He also found that most officials had accessto the Internet and made extensive use ofit, although notalways with complete satisfaction. Some officials described

information on the Internet as a mixed blessing. Abundantlyavailable from many and varied sources, the information attimes was difficult to keep track of and interpret. (Pagano'sresearch is ongoing. He can be reached atpaganohwr.arizona.edu.)

Pagano's research complements the efforts of the Univer-sity ofArizona's Southwest Climate Assessment Project whichis cooperating with him in his work. Funded by NOAA, theproject is concerned with identifying the kinds of climateinformation that best serves the needs of people in Arizona andNew Mexico.

Initially funded for three years, the UA project will buildupon the heightened awareness of climate and its effects thatnow prevails in the wake of El Niño. Part of the project in-volves researchers interviewing community members and repre-sentatives ofvarious economic interests in Arizona and NewMexico to determine how climate events, such as El Niño,affect them and their activities. The goal ofthe research is todetermine what kinds of forecasts and other climate informa-tion are needed to enable people to reduce risks from drought,flooding and other climate conditions or, conversely, whatinformation would enable them to profit from such events; e.g.,knowing when to shift cropping patterns.

The project also will involve other research, including ananalysis ofthe vulnerability ofranchers and urban water utili-ties to climate processes. Also, existing climate and hydrologicforecasts are to be evaluated, and information on the history ofclimate in southern Arizona from ancient times to the presentwill be collected.

( For more information about the Southwest ClimateAssessment Project visit its web site athttp://geo.ispe.arizona.edu/swclimate/)

lo El Niño News September-October 1998

Special Projects

UA Researcher Develops Methodto Detect Viruses

,'vaterborne microbial contaminants, once thought to beunder control, are attracting renewed attention. An awareness ofthe presence of previously undetected microbial contaminants indrinking water is increasing. By developing an improved meth-odology for testing for viruses in water, a University of Arizonamicrobiologist is contributing to this expanded awareness

Kelly A. Reynolds, University ofArizona Department ofSoil, Water and Environmental Science, developed a methodcapable ofquickly and precisely detecting low levels of entericviruses in large volumes ofwater concentrates, thus overcominglimitations ofprevious testing strategies. Her method is consid-ered a major breakthrough in detecting viruses in drinking water.

Viruses are not easily detected. Often present in water invery low numbers, viruses still can pose a health risk since ittakes only one virus in a water system to infect a person with awaterborne disease. (Bacteria are different. Some require onlylo, but usually the infectious dose is closer to 1,000.) A chal-lenge in testing for viruses therefore is to be able to detect verylow levels ofviruses in very large water volumes.

Since human viruses generally occur in very low numbers inthe environment, water samples need to be concentrated beforeanalysis. The conventional methods for virus detection that arethen applied rely on animal cell cultures. Water sample concen-trates are added to culture flasks containing monkey or humancells that support virus growth. The cells are then observed forperiods ofa few days to weeks to detect signs ofcell destructionindicating virus growth.

The advantage of cell culture is that it detects only infectiousstrains ofviruses and can test large sample volumes, after concen-tration. Cell culture, however, can require long periods of time.Some strains of enteric viruses may need two weeks of growth forpreliminary results, with confirmed results possibly requiring aslong as three weeks or more. Also some strains ofviruses, al-though growing in cells, do not show any visual signs of celldestruction and therefore go undetected. Examples of suchviruses, called noncytopathogenic viruses, are certain strains ofrotavirus and hepatitis A.

The limitations of cell culture have prompted scientists toturn to molecular detection methods to routinely monitor forviruses. The distinct nucleic acid sequences ofdifferent organ-isms can be differentiated at the genetic level, and molecularmethods can detect the presence of a pathogen's genetic material( RNA or DNA). The most commonly used molecular method,the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can quickly detect entericviruses, with only 24 hours needed for definitive results. Inmany respects, PCR is more effective than conventional cellculture and has proven to be a rapid, sensitive, specific andinexpensive method for detecting viruses.

Molecular methods, however, also have shortcomings. Theirdetection sensitivity often is decreased by inhibitory compounds

University ofArizona microbiologist Kelly A. Rrjnolds

often present in environmental concentrates. False negatives canresult. Also, PCR does not distinguish between noninfectiousand infectious virus particles, thus complicating interpreting aPCR positive result and its implication to public health.

It is within this context - i.e., in response to the limitationsof both cell cultures and molecular methods - that Reynoldsdeveloped the integrated cell culture/PCR method to routinelymonitor for infectious enteric viruses. ICC/PCR retains manyof the advantages of both conventional cell culture and molecu-lar methods but without their limitations.

After adding sample concentrates to cell culture flasks,Reynolds applies PCR on the cell culture medium. By applyingPCR to the medium, lengthy incubation times are unnecessarybecause PCR is capable ofdetecting low levels ofvirus growth inthe cell culture. IfPCR were not used, results would be delayeduntil visual signs ofcell destruction become apparent.

Further, by integrating the molecular method with cellculture, PCR results are more reliable. No confusion existsabout whether a PCR-detected virus is infectious or not sinceonly infectious viruses develop in the cell culture. All virusesdetected by ICC/PCR then are infectious - and results areavailable in 24-48 hours, compared to days or weeks required bycell culture alone. Also, ICC/PCR overcomes the effect of PCRinhibitory compounds that otherwise could lead to false negativeresults and is able to detect noncytopathogenic viruses - e.g.,certain strains of rotavirus and hepatitis A - that grow in cellswithout visual signs ofcell destruction.

With improved, viable virus detection sensitivity and re-duced assay times, ICC/PCR is the future for effective environ-mental virus monitoring. Even with samples that are suitable fordirect PCR amplification monitoring, having low inhibitorycompounds and sufficiently high levels of target organisms,subsequent use ofICC/ PCR would aid evaluation of the viablenature of the target, with minimal cost and time involvement.

The implications of the ICC/PCR method will gain impor-tance as water quality testing increasingly includes more frequentmonitoring ofviruses. Also the method will serve to evaluate theeffectiveness ofvarious water treatment and disinfection methodsconcerned with removing or inactivating human enteric viruses.

September-October 1998 Arizona Water Resource 11

12 Arizona Water Resource September-October 1998

Publications

Arizona WET, Grades 9-12 Curriculum on NonpointSource Water PollutionThe University of Arizona's Water Resources Research Centerhas completed an Arizona-specific water quality curriculum forhigh school students. Funded by the Arizona Department ofEnvironmental Quality, the curriculum consists of three books,an envelope of pamphlets, and WRRC's Arizona Water Map. Thecurriculum is designed as a 4-6 week unit. Its hands-on activitiesand portions of the student reading material also can be usedseparately to supplement an existing high school science curricu-lum.

Book i consists of the Water Resources and Nonpoint SourceWater Pollution (student reading), a glossary and student readingquestions. Book 2 includes the curriculum overview and teacherinformation, a demonstration, laboratory, classroom and fieldactivities, fact sheets, an answer key to the student reading ques-tions, and a resource list. Book 3 contains Starnet articles: Ari-zona cases of nonpoint source water pollution, supplementalwater quality studies and other information, and excerpts fromthe Arizona Department of Environmental Quality 1996 WaterQuali yAssessment.

For information on the curriculum's distribution, send apost card with name and address to Education Coordinator,Water Resources Research Center, The University of Arizona,350 N. Campbell Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85721. Your name will beadded to the WRRC's Arizona WET (Water Education forTeachers) mailing list.

Care of Desert-Adapted PlantsDella C. Fletcher and Patricia H. WaterfallLow-water use is an essential characteristic of plants suitable fordesert landscaping. This booklet provides a range of informationabout such plants, including what to look for when making aselection from a nursery, planting techniques, pruning, mulchesand insect/disease control. The publication was made possiblethrough a grant provided by Tucson Water to the University ofArizona Pima County Cooperative Extension's Low 4 Program.For more information about obtaining a copy, contact PatsyWaterfall, Low 4 Program, University of Arizona, 350 N. Camp-bell Ave., Tucson, AZ, 85721; 520-622-7701; fax: 520-792-8518;email: patwatercg?ag.arizona.edu

Preliminary Estimates of Waters Usein the United States, 1995Estimates indicate that U.S. water use decreased from 1980 to1995 despite continued population increase during the sameperiod. The estimated 400 billion gallons of fresh and salinewater withdrawn per day during 1995 for all ofThtream uses is 2percent less than estimated use in 1990 and 10 percent less thanin 1980 when water use seems to have peaked, since U.S. Geologi-cal Survey five-year compilations began in 1950. The report

presents estimates of water withdrawn from surface and ground-water sources for various water use categories prepared by state.Copies can be purchased from U.S.G.S. Information Services,Box 25286, Federal Center, Denver, Colorado 80225.

Water Resource Data Arizona Water Year 1997S. Tadayon, N.R. Duet, G.G. Fisk, H.F. McCormack,G.L Pope and P.D. RigasPrepared in cooperation with the state of Arizona and otheragencies, this U.S. Geological Survey report includes a compila-tion of surface-water, chemical-quality, and groundwater data.The report contains discharge records for 192 gaging stations,annual peaks for 19 crest-stage partial-record stations; contentsonly records for eight lakes and reservoirs; stage and contents forone lake; elevation only for one streamfiow station; 20 supple-mentary records, included with gaging-stations records, consist-ing of month end or monthly stage; contents and evaporation oflakes and reservoirs, diversions, and return flows; water-qualityrecords for 27 continuous record stations; and water quality datafor water from 286 wells. The report may be purchased from theNational Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia22161. Copies are available for examination at U.S.G.S. officesin Tucson, Tempe, Flagstaff and Yuma.

The following two publications discuss extreme climate conditions in the

West floods and droughL

An Action Plan for Reducing Flood Risk in the WestWestern Governors' AssociationIn response to costly and hazardous flood events, the WesternGovernors' Association released An Action Plan for Reducing FloodRisk in the West. Containing 25 recommendations for achievingsafer communities, the report calls for gubernatorial leadership,including organizing public/private summits to focus on ways toreduce risk; establishing a cabinet-level office to develop andimplement state plans to reduce flood rislç and issuing executiveorders or using other means to support the National FloodInsurance Program and flood mitigation in general. Copies ofthe plan can be obtained from Bruce Flinn, Western Governors'Association, 600 17th Street, Suite 1705, South Tower, Denver,Colorado 80202; 303-623-9378; fax: 303-534-7309; web site:http://www.westgov.org

Improving Drought Management in the West:The Role of Mitigation and PreparednessDonald WilhiteThis report to the Western Water Policy Review Advisory Com-mission summarizes drought and drought management issues inthe West. The status of drought planning efforts is reviewed, andthe range of options available and the mitigative actions em-ployed by states is analyzed. Also several recent drought studiesare reviewed. The author provides conclusions and recommenda-tions, including the need for government agencies to be moreproactive in dealing with this threat. $21.50 paper and $10microfiche from the National Technical Information Service,5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161; 800-553-6847or 703-605-6000; fax 703-321-8547; email: ordersntis.fedworld.gor, web stie: http://www.ntis.gov

Water on the Webby Ken Seasholes

Surfing the Lower Colorado River

The legal, technical and political issues surrounding the LowerColorado River are notoriously complex. Fortunately there is awealth of information on the World Wide Web to help makesense of that complexity.

One of the best places to start is the Colorado River WaterUsers Association's website (crwua.mwd.dst.ca.us). This recentlycreated site does an excellent job of organizing and summarizingissues both topically and geographically. The "At A Glance"summary for each basin state is a handy reference, while the"Profile" sections for states and issues are well written.

The site is attractive, and uses graphics to good effect.However, the main frame on the right can be quite cramped, andnavigation can be awkward.

The next recommended stop is the Bureau of Reclamation(www.usbr.gov), and in particular, the Lower Colorado RegionalOffice (www.lc.usbr.gov). Large, and at times cumbersome,BuRec's site is a major repository of source material. Typical of anumber of federal sites, BuRec gets high marks for content, butmixed marks for design and ease-of-use.

Many of the relevant documents are put up as single, mini-mally formatted files. Scrolling through such large documents isdifficult and inefficient. Access to data, including reservoir levelsand releases, is a bit better. The sheer volume of material, andquirky navigation can be frustrating, but usually worth theinconvenience.

The USGS (www.usgs.gov) is another significant source ofdata and reports. Though server-response can be slow, real-timestream flow data are available at the Arizona Water ResourcesDistrict (www.daztcn.wr.usgs.gov) Results from the spring 1996controlled flood are also available.

At the state level, the Arizona Department of WaterResources' site (www.adwr.state.az.us) contains summaries ofColorado River management, as well as specific issues such asIndian water rights. The director's comments on off-streamstorage are archived as well. The Arizona Water Banking Author-ity (www.awba.state.az.us) has a separate set of comments on thestorage proposal, and includes some background on storageefforts. The California Department of Water Resources' other-wise strong web site (www.dwr.water.ca.gov) is surprisingly ane- -

mic in covering Colorado River issues. However, Chapter 9 ofthe California Water Plan does address key management options.

There are many other resources (Altavista lists 26,000 for"Colorado River"), so below are a few more.

www.acwanet.comThe Association of California Water Agencies site has abreezy overview of current issues, with some useful legislativeupdates.

www.cvwd.orgCoachella Valley Water District has quick-loading graphicsand news on the "illegal" transfer of water between theImperial ID and San Diego (www.sdcwa.org)

www.mwd.dst.ca.usMetropolitan Water District of Southern California has lotsof solid resources, including "Aqueduct 2000," but somebloated graphics and no search utility detract.

www.cap-az.comThe CAP's site is light on content, but information onsubcontracts and history help.

www.iid.comElegant and well organized, the Imperial Irrigation District'sWebsite has concise descriptions of technical and policyissues.

www.snwa.com

Colorado River issues are a small part of the Southern Ne--

vada Water Authority site, but the Multi-Species Ccnserva-tion Program, and its Water Resource Plan are decentlyreviewed.

www.state.nv.us/coloradoriver/The site has very basic information about the ColoradoRiver Commission of Nevada.

www.cbrfc.govColorado Basin River Forecast Center's unassuming site ispacked with valuable hydrologic data.

ag.arizona.edu/AZWATER/arroyo/Joe Gek's "Sharing Colorado River Water" provides anoverview of the Colorado River Compact.

www.glencanyon.orgThis site includes the Glen Canyon Institute's perspective onthe dam and related issues, along with selected testimony.

www.grand-canyon.az.usNo hydrology or policy, just lots of photos that will makeyou want to go hiking.

September-October 1998 Arizona Water Resource 13

Announcements

Call for Abstracts

The U.S. Committee on Irrigation and Drainage has issued acall for papers for the International Conference on the Chal-lenges Facing Irrigation and Drainage in the New Millennium,to be held June 20-24, 2000, at Colorado State University in FortCollins, Colorado. The theme of the conference will be "Meet-ing Human and Environmental Needs Through Sustainability,Rehabilitation and Modernization." The conference will providean opportunity to learn of the latest solutions, innovations, andtechnological advances practiced in the United States. Profes-sionals involved in water resources, agriculture and environmen-tal issues are invited to submit abstracts. Abstracts, due by Jan.1, 1999, should address identified topics and sub-topics and besubmitted with abstract form. Flyers listing topics and sub-topics can be obtained from U.S. Committee on Irrigation andDrainage, 1616 17th St, # 483, Denver, Co 80202; phone: 303-628-5430 or from the USID web site: www.uscid.org/-uscid

Upcoming Groundwater Conference

The Groundwater Foundation is sponsoring a conference,"Bringing Groundwater to Life," Nov. 12-15 at Anaheim, CA.Representatives from Groundwater Guardian communities willshare their groundwater experiences, and water educators fromacross the country will relate their successes in groundwatereducation. Fees vary depending on sessions attended, withattendance for the entire conference $315 for Foundation andGuardian members and $349 for non-members. For additionalinformation contact The Groundwater Foundation, P.O. Box22558, Lincoln, NE 68542-2558; phone: 402-434-2740; fax: 402-434-2742; email: infogroundwater.org, web site:www.groundwater.org

Conflict Resolution Workshop

The Environmental Conflict Resolution Program of the UdallCenter for Studies in Public Policy at The University of Arizonais sponsoring a 40-hour advanced training session titled "Envi-ronmental and Public Policy Mediation." The session, whichwill be conducted by senior professionals from CDR Associates,Boulder, Colorado, will be held at Biosphere II Center, Oracle,Arizona, from November 16-20. The training sessions willinclude instruction, demonstration and role playing activities.Topics to be covered include the dynamics of conflict and con-flict analysis; negotiation, mediation, and facilitation and com-plex public mediation and multi-party environmental mediation.Enrollment will be limited to approximately 30 people. Trainingfee is $600. For more information contact Susan Moodie, TheUdall Center for Studies in Public Policy, The University ofArizona, 803/811 E. ist St, Tucson, AZ 85719; phone: 520-621-7189; email: smoodieu.arizona.edu

National Wetlands AwardNominations Sought

INomination forms are currently available from the Environ-mental Law Institute for the 1999 National Wetlands AwardsProgram. The deadline for submission is Dec. 15. The 1999National Wetlands Awards Program is co-sponsored by theEnvironmental Law Institute, EPA, Natural Resources Conserva-tion Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and National MarineFisheries Service. The program is designed to honor exceptionalindividuals who have demonstrated extraordinary effort, innova-tion and excellence in wetland conservation through programs orprojects at the regional, state, or local level. Federal employeesand organizations are not eligible. The five award categories are:education and outreach; science research; volunteer leadership;land stewardship and development; and outstanding wetlandsprogram development To receive a copy of the 1999 NationalWetlands Awards nomination forms, or if you have any ques-tions, contact Heidi Haliman (phone: 202-939-3250; email:hallmaneli.org) or write to the National Wetlands AwardsProgram, Environmental Law Institute, 1616 P Street NW, Suite200, Washington, D.C. 20036. The nomination form is alsoavailable on the ELI web site: www.eli.org

Energy Management Conference Set

The 1998 Energy Management Conference will be conductedNov. 4-6 in Prescott, Arizona. Included on the agenda is a two-part workshop on water/wastewater. Part I provides an overviewof and applications of energy-efficient motors inwater/wastewater operations and developing maintenance plansfor new technologies; Part II looks at variable speed drives, preci-sion controls and optimization of pumping systems for both gasand electric applications. Registration fee is $95 before Oct. 23;$115 after Oct. 23. For additional information contact GloriaCastro, Arizona Department of Commerce, Energy Office, 3800N. Central Ave. Suite 1200, Phoenix, AZ 85012; phone: 620-280-1426.

AWPCA Call for Papers

The Arizona Water and Pollution Control Association requestspapers for its 1999 annual conference to be held in Tucson, May5-7, 1999. Attendees wanting to make a presentation at thetechnical program should submit an abstract to: Vance Lee,Carollo Engineers, 3877 N. 7th Street, Suite 400, Phoenix AZ85014; phone: 602-263-9500; fax 602-265-1422; email:v1ee)carollo.com Attendees wanting to make a presentation atthe operators forum should submit an abstract to: Sami Kader,Damon S. Williams & Associates, 3838 N. Central Ave., Suite 17Phoenix, AZ 85012; phone: 602-265-5400; fax 602-265-5632;email: dswallct?aoLcom Abstracts must be submitted by Nov.26.

14 Arizona Water Resource September-October 1998

RECURRING

Arizona Hydrological Society (Flagstaff). 2nd Tuesday of themonth (during the school year), 7:00 pm NAU, Southwest Forestand Science Complex, 2500 S. Pine Knoll Dr., Room 136, Flag-staff Contact Abe Springer 520-523-7198.

Arizona Hydrological Society (Phoenix). Usually 2nd Tuesdayof the month. Contact Cortney Brand 602-371-1110.

Arizona Hydrological Society (Tucson). Usually 2nd Tuesdayof the month. Contact Maria Odom 520-881-4912.

Arizona Water Protection Fund Commission. Contact. PerriBenemelis 602-417-2400, ext. 7172.

Arizona Water Resources Advisory Board. Contact KathyDonoghue 602-417-2410.

Central Arizona Water Conservation District. Usually ist and3rd Thursdays of the month, time to be determined one weekbefore. CAP Board Room, 23636 N. 7th St., Phoenix. ContactArdis McBee 602-869-2210.

City of Tucson Citizens Water Advisory Committee. Usuallyist Tuesday of the month, 7:00 am - 9:00 am 310 W. Alameda,Tucson. Contact John O'Hare 520-791-5080 ext. 446.

Maricopa Association of Governments / Water Quality Advi-sory Committee. Contact Lindy Bauer 602-254-6308.

Maricopa County Flood Control Advisory Board. Usually 4thWednesday of the month, 2:00 pm, 2801 W. Durango, Phoenix.Contact 602-506-1501.

Phoenix AMA, GUAC. Sept. 15, 9:30 am, Conference Room A,500 N. 3rd St, Phoenix. Contact: Mark Frank 602-417-2465.

Pima Assoc. Governments / Water Q1ality Subcommittee.Usually 3 Thursday of the month, 9:00 am 177 N. Church St.,Suite 405, Tucson. Contact Greg Hess 520-792-1093.

Pinal AMA, GUAC. Usually 3" Thursday of the month, 3:00pm. Pinal AMA Conference Room, 1000 E. Racine, CasaGrande. Contact Randy Edmond 520-836-4857.

Prescott AMA, GUAC. 2200 E. Hillsdaie Rd., Prescott ContactPhil Foster 520-778-7202.

Santa Cruz AMA, GUAC. Usually 3 Wednesday of the month,9:00 am, Santa Cruz AMA Conference Room, 857 W. Bell Rd.,Suite 3, Nogales. Contact Alejandro Barcenas 520-761-1814.

Calendar of Events

Tucson AMA, GUAC. Usually 4thFriday of the month, 9:00 am,

Tucson AMA Conference Room, 400 W. Congress, Suite 518,Tucson. Contact: Kathy Jacobs 520-770-3800.

Verde Watershed Association. Contact John Parsons and TomBonomo, VWA Newsletter Editors, Verde Watershed Association,P.O. Box 280, Camp Verde, AZ, 86322. 520-567-2496. email:

Water Users Association of Arizona. 2nd Friday of the monthat noon (except in September). Call for reservations and exactlocation. Contact Bob O'Leary, 602-234-1315.

Yavapai County Flood Control District Board of Directors.Every other Monday in Prescott, 1015 Fair St.; Every otheralternating Monday in Cottonwood, 75 5. Paula. Contact KenSpedding, 520-771-3197.

UPCOMING

October 19-22, 14th Annual Conference on ContaminatedSoils, Murray D. Lincoln Campus Center, University of Massa-chusetts at Amherst. Registration fee is $545. For conferenceinformation, contact Denise Leonard 413-545-1239; for registra-tion information, contact: 413-545-0172.

November 16-19, AWRA's Annual Conference on WaterResources, Marriott's Grand Hotel, Clear Point, Alabama. Regis-tration is $335 member and $405 non-member before Ocotober30, $385 member and $455 non-member afterwards. ContactAWRA, 950 Herndon Pkwy., Ste. 300, Herdon, VA 20170-5531;703-904-1225; fax: 703-904-1228; email: awrahqcaol.com

March 2 1-25, 1999, Third Inter-American Dialogue on WaterResources, Hotel El Panama, Panama City, Republic of Panama.For information contact CATHALAC (Centro dei Agua delTropico Humedo para America Latina y el Caribe) Calzada deAmador, Casa 152-A, PO Box 873372, Zona 7, Panama,Republica de Panama; 507-228-7072; fax: 507-228-3311; web site:http://www2.usma.ac.pa/-cathalac/

June 29-July 3, 1999, 6th Conference of the InternationalWater and Resource Economics Consortium, "Water andEnvironmental Resource Management Focus on Asia and thePacific" at the Royal Waikoloan in the Big Island of Hawaii.Contact Prof. Ujjayant Chakravorty, Agricultural and ResourceEconomics, Gilmore 112, 3050 Malle Way, University of Hawaii,Honolulu, HI 96822. phone: 808-956-7279; email:uncchawaii.edu

Submit calendar, annoan?,4 or publication information to JimHenderson; WRRC at 520-792-9591 x51;fax 520-7924518; emailwrrcag.añzona.edu

September-October 1998 Arizona Water Resource 15

16 Arizona Water Resource September-October 1998

Saft YieleL.continuedfrom page 2

Instead, copper mining in Arizona has rebounded with avengeance, aggressively utilizing new technologies to efficientlyextract more copper from lower-grade ore. Today, eight newcopper mines or major expansions to existing mines are plannedin Arizona, with several of them sited in the Tucson and PinalAMAs.

Also agricultural water demand was projected to decline overtime as irrigation efficiencies increased and farmland on theurban fringe was urbanized. What agriculture remained wasprojected to switch from pumped groundwater to Central Ari-zona Project (CAP) water.

Many agricultural irrigators however are finding it difficultor impossible to achieve 85 percent irrigation efficiencies.Agricultural lands have been largely urbanized in some areas, butin other areas, including the Tucson AMA, much developmentremains concentrated in the foothills, not in the flatter, agricul-tural portions of the AMA. Incentives to steer developmenttoward agricultural lands or buy out farmers have not been putinto place.

M water demand has remained stubbornly high, efforts toswitch to renewable supplies have encountered unexpected diffi-culties. Cities were expected to accept and directly deliver largequantities of CAP water, with farmers and irrigation districtstaking the rest. But CAP water has proven too expensive formany irrigators, who continue to pump groundwater.

CAP usage has failed to meet expectations in other areas,too. The City of Tucson, which holds the largest single munici-pal contract, treated and delivered CAP water for only a shortperiod, when a combination of acidic water and aging watermains produced corrosion problems and brown water at the tap.The treatment plant was shut down, and the community contin-

ARIZONA WATERRESOURCE

THE UNIVERSITY OF

ARIZONA®TUCSON ARIZONA

The University of ArizonaWater Resources Resea

Tucson, Arizona 857

Address Correcti

ues to debate how best to use its CAP allocation. Copper minesremain leery of using CAP water because of its fluctuating waterquality, and in some cases, fear that a cessation of groundwaterpumping could cause localized chemical plumes to spreadthrough the aquifer.

Use of effluent has increased enormously since 1980, but a1989 court decision that concluded it was neither surface waternor groundwater has reduced ADWR's ability to regulate its use.The biggest category of effluent use is turf irrigation. While agrowing number of new and existing golf courses and other largeturf facilities now use reclaimed water, many still are built and,at least initially, irrigated with groundwater.

Ironically, most of the developments that have made safeyield a more difficult goal to achieve are good news when notviewed from the narrow perspective of a water resource manager.More affordable housing, a profitable copper industry, relativelycheap water, and a state economy that continues to attract newbusiness and people in huge numbers all add up to a rosy eco-nomic scenario. Conversely, this makes the increased waterdemands associated with prosperity more difficult to attack.

That safe yield might not be reachable by 2025 has long beenacknowledged. The state auditor general in 1989 stated that theAMAs might not achieve safe yield by 2025, and recommendedthe Legislature convene a groundwater code study commission.ADWR director Bill Plummer disagreed, stating that safe yieldwas still achievable under the existing code, and opining thatsuch a study "could generate divisive attempts to alter the basicstructure of the Code which, the draft report finds, has servedArizona so well."

Nine years later, fears of re-opening the code remain, andwater demands continue to deviate from earlier projections.While the fate of the safe yield goal is far from clear, the issueappears to be moving to the forefront.

21E' U *xu5-DIGIT 85?OiM1CHFEL - -450 W PBSEO REDONDO STE 202TUCSO1 AZ 8570i-3275

NON-PROFIT ORG.US pos'rA(;E

PAIDTUCSON, ARIZONAPERMIT NO. 190

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