appendix a - unina.itwpage.unina.it/agodemar/mridang/drum_manual_appendices.pdf · 88 that – the...

Appendix A

That – the indian modes

A.1 Swar – the notes

Swar are nothing more than the seven notes of the Indian musical scale. Swar is also called

sur. At a fundamental level they are similar to the solfa of Western music. These are shown

in table A.1. Two of these swar are noteworthy in that they are immutably fixed. These two

notes are shadj (Sa) and pancham (Pa) and are referred to as achala swar. These two swar

form the tonal foundation for all the Indian classical music. The other notes have alternate

forms and are called chala swar.

There are two forms of the names of the notes. There is a full version (i.e. shadj,

rishabh, etc.) and an abbreviated version (i.e., Sa, Re, Ga, etc.). The abbreviated name is

most commonly used. This is called sargam.

Full name Abbreviation Western nameShadj Sa CRishabh Re DGandhara Ga EMadhyam Ma FPancham Pa GDhaivat Da ANishad Ni B

Table A.1: The seven indian Swar (notes)

87

88 That – the indian modes

The swar (notes) are assembled to make the scales. These scales are called saptak. The

swar have special relationships with each other. Although there are only seven notes they

repeat in the upper and lower directions. Therefore, when ascending the scale when one

reaches Ni, then the scales starts over with Sa, Re, Ga, etc. This is the upper register. By

the same token when one is decsending the scale, it does not stop at Sa but continues down

as Ni, Dha, etc.; this is the lower register.

A.2 Saptak – the scales

The word saptak has two meanings. The first is the English word “register”. The second

meaning translates to the English word “gamut” or “the series of seven notes”.

The word saptak in Sanskrit means “containing seven” and is derived from the Sanskrit word

“sapta” which means “seven”. As already said the swar Sa and Pa are immovable. This

forms our perfect fifth. Every other note has various forms. However Hindusthani sangeet

(North Indian system) and Carnatic sangeet (south Indian system) take different views as

to how many, and what these positions shall be.

In Hindusthani sangeet the movable notes have two forms. The notes: rishabh (Re),

gandhara (Ga), dhaivat (Dha), and nishad (Ni) may be either natural (shuddha) or flattened

(komal). Madhyam (Ma) is unique in that its alternate form is augmented or sharp. This

note is called tivra ma. Therefore, we find that we are actually dealing with 12 swar.

This extended concept is shown in table A.2. These are roughly comparable to the keys

on a harmonium, or piano (chromatic scale).

The situation in Carnatic sangeet (the south Indian system) is a bit more complex. In

the South the movable notes Re (Ri), Ga, Dha, and Ni may occupy one of three positions,

natural, flattened, or augmented (sharp). Ma however still only occupies two positions,

either natural or augmented position.

In the previous table is evoked a model which is somewhat similar to the Western

chromatic scale. This is not exactly correct. The Western scale is based upon the equal

tempered scale while the Indian scale is based upon pure tones. Therefore the exact level of

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0

A.2 Saptak – the scales 89

intonations will vary.

Saptak may also mean the gamut of seven notes, or it may mean the octave being

performed (register). Unlike Western music which has an absolute frame of reference, the

North Indian system changes from instrument to instrument. The middle register, referred to

as madhya saptak, is whatever is most comfortable for that person or instrument; everything

else is reckoned from here. Therefore one register above this is referred to as tar saptak; and

the lower register is referred to as mandra saptak. Additionally, two octaves above the middle

is called ati–tar saptak; three octaves is called ati–ati–tar saptak, etc. In a similar manner

two octaves below is called ati–mandra saptak; three octaves below is called ati–ati–mandra

saptak, etc.

Full name Abbreviation Western nameShadj Sa CKomal Rishabh Re D flatShuddha Rishabh Re DKomal Gandhara Ga E flatShuddha Gandhara Ga EShuddha Madhyam Ma F

Tivra Madhyam Ma F sharpPancham Pa GKomal Dhaivat Dha A flatShuddha Dhaivat Dha AKomal Nishad Ni B flatShuddha Nishad Ni B

Table A.2: Alternate forms of the seven indian Swar (notes) in theHindustani system

The register is indicated in traditional notation by the presence or absence of dots. If

there is no dot then the middle register (madhya saptak) is presumed. The dot over a swar

indicates that it is tar saptak. Two dots over the swar indicate that it is ati–tar saptak.

Conversely, a dot below indicates that it is mandra saptak. Two dots below indicate that

the swar is ati–mandra saptak.

November 2000 [email protected]


A.3 The ten Thats

The that is the specification as to which of the alternate forms of swar (notes) will be chosen

in a rag. Several of the swar have alternate forms: natural (shuddha), flattened (komal). The

permutations of the various forms give rise to numerous scales with vastly differing intervals.

Therefore the concept of that is essentially the same as the Western concept of a mode.

There are 32 seven–note combinations of the swar. However, only ten are conventionally

accepted as thats. These are shown in the figg. A.1, A.2, and A.3 below (where the notation

has been normalised to the tonic of C; no absolute pitch is implied).

There are problems whenever one is talking about the number of thats. Generally only

ten are acknowledged; twenty are in common usage; while 32 are possible given present

concepts of scale construction. This has created a lot of confusion in north Indian pedagogy.

Three common scales which are not part of the ten thats are Ahir Bhairav, Charukesi, or

Kiruvani.

GSa�

Re

�Ga

�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

�Ni

�Sa

�

(a) That Bilawal (Ionian)

GSa�

Re

�Ga

�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

�Ni

2�Sa

�

(b) That Khammaj (Mixolydian)

Figure A.1: The ten Thats (I)


A.3 The ten Thats 91

GSa�

Re

�Ga

2�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

�Ni

2�Sa

�

(a) That Kafi (Dorian)

GSa�

Re

�Ga

2�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

2�Ni

2�Sa

�

(b) That Asawari (Aeolian)

GSa�

Re

2�Ga

2�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

2�Ni

2�Sa

�

(c) That Bhairav (Phrygian)

GSa�

Re

2�Ga

�Ma

�Pa

�Dha

2�Ni

�Sa

�

(d) That Bhairav

Figure A.2: The ten Thats (II)



GSa�

Re

�Ga

�Ma

4�Pa

�Dha

�Ni

�Sa

�

(a) That Kalyan (Lydian)

GSa�

Re

2�Ga

�Ma

4�Pa

�Dha

�Ni

�Sa

�

(b) That Marwa

GSa�

Re

2�Ga

�Ma

4�Pa

�Dha

2�Ni

�Sa

�

(c) That Purvi

GSa�

Re

2�Ga

2�Ma

4�Pa

�Dha

2�Ni

�Sa

�

(d) That Todi

Figure A.3: The ten Thats (III)


Appendix B

Details on drum construction

B.1 The treble head (pudi)

The mridang is a drum of unique tonal quality. This quality is derived primarily from the

complexity in construction of its drumheads. The drumhead, known as pudi, puddi, or purri,

is indeed so complex that it would be safe to say that no other drumhead on earth surpasses

it in this regard, though others may occasionally equal it.

The fashioning of the pudi (drumhead) is a highly specialized craft. This craft is passed

down from father to son in a manner typical of India tradition. The apprenticeship usually

starts in childhood and is completed only when the craftsman reaches full maturity. A close

look at the construction will reveal why it takes so long to learn the craft.

In fig. B.1, one can see the various parts of the pudi. These are: the gajara (braid),

the chat (outer annular membrane), the bharti (inner annular lining), the maidan (main

resonating membrane), and syahi (black spot).

B.1.1 Basic structure

In fig. B.2(a) is shown an expanded cross section (minus the woven hoop called the gajara)

of a mridang pudi. There are basically three parts of the pudi: (i) the weaving (gajara), (ii)

the membranes (iii) the syahi, or shyai, (black spot).

The gajara is composed of several components. The gajara is the most important part

of the pudi as well as the most visible. It is a heavy ring of woven leather and rawhide,

93

94 Details on drum construction

Figure B.1: Parts of Pudi; (1) chat (annular membrane), (2) maidan(main resonating membrane), (3) syahi (black spot), (4)gajara (braid), (5) bharti (inner annular lining)

composed of thong made of thick buffalo hide, which is woven into the pudi around its

periphery. It functions as a tensioning hoop, fitting over the top of the body of the drum

and transferring tension from the lacing to the sounding skin.

The bharti is an invisible layer of skin on the inside surface of the pudi. This is important

for giving mechanical strength to the pudi.

The resonation membrane is basically made of two components, the maidan, or sur,

and the chat, or kinar. The chat is an upper annular layer of skin which covers only the

outer periphery of the sounding surface. It serves a dual purpose. On one hand it gives

mechanical strength to the weaving, but on another level, it is an important part of the

resonating membrane. The chat is important because it has great effect upon the tonal

quality of the drum. The maidan has the distinction of being the only skin which covers the

entire opening. This is therefore the most important part of the pudi.

The syahi, or shyai, the black spot in the center of the pudi, is probably the most

distinctive part of the drum. It is there to give the mridang its distinctive tone.


B.1 The treble head (pudi) 95

B.1.2 Construction

Making the pudi begins by taking the rawhide of a goat and soaking it in water. Once the

rawhide is wet, excess hair and tissue is removed and the whole is allowed to dry.

Templates, known as jal, are used to mark off circles of various sizes for use on various

drums of different dimensions. The circles are then cut and the unused sections are cut into

trapezoids of varying sizes. These trapezoids will be used later.

The circular pieces of skin are now graded as to quality. The lowest grade will have

the centers removed and be used for making the outer covering of the pudi (the chat). The

medium grade is used for low cost, student grade drums, while the highest grade is used for

professional quality pudis. The skins are again soaked in water and removed.

The chat is made now. The lower quality skins are utilized by folding them in half

several times to form a triangle. The tip is cut off, so that when it is unfolded, there will be

a circle of about two to three inches in diameter that has been removed.

The chat now has to be fixed to the main playing skin (maidan). The chat is laid on

top of an intact skin so that the outer surfaces of both skins face up. Insertions are made

parallel to the edge of the skins with a small chisel. Care should be taken so that the chat

is slightly bunched up, so that on the drum all of the tension will be exerted against the

maidan, see fig. B.2(b). A piece of cord is inserted with a large needle and threaded back

and forth through the two skins as the insertions are made. Finally the two ends of the cord

are tied together.

The chat serves several very interesting functions. One of the jobs is to give strength and

durability to the pudi. The main resonating membrane undergoes a tremendous amount of

abuse where it passes over the sharp edge of the drumshell. This extra layer of skin increases

the life span of the head. Under normal use a pudi may last anywhere from 2 to 10 years.

The chat also effects the tone of the instrument. If the chat is very broad and extends

inwards to a great extent, it will decrease the sustain of the instrument. The effects of the

chat upon the tone may be illustrated in several ways. The most obvious is the manner

in which the craftsman trims the chat to give the right tone upon completion of the drum.



(a) Exploded view of the drum andthe pudi

(b) Chat (or Sur) and Maidan (or Ki-nar)

(c) A pudi at an intermediate stageof making

(d) Making the insertion slitsfor the gajara

Figure B.2: Details on the construction of the drum treble head (I)

Another is a trick used by many musicians to enhance the tone of their instruments; a string

is placed around the drum between the chat and the maidan. This may have an effect

which is sometimes subtle and sometimes great. This is a tricks which utilize the acoustic

interactions between the chat and the maidan, thus demonstrating the effect of the chat



(a) Insertion of the threethongs (tasma) and the coreof the Gajara

(b) Top view of the Ga-jara

(c) The finishing point of theGajara

Figure B.3: Details on the construction of the drum treble head (II)

upon the tone of the mridang.

The bharti is made now. The previously mentioned trapezoids are soaked in water, and

laid around the rim of the drumshell. The shorter edges face inside, see fig. B.2(c).

The chat and maidan, joined previously, are now stretched over the bharti and drumshell

and tied securely (fig. B.2(c)). There is no real attachment between the pieces of bharti,

maidan, and chat at the present stage of construction. The attachment will come with the



weaving of the gajara.

The weaving of there gajara begins by making vertical slits around the edge of the drum,

see fig. B.2(d). The bass head requires 64 slits while the treble head requires only 48. Care

must be taken that all layers of the skin have been penetrated.

Two long pieces of buffalo hide are used for the weaving. Each thong (tasma) is first

soaked in water, then lightly covered with oil. As shown in fig. B.3(a), the two thongs are

inserted into three adjacent holes up to their midpoints, thereby making four loose ends.

There must be a central core around which the gajara is woven. This is made by taking two

or three lengths of inferior quality leather thong and wrapping them around the rim, see

figg. B.3(a)and B.3(b).

The gajara the function of transferring the tension from the lacing to the maidan.

However it does so in a manner which is considerably more refined than the hoop found in

Western drums. Unlike Western drums the gajara has a buffering effect upon this tension.

This buffering is important because very little variation in tension is tolerated by the mridang.

This low tolerance is a natural consequence of the requirement for precise tunability. An

interesting feature of this buffering effect is that changing the tension on the bolts functions

as a “course tuning” while lightly hitting the gajara with a small hammer acts as the “fine

tuning”. In practice the majority of the tuning is done without any change in the tension of

the bolts at all.

The gajara also performs the necessary function of joining all three levels of skin (i.e.,

bharti, maidan, and chat) together. Finally the pudi is now removed from the shell and

the bharti is trimmed so that there is an even 1/2 inch projecting into the middle of the

pudi. The function of the bharti appears to be primarily mechanical in nature. The bharti

reinforces the maidan and keeps it from tearing under high tension.

B.1.3 Quality of gajara

The gajara is very important in determining the quality of the puddi. If one looks closely at

the gajara one will see that it weaves the bharti, maidan and chat all together. In order for

this to happen there must be holes to allow the bolt hooks to penetrate. It is this number of



penetration which effect how evenly the tension is going to be distributed. If the head is 5

inches or less, 32 penetrations is usual, otherwise the treble head uses 48 penetrations. For

a bass head, 64 penetrations are the optimum. A lower number is an indication of shoddy

workmanship.

There is an easy way to tell the number of penetrations without counting every slit in

the head. Simply count the number of slits per insertion of bolt hook. Mridang always has

16 bolt hook insertions; therefore, a 2–1 ratio corresponds to 32; 3–1 corresponds to 48; and

4–1 corresponds to 64. The illustrations in B.4, show a 2–1 relationship for the poor quality

gajara, fig. B.4(b), and 3–1 for the good quality gajara, fig. B.4(a).

The bunad is sometimes an indicator for quality. Bunad is a light goatskin which is cross

woven into the heavier buffalo hide. Many areas of India do not use bunad, therefore the

presence or absence is not necessarily significant. However if a pudi without bunad comes

from a shop or locale which normally uses them, then it is a hint that the pudi was rushed

and may not be of the highest calibre.

(a) A gajara of good quality (b) A gajara of bad quality

Figure B.4: Two gajara of different quality

B.1.4 The syhai

The syahi, or shyai, the black spot in the center of the pudi, is probably the most distinctive

part of the drum. It is there to give the mridang its distinctive tone. The process that

takesto the application of the black spot to the head skin is explained below.



A base upon the maidan for the syahi is established. This is done by boiling a small

amount of mucilage (called raal, saresh or sharesh) until it becomes soft and gummy. It is

then applied to the exposed surface of the maidan to form a circle of approximately 3 1/2

to 4 1/2 inches. The circle is then allowed to dry in the sun.

Syahi masala is the key ingredient for the creation of the syahi. This is a commercially

available powder reputed to be made of soot, iron dust, and other unidentified vegetable

matter. It is said that the best syahi masala comes from Bhawnagar in the Western state of

Gujarat. To prepare the paste for syahi, a little vessel is filled with a small quantity of water

and white flour. This is heated and mixed to make a glue (lai). The glue is now mixed with

the syahi masala. The whole mixing process is done in a rubber mat made from an old inner

tube. After a thorough mixing the paste is finished.

The application of a layer involves three steps: (step 1) The syahi paste must be applied.

This is done by using the first finger of the right hand to take up a small quantity of paste.

The paste is quickly applied with a circular motion of the finger to the area previously covered

by the mucilage. Support is given to the first finger by placing the second finger over the

first. (step 2) Excess paste must be removed. This is done by scraping with a curved metallic

strip. The drum is rotated during this process so that the application is of uniform thickness.

(step 3) Polishing with a stone is the final step. Immediately after the excess paste has been

removed, a polished piece of basalt is used to rub the syahi repeatedly. The pressure is very

important; it starts gently and builds up to a considerable level. Periodically the stone is

rubbed against the cheek to deposit a microscopic amount of sweat. The polishing is very

important because it will determine the density of cracks which are visible in the syahi.

Steps 1, 2, and 3 are repeated for more layers. The diameter of each layer remains full

size until four or five layers have been applied (see fig. B.2(a)). Then the diameters are

reduced until the layers are hardly more than half an inch. A few full size layers are again

applied, followed by decreasing sizes. This process continues until the desired thickness and

shape is attained.

The finished syahi is the most distinctive part of the drum head. It has a greater

impact upon the tone than any other part. For a further understanding it is necessary to



understand how membranes resonate. A membrane stretched over a hoop with uniform

tension resonates in a most unmusical manner. It is an inharmonic spectrum with no clearly

defined fundamental. Across the world there are two approaches to modifying the drum’s

tonality. One approach is to further muddle the harmonic structure. The “snare” on a

snare drum is a well known example. This has been a common approach for many Western

drums for centuries. A completely opposite philosophy exists in efforts to give the drum

a more defined pitch. A classic approach is to attach the membrane to a resonator and

use the membrane to excite the resonator. Such an approach is found in the timpani and

conga. Of relatively recent origin (in the West) are methods involving the modification of

the membrane itself. Stories abound of conga players who take a heavy hide and sand the

periphery of the skin so that the finished drumhead is thicker in the middle and thinner

at the edge. Another example is the adhesive dots placed at the center of many marching

drums. For both cases, the increase in mass in the center serves to make the membrane

vibrate in a more harmonic fashion.

This is exactly what the syahi does. It produces a more clearly defined harmonic and

therefore a more clearly defined pitch. One of the ramifications is that a change in the drum

sound can be effected by changing the syahi. Therefore it is quite common to find mridangs

made of the same thickness skin, on the same size rim, with the same tension yet having

very different musical pitches. This is because a thick syahi will naturally resonate at a lower

frequency than a thin one.

The shape of the syahi is also very important. The syahi will always be thicker in the

center than at the edge. But if the geometry is not correct then many of the resonance modes

will not converge in a proper way. The sound will be dissonant with different strokes evoking

different pitches. This is unacceptable to Indian music which require a clearly defined tonal

base.

Moreover, the syahi is applied in numerous thin layers. However it no longer behaves

in this manner. The key to this lies in the network of cracks which permeate the syahi. It is

clear at a glance that the syahi covers a considerable area of skin. It is also obvious that the

ingredients of the syahi harden to the consistency of cement. Such a hard material covering



a substantial area of the skin should hamper the vibration. The cracks are the key to the

syahi having flexibility, even though it is composed of such a rigid material. What appears

to be a monolithic application is in reality a matrix of unconnected particles, bound firmly

to the skin but unconnected to each other. Because they are unconnected the syahi exhibits

a surprising degree of flexibility.

B.1.5 Quality of syhai

For a good syahi it is especially important that it have a tight grain of cracks, see fig. B.5.

Syahi is made of a hard material whose stiffness would impede the vibrations of the skin were

it not for a simple mechanism. The cracks represent particles which are joined only to the

skin below and merely articulate with each other. This is how the syahi is able to be flexible

even though it is composed of inflexible material. The density of the cracks represents the

degree of flexibility. A high density is very desirable because it indicates a high flexibility. A

low density is bad because it indicates a low flexibility. Figg. B.5(a)and B.5(b) show typical

examples.

(a) A syhai of good quality (b) A syhai of poor quality

Figure B.5: Two syhai of different quality

Fig. B.6 shows a drum which has major damage to the syahi. The recommended

procedure is to replace the entire pudi. In India one would simply replace the syahi; however,

this is a very labor intensive operation and is not practical in the West.

A minor damage to the syahi is indicated by an annoying “buzz” or missing particles.



Figure B.6: Major Damage to Syahi - The recommended repair forsuch damage is replacement of the pudi

Missing particles may be esthetically unpleasant but in no way effect the sound. A loose

particle on the other hand adversely effects the sound. It is often possible to fix loose particle

without resorting to major work. Unfortunately one must first find it.

(a) A normal syhai (b) A syhai with loose parti-cles

Figure B.7: Particles of syhai

One way to locate the particle is to hold the drum upside down under a strong light

then strike it. If the drum is struck in this position it is often possible to see the loose

particle with the naked eye. See figg. B.7(a) and B.7(b). This is a very good approach when

it works because you can see exactly where the loose particle is. Unfortunately it doesn’t

always work.



There is another way which always works but does not allow one to isolate a single

particle. Lightly strike the drum with a Tin stroke. Now slightly rotate the drum. Repeat

the process. If one moves around the rim in this manner it will be seen that in one rotation

there will be heavy buzz, light buzz, heavy buzz, light buzz. Now pay very close attention

to the last two fingers during this process. These two points of the light buzz described

a line which bisects the drumhead. The loose particle will be somewhere on this line. In

practice both of these techniques may be used together to isolate the particle. When the

loose particle is found one simply has to place a tiny drop of white glue or super glue to bind

it to an adjacent particle. The buzz usually disappears.


Appendix C

A list of suppliers of Indianinstruments

105

appendix a - unina.itwpage.unina.it/agodemar/mridang/drum_manual_appendices.pdf · 88 that – the...

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