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Chapter 21

Appendix A: Writing for Nonnative English Speakers

Multilingual Writers

If you learned English as a second language and you regularly speak a languageother than English, this appendix is for you. It also provides a refresher course onmany of the elements in Chapter 15 "Sentence Building", Chapter 16 "SentenceStyle", Chapter 17 "Word Choice", Chapter 18 "Punctuation", Chapter 19"Mechanics", and Chapter 20 "Grammar".

524

21.1 Parts of Speech

In English, words are used in one of eight parts of speech: noun, pronoun, adjective,verb, adverb, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. This table includes anexplanation and examples of each of the eight parts of speech.

Iowa book arm

NounPerson, place, orthing

Wow! Afterthe game,silly Maryate herapples andcarrotsquickly.

horse idea month

he it I

PronounTakes the place of anoun


her my theirs

sticky funny crazy

AdjectiveDescribes a noun orpronoun


long cold round

run jump felt

VerbShows action orstate of being


think is gone

slowly easily very

Adverb

Describes a verb,another adverb, oran adjective andtells how, where, orwhen something isdone


often heavily sharply

Chapter 21 Appendix A: Writing for Nonnative English Speakers

525

and because but

ConjunctionJoins words,phrases, andclauses


since or so

in on to

Preposition

First word in aphrase thatindicates therelationship of thephrase to otherwords in thesentence


after at over

Hey Wow Look

Interjection

A word that showsemotion and is notrelated to the restof the sentence


Super Oh Yuck


21.1 Parts of Speech 526

21.2 English Word Order

The simplest level of English word order within a sentence is that subjects comefirst followed by verbs and then direct objects.

Figure 21.1

When you have more complicated sentences, use the following general order.

Figure 21.2

When an English sentence includes more than one adjective modifying a givennoun, the adjectives have a hierarchy you should follow. The adjectives that modifythe noun within Table 21.1 "Hierarchical Order of Adjectives" show thathierarchical order. You should, however, keep a string of adjectives to two or three.The example includes a longer string of adjectives simply to clarify the word order.Using this table, you can see that “the small thin Methodist girl…” would be correctbut “the young French small girl…” would be incorrect.

Some languages, such as Spanish, insert “no” before a verb to create a negativesentence. In English, the negative is often indicated by placing “not” after the verbor in a contraction with the verb.


527

Example

I can’t make it before 1:00 p.m.

Incorrect example: I no can make it before 1:00 p.m.


21.2 English Word Order 528

21.3 Count and Noncount Nouns

Nouns that name separate things or people that you can count are called countnouns. Nouns that name things that cannot be counted unless additional words areadded are called noncount nouns. You need to understand count and noncountnouns in order to use the nouns correctly with articles, in singular and pluralformations, and in other situations. Some nouns can serve as either count ornoncount nouns.

Examples of Count Nouns

• box(es)• dog(s)• house(s)• leaf (leaves)• moon(s)• peach(es)• sheep• women

Examples of Noncount Nouns

• advice• cheese• equipment• furniture• information• Internet• mail• weather

Examples of Nouns That Can Be Either Count or Noncount Nouns

• baseball (play baseball vs. throw a baseball)• love (He is my love! vs. two loves: poetry and basketball)• marble (play with a marble vs. a floor made of marble)


529

21.4 Articles

In English, nouns are identified or quantified by determiners. Articles, such as a, an,and the, are one type of determiner. Use the following guidelines to alleviateconfusion regarding whether to use an article or which article to use.

• Use a and an with nonspecific or indefinite singular count nouns andsome proper nouns where you do not have enough information to bemore specific. Use a before nouns beginning with a consonant soundand an before nouns beginning with a vowel sound.

Example 1

I have a dog at home, also. (The word “dog” is a nonspecific noun since itdoesn’t refer to any certain dog.)

Example 2

(before a vowel): Carrie gave everyone an apple at lunch.

Example 3

(before a consonant; with proper noun): He was wearing a Texas shirt.

• Use every and each with singular count nouns and some proper nouns.


530

Example 1

I heard every noise all night long.

Example 2

I tried each Jell-O flavor and liked them all.

• Use this and that with singular count and noncount nouns.

Example 1

(with count noun): I am going to eat that apple.

Example 2

(with noncount noun): I am not too excited about this weather.

• Use any, enough, and some with nonspecific or indefinite plural nouns(count or noncount).

Example 1

I didn’t have any donuts at the meeting because he ate them all.


21.4 Articles 531

Example 2

Do you have enough donuts for everyone?

Example 3

He ate some donuts at the meeting.

• Use (a) little and much with noncount nouns.

Example 1

I’d like a little meatloaf, please.

Example 2

There’s not much spaghetti left.

• Use the with noncount nouns and singular and plural count nouns.

Example 1

(with noncount noun): The weather is beautiful today.


21.4 Articles 532

Example 2

(with singular count noun): Who opened the door?

Example 3

(with plural count noun): All the houses had brick fronts.

• Use both, (a) few, many, several, these, and those with plural count nouns.

Example 1

I have a few books you might like to borrow.

Example 2

Daryl and Louise have been traveling for several days.

Example 3

Are those shoes yours?


21.4 Articles 533

21.5 Singulars and Plurals

English count nouns have singular and plural forms. Typically, these nouns areformed by adding -s or -es. Words that end in -ch, -sh, or -s usually require theaddition of -es to form the plural. Atypical plurals are formed in various ways, suchas those shown in the following table.

Singular Nouns Plural Nouns

dog dogs (-s added)

table tables (-s added)

peach peaches (-es added)

wish wishes (-es added)

kiss kisses (-es added)

man men (atypical)

sheep sheep (atypical)

tooth teeth (atypical)

child children (atypical)

alumnus alumni (atypical)

leaf leaves (atypical)

Proper nouns are typically either singular or plural. Plural proper nouns usuallyhave no singular form, and singular proper nouns usually have no plural form.

Singular Proper Nouns Plural Proper Nouns

Kentucky Sawtooth Mountains

Alex The Everglades

Noncount nouns typically have only one form that is basically a singular form. Toquantify them, you can add a preceding phrase.

NoncountNouns

Sentences with Noncount Nouns and QuantifyingPhrases

gas We put twelve gallons of gas in the car this morning.


534

NoncountNouns

Sentences with Noncount Nouns and QuantifyingPhrases

anguish After years of anguish, he finally found happiness.


21.5 Singulars and Plurals 535

21.6 Verb Tenses

You can practice conjugating many English verbs to increase your awareness ofverb tenses. Use this format for the basic conjugation:

• I laugh at Millie.• You laugh at Millie.• He/She/It laughs at Millie.• We laugh at Millie.• You laugh at Millie.• They laugh at Millie.

You can also practice completing these five forms of English. A mixture of tenses isused to show that you can practice the different forms with any tense.

Affirmative Usage

• I play ball.• You play ball.• She plays ball.• We play ball.• You play ball.• They play ball.

Negative Usage

• I do not play ball.• You do not play ball.• She does not play ball.• We do not play ball.• You do not play ball.• They do not play ball.

Yes/No Questions

• Do you play ball?• Does she play ball?• Do we play ball?• Do they play ball?


536

Short Answers

• Yes, I do.• Yes, she does.• No, they do not.• No, you do not.

Wh- Questions

• Who is she?• Where did you find it?• When are you coming?• Why won’t it work?• What are you going to do?

See Chapter 15 "Sentence Building", Section 15.2 "Choosing Appropriate VerbTenses" for an in-depth overview of verb tenses.


21.6 Verb Tenses 537

21.7 Correct Verbs

People who are new to English often experience confusion about which verb formscan serve as the verb in a sentence. An English sentence must include at least oneverb or verb phrase and a tense that relays the time during which the action istaking place. Verbals (such as gerunds and infinitives) should not be confused withverbs.

• A sentence with a gerund must also have another verb.

Example

Correct example: Roger enjoys driving the RV.

Incorrect example: Roger driving the RV.

• A sentence with an infinitive must have another verb.

Example

Correct example: Kyle decided to write a long message.

Incorrect example: Kyle to write a long message.

• Verbs must match the timing indicated by the other words in asentence.


538

Example

Past tense correct example: Yesterday, I called you at 5:00 p.m.

Past tense incorrect example: Yesterday, I call you at 5:00 p.m.

Future tense correct example: The next time it rains, I will bring myumbrella.

Future tense incorrect example: The next time it rains, I bring my umbrella.

Present tense correct example: Come in and get warm.

Present tense incorrect example: Come in and got warm.

See Chapter 15 "Sentence Building", Section 15.2 "Choosing Appropriate VerbTenses" for a more extensive overview of verb tenses.


21.7 Correct Verbs 539

21.8 Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Figure 21.3

The English language includes nine main modal auxiliary verbs that are used withother verbs. These modals, shown in the wheel in four pairs and a single, can referto past, present, or future tense based on the verbs that are used with them. Themodals themselves do not change form to change tense. As shown in the followingtable, you can use modals to express an attitude in regard to the action or generalsituation of the sentence.

ModalFunction

Format for Present orFuture Tense

Format for Past Tense

should or ought to + baseverb

should or ought to + have + pastparticiple

AdvisabilityYou should take the timeto visit Yellowstone.

You ought to have taken the time tovisit Yellowstone.


540

ModalFunction



can, am able to, is able to,or are able to + base verb

could, was able to, were able to + baseverb or past participle

CapabilityAisha can tell you whowas at the party.

Saul was able to walk on the beamwithout falling off.

must, has to + base verb must + have + past participle

Deduction Hank must know Spanishand French.

Lucy must have driven through thenight.

must + not + base verb

Forbiddance You must not take hisfood.

N/A

should + base verb should + have + past participle

Expectation The sun should set about7:15 today.

The boys should have finished theirball game by now.

will or shall + base verb would + base verb

Intention I will meet you at thetheater.

I said I would finish sometimetoday.

must or have to + baseverb

had to+ base verb

NecessityI must finish cleaningbefore they arrive.

Greg had to get gas before westarted the trip.

would or used to + base verb

Past habit N/A When I worked there, I used to eatat Marvy’s every day.

can, could, may, or might +base verb (in questionformat)

might or could + base verbPermissionrequest

Could I go with you?My parents said I could use theircar next week.

could or would + baseverb (in question format)Polite

request Would you please handme page 45?

N/A

Possibility/uncertainty

may or might + base verb might + have + past participle


21.8 Modal Auxiliary Verbs 541

ModalFunction



Alice might be at work by6:00 a.m.

I don’t remember, but I might havebeen the one sitting next to himthat night.

could, might, or would +base verb

could, might, or would + have + pastparticiple

SpeculationIf he conditions enough,he could win his race.

There could have been some realmoney in that deal we almostmade.


21.8 Modal Auxiliary Verbs 542

21.9 Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds are nouns formed by adding -ing to a verb, such as running. Infinitives arenouns formed from the “to” form of a verb, such as to run. These two noun formsare called verbals, because they are formed from verbs. Experience with English willteach you which form to use in which situation. In the meantime, the following listsprovide a brief overview.

Verbs That Should Be Followed Only by Gerunds and Not byInfinitivesThese Verbs Could Fill This Blank: _______ (His) Walking

• admit• avoid• complete• consider• delay• deny• dislike• finish• imagine• miss• postpone• quit• recommend• resist• stop• suggest• understand

Verbs That Should Be Followed Only by Infinitives and Not byGerundsThese Verbs Could Fill This Blank: ________ to Walk

• agree• appear• ask• beg• claim• decide• demand


543

• desire• fail• happen• hesitate• intend• manage• offer• plan• pretend• struggle

Verbs That Can Be Followed by Either Gerunds or InfinitivesThese Verbs Could Fill Either of These Blanks: ________ (His) Walking or________ to Walk

• begin• can(’t) afford• can(’t) bear• cease• commence• continue• dread• hate• intend• like• loathe• love• neglect• prefer• start• try• undertake

See Chapter 20 "Grammar", Section 20.1.7 "Deciding If Relative Pronouns Take aSingular or Plural Verb" for more information regarding gerunds and infinitives.


21.9 Gerunds and Infinitives 544

21.10 Forming Participles

Participles are verb forms that combine with auxiliary verbs to create differenttenses.

• To form perfect tenses, use had, has, or have with the past participle.

Example: My dog has eaten twice today.

• To form progressive tenses, use a form of the verb to be with thepresent participle, or gerund.

Example: My dog is eating a treat.

• To write in passive voice, use a form of the verb to be with the pastparticiple.

Example: The treat was eaten by my dog.

See Chapter 15 "Sentence Building", Section 15.2 "ChoosingAppropriate Verb Tenses" for a more extensive overview of therelationships between participles and verb tenses, and see Chapter 16"Sentence Style", Section 16.3 "Using Subordination and Coordination"for more on passive voice constructions.


545

21.11 Adverbs and Adjectives

Adverbs often end in -ly and modify verbs, other adverbs, and adjectives. As a rule,you should place an adverb next to or close to the word it modifies, althoughadverbs can be placed in different positions within a sentence without affecting itsmeaning.

Example

Before the verb: “He slowly walked to the store.”

After the verb: “He walked slowly to the store.”

At the beginning of the sentence: “Slowly, he walked to the store.”

At the end of the sentence: “He walked to the store slowly.”

Between an auxiliary and main verb: “He was slowly walking to the store.”

Some adverbs, however, have a different meaning based on where they are placed.You should check to make sure that your placement carries the intended meaning.


546

Example

“She only loved him.”

Translation: “The only emotion she felt toward him was love.”

“Only she loved him.”

Translation: “The only person who loved him was her.”

“She loved only him.” or “She loved him only.”

Translation: “The only person she loved was him.”

Some adverbs simply do not work between the verb and the direct object in asentence.

Example

Acceptable adverb placement: She barely heard the noise.

Unacceptable adverb placement: She heard barely the noise.

Adjectives modify nouns and in some more heavily inflected languages, the endingsof adjectives change to agree with the number and gender of the noun. In English,adjectives do not change in this way. For example, within the following sentences,note how the spelling of the adjective “eager” remains the same, regardless of thenumber or the gender of the noun it modifies.

The eager boy jumped the starting gun.

The eager boys lined up.


21.11 Adverbs and Adjectives 547

The eager girls eyed the starter.

As in these sentences, adjectives usually are placed before a noun. The noun can bethe subject, as in the preceding example, or a direct object, as in the followingsentence.

Harold admired his shiny red car.

Adjectives can also be placed after a linking verb. The adjective still modifies a nounbut is not placed next to the noun, as in the following example.

The weather was miserable.

When two or more adjectives are used to modify a single noun, they should be usedin a set order, as shown in Table 21.1 "Hierarchical Order of Adjectives". Eventhough the table shows ten levels within the hierarchy, you should limit youradjectives per noun to two or three.

Table 21.1 Hierarchical Order of Adjectives

Physical DescriptionDeterminer

Opinion orAssessment Size Shape Age Color

Nationality Religion Material Noun

The pretty small thin young white French Methodist plastic girl

When using an adverb and adjective together with a noun, you should typicallyplace the adverb first, followed by the adjective, and then the noun.

the strikingly golden tree

For more information about adverbs and adjectives, see Chapter 20 "Grammar",Section 20.6 "Using Adverbs and Adjectives".


21.11 Adverbs and Adjectives 548

21.12 Irregular Adjectives

In English, adjectives have comparative and superlative forms that are used to moreexactly describe nouns.

Example

Joey is tall, Pete is taller than Joey, and Malik is the tallest of the three boys.

One common way to form the comparative and superlative forms is to add -er and-est, respectively, as shown in the preceding example. A second common method isto use the words more and most or less and least, as shown in the following example.

Example

Lucy is eager to start, Callie is more eager, and Shannon is the most eager.

Some adjectives do not follow these two common methods of forming comparativesand superlatives. You will simply have to learn these irregular adjectives by heart.Some of them are listed Table 21.2 "Sample Adjectives That Form Superlatives UsingIrregular Patterns". Notice that some are irregular when used with a certainmeaning and not when used with a different meaning. See Chapter 20 "Grammar",Section 20.6.3 "Using Comparatives and Superlatives" for more examples ofirregular adjectives.

Table 21.2 Sample Adjectives That Form Superlatives Using Irregular Patterns

much (noncount nouns) more most

many (count nouns) more most

little (size) littler littlest

little (number) less least


549

old (people and things) older oldest

old (family members) elder eldest

Some adjectives’ comparatives and superlatives can be formed with either -er and-est or with more and most (or less and least). In these cases, choose the version thatworks best within a given sentence.

Table 21.3 Sample Adjectives That Can Form Superlatives Using -er and -est or Moreand Most

clever cleverer cleverest

clever more clever most clever

gentle gentler gentlest

gentle more gentle most gentle

friendly friendlier friendliest

friendly more friendly most friendly

quiet quieter quietest

quiet more quiet most quiet

simple simpler simplest

simple more simple most simple

Some adjectives do not have comparative and superlative forms since the simplestform expresses the only possible form.

Sample Adjectives That Do Not Have Comparative andSuperlative Forms

• blind• dead• fatal• final• left• right• unique• universal• vertical


21.12 Irregular Adjectives 550

• wrong


21.12 Irregular Adjectives 551

21.13 Indefinite Adjectives

Indefinite adjectives give nonspecific information about a noun. For example, theindefinite article few indicates some, but not an exact amount. Indefinite adjectivesare easily confused with indefinite pronouns since they are the same words useddifferently. An indefinite pronoun replaces a noun. An indefinite adjective precedesa noun or pronoun and modifies it. It is important for you to understand thedifference between indefinite adjectives and pronouns to assure you are sayingwhat you mean. Some common indefinite adjectives include all, any, anything, each,every, few, many, one, several, some, somebody, and someone.

Example

Indefinite adjective: We are having some cake for dessert.

Indefinite pronoun: I like cake. I’ll have some, please.

Indefinite adjective: You can find a state name on each quarter.

Indefinite pronoun: I have four Illinois quarters, and each is brand new.


552

21.14 Predicate Adjectives

Since linking verbs express a state of being instead of an action, adjectives are usedafter them instead of adverbs. An adjective that follows a linking verb is referred toas a predicate adjective. Be careful not to use an adverb simply because of theproximity to the verb.

Example

Correct (adjective follows linking verb): Kelly is selfish.

Incorrect (adverb follows linking verb): Kelly is selfishly.

Correct (adjective follows linking verb): Beth seems eager.

Incorrect (adverb follows linking verb): Beth seems eagerly.

Linking Verbs That Can Be Followed by Adjectives

• appear• be• become• feel• get• grow• keep• look• prove• remain• seem• smell• sound• stay• taste• turn


553

21.15 Clauses and Phrases

Clauses include both subjects and verbs that work together as a single unit. Whenthey form stand-alone sentences, they’re called independent clauses. Anindependent clause can stand alone or can be used with other clauses and phrases.A dependent clause also includes both a subject and a verb, but it must combinewith an independent clause to form a complete sentence.

Types ofDependent

ClausesDescriptions Examples

Adverbclause

Serves as an adverb; tells when, how, why,where, under what condition, to what degree,how often, or how much

To avoidsunburn,sheplasteredher bodywithsunscreen.

That shewould winthe raceseemedquite likely.Noun

clauseServes as a noun when attached to a verb

She thoughtthat shewould winthe race.

The daythat he losthis watchwas anunluckyday.*

Adjectiveclause (alsocalled arelativeclause)

Begins with a relative pronoun (that, who, whom,whose, which) or a relative adverb (when, where,why); functions as an adjective; attaches to anoun; has both a subject and a verb; tells whatkind, how many, or which one The house

where theylived isgone.

Appositiveclause

Functions as an appositive by restating a nounor noun-related verb in clause form; begins with

The ideathat Josie

*In some instances, the relative pronoun or adverb can be implied (e.g.,“The day he lost his watch was an unlucky day”).


554

Types ofDependent

ClausesDescriptions Examples

that; typical nouns involved include possibilitiessuch as assumption, belief, conviction, idea,knowledge, and theory

willsomeday betaller thanme is crazy.

*In some instances, the relative pronoun or adverb can be implied (e.g.,“The day he lost his watch was an unlucky day”).

Phrases are groups of words that work together as a single unit but do not have asubject or a verb. English includes five basic kinds of phrases.

Types ofPhrases

Descriptions Examples

Noun phrase Multiple words serving as a nounDarcy ate a hamsandwich.

Verb phraseUsed as the verb in sentences that arein the progressive and perfect tenses

The class shouldhave started a half-hour earlier.

Prepositionalphrase

Begins with a preposition (covered inmore depth in Section 21.9 "Gerundsand Infinitives")

Work will be easierafter the holidayrush.

Adjectivephrase

Functions as an adjective; mightinclude prepositional phrases and/ornouns

My brother is verytall and handsome.

Let’s go walkingafter dinner.

Adverbphrase

Functions as an adverb; might includeprepositional phrases and/or multipleadverbs

Ignacia walkedwearily andunsteadily.


21.15 Clauses and Phrases 555

21.16 Relative Pronouns and Clauses

An adjective clause gives information about a preceding noun in a sentence. Look atthe following examples.

The car that Richie was driving was yellow.

Des Moines, where I live, is in Iowa.

Mr. Creeter, whose brother I know, is the new math teacher.

Like many other adjective clauses, these begin with a relative adjective (which, who,whom, whose, that) or a relative adverb (when or where). When you use a relativeclause to describe a noun, make sure to begin it with one of the seven relativeadjectives and adverbs listed in the previous sentence.


556

21.17 Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

Prepositions are words that show the relationships between two or more otherwords. Choosing correct prepositions can be challenging, but the followingexamples will help clarify how to use some of the most common prepositions.

Types ofPrepositions

Examples ofPrepositions

How to UsePrepositions

Used inSentences

We will eatat 11:30.

at

Use with hours of the day andthese words that indicate timeof day: dawn, midnight, night,and noon

We will eatat noon.

I’ll be thereby 5:00.

byUse with time words toindicate a particular time I’ll be

finished byOctober.

Use with the and these time-of-day words: afternoon,evening, and morning

We’ll start inthe morning.

in

Use on its own with months,seasons, and years

The rainyseason startsin June.

Time

on Use with days of the weekI’ll see youon Friday.

atUse to indicate a particularplace

I’ll stop at thedry cleaners.

inUse when indicating that anitem or person is within givenboundaries

My ticket isin my pocket.

byUse to mean “near a particularplace”

My desk is bythe back door.

Location

onUse when indicating a surfaceor site on which somethingrests or is located

Place it onthe table,please.


557

Types ofPrepositions

Examples ofPrepositions

How to UsePrepositions

Used inSentences

My office ison LincolnBoulevard.

Use to indicate part of a wholeI ate half ofthe sandwich.

ofUse to indicate contents ormakeup

I brought abag of chips.

Logicalrelationships

for Use to show purposeJake uses hisapron forgrilling.

State ofbeing

in Use to indicate a state of beingI am afraidthat I’m introuble.


21.17 Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases 558

21.18 Omitted Words

Some languages, especially those that make greater use of inflection, do not includeall the sentence parts that English includes. Take special care to include thoseEnglish parts that you might not be used to including in your native language. Thefollowing table shows some of these words that are needed in English but not inother languages.

SentenceParts

Language Issues

ArticlesNeither Chinese nor Arabic includes articles, such as a and an, sopeople with Chinese or Arabic as a first language have to takegreat care to learn to use articles correctly.

Verbs

Many languages have verb tense setups that vary from English,so most new English learners have to be very careful to includeauxiliary verbs properly. For example, Arabic does not includethe verb “to be,” so native speakers of Arabic who learn Englishhave to take special care to learn the usage of “to be.” An Arabicspeaker might say, “The girl happy,” instead of, “The girl ishappy.”

Subjects

Spanish and Japanese do not include a subject in every sentence,but every English sentence requires a subject (except incommands where the subject you is understood: “Go get thebox”).

Expletives

Inverted English sentences can cause problems for many newEnglish speakers. For example, you could say, “An apple is in therefrigerator.” But in typical English, you would more likely say,“There is an apple in the refrigerator.” This version is aninverted sentence, and “there” is an expletive. Many newEnglish learners might invert the sentence without adding theexpletive and say, “Is an apple in the refrigerator.”

Plurals

Neither Chinese nor Thai includes plurals, but English does. Somany new English learners have to take great care todifferentiate between singular and plural forms and to use themat the appropriate times.

Subjectpronouns

In Spanish, the subject pronoun is often not used, so Spanishspeakers learning English will often omit the subject pronoun,saying, “Am hungry,” instead of, “I am hungry.”


559

21.19 Not and Other Negative Words

Figure 21.4

To form a negative in English, you have to add a negative word to the sentence.Some of the negative words in English are shown in the blue arrow. Typically, youshould place the negative word before the main verb.

I was barely awake when I heard you come home.

Kurt is not going with us.

In casual English, it is common to form contractions, or shortened combined words,with the auxiliary or linking verb and the word not. Contractions are typically notacceptable in very formal writing but are becoming more and more common incertain academic and public contexts.

I haven’t heard that before.


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Jill isn’t my cousin.

Using two negative words in the same sentence changes the meaning of thenegative words to positive, thus supporting the common saying “Two negativesmake a positive.” Think of it as being similar to multiplying two negative numbersand getting a positive number. Double negatives are often used in extremely casualtalk but never in professional or academic settings.

Example

Correct: I didn’t hear anything.

Incorrect: I didn’t hear nothing. (The two negatives change to a positive, so thesentence technically means “I heard something.”)


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21.20 Idioms

Idioms are informal, colorful language. Although their intent is to add interest tothe English language, they also add a lot of confusion since their intended meaningsare not aligned with their literal meanings. In time, you will learn the idioms thatyour acquaintances use. Until then, reading lists of idioms, such as the following,might prove helpful. Just remember that when a person says something that seemsto make no sense at all, an idiom might be involved. Also, keep in mind that this listis just a very small sampling of the thousands of idiomatic expressions that occur inEnglish, as happens with any language.

Idiom Intended Meaning

A little bird told me.I know some information, and I’d rather not saywhere I heard it.

Don’t count yourchickens before theyhatch.

Don’t decide before you have all the facts.

Don’t jump out of yourskin.

Don’t get overly excited.

Go fly a kite. What you are saying doesn’t make sense.

Hank’s got some major-league problems.

Hank has some serious problems.

Nothing ventured,nothing gained.

You can’t succeed if you don’t try.

People who live in glasshouses should notthrow stones.

You should not criticize others for faults that youalso have, or since you aren’t perfect, you shouldnot criticize others.

They are joined at thehip.

They are always together and/or think alike.

We’ve got it made inthe shade.

Everything is working out just right.

What does John Q.Public say?

What does the average person think?

You’re crazy. Your words do not make sense.


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21.21 Spelling Tips

Spelling is a vital part of your written English skills. Your spelling needs to includeboth an understanding of general spelling rules and a mastery of common wordsthat you will use often. You can visit Chapter 19 "Mechanics", Section 19.1"Mastering Commonly Misspelled Words" for an overview of general Englishspelling rules. The following are some of the most common words you will need tospell listed in categories.

Days and Months Time Directions

• Monday• Tuesday• Wednesday• Thursday• Friday• Saturday• Sunday

• January• February• March• April• May• June• July• August• September• October• November• December

• second• minute• hour• day• week• month• year• decade• century• millennium• moment

• left• right• straight• east• west• north• south• far• near• next to• up• down

Grocery Lists General Shopping Lists Family Words

• apples• asparagus• bananas• beans• bread• butter• cabbage• carrots• celery• cheese• chicken• cucumber

• eggs• ham• hamburger• fish• lamb• lettuce• milk• pork chops• roast• soda• tortillas

• bath soap• deodorant• dish soap• floss• shampoo• toilet bowl

cleaner• toothpaste• window

cleaner

• aunt• brother• father/dad• grandfather• grandmother• husband• mother/

mom• sister• uncle• wife


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ServicesWords for Packing to

MoveMath Words Measurement

• barber• dentist• doctor• hair

dresser• lawyer• nurse• pharmacist• teacher

• bathroom• bedroom• dining

room• family

room• garage• kitchen• laundry

room• living

room

• add• subtract• multiply• divide• more• less• sum• difference• equals• plus• total

• inch (in.)• foot (ft.)• yard (yd.)• mile (mi.)• millimeter

(mm)• centimeter

(cm)• kilometer

(km)• cup• quart (qu.)• gallon

(gal.)• teaspoon

(tsp.)• tablespoon

(tb.)

Holidays Common Names

• New Year’sDay

• MartinLuther KingJr. Day

• Valentine’sDay

• St. Patrick’sDay

• Mother’s Day• Memorial

Day• Flag Day• Father’s Day• Fourth of

July

• Barbara• Elizabeth• Jennifer• Linda• Maria• Mary• Patricia• Susan• Adam• David• James• John• Michael• Richard• Robert• William

• Anderson• Brown• Davis• Garcia• Harris• Jackson• Johnson• Jones• Martin• Miller• Moore• Smith• Taylor• Thomas• White• Wilson


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Holidays Common Names

• Labor Day• Halloween• Columbus

Day• Thanksgiving• Christmas


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21.22 American Writing Styles, Argument, and Structure

Your original language has its own structures, formats, and cultural assumptionsthat are likely natural to you but perhaps different from those of English. Thefollowing broad guidelines underlie basic American English and US academicwriting.

• Citing sources: Some languages and cultures do not consider citingsources of ideas to be of paramount importance. In US academicsituations, however, failing to cite sources of ideas and text is referredto as plagiarism and can result in serious ramifications, includingfailing grades, damaged reputations, school expulsions, and job loss.

• Introducing the topic early: Unlike some languages, American Englishtypically presents the topic early in a paper.

• Staying on topic: Although some languages view diversions from thetopic as adding interest and depth, American English is focused and ontopic.

• Writing concisely: Some languages hold eloquent, flowing language inhigh esteem. Consequently, texts in these languages are often long andelaborate. American English, on the other hand, prefers concise, to-the-point wording.

• Constructing arguments: US academic writing often involves argumentbuilding. To this end, writers use transitions to link ideas, evidence tosupport claims, and relatively formal writing to ensure clarity.


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appendix a: writing for nonnative english...

Documents