application of polymer based composite materials … in rubber, plastics and recycling technology,...

1Progress in Rubber, Plastics and Recycling Technology, Vol. 32, No. 1, 2016

Application of Polymer Based Composite Materials in Transportation

*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]

©Smithers Information Ltd., 2016


Anna G. Koniuszewska* and Jacek W. Kaczmar

Wrocław University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Chair of Foundry, Polymers and Automation, Laboratory of Plastics, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland

Summary

The purpose of this paper is to present the latest applications of fibre-reinforced polymer matrix composites described on exemplary applications. It contains the description of various examples, which were classified into the following categories: aerospace, automotive, marine, military and sport and leisure industry.

Keywords: Composite, Transportation, Polymer matrices

INTrODuCTION

The main content of this paper consists of the review of the most recent PMC (Polymer Matrix Composites) applications in the automotive, aerospace, marine, military and sport and leisure product development. This section is preceded by the short characteristic of Polymer Matrix Composites as a group of materials. The leading purpose of this work was to stress the significance of composite materials in the most innovative industries.

Nowadays, the industry focuses on replacing of traditionally used metal alloys with polymer composites, thermosets or temperature resistant and high-strength thermoplastics. It has to be underlined that in the automotive market it is not only a trend, but also a necessity. Due to the legal regulations introduced by CAFE (The Corporate Average Fuel Economy – regulations in the United States, enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1975) and mandated in July 2011 by the U.S. government, automotive producers have no choice, but to adapt themselves to the new regulations in this area. The fuel economy requirements for a domestically (USA) manufactured passenger cars will

2 Progress in Rubber, Plastics and Recycling Technology, Vol. 32, No. 1, 2016

Anna G. Koniuszewska and Jacek W. Kaczmar

increase from observed today 32.8 mpg to 36.7 mpg in 2017, and finally to 51.3 mpg in 2025 [3]. What can be easily predicted, the tendency in vehicles’ production will follow the idea of production of cars characterised by the low weight and high strength properties.

PrOPErTIES OF POLymEr maTrIX COmPOSITES

In the previous years the position of PMC (Polymer Matrix Composites), which was already strong, has been highly improved. They are an independent group of materials often applied in the automotive, aerospace, marine and military industry. Polymer elements reinforced with fibres are characterised by low masses according to the relatively small densities of commonly used resins and thermoplastic polymers, good mechanical properties, as the result of the strengthening by high strength fibres, what provides an extremely high specific strength, understood as the relation of strength [MN/m2] and specific weight [N/m3]. In addition, PMC are characterised by good corrosion resistance, extremely good formability and damping of mechanical vibrations [1, 2]. In the automotive industry, the relative high specific strength of PMC makes possible the reduction of weight of final elements of car structures. The same tendency is observed as well in the aerospace industry. In the military industry there is an increasing demand for materials characterised by enhanced mechanical properties, for example in the design of military aircrafts, military land vehicles, war ships and even for military soldiers equipment like bulletproof vests.

The development of new materials in the history of mankind was mainly focused on the materials characterised by large strength. Recently, especially in the technology of means of transportation materials characterised by large strength and low weight are of the basic importance. The most useful property for evaluating materials in this respect are the specific strength properties. In this case, it is the maximum length of a fibre of material to be hung vertically, after which it will break under its own weight. Breaking lengths of chosen materials are presented in Figure 1.

aErOSPaCE INDuSTry

Fuel economy improvement, increasing of carrying capacity of airplanes and their manoeuvrability stimulates the research towards the application of new materials characterised by the low weight and good mechanical strength. Company American Airlines operates a fleet of about 600 planes and could save up to 11.000 gallons of fuel per year by decreasing the weight of each aircraft only by 1 pound [4].



Boeing B-787 Dreamliner is designed and manufactured from highly advanced materials and can be determined as a ‘breakthrough’ in the aerospace industry. Dreamliner is characterised by modern design, high-tech engines, application of lightweight composite materials, reduced noise level what has the final effect on the comfort on board [5]. The whole aircraft has been designed from composite materials which mass reaches about 50% of the mass of aircraft (what means about 80% volume fraction of the PMC in the design of this aircraft). Other applied materials are: aluminum alloys (20%), titanium alloys (15%), steel (10%) and other materials (5%). Wings, tail and fuselage are made from composite materials [6].

Moreover, laminates of ‘sandwich’ type strengthened with carbon fibres were applied in the design of Boeing B-787 Dreamliner. This structure is composed of two thin external layers joined with a honeycomb core. This structure provides the high stiffness, good corrosion resistance, high impact strength, relatively low operating costs, relatively simple production of complex structure shapes, minimization of the number of aircraft components and, consequently, reduction of the assembly time.

Using the carbon-epoxy HexMC composite manufactured by Hexcel (USA), weight saving aircraft components with the good mechanical strength and stiffness, possibility of non-complex forming of different shapes sandwiches for Boeing 787 were produced. The examples of HexMC parts in Dreamliner are: ‘window frames, brackets, fittings, clips/cleats, intercostals and pans.’ (Figure 2) [7].

Figure 1. Breaking length of materials [miles]



Figure 2. HexMC parts: window frames, brackets, fittings, gussets, clips, pans, Hexcel (USA) [8]

AeroComposit (Russia) [9] is a R&D focused company with the headquarter in Moscow, which can be considered as the company applying the modern technologies in Russian aircraft technology, being the first developer of components strengthened with the carbon fibres for civil aircrafts in the whole country. Company AeroComposit not only manufactures aircraft parts from carbon fibre-reinforced composites but rapidly replaces the traditional processes with an out-of-autoclave production. The main goal of the recent project run by OAK AeroComposit together with FACC (Austria) was to find out a solution how to build MS-21’s composite wing characterised by the low weight. The last concept included an application of the composite obtained as the combination of carbon fibres with newly developed, cost-optimised resin.

The leading supplier of elements for Airbus is Patria Aerostructures Oy (Patria) from Finland. Its recently running programmes are: A380 wing spoilers, A400M VTP tip and NH90 helicopter fuselage. Airbus A380 wing spoiler shipset consists of 16 elements divided for two groups of 8, located in one wing and being a mirror image of the other. The material structure can be qualified as a composite sandwich box made of T700 carbon fibre reinforcement joined together with M21 prepreg resin systems in a honeycomb structure [10].

Victrex Europa GmbH [11] offers a variety of composite materials for aerospace applications considered to be a superior metal replacement and an excellent alternative for traditionally used metal alloys. VICTREX® PEEK (polyetheretherketone) is one of the polyaryletherketone (PAEK); it is linear, aromatic and semi-crystalline group of polymers. Discussed composite materials are characterised by the lower density than the applicable metal alloys, with a higher specific strength than many metal alloys. Simultaneously VICTREX® PEEK polymer compounds are characterised by mechanical strength and dimensional stability similar to metal alloys. At the same time, the polymer can withstand relatively high temperatures and the influence of chemical environments. It has a melting point of 343°C (649°F). This polymer is



also highly corrosion resistant and can withstand many aggressive chemicals, while at the same time demonstrating excellent wear and abrasion resistance. Finally, the important is the cost factor and as D. Padey and C. Butz say [11]: ‘replacing metal alloys with high-performance polymers can lower component manufacturing costs’. As strengthening materials in composites based on VICTREX®PEEK, chopped glass fibres, chopped carbon fibres and special high modulus carbon fibres were applied.

The Laboratory CSIR-NAL (India) has designed small, civil passenger aircraft named SARAS (Figure 3) [12]. The wings and the tail unit of the aircraft are made of carbon-epoxy composite. Bottom integrated skin of the airplane is consisting of the spars, ribs and stringers that were manufactured from the composite materials and finally treated in an autoclave at a temperature of 175°C (347°F) and a pressure of 7 bar (102 psi). The main goal of the project was the reduction of the weight of the aircraft. Comparing the composite elements with the same elements made entirely from metal alloys, the mass of the polymer based composite elements is approximately 25% lower, what was shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Comparison of mass of metal alloys and PMC parts in the 14-seater civil aircraft SARAS (India) [12]

Metal Alloys Composites

Mass 33.5 kg 25.2 kg (24.8% reduction)

No. of parts 31 1

No. of fasteners 3400 0 (zero)

Figure 3. SARAS a 14-seater civil aircraft [13]

Considering the mass reduction of aircrafts, even the mass of aircraft food tray arms is important. SABIC (Saudi Basic Industries Corporation), Saudi



Arabia, has developed the high-performance thermoplastic compounds which were applied as the aircraft’s food tray arms (Figure 4). Two materials were based on SABIC Innovative Plastics Ultem® PEI (polyetherimide) resin and carbon fibres [4]. The weight content of carbon fibres in those materials varies from 30-40 wt%. In order to investigate materials internal stresses they were analysed with The Abaqus software (FEA – Finite Element Analysis, MFA – Mould Flow Analysis) what helped to assure the excellent performance of tray arms. Significant mass savings were also reached – as M. Moniruzzaman writes [4] ‘for an airline with approximately 600 planes having 200 seats per plane on average, this weight reduction translates to 0.5 million gallons of fuel saved and 9.9 million lbs of CO2 eliminated per year’.

Figure 4. Aircraft’s food tray arms from SABIC [14]

auTOmOTIVE INDuSTry

The principal and the most popular user of composite materials is still an automotive industry, focused on applying of the advanced car elements in the vehicles. Examples of a variety of applications presented throughout the previous years are given below.

Companies Smart and BASF (Germany) have jointly developed a concept vehicle that combines ‘exceptional design with innovative technologies in the areas of energy efficiency, lightweight construction and temperature management’ – says BASF [15]. Why do the composites play so important role in new Smart and BASF project? Undeniable commitment of BASF to the idea of lightweighting in the automotive industry has grown notably since the mid-2011. The development of electric cars needs to go along with lightweighting and energy saving. The first novel invention in Smart Forvision is its lightweight metal substitute construction, significantly increasing the



maximum range of the vehicle. BASF came up with the special technology applying the Baxxodur® epoxy systems reinforced with carbon fibres for manufacturing such elements as chassis and external framework. The carbon fibres, when added, strengthen the high-performance polymers and the properties are comparable to the light metal alloys. The carbon fibres are impregnated and joined together with the epoxy resin and further processed. Therefore, the final composite material gives the opportunity of mass saving up to 150 kg (331 lb) per chassis. Another project for the Smart Forvision is the application of polymer wheel rim (Figure 5) for the mass production as the first company in the world. The polymer wheel rim is made of the innovative high-performance material named Ultramid® Structure. It consists of polyamide matrix reinforced with long glass fibres and is known for its excellent thermal and chemical stability, dynamic strength, good toughness and satisfying endurance. The polymer wheel rim is 3 kg (7 lb) lighter than a metal alloy one, what gives 12 kg (26 lb) of mass saving per car. Mass saving, in this case, also means that the car is relatively more environmentally friendly due to the lower fuel consumption. In comparison to conventionally powered cars, Smart Forvision will use 0.05 liters (0.01 gallon) per 100 km (62 miles) less fuel and emit 1g/km (0.003 lb/mile) less CO2 [15].

Figure 5. Smart Forvision polymer wheel rim from PA6 reinforced with glass fibres (BASF-Germany) [16]

Three South Korean companies have merged forces and decided to have an impact on the worldwide mass production of composites. Altogether LG Hansys, Hyundai Motor and Shinhan Mold companies designed the light innovative battery pack module carrier (Figure 6). They developed a carbon fibre strengthened composite part for an electric vehicle made completely from polymer composite without any metal reinforcement. In this material carbon fibres (Toray Industries-Japan) strengthen the PA6 polyamide (Kolon



Plastics) and form the compact element. In comparison to element made of steel, this solution offers [17]:

• Weightreductionby26%(from35to24kg,77to53lb),

• Function integration,numberofelementsreducedby91%(from35to3 per vehicle),

• Noneedforanti-corrosionpainting,

• Higherdrivingdistancepersinglechargeoftheelectricvehicle,

• Costreductionbydirectcompounding(nointermediateoperations),

• Enhanceddrivingperformanceduetotheweightreduction,

• Superiorrecyclability.

Figure 6. Carbon composite battery pack module carrier developed by LG Hansys, Hyundai Motor and Shinhan Mold companies (South Korea) [18]

Lanxess [19] is a company manufacturing chemicals and is active in Belgium (cities: Lillo and Kallo), Germany (cities: Krefeld-Uerdingen and Hamm-Uentrop) and China (City: Wuxi). It is the leading world producer of glass-reinforced thermoplastic polymers with a long-standing experience in the area of plastic-metal composite technology (hybrid technology). Currently, there is observed the growing interest for application of composite matrices reinforced with continuous fibres and simultaneously taking into account the high price of carbon fibres, Lanxess is focused on the high-tech plastics investments which have reached an amount of 120 million $US. The manufacturing processes mainly applied at Lanxess are: ‘one-shot’ (whole process is realized in one operation) and ‘in-mould forming’ (desired features of the finished product are formed inside the mould), both emphasizing the benefits gained from the quick manufacturing of plastics characterised by the reproducible quality. The exemplary product can be the ‘Nylon Composite Sheet’ which is strengthened with glass fibres, which are embedded in the thermoplastic matrix (e.g. PA).



Polyamide forms good bonding at the interface matrix-glass fibres what makes possible the transfer of the large shear stresses from the matrix to the glass fibres and this phenomenon assures the high mechanical properties of the composite materials. In comparison to the production of metal alloy based parts, discussed technologies result in lower costs, because despite the operation of preparing of the mold, process requires only one tool to perform whole injection moulding. Until now, polyamide (nylon) based composite sheets are used for the hybrid front end of the Audi A8 which is produced by Bond-Laminates GmbH from the polymer under the name Durethan® BKV 30 H2.0 EF. This material is characterised by the good Melt Flow Index (MFI) and consists of 30 vol.% of glass fibres embedded in PA 6 matrix.

The modern materials applied in the design of the means of transportation should contribute to the so-called the ‘three cuts’ principle: relative small manufacturing costs, decreasing of fuel consumption, and simultaneously decreasing of CO2 emission. Bayer Material Science, an independent subgroup within Bayer AG Company (Germany) [20] has introduced the energy-efficient polyurethane materials Bayflex® RIM for the automotive sector. Since the general direction of development in the automotive industry is focused on lightness of vehicles assuring the required electric mobility, the application of Bayer Material Science products ensures above mentioned goals. Bayflex®

RIM is a high-grade polyurethane with special fillers characterised with a remarkable heat stability, low moisture absorption, low thermal expansion, great impact resistance, excellent surface and paint adhesion qualities. The application of this material lowers the element weight by 30%. Bayflex®RIM is manufactured using Reinforced Reaction Injection Moulding (RRIM). RRIM is a process used to produce polyurethane and polyurea thermoset polymers with the use of fillers and reinforcements, that increases the modulus range of polyurethane polymers. Car parts are not an only possible application of the product developed by Bayer Material Science, and the other possibilities are: elements of trucks and buses, trains, aircrafts, ships and also leisure, furniture, IT segment and the construction industry.

Australian charitable foundation ‘Autohorizon’ arranged mainly by the young researchers [21], has invented and elaborated an unique car chassis with the help of over 90 sponsors (among other: Victorian Centre for Advanced Materials Manufacturing – VCAMM, GM Holden Ltd. Company, Boeing Aerostructures Australia Company, the Automotive Centre of Excellence – ACE and GMS Composites). The subject of this project was to develop the new carbon fibre reinforced composite monocoque chassis for the sport car. Whole part was molded applying the method ‘out of autoclave’ from GMS EP270 – epoxy prepreg containing carbon fibres manufactured and supplied by the GMS Composites. Chassis dimensions are about 200 cm by 150 cm (about 7 feet x



5 feet) and mass of 80 kg (176 lb). Chassis was also tested applying the finite element analysis (FEA) by the Australia Future Fibres Research & Innovation Centre at the Daekin University of Melbourne and the results shows satisfactory stiffness and strength properties obligatory for the material to be used in the monocoque chassis for a sports car powered by a Holden 6.0 litre V8 with a Ferrari 355 transmission.

Roding Roadster (Figure 7) [22] is a two-seat sports car made mainly from composite materials – for example its carbon based fibre chassis ensures good mechanical properties and stiffness and low mass what is extremely important for the driving dynamics. An innovation in this project is a braided windscreen frame made from a three dimensional hollow profile on which the fibres are braided with an use of the shape core. This process is realized by an RTM resin injection. Shape core can be made from the polymer foam and may remain in the element causing the 1.8 kg (4 lb) of additional mass or can be completely removed.

Figure 7. Roding Roadster sports car [23]

The University of Applied Sciences of Western Switzerland (Geneva) in collaboration with several companies manufactured a prototype vehicle called BioMobile [24]. Its prototype was invented to participate in Shell Eco-Marathon. In order to become a winner of this international competition, a participant has to ride larger distance than the competitors, consuming only one liter of fuel (0.264 gallon). In 2012 a new frame for BioMobile was presented and its upper part is reinforced with banana fibres while the lower part is strengthened with Greenlite®. Greenlite® consists of cellulose fibres – renewable and in nature abundant material. BioMobile’s frame was fully made of bio-composites.

The novelty are also modular thermoplastic bumpers for trucks (Figure 8). Usually, bumpers for MAN’s trucks were produced with the SMC (Sheet Moulding



Compound technology). Instead of it, all parts are made simultaneously from several components on a modular basis, for example of polyamide or polyester supplied by Lanxess. Bumpers for MAN TGX and TGS trucks are produced by a group of Magna Exteriors & Interiors Inc., and bumpers for the TGL and TGM models are manufactured by Werkzeugbau Karl Krumpholz GmbH & Co. KG-Kunststofftechnik. Headlamp housing is made of polyamide 6 (PA6) reinforced with 60% of glass fibres ensuring high strength and stiffness. The headlamps are also very stable while driving the truck [25].

Figure 8. Modular thermoplastic bumper for MAN trucks (Germany) [26]

The company Asahi Kasei Plastics, North America Inc. has produced a material called Thermylene® which is an equivalent to LGFPP (Long-Glass-Fibre-Reinforced-Polypropylene). This materials is characterised by very good mechanical properties and by about 20% lower production costs than was observed for previously used materials. This material shows high hardness and high longitudinal and transverse stiffness in a wide temperature range. Potential applications for the material Thermylene® in the automotive industry are: bumpers, luggage racks, modules of gas/brake/clutch [27].

Front end carriers can be produced without application of steel or aluminum sheets. One of examples is the front end carrier from Skoda Octavia (Volkswagen Group), produced by Faurecia Kunstoffe Automobilsysteme GmbH and manufactured from high-strength polyamide from Lanxess. The front end carrier can be characterised as a thin-walled, low-mass element, with high stiffness, mechanical strength and good surface quality. Good polymer flow properties at the processing temperature, which facilitates the process of injection into the mould is of basic importance. Another example is the front end carrier used in VW Golf 7, which was made from Ultramid® in the collaboration between Volkswagen and BASF [28, 29].

The Chevrolet Division is the largest global brand of General Motors (USA) and the latest model of the sport car produced by this company is Chevrolet Corvette Z06 2013. Mass of this car is only 1451 kg (3199 lb) and the engine has the a power of 368 kW (500 HP). Power to mass ratio of this car is better



than such cars as Aston Martin DBS, Porsche 911 Turbo or Nissan GT-R. This has been achieved through the application of polymer based composite materials for the production of some components. In the latest model there may be found such parts as the bonnet, fenders and floor panels, fully made from the lightweight polymer composite reinforced with carbon fibres [30].

The leading automotive companies are competing in the development and applications of new materials, mainly composites with polymer matrices. New models of Porsche are equipped with engines where the intake system, airframe and engine accessories are made of polyamide (PA). Cars manufactured by BMW are equipped with an innovative oil pans made of polymer composites [31]. In 2004 BMW has applied in the production of vehicles about 10 000 tonnes of natural fibres (flax, sisal, cotton, wood fibres) [32].

French car Citroën DS3 with the power of 440 kW (590 HP) is a unique racing car which elements were made from special polymer based composite material reinforced with carbon fibres and Kevlar®. This unique vehicle driven by Petter Solberg took part in a series of European Rallycross Championships. The composite material was developed by a team of Galway Carbon Motorsport Composites and components for the Citroën DS3 were made with the use of the acrylic resin Crestapol® 1250LV as a matrix. Panels made from this material for example are: the nearside doors, the bonnet and the boot. Additionally, the bonnet was filled with the foam in order to reach good stiffness and at the same time to keep the low weight. The use of composites caused substantial mass reduction of about 82-89%. For example, steel boot of mass 16 kg (35 lb) has been replaced by a composite cover of mass 1.8 kg (4 lb). The application of Kevlar as a strengthening material provides increased lightness, stiffness and mechanical strength [33].

The last but not least example of recycled composite materials is the prototype of Lola-Drayson racing car (Figure 9) [34], designed to take part in FIA Formula E World Championship Series in 2013. It consists mainly of flax fibres which are impregnated with epoxy resin recycled from MTM®49 or MTM®28 (manufactured by Umeco Incorporated). Recycled materials were tested and results show longitudinal, transverse and torsional stiffness comparable to the non-recycled materials from the original epoxy resin as well as high resistance to damage and smaller strength properties comparing to materials made from base granulate.



Figure 9. Lola-Drayson prototype of race car (United Kingdom) [35]

marINE INDuSTry

The innovations in the area of composite materials have a great impact on the development of the modern ships built for the marine industry. The small weight of marine constructions is important for the lower fuel consumption and good manoeuvrability and polymer based composite materials show such important properties as water and corrosion resistance.

The speedboat Revolver 42 (Figure 10) [36] is an effect of collaboration of Michael Peters Yacht Design and the Milan-based studio H30. It is a speedboat as S. Bell and M. Arcuri say ‘a vacuum-infused and bonded foam sandwich design’. The main hull and deck are made from Crystic® vinyl ester (VE) resins and a Corecell™ M-foam core reinforced with carbon fibres. Revolver 42’s dimensions are: length of 12.6 metres (41 ft), width of 3.4 metres (11 ft). Despite its large mass 7 500 kg (16534.67 lb), the boat is still able to reach the speed of 68 knots.

Figure 10. Revolver 42 speedboat [37]



Sailboats also benefit from composite materials application. Vestas Sailrocket 2 sailboat (Figure 11) was designed and built by the Sailrocket team (Vestas R&D, Isle of Wight, UK). Piloted by Australian Sailboat Paul Larson VSR 2 broke the speed record (with average speed 65.37 knots) at Walvis Bay in Namibia on 28 November 2012. This sailboat has its wing based on carbon spar. Wing’s construction is mainly made of preimpregnated carbon fibre filled with Nomex honeycomb core and polyester heat shrink film on the wing skins. VSR 2 sailboat’s mass is 275 kg with its length of 12.2 m (40 ft) and width of 12.2 m (40 ft) [38].

Figure 11. Vestas Sailrocket 2 sailboat [39]

Ifremer Company (France) is involved in exploring of the new opportunities by using composite materials for underwater applications. The main goal is to replace traditionally used carbon/epoxy or glass/epoxy composites with thermoplastic-matrix composites even for large submarine elements [40].

In India there was finished an interesting project of composite houseboat with length of 27 m (89 ft), width of 4.5 m (15 ft) for tourism in Kerala (India) – basing on the concept of the boats transporting rice. Their design has not changed since the last 40 years, but their structure was modernized completely, in order to obtain a perfect aesthetic, ergonomic, cost-effective final product (Figure 12). Heavy wood and steel structures were eliminated and replaced mainly with glass-reinforced polymers (GRP), what has helped to lower the production costs by 20% and shorten the production time by 70-75%. Parts that are made from composite materials are: two curved supporting panels with window opening, an inner ceiling module, pagoda-style roof and the hull [41].

As the consequence of waste disposal regulations, which the industry manufacturing boats, yachts and small ships from polymers has to comply, producers have to propose the alternative solutions for commonly used polymers and composites. Recently used matrices for the polymer composites applied in construction of ships were polyester or epoxy resins, which were



strengthened with the hybrid reinforcement i.e. flax fibres with glass- or carbon-fibres. NavEcoMat (research and innovation project between companies producing boats and material research laboratories) [43] has developed an environmentally friendly polymer based composite material, which is fully combined from bio-sourced materials: polylactic acid (PLA) reinforced with flax fibres. As an example of the described technology, the Naskapi Indians canoe can be pointed. The Naskapi canoe, consisting of flax-fibre mats and PLA thermoplastic films, perform the comparable mechanical properties to those of glass- or carbon- reinforced composite materials.

Kairos Inc. and Ifremer Company (France) have finished the joint project and prepared the list and characterization of all know bio-sourced polymers, composite materials and sandwich cores with possible applications in commercial boats. Many various reinforcements were considered: flax, hemp, jute and cellulose fibres in different forms: unidirectional fibres, woven fibres and mats. An example that is worth to be mentioned is a comparison of two boats, both with the equal mass, content of reinforcing fibres and the same matrix (resin). The first one was made from glass/epoxy composite and the second from cellulose-reinforced epoxy composite. During the test, boats were fully-immersed in natural sea water at a temperature of 40°C. Results of the described test have proved the similar and comparable performances and technical specification of both boats [44].

Alternative Energie Company (La Rochelle, France) is currently working on a design and construction of an environmentally friendly, electric powered catamaran with 30-passenger capacity. The boat’s cabin, roof and bulwark are designed to be made of biosourced composite (30% biosourced polyester resin / flax fibre reinforcement / cork / balsa) [45].

Figure 12. Composite houseboat from Kerala (region of India) [42]



mILITary INDuSTry

The military industry requires very trustworthy, dependable, safe and strong materials in order to achieve a satisfactory level of reliability.

A Spanish shipyard Astilleros Santa Pola S.L. collaborating with Aimplas - the Centre for Innovation and Technology (CIT) located in Valencia (Spain) has introduced a composite laminate produced on the base of the Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM) applying the phenolic resins with layers of S-glass fibres mixed with aramid fibres [46]. Such combination ensures excellent anti-ballistic properties, resistance against UV and corrosion and the small weight. Potential improvements may be seen in further decreasing of the materials weight for the marine applications, especially boats with high safety requirements such as patrol crafts.

The Zumwalt (DDG-1000) (Figure 13), named after Admiral Elmon Zumwalt (1900-2000), is the most advanced destroyer in the US navy. It costs 4 billion US$ per unit. Its christening took place on 12 April 2014 in Bath, Maine. In order to reduce its total weight there were used composite materials instead of commonly used steel and metal alloys. Composites were also used to make the ship radar transparent. The masts, antennas and radars were integrated in the composite superstructure. The deckhouse, built by Ingall’s Shipbuilding (USA), is fully made of carbon-reinforced vinyl ester resin. The roof is made of phenolic fibreglass laminate panels supplied by Mektech Composites Inc. (USA). Phenolic resins used for production of this composite are characterised by high temperature resistance and fire-retardant properties which are good enough to fulfil the Navy’s fire codes [47].

Figure 13. The Zumwalt destroyer [48]

Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II (Figure 14) is the latest and the most advanced fighter aircraft in which carbon composite materials were applied.



Parts made of CFRP in this aircraft are: vertical stabilizer, horizontal stabilizer, fuselage and wings [49].

Figure 14. Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II [50]

Interesting project connected with application of the weight saving technologies was performed in two military aircrafts – AV8B Harrier (British single-engine ground-attack aircraft) and Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey (American multi-mission, tiltrotor aircraft) and structural parts were manufactured from polymer based composites. Nowadays, 100% of the UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) structures are made of polymer based composites [51]. These aircrafts should be characterised by low mass and operate in the air after one refueling for the relatively long time. Basing on the earlier projects (Global Hawk UAV), Triton Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (Figure 15) was designed and its first 1.5-hour flight on May 22, 2013 was controlled by the U.S. Navy and Northrop Grumman company. Triton UAV assumption was to fly non-stop for 24 hours at an altitude of over 16 km (10 miles) and have the range of 18 500 km (11 495 miles) without any refueling. The aircraft is equipped with sensors for

Figure 15. Triton Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) US Air Force [53]



the constant contact with flight controllers, upload images and other data. Triton’s wings has been made of epoxy resin reinforced with carbon fibres and unidirectional high-modulus tapes [52].

SPOrT aND LEISurE

Examples shown in this paragraph have been collected in order to identify new trends for the application of composite materials in the field of sport and leisure.

AX-Lightness GmbH (Germany) which is the main supplier of polymer based composite materials in the Formula One sector is currently developing and manufacturing structures of bicycles. Their actual offer presents high-tech mountain bikes with wheels made using Umeco’s woven carbon fibre as a reinforcement of the epoxy prepregs [54]. Another achievement, which they are proud to claim, is a combination of unidirectional and fabric reinforced prepregs for components of bicycles for Australian triathalonists. Used prepregs undergoes curing above temperature of 160°C what assures good impact strength and good performances at elevated temperatures.

It appears that nearly all of the bicycles made of composites strengthened with carbon fibres are produced in China, which is caused by the complexity of the production process and therefore the necessity of large amount of manual labour. Manufactured parts from prepregs are cut out and cured in an autoclave, then bonded from two halves into a tube, filled up, smoothed and coated. The BRAID (Germany) proposed new bicycle frame with new design (Figure 16) [55]. Instead of making a tube from two half shells, the braiding technique is applied and as a result the frame exhibits higher stiffness and strength while using less material for the complete product. This design

Figure 16. Lightweight BRAID bicycle (Germany) [56]



satisfy the customer needs, lowers the production costs and allows German company, where the labour force is much more expensive, to compete with Chinese companies in this area. Filled with PU foam cores, the BRAID frames ensure lightness, good mechanical properties and stiffness.

The Werner Paddles Inc. (Sultan, USA) is leading company in kayak paddles manufacturing [57]. Working together with RTP Company (Winona, USA), they found a way to improve the aesthetics, costs and performance – by using a carbon fibre-reinforced recycled material from Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner scrap.

An Australian manufacturer of sustainable surfboards, Samsara Surfboards (Melbourne, Australia) is currently producing ultra-high performance eco surfboards [58]. These surfboats are entirely made of materials having minimum harmful effect on the environment. A standard Samsara’s surfboard consists of flax fibres, commingled flax/PLA and commingled flax/PP.

CONCLuSIONS

As was described in the above paper the examples of application of polymer based composite materials show that the composite materials industry plays a significant, if not the most important, role in the development of the latest material technologies. Numerous applications of Polymer Matrix Composites elements show, that they are the key factor for the development of all the above-mentioned industries manufacturing means of transportation (land, air and marine), sport and leisure, military industry. The polymer-based composites are ideally suited to the needs of today’s world, offering savings and convenience for the end-users. Composite materials can be easily adapted to the current requirements and the most demanding criteria. The polymer composites characterised by low weight and durability and the elements performance from polymer based composite materials show that they are able to successfully compete with metal alloys in terms of mechanical properties and price.

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application of polymer based composite materials … in rubber, plastics and recycling technology,...

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