aphg notes.docx

7/24/2019 aphg notes.docx

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AP Human Geography Outline

Ch. 1 Thinking Geographically

Key Issue 1: How do geographers describe where things are?

Map- a two-dimensional model of Earths surface, or a portion of it.

Place- a specific point of Earth distinguished by a particular character.Region- an area of Earth distinguished by a distinctive combination of cultural and

physical features.

Scale- the relationship between a maps distances and the actual distances on Earth.Space- the physical gap between two obects.

!onnections- relationships among people and obects across a barrier of space.

!artography- the science of map-ma"ing.-arliest sur!i!ing maps are "rom #abylonian clay tablets$ %c& '()) #&*&+

-Aristotle was "irst to demonstrate that arth is spherical&-ratosthenes was the "irst person to use the wordgeography&

Proection- the method of transferring locations on Earths surface to a map.

#eographic $nformation System- %#$S& a computer that can capture, store, 'uery,

analy(e, and display geographic date.Remote Sensing- the ac'uisition of data about Earths surface for a satellite.

#lobal Positioning System- %#PS& a system that determines ones e)act location on

Earth.

Key Issue ': ,hy is each point on arth uniue?

*ocation- the position that something occupies on Earths surface.

+oponym- the name given to a place on Earth.

Place names commonly ha!e:-#ritish origins in .& America and Australia-Portuguese origins in #ra/il-0panish origins elsewhere in atin America-2utch origins in 0& A"rica

-3he #oard o" Geographical .ames was established in the late nineteenth century to bethe "inal arbiter o" names on 4&0& maps&

Site- the physical character of a place.

Situation- the location of a place relative to other places.Meridian- %longitude& an arc drawn between the orth and South poles.

Parallel- %latitude& a circle drawn around the globe parallel to e'uator and

perpendicular to meridians.

#reenwich Mean +ime- %#M+& the internationally agreed official time reference forEarth.

$nternational ate *ine- the longitude at which one moves forward or bac"ward day.


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!ultural *andscape- defined by *arl 0auer, it is the area of Earth modified by humanhabitation. /lso regional studies&

0ormal region- an area within which everyone shares one or more distinctivecharacteristics.

0unctional region- an area organi(ed around a node or focal point.

1ernacular region- a place that people believe e)ists as part of their cultural identity./lso the area in which a specific language dialect is widely used.

Mental map- ones perceived image of the surrounding landscapes organi(ation.

!ulture- the body of customary beliefs, material traits, and social forms that constitutethe distinct tradition of a group of people.

!ultural ecology- the geographic study of human-environment relations.

Environmental determinism- belief that the physical environment causes social

development.Proponents include:-Ale5ander !on Humboldt-*arl 6itter

-7riedrich 6at/el-llen *hurchill 0emple-llsworth Huntington %argued that climate was determining "actor+

Possibilism- the counter to e.d. %above&, it is the belief that while environment can limit

certain actions of a people, it cannot wholly predestine their development.

Resources- the substances found on Earth that are useful to people.

-*limate is o"ten classi"ied using the system de!eloped by German 8ladimir K9ppen&3he modi"ied Koppen system di!ides the world into "i!e main climate regions:

-A 3ropical *limates-# 2ry *limates-* ,arm id-atitude *limates-2 *old id-atitude *limates- Polar *limates

ach o" these di!isions is "urther subdi!ided based on precipitation le!els and seasons&

Polder- a piece of land that is created by draining water from an area. 0irst built in 2 th

century in the etherlands.


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Key Issue (: ,hy are di""erent places similar?

#lobali(ation- a process that involves the entire world and results in ma"ing somethingworldwide in scope.

-3he world$ geopolitically and economically$ has grown more globali/ed o!er the past"ew centuries& ,hile leading to a wider dispersion o" "unds$ and the increasedde!elopment o" nearly e!ery inhabited place on arth$ the globali/ation o" theeconomy has heightened economic di""erences among others& 3he gap betweenthe rich and the poor has increasingly grown wider %uneven development+& 7roma cultural standpoint$ globali/ation is a delicate issue& ,hile contributinggreatly to increased standards o" li!ing globally$ especially among 2*;s$ thespreading o" a uni"orm$ and some argue$


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Ch. 2 Population

Key Issue 1: ,here is the world;s Population 2istributed?

emography- the scientific study of population characteristics.3verpopulation- the status of not ust the total number of people on Earth, but also the

relationship between the number of people and the availability of resources.

.early two-thirds o" the world;s population li!e in > main regions:

-ast Asia One-"i"th o" world pop@7i!e-si5ths li!e in *hina alone-0outh Asia@One-"i"th o" world pop@3hree-"ourths li!e in India-0outheast Asia@appro5& one-twel"th o" world pop-urope@One-ninth o" world pop

All o" the abo!e mentioned population clusters are located win B)) miles o" ocean coasts

Ecumene- portion of Earths surface permanently occupied by humans.Appro5imately three-"ourths o" world population li!es on less than BC o" arth;s

sur"ace& Generally inhospitable lands are:-2ry ands too dry "or "arming co!er ')C o" land sur"ace&-,et ands too wet "or habitation are generally near the euator&-*old ands too "rigid to support ci!ili/ation&-High ands too steep$ cold$ snow-co!ered "or habitation&

/rithmetic density- total number of people divided by total land area.

Physiological density- total number of people divided by total arable land area.

/gricultural density- total number of farmers divided by total arable land area.

Key Issue ': ,here has the world;s population increased?

!rude birth rate- %!4R& total number of live births per every 555 people per year.!rude death rate- %!R& total number of deaths per every 555 people per year.

atural increase rate- %$R& 6 by which a population grows in a year %e)cluding

migration&.oubling time- the number of years needed to double a population %assuming constant

$R&

+otal 0ertility Rate- %+0R& the average number of births a woman will have in her

lifetime.

$nfant Mortality Rate- %$MR& the annual number of deaths of infants under year oldcompared to number of live births.

*ife e)pectancy- the average number of years a newborn can e)pect to live at currentmortality levels.

/gricultural revolution- domestication of animals.

$ndustrial revolution- a conunction of maor improvements in technology thattransformed the process of manufactured goods.

Medical revolution- the diffusion of med tech from M!s to the *!s.

7ero population growth- %7P#& occurs when +0R 8 9.. %again e)cluding immigration&


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3he .I6 was 1&( C during the "irst decade o" the '1stcentury$ hit its all-time high o" '&'C in 1DE($ slowly "ell throughout the latter part o" the century$ and has declinedsharply during the past decade& Although the .I6 is lower now than in the1DE);s$ the number o" people being added to the population is still largerbecause there is a larger base number to multiply the percentage with& 8irtually

1))C o" the natural increase is located in 2*;s$ primarily sub-0aharan A"rica&3he 376 has dropped dramatically in 2*;s$ normally ho!ering around '$ andhas e5ceeded E in some A"rican countries& Fust as the .I6$ 376$ *#6$ and*26$ the I6 is also highest in 2*;s$ again primarily in 0ub-0aharan A"rica&Only li"e e5pectancy and doubling time are higher in 2*;s&

Key Issue (: ,hy is population increasing at di""erent rates in di""erent countries?

emographic +ransition- a geographic model that divides a countrys development into :

stages based on its population growth patterns. $t has been attempted to have

been drawn and e)plained below;

0tage 1 0tage ' 0tage ( 0tage >

ow growth High growth 2ecreasing growth ow growth

03AG 1: 7luctuating high death and birth rates produce little growth03AG ': 2eath rate plummets as a country enters the ag and industrial re!olutions$causing plenti"ul "ood supplies and enhanced hygiene are dispersed to the masses& #irthrate stays relati!ely constant$ there"ore the .I6 syrocets&03AG (: 3he death rate continues to "all$ not as dramatically as in stage ' though& 3hebirth rate also "alls as more "amilies decide to ha!e "ewer children "or economic andsocial reasons& As a result$ the .I6 begins to taper o"" and "all&03AG >: PG is obtained through both the impro!ed standards o" li!ing as a result o"de!elopment and also because o" social customs&03AG B: 0ome argue that a stage B may e5ist and that some ,& uropean countriesand perhaps the 4&0& will or ha!e already entered& It is e""ecti!ely the same as stage 1$e5cept the birth and death rates are e5tremely low$ but .I6 "luctuates around )&

.atural Increase

2eath

#irth


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Population pyramids- a representation of a countrys population displayed by age and

gender groups on a bar graph. ormally shows the 6 of the total pop in : ,hy might the world "ace an o!erpopulation problem?

3homas althus proposed in hisEssay on the Principle of Population1JD$ that thepopulation grows "aster than the "ood supply& He claimed that while populatione5panded at a geometric or e5ponential rate$ "ood supply increased

arithmetically or linearly&Howe!er$ the continued e!olution o" agriculture has continued to pro!ide the world withan adeuate amount o" "ood& 3he problem now is distribution o" "ood$ not theactual production o" it& Also$ the birth rates declined sharply in the latter part o"the ')thcentury$ thus the world population e5panded to only E billion comparedto althus;s predicted 1)&

.eo-althusians claim that more 2*;s are in stage ' o" the demographic transition thate!er be"ore in history$ thus putting a larger strain on the "ood supply& 3hey alsomodi"ied althus;s theory by stating that the population growth is out-strippingnot Lust "ood production$ but a wide !ariety o" resources$ such as oil$ natural gas$etc&

*ritics o" althus claim that population growth stimulates new technology and that asstrain is put on any resource$ the in!enti!e human being will simply de!elop analternati!e method once it is economically "easible&

Pandemic- a disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects very highproportion of the population.

Epidemiology- the study of diseases that affect large numbers of people.

Epidemiologic transition- an alternative form of the demographic transition that

associates various degrees of medical advancement with the stages ofpopulation growth shown in the d. t.

03AG 1: pestilence and "amine& In"ectious and parasitic diseases areprimary causes o" death& #lac Plague03AG ': receding pandemicsM diseases spread uicly as poor peoplecrowd into rapidly growing industrial cities& *holera03AG ( N >: degenerati!e and human-created diseasesM !accination!irtually eliminates in"ectious disease in 2*& 3he li"e e5pectancycontinues to e5pand and chronic disorders such as heart attacs$cardio!ascular diseases$ and cancer begin to grow more pre!alent&03AG B: some propose that an age o" the reemergence o" in"ectious andparasitic diseases will happen$ as the once eradicated diseases adapt andbecome immune to the antibiotics that ha!e been used to control them


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AI20 %acuired immunode"iciency syndrome+ has been the most lethal epidemic inyears& DDC o" new cases within the last decade ha!e been in 2*;s$ mostnotably in sub-0aharan A"rica& As a result$ these countries ha!e seen their *26soar when it should be dropping& %ost o" these countries are in 0tage ' o" thed&t&+

Ch. 3 Migration

Key Issue 1: ,hy do people migrate?

Migration- a permanent move to a new location.Emigration- migration from a location.

$mmigration- migration to a location

et migration- difference between emigration and immigration.I" emigration is higher$ than it is net out-migration&I" immigration is higher$ than it is net in-migration&

Mobility- general term concerning all types of movement from place to place.!irculation- the day-to-day movement=route of a person.

ost people migrate "or economic purposes$ others "or cultural andor en!ironmentalreasons$ according to &G& 6a!enstein;s migration


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$nternal migration- permanent move w=in the same country.

$nterregional migration- move from one region to another w=in country.

$ntraregional migration- move w=in one region w=in one country.Migration transition- identified by >ilbur 7elins"y, it consists of changes in a society

comparable to the demographic transition. Stage consists of little migration?

Stage 9 involves international migration? Stages 2 and : are characteri(ed byinternal migration.

6a!enstein claimed that migrants ha!e typical characteristics:-ost long-distance migrants are male&-ost long-distance migrants are adults rather than "amilies with children&

In recent years$ these trends ha!e so"tened somewhat and the numbers now show a moreB)-B) split in the gender o" migrants& 3he "amily status o" migrants hasremained largely the same though&

Key Issue ': ,here are migrants distributed?

GO#A IG6A3IO. PA336.0

Annual .et igration

B))$))) 1))$))) 1)$)))

Australia

Asia

A"rica

urope.& America

0& America


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40 IG6A3IO. PA336.0

3he 40 e5perienced ( main migratory periods:-Initial settlement o" colonies "rom urope and A"rica-id-1Dthcentury to early ')th& 7irst "rom .& and ,est urope$ later "rom 0& and

ast urope&-1DJ)s to today& ainly "rom 2*;s$ such as e5ico$ *hina$ India$ etc&

@ndocumented immigrants- individuals who enter the @.S. without proper documents.

ore than one-hal" the immigrants to the 4&0& are clustered in > states$ *ali"ornia$ .ewor$ 7lorida$ and 3e5as&

!hain migration- the migration of people to a specific location because relatives or

members of the same nationality previously migrated there.

Key Issue (: ,hy do migrants "ace obstacles?

Auotas- ma)imum limits on the number of people who could immigrate to the @.S. from acountry in year.

4rain drain- the large-scale emigration of talented or scholarly individuals.

#uest wor"ers- citi(ens of poor countries who temporarily obtain dangerous low-paying

obs in M!s that the permanent citi(ens refuse to accept. %similar to time-contract wor"ers&

3here is o"ten di""iculty distinguishing betwi5t economic migrants and re"ugees$especially during times o" large-scale con"lict& 5& *uba$ 8ietnam$ Haiti&

O"ten immigrants to the 4&0& and ,& urope "ace racism or preLudice "rom the permanentresidents who see the migrants as economic competition$ cultural oddities$ etc&

Key Issue >: ,hy do people migrate within a country?

igration between regions o" a country

ost "amous e5ample within the 40 is the mo!ement ,est& 7or nearly ')) years$ thedominant mo!ement o" American people was almost due west in the search "ornew "armland to satis"y an o!erwhelmingly agrarian society$ causing thepopulation center to continue its march westward into the country& %p&1)B+

In recent years$ migration between regions has been dominated by the search "or betterLobs$ not di""erent land to per"orm the same Lob on& Also$ en!ironmental "actorsha!e played a large part$ i&e& old people mo!ing to 7lorida&

In other countries$ interregional migration has been prompted "or a !ariety o" reasons&0ome lie in 6ussia$ #ra/il$ or Indonesia were either "orced or encouraged bythe go!ernment to mo!e in order to de!elop certain areas o" the country&


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igration within a region o" a country

In 2*;s$ the migration trend recently has been ruralurban&In 2*;s$ the migration trend has been urbansuburban

!ounterurbani(ation- net migration from urban to rural areas.3his has been a trend in 2*;s$ as impro!ed technologies enable people to li!e"arther "rom their places o" employment and still enLoy all the amenities the cityo""ers& Howe!er$ in the 4&0&$ counterurbani/ation has stopped because o" pooreconomic conditions in the rural& Once again$ the trend is "rom non-metropolitan to metropolitan areas$ only now it is characteri/ed by a mo!e intothe suburbs rather than the inner city&

Ch. 4 Folk and Pop Culture

Key Issue 1: ,here do "ol and pop cultures originate and di""use?

Babit- a repetitive act that a particular individual performs.

!ustom- a repetitive act that a particular group performs.

0ol" culture- the culture traditionally practiced primarily by small, homogenous groupsliving in isolated rural areas.

Popular culture- the culture found in large, heterogeneous societies that share certain

habits despite differences in other personal characteristics.

A social custom originates at a hearth$ a center o" inno!ation& 7ol customs tend to ha!eanonymous sources$ "rom unnown dates$ through multiple hearths$ whereaspop culture generally has a nown originator$ normally "rom 2*;s$ and results

"rom more leisure time and more capital&: 7ol music tells stories or con!eys in"ormation about daily acti!ities& Popmusic is written by speci"ic indi!iduals "or the purpose o" being sold to a largenumber o" people&

2i""usion o" "ol and pop culture di""ers:7ol customs tend to di""use slowly and then$ primarily through physicalrelocation o" indi!iduals&Pop customs tend to di""use rapidly and primarily through hierarchical di""usion"rom the nodes& %*ertain "ads can di""use contagiously+

Key Issue ': ,hy is "ol culture clustered?

I0OA3IO. promotes cultural di!ersity as a group;s uniue customs de!elop o!erse!eral centuries& 3here"ore$ "ol culture !aries widely "rom place to place atone time& 0ince most "ol culture deals in some way with the li!es and habits o"its people$ the physical en!ironment in which the people act has a tremendousimpact on the culture&


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People li!ing in "ol culture are liely to be "armers growing their own "ood$ using handtools andor animal power& ocal "ood pre"erences are a large part o" the "olcustoms o" that region& 6eligious$ social$ or economic "actors o"ten determinethe type and amount o" "ood consumed in a gi!en region&

+aboo- a restriction on behavior imposed by social custom.5: little to no por is consumed in predominantly uslim countries&

Housing pre"erence is another maLor contributor to "ol culture& ocal traditions$ as wellas en!ironmental "actors determine the type o" house that is built in a region&

Key Issue (: ,hy is popular culture widely distributed?

Pop culture$ compared to "ol$ !aries widely "rom time to time in a gi!en place& 3his isdue to its widespread and rapid di""usion$ and the relati!e wealth o" the people toacuire the materials associated with pop culture& Pop culture "lourishes where

people ha!e su""icient income to acuire the tangible elements o" the culture andthe leisure time to mae use o" them&

Housing in the 40$ "rom the 1D>);s on$ has been less dependent on what type o" house isappropriate "or what site or region$ but more on what the dominant trend is inthe architectural "ield at the time o" construction&

3he most prominent e5ample o" pop culture in the realm o" clothing is the mighty blueLeans& 3hey ha!e become a symbol o" youth and


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compared to its share o" the world population& As the Internet increasinglybecomes the people;s resource o" choice$ pop culture will ha!e yet anotherconduit to rapidly and e""ecti!ely di""use to nearly e!ery inhabited place on theplanet&

In the 4&0&$ 38 stations are typically pri!ate enterprises that recei!e licenses "rom thego!ernment in order to broadcast o!er a speci"ic "reuency& lsewhere in theworld$ the go!ernments normally control the stations or at least ha!e a boardthat controls them& 3his censorship is used to minimi/e the lielihood thatprograms hostile to current policies will be broadcast& 3his 1D>-esuego!ernment regulation has lost some o" its strength in recent years howe!er&3he main reason is the increased number o" small satellite dishes that allow thecustomer to recei!e signals "rom stations based in other countries& Althoughsome countries outlaw the ownership o" these dishes$ indi!iduals continue toin!ent new ways to hide the dishes and thus continue to recei!e their contrabandsignal&

Key Issue >: ,hy does globali/ation o" popular culture cause problems?

2I6*3 3H6A3 3O 7OK *4346

As 38 and Internet spread to more people in more social classes$ many people areturning "rom their "ol cultures to the new pop customs& As this occurs$ peoplemay also turn away "rom the society;s traditional !alues&

3he spread o" popular ideas concerning the role o" women in society threatens toundermine the subser!ience o" women to men that is central to many "olsocieties& ,hile positi!e "rom a ,estern standpoint$ this re!ersal o" traditionalroles may actually threaten the economy in some lesser de!eloped areas o" theworld&

2OI.A.* O7 ,036. P60P*3I80

3hree 2*;s$ the 4&0&$ the 4&K&$ and Fapan$ !irtually control the tele!ision industry& Atleast one o" the three ser!es nearly e!ery 2* on arth& 3he 4&0& ser!esprimarily atin AmericaM the 4&K& ser!es primarily A"ricaM Fapan ser!es mainly0& and & Asia&

any 2* leaders claim that because the


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Pop culture also promotes uni"ormity o" landscape$ as e!idenced by the pre!alence o"nearly identical "ast-"ood restaurants at con!enient stops along highways&

Quite ob!ious is the increased need o" natural resources to "eed the pop culture cra/e& Asa new trend engul"s a population$ a speci"ic resource may be reuired to satis"ythe demand$ and little care is taen to ensure the preser!ing o" that resource "or

posterity& 3his$ in turn$ can lead to higher pollution le!els as a result o" popcultures&

Ch. 5 Language

Key Issue 1: ,here are nglish-language speaers distributed?

*anguage- a system of communication through speech, or other conventional methods,

that groups of people understand to have the same meaning.

*iterary tradition- a system of written communication.any languages lac a literary tradition$ there"ore impeding ad!ancement and

documentation&3fficial language- language designated for use by a countrys government.

nglish is spoen by one-hal" a billion people across the globe& It is the o""icial languageo" at least >' countriesM two billion people li!e in one o" these countries&

3he widespread di""usion o" nglish is thans$ in large part$ to the colonial practices o"the #ritish& 3hrough their coloni/ation o" the arth$ nglish was spreade!entually to .& America$ Ireland$ 0& Asia$ 0& Paci"ic$ 0& A"rica$ and numerousother remote locations&

ittle is nown o" the #ritish Isles until the *elts arri!ed around '))) #&*&$ speainglanguages that we appropriately call$ *eltic& Around >B) #&*& Germanic tribes$the Anglos$ 0a5ons$ and Futes$ in!aded and pushed the *elts "arther north andruled


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2i""erences between #ritish and American nglish are:

1& 8ocab- di""erent mainly because settlers in America encountered new obLectsand e5periences$ many o" which were assigned .ati!e American names&

'& Grammar- distinctly di""erent because Americans had a strong national

"eeling "or an independent identity& 3he "irst American dictionary$ publishedby .oah ,ebster was purposely altered "rom #ritish spelling to di""erentiatethe two languages&

(& Pronunciation- the most ob!ious reason "or di""erences is that large e5panseo" water that seems to separate the 4&0& "rom the 4&K& 3he e5treme physicalseparation caused the language to di!erge into two !ery distinct dialects&

2ialects within the 0tates are numerous and !aried due to the number o" people in the4&0&$ the wide land area across which the language is spoen$ the historicalmobility o" the American people as they !entured across the ,est$ and the !ariedethnicity o" the nglish-speaers within this country&

3hree main dialects e5ist in ngland:-.orthern-idland-0outhern3hese are used to classi"y many o" the dialects within the 4&0&

$sogloss- the word-usage boundary that can be constructed for any word.

Key Issue ': ,hy is nglish related to other languages?

*anguage family- a collection of languages related through a common ancestor that

e)isted long before recorded history.-*anguage branch- a collection of languages within a family that are related through a

common ancestor that e)isted several thousand years ago.

--*anguage group- collection of languages within a branch that share a common originin relatively recent history.

argest "amily is Indo-uropean$ spoen by nearly ( billion peopleelow is an e5ample o" the brea-down o" a language "amily:

I.2O-46OPA.

G6A.I* A#A.IA.-nglish$ German$ etc& A6.IA.I.2O-I6A.IA. G6K-Indic %eastern+ Hindi$ 4rdu$ etc& A6.IA.-Iranian %western+ 7arsi$ Kurdish$ etc&

6OA.* 3hese > are used less-ed& 0ea languages$ 7rench$ Italian$ etc& e5tensi!ely than the othersA3O-0A8I*-6ussian$ Polish$ */ech$ etc&

1ulgar *atin- the *atin that people in the provinces learned? substandard.


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!idence e5ists that a


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Ch. 6 eligion

Key Issue 1: ,here are religions distributed?

3here are ' types o" religions:@niversali(ing- religions that attempt to be global and appeal to all people.

Ethnic- religion that primarily appeals to one group of people living in one

place. More closely tied to the physical geography of a particular region,especially with agriculture.

4ranch- a large fundamental division within a religion.enomination- a division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations in a

single legal and administrative body.

Sect- a relatively small group that has bro"en away from an established denomination.

Pilgrimage- a sacred religious ourney.

3he ( main uni!ersali/ing religions are:

*H6I03IA.I3- ' billion "ollowers in .& and 0& America$ urope$ Australia$ and someAsian and A"rican countries& B)C 6oman *atholic$ 'BC Protestant$ 1)Castern Orthodo5$ and 1BC miscellaneous& About D)C o" the ,esternHemisphere is *hristian& DBC 6oman *atholic in atin American$ B)CProtestant in the 4&0&

I0A- 1&( billion "ollowers in iddle ast$ Indonesia$ Paistan$ India$ #angladesh&

*ore o" belie"s is based on the B pillars o" "aith:

1& 3here is no god worthy o" worship other than the one God$ and uhammadis the messenger o" God&

'& A uslim must pray B times daily "acing the city o" ecca&(& A uslim gi!es generously to charity$ as an act o" puri"ication and growth&>& A uslim "asts during the month o" 6amadan$ as an act o" sel"-puri"ication&B& I" physically and "inancially able$ a uslim maes a pilgrimage to ecca&

3he branches o" Islam are 0unni %(C+ and 0hiite %1EC+&

#422HI0- (EB million "ollowers in *hina and 0&& Asia mainly&

#ased on the > .oble 3ruths:1& All li!ing beings must endure su""ering&'& 0u""ering$ which is caused by a desire to li!e$ leads to reincarnation&(& 3he goal o" all e5istence is to escape "rom su""ering and the endless cycle o"

reincarnation into .ir!ana %a state o" complete redemption+$ which isachie!ed through mental and moral sel"-puri"ication&

>& .ir!ana is attained through an ight"old Path that stresses rightness o"belie"$ resol!e$ speech$ action$ li!elihood$ e""ort$ thought$ and meditation&


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3he branches o" #uddhism are ahayana %BEC+$ 3hera!ada %(C+$ and3antrayana %EC+&

3he other two main uni!ersali/ing religions other than the abo!e three are: -0ihism '> million "ollowers$ '1 o" which are clustered in the PunLab region o" India& -#ahS;T J million "ollowers dispersed across the globe&

0ome notable ethnic religions are:

HI.24- the world;s (rdlargest religion with ') million adherents& DJC li!e in India*O.74*IA.I0- mainly in *hina$ stresses ethical li"estyles3AOI0- mainly in *hina also$ "ollowers see the dao %tao+ meaning the way or path&0HI.3O- mainly in Fapan$ be"ore ,,II was the state religion and emperor was regarded

as di!ine&F42AI0- E million "ollowers in 4&0&$ > million in Israel$ ' million in 6ussia$ ' million

elsewhere& 7irst religion to support monotheism- the belief in only god, asopposed topolytheism- the belief in many gods.

A.II0- traditional /frican religions that focus on the animate 'ualities of normallyconsidered inanimate obects, li"e stones, water, etc. /nimism is a sort of all-encompassing term rather than a specific religion. I will now shamelessly plugmy own wor and say that "or more in"o on A"rican religions$ as r& King to see thetruly "abulous one-o"-a-ind presentation that a certain student o" his has prepared&

Key Issue ': ,hy do religions ha!e di""erent distributions?

As a general rule$ uni!ersali/ing religions ha!e origins based on a speci"ic indi!idual;sli"e in the past$ ethnic religions typically ha!e either no origin or an unclear oneat best&

0ome religious origins: *hristianity- based on the li"e o" Fesus Islam-trace lineage bac through Abraham;s other son IshmaelM based on the li"e o"

uhammad$ the Prophet o" Islam& #uddhism- based on the li"e o" 0iddhartha Gautama$ who later became #uddha %the

enlightened one+ 0ihism- "ounded by Guru .ana about B)) years ago&

Hindu- did not originate with a speci"ic "ounder& #eginnings o" Hindu date bac tobe"ore recorded history&

Missionaries- individuals who help to transmit a universali(ing religion through

relocation diffusion.Pagan- followers of polytheistic religions in ancient times.

#hetto- city slum designated for ew habitation.

!osmogony- creation story.Solstice- day when sun is at highest or lowest point in the s"y.

2i""usion o" 6eligions

*hristianity spread mainly through the wor o" missionaries$ and also by some conuestand coloni/ation&


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Islam spread mainly through conuestuddhism spread mainly through missionaries and trade merchants&

thnic religions rarely di""use$ and when they do$ it is to a small e5tent& 3hus$ theuni!ersali/ing religions di""use mainly at the e5pense o" the smaller ethnic

religions$ and o"ten a semi-hybrid religion will result with concepts "rom boththe ethnic religion and the uni!ersali/ing religion intertwined& Fudaism is ane5ception in that it has di""used widely throughout the years$ mainly because itspeople ha!e had to "lee persecution "rom many areas in the world&

#uddhism and Islam are the uni!ersali/ing religions that place the most emphasis onidenti"ying shrinesholy places& In uni!ersali/ing religions$ the holy places aregenerally locations at which memorable e!ents happened in the "ounder;s li"e$such as ecca is in Islam because it is uhammad;s birthplace& Holy places inethnic religions are o"ten physical "eatures that are closely tied to the religion&7or e5ample$ in Hindu one o" the most important rituals is the bathing o" onesel"

in the Ganges 6i!er&

*osmogony and calendars also di""er betwi5t uni!ersali/ing religions and ethnicreligions& thnic religious creation stories tend to deal with the physicalen!ironment and natural e!ents$ whereas uni!ersali/ing religion stories o"tenattempt to e5plain the mystical& thnic religions typically organi/e theircalendars around the seasons$ other natural e!ents$ or the physical geography&4ni!ersali/ing religions; main purpose in calendars is to commemorate e!ents inthe "ounder;s li"e$ thus the seasons or weather are not central to the structure&

Key Issue (: ,hy do religions organi/e space in distincti!e patterns?

3he distribution o" religious elements on the landscape re"lects the importance o" religionin people;s !alues&

In *hristianity$ the landscape is dominated by a high density o" churches& 3hey arecritical because o" the emphasis placed on regularly attending worship&

In Islam$ mosues are the places "or general assembly& 3hey are not !iewed as asancti"ied place but rather a con!ening point "or the community& A mosuenormally has a central courtyard surrounded by classrooms&

In Hinduism$ temples are built within the home or indi!idual community& 3hey ha!e acentral room to house a spirit$ with rooms "or rituals$ and outer puri"ying pools&

In both #uddhism and 0hinto$ pagodas are the common architecture& 3hey are typicallybuilt to enshrine sacred religious arti"acts&

In #ahS;T$ the church o""icials decided to open se!en Houses o" ,orship on multiplecontinents to stress the uni!ersality o" their religion&

3he disposing o" the dead di""ers "rom religion to religion& 0ome pre"er to bury whileothers choose to cremate&

6eligion o"ten in"luences the place-names o" certain regions& 5& 3he !ast amount o"places named "or saints in predominantly 6oman *atholic Quebec&


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Bierarchical religion- well-defined geographic structure with a high degree of

organi(ation.

E). +he Roman !atholic !hurchiocese- the basic geographic unit of the R.!.!.

/utonomous religions- self-sufficient religions with little organi(ation.

E). $slam prefers to unify by faith rather than specific boundaries.

ost ethnic religions are autonomous& Protestant "aiths !ary&

Key Issue >: ,hy do territorial con"licts arise among religious groups?

6IGIO. I0 A6G4A# 3H O03 8OI3A O7 A H4A. 6A3IO.0A.2 3H 0O46* O7 O03 8IO.* 3H6O4GHO43 HI03O6&

0undamentalism- the literal interpretation and strict intense adherence to ones religious

principles. 0undamentalists try to return society to its religious ways. +he most

obvious e)ample is the +aliban in /fghanistan.!aste- the class or distinct hereditary order into which a Bindu was assigned according

to religious law.

6eligion is nearly always suppressed in communist countries& eaders belie!e thatreligion has a tendency to upset stability and there"ore ban it altogether$ thougho"ten they Lust concrete the people;s religious adherence instead o" destroying it&

Other times$ when people o" di""erent religions li!e in close pro5imity to one another$engage in contact o"ten$ or share interests in a particular location$ especially!iolent interaction will occur& 5& 3he iddle ast& Fews$ *hristians$ anduslims ha!e "ought "or o!er '$))) years to control the same small strip o" landin the ast editerranean& Historically the *rusades between *hristians anduslims played out as each "ought to control the Holy ands& Hostilitiescontinue in the modern era o!er these same lands& Attempting to summate theissue in a "ew sentences would not be su""icient$ see pgs& '1(-'')&

3he contro!ersy in Ireland occurred when predominantly *atholic 0outh Ireland wishedto secede "rom predominantly Protestant Great #ritain& Howe!er$ thenorthernmost si5 counties o" Ireland are o!erwhelmingly Protestant and wishedto remain part o" the 4&K& ,hen the split occurred a small number o" 6oman*atholics in both .& Ireland and the 6epublic o" Ireland Loined the Irish6epublican Army %I6A+$ a militant organi/ation de!oted to achie!ing Irish unityby whate!er means necessary& A Protestant organi/ation has "ormed in return&8iolence continues as e5tremists "rom both sides disrupt the li!es o" peace"ulci!ilians&


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Ch. ! "thnicity

Key Issue 1: ,here are ethnicities distributed?

Ethnicity- the identity of a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a

particular homeland or hearth.Race- the identity of a group of people who share a biological ancestor.

3he most common ethnicities within the 4&0& are A"rican Americans andHispanicsatinos$ about 1(C each& Others include Asian American %>C+ andAmerican Indian %1C+& 3he "ourteen races win the 4&0&$ as decided by the*ensus$ are: white$ blac-A"rican American-.egro$ American Indian-Alasa.ati!e$ Asian Indian$ *hinese$ 7ilipino$ Fapanese$ Korean$ 8ietnamese$ .ati!eHawaiian$ Guamanian-*hamorro$ 0amoan$ other Paci"ic islander$ and lastly$other race&

,ithin a country$ clustering o" ethnicities may occur on a regional scale$ or withinparticular neighborhoods o" cities&6egional:-In the 4&0&$ A"rican Americans are clustered in the 0&&$ Hispanics in the 0&,&$Asians in the ,est$ and .ati!e Americans in the 0&,& and Great Plains&,ithin cities:-A"rican Americans are highly clustered within cities$ greater than B)C o"blacs li!e within cities& 5- In 2etroit$ A-A comprise )C o" the pop$ but onlyone-"ourteenth the pop o" the rest o" ichigan& 3he distribution o" Hispanics innorthern cities is similar to that o" A"rican Americans$ "or instance .* is UHispanic$ but only 11Eththe rest o" .ew or&

-3he clustering o" ethnicities is especially !isible on the neighborhood le!el&0uch as in *hicago where many o" the immigrants "rom 0& and & urope tendedto chain migrate to speci"ic city blocs in such density that certain areas o" townbecame nown "or a speci"ic ethnicity& ore recently$ howe!er$ descendants o"uropean immigrants are more liely to retain their ethnic identity throughreligion$ "ood$ and other cultural traditions rather than through location o"residence& Increasingly the ethnic concentrations in the 4&0& are A"ricanAmericans "rom the 0outh$ Hispanics$ or Asians&

3he current clustering o" A"rican Americans win the 4&0& results "rom three maLormigration "lows:

1& Immigration "rom A"rica in the 1th

century %sla!e trade+'& Immigration "rom the 0outh to northern cities during "irst V o" ')thcentury&(& Immigration "rom inner-city ghettos to other urban neighborhoods in the

second V o" the ')thcentury&

+riangular slave trade- an efficient triangular trading pattern used to transport trin"etsfrom Europe to /frica, slaves from /frica to the !aribbean, and molasses from

the !aribbean to Europe. /n optional stop was from the !aribbean with

molasses to the @.S. to e)change for rum and then bac" to Europe.


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Sharecropper- an individual who wor"s fields rented from a landowner and pays the rent

by turning over to the landowner a share of the crops.

Racism- the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities

and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race.

Racist- a person who subscribes to the beliefs of racism.


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Key Issue (: ,hy do ethnicities clash?

O"ten the cause o" !iolence is when di""erent ethnicities compete to rule the same regionor nationality& specially common in sub-0aharan A"rica$ where thesuperimposed boundaries o" the uropeans colonies poorly coincide with the

thousands o" ethnicities& 3he Horn o" A"rica has been the site o" many ethnicdisturbances: thiopia and ritrea$ 0udan$ 0omalia$ etc&

3he other main source o" ethnic !iolence occurs when ethnicities are di!ided amongmore than one state& 0uch as in 0& Asia where the #ritish di!ided their "ormercolony into Paistan and India& %ast Paistan became #angladesh a"ter 1DJ1+As a result o" the partition$ millions o" Hindus had to migrate "rom thePaistans$ and uslims had to migrate "rom India& 2uring the course o" themigrations$ many adherents were illed by members o" the opposite religion&Also$ contro!ersy continues in the northern area o" Kashmir o!er the properborder& 0imilar unrest is present on the island o" 0ri ana$ betwi5t the 3amil

Hindus and the 0inhalese #uddhists&

Key Issue >: ,hat is ethnic cleansing?

Ethnic cleansing- the process in which a more powerful ethnic group forcible removes a

less powerful one in order to create an ethnically homogeneous region.

Probably the best e)ample is >>$$ in which millions of ews, gypsies, and otherethnicities were forcibly moved to concentration camps, where most were

e)terminated.

,hen ugosla!ia was one country$ encompassing multiple ethnicities$ dissent was eptunder control& Howe!er$ once ugosla!ia broe up into si5 republics$ theboundaries did not align with the boundaries o" the "i!e largest nationalities$ andethnicities "ought to rede"ine the boundaries& In some cases$ as in #osnia andKoso!o$ ethnic cleansing was used to strengthen certain nationalities; cases "orautonomy& As a result$ millions o" ethnicities were "orcibly remo!ed "rom theirhomes$ and marched elsewhere$ or simply illed& 0imilar ethnic cleansingoccurs in *entral A"rica betwi5t the Hutus and 3utsis&

4al"ani(ed- used to describe a small geographic area that could not successfully beorgani(ed onto one or more stable states because it was inhabited by many

ethnicities with comple), long-standing antagonisms toward each other.

4al"ani(ation- the process by which a state brea"s down due to conflicts among its

ethnicities.


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Ch. # Political Geography

$ey %&&ue 1' (here are &tate& located)

State- an area organi(ed into a political unit and ruled by a sovereign government. $t

occupies a defined area on Earths surface and has a permanent population.Sovereignty- a states independence of internal affairs from other states.

Antarctica is the only large landmass that o""icially belongs to no state$ as part o" the3reaties o" Antarctica 1DBD and 1DD1& 0e!eral countries claim portions o" thecontinent$ but the 4&0&$ 6ussia$ and numerous other states re"use to recogni/ethese claims&

Korea was originally a colony o" Fapan$ but was di!ided into two occupation /ones alongthe (thparallel by the 4&0& and "ormer 0o!iet 4nion a"ter Fapan;s de"eat in,,II& 3he di!ision became permanent in the 1D>)s when the /ones were

turned into autonomous states& .orth Korea became the 2emocratic People;s6epublic o" Korea$ and 0outh Korea became the 6epublic o" Korea& In 1DB)$ .&Korea in!aded the 0outh$ sparing a three-year con"lict that ended with a cease-"ire line near the (thparallel& #oth go!ernments are committed to reuniting thecountryM howe!er$ attempts at reconciliation were halted when .& Korea decidedto build nuclear weapons while its people star!ed&

*hinese .ationalists who "led the country a"ter communist taeo!er$ established controlo!er the island o" 3aiwan& 3he .ationalists claim that they still are thelegitimate rulers o" *hina$ but "or the time being will rule 3aiwan& 3hecommunists claim control o!er 3aiwan$ but most other world states belie!e the

two are separate and so!ereign states& A"ter ruling power was shi"ted in 1DJ1"rom the .ationalists to the communists$ 3aiwan became the most populousstate not in the 4nited .ations&

A similar problem o" de"ining a state is seen in A"rica$ where the 0ahrawi Arab2emocratic 6epublic %,estern 0ahara+ is considered by most to be a so!ereignstate but orocco claims the territory and built a ($))) m wall around it toeep out rebel "orces& A cease-"ire signed in 1DD1 is super!ised by 4&.&peaceeeping "orces& 0pain controls two cities in orocco&

Microstates- states with very small land areas. +he smallest @.. state is Monaco %.H

s'uare miles&

2e!elopment o" the state concept

!ity-state- a sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside.

+hese were the first states to develop in ancient times. Reached highest point inthe Roman Empire.

arly uropean states e!ol!ed a"ter the "all o" the 6oman mpire as power"ul noblesemerged and began consolidating surrounding estates into ingdoms& 3his


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method "ormed the basis "or the de!elopment o" states lie ngland$ 7rance$0pain$ etc&

!olonialism- the effort by one country to establish settlements and to impose its political,

economic, and cultural agenda on an uninhabited territory. +he three reasons

for colonialism are;

. European missionaries establishing colonies to promote !hristianity.

9. #overnments establishing colonies to access raw materials and resources.2. #overnments establishing colonies to increase prestige of that country.

+hese 2 reasons are often summated as C#od, gold, and glory.D

!olony- a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely

independent.

$mperialism- establishing control of a territory already occupied and organi(ed by an

indigenous society.

A"ter coloni/ation ended$ many "ormer colonies established their independence "rom themother country& 3hus$ !ery "ew colonies e5ist in the modern world$ nearly all o"which are small islands in the 0& Paci"ic or *aribbean&

Pitcairn Island is the world;s smallest colony$ with B> residents on an island less than 'suare miles& It was originally settled in 1JD) by the crew o" the #ritish !essel4ounty. 3he islanders sur!i!e by selling "ish and postage stamps to collectors&

$ey %&&ue 2' (hy do *oundarie& cau&e pro*le+&)

4oundary- an invisible line mar"ing the e)tent of a states territory.

3here are two types o" boundaries:-PH0I*A #O4.2A6I0

-ountains are e""ecti!e i" they are di""icult to cross& -2eserts are e""ecti!e i" hard to cross and sparsely settled&

-,ater boundaries can be e""ecti!e "or de"ense because an assailant;s troopsmust establish a beachhead in order to attac& 6i!ers pose problemsbecause they tend to mo!e across the arth;s sur"ace as a result o" erosion&Oceans are the cause o" some contro!ersy because o" arguments abouthow "ar a state;s boundary protrudes into the water& 3he aw o" the 0ea$signed by 11J countries in 1D($ established the territorial limits "or mostcountries at 1' nautical miles$ and "ishing rights at ')) miles

-*4346A #O4.2A6I0 -Geometric boundaries are simply mathematical lines drawn on a map& -6eligious boundaries are rarely used$ bc they normally coincide with state

boundaries& -anguage boundaries are especially numerous in urope& -Implemented boundaries are those established by the ruling organi/ation& 5&

3he


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'B

3here are B shapes o" states:-!ompact states- the distance from the center to any boundary varies little.

#enerally found in smaller states.-Prorupted states- an otherwise compact state with a large proecting e)tension.

E). !ongo

-Elongated states- have a long and narrow shape. E). !hile-0ragmented states- have several discontinuous pieces of territory. E). @.S./.

-Perforated states- completely surround another state. E). South /frica

*andloc"ed state- a state that lac"s a direct outlet to the ocean. Especially common in

/frica.

0rontier- a (one where no state e)ercises complete political control.

@nitary state- a state that places most of the power in the hands of a central govt.0ederal state- a state that allocates strong power to units of local govt. w=in the country.

3he trend in recent years has been more states mo!ing "rom their unitary stance to a more

"ederal go!ernment&

#errymandering- the process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose ofbenefiting the party in power. CPac"ingD places many voters of one type into a

single area, whereas Cstac"ingD arranges the voters to win a maority of the

seats.

Key Issue (: ,hy do states cooperate with each other?

4alance of power- a condition of e'ual strength betwi)t opposing alliances.

0tates cooperate "or political and military reasons& 3he most important supranationalorgani/ation is the 4nited .ations& stablished in 1D>B$ it contained >Dmembers& As o" '))($ 1D) countries were part o" the 4&.& 3hough the power o"the 4&.& is somewhat limited$ it is still a substantial step in the direction towardglobal peace& 3he 4&.& nations can elect to create peaceeeping "orces$ and canreuest the military assistance "rom other states& Other signi"icant militaryorgani/ations are:-Organi/ation o" American 0tates %OA0+ all (B ,& Hemisphere states-Organi/ation "or A"rican 4nity %OA4+ all A"rican states-*ommonwealth o" .ations the 4&K& and B( "ormer colonies&

0tates also cooperate "or economic purposes& 3he best e5ample is the uropean 4nion&3he 4 main goal is to promote de!elopment within the member states througheconomic cooperation& 7armers subsidies$ and the introduction o" the commoncurrency the 46O$ are some o" the methods through which the 4 hasde!eloped ,& urope into the most !iable maret on arth& Germany dominatesthe 4& 0tringent guidelines pre!ent many #altic states "rom being admitted$thus preser!ing the economic bene"its reaped by the 1B older members&


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'E

Key Issue >: ,hy has terrorism increased?

3errorism is the systematic use o" !iolence by a group in order to intimidate a populationor coerce a go!ernment into granting its demands& 3he increasing le!el o"radical "undamentalism in many religions and the creation o" the terrorist

networ al-Qaeda ha!e led to an increase in the number o" terrorist attacsworldwide&

Al-Qaeda is a networ "ounded by Osama bin aden who used his se!eral million dollarinheritance "rom his billionaire "ather to "und the program& Al-Qaeda %an Arabicword meaning


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Ch. , -eelop+ent

Key Issue 1: ,hy does de!elopment !ary among countries?

evelopment- the process of improving the material conditions of people through

diffusion of "nowledge and technology.More developed country- %M!& a country that has progressed relatively far on the

development continuum. /lso relatively developed country? developed country.*ess developed country- %*!& a country in an earlier stage of development. /lso

developing country.

#ross omestic Product- %#P& the value of the total output of goods and services

produced in a country per year.*iteracy rate- the percentage of a countrys people who can read and write.

Buman evelopment $nde)- %B$& the official Cscoreboo"D that the @.. uses to classify

countries development as distinguished by its economic, social, anddemographic factors. +he economic factor is a countrys #P per capita? the

social factors are literacy rate and the amount of education? the demographicfactor is life e)pectancy.

3he country with the highest H2I has been .orway at &D>>& Others ha!e been *anada$Fapan$ 4&0&A&$ and !arious ,& urope countries& 3he lowest raning H2I wasrecorded in 0ierra eone with a &'JB& 3he other global lows are clustered insub-0aharan A"rica&

3he di""erent types o" Lobs are classi"ied into three maLor sectors$ all o" which will bediscussed in greater detail in later chapters&

-Primary sector obs are those that are involved in directly e)tracting materialsfrom the Earth$ i&e& ag$ mining$ "ishing&

-Secondary sector obs are manufacturing obs.-+ertiary sector obs involve the provision of goods and services to people in

e)change for payment. 3his sector is subdi!ided into uaternary%businesses lie trade$ insurance$ baning+ and uinary %health$ research$go!t&+

In 2*;s the number o" primary and secondary sector Lobs ha!e decreased while thetertiary sector has increased enormously& In 2*;s the number o" primarysector worers may be e5ceed JBC in countries where indi!iduals must acti!elyengage in subsistence "arming&

Productivity- the value of a particular product compared to the amount of labor needed

to ma"e it.1alue added- the gross value of the product minus the costs of raw materials and energy.

#oth producti!ity and !alue added are higher in 2*;s where manu"acturing is "ar moree""icient&

Generally$ those countries that ha!e had abundant resources stood a better chance tode!elop than those that ha!e had "ew resources& Howe!er$ some countries$ lie


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Fapan or 0wit/erland ha!e achie!ed superb de!elopment wout many resources$primarily through world trade&

A measure o" the wealth o" a country is the number o" consumer goods$ lie telephones$computers$ cars$ and tele!ision& In 2*;s$ !ery "ew o" these products are liely

to be "ound$ and those that do e5ist are normally shared among many neighborswho all share the cost& *ontrasted with 2*;s where the number o" 38s topeople is practically 1:1& In 2*;s those with wealth typically reside in thesuburbs and the lower classes reside in the inner citiesM 2*;s show the e5actopposite with the wealth clustered in the city and poor people li!ing in thecountryside&

3he literacy rate e5ceeds DBC in 2*;s compared to less than ()C in some 2*;s& 3hestudent-teacher ratio is 1B or below in many 2*;s and abo!e >) in some2*;s&

People are healthier in 2*;s because there are more physicians$ hospitals$ and nursesper person than in 2*;s& 3he people in 2*;s ha!e a healthier$ morecomplete diet$ and recei!e more calories and proteins than the people in 2*;swho barely recei!e the daily minimum&

i"e e5pectancy is higher in 2*;s than in 2*;s& In"ant mortality rate$ .aturalIncrease 6ate$ and *#6 are all higher in 2*;s& *26 is not indicati!e o"de!elopment because it remains relati!ely constant betwi5t 2*;s and 2*;s&3he reasons "or this are that medical technology has di""used to the 2*;s andthus lowered their *26$ and that there is a higher number o" old people in2*;s$ there"ore the *26 will eual that o" 2*;s&

Key Issue ': ,here are more and less de!eloped countries distributed?

3he world is categori/ed into nine maLor regions according to their le!el o" de!elopment&3he nine regions are:-Anglo-America *anada and the 4&0&-atin America-,estern urope-astern urope-ast Asia -Fapan is separate and is its own region&-0outh Asia-0outheast Asia -Australia and .ew ealand are treated separately and nown as the 0& Paci"ic&-iddle ast-0ub-0aharan A"rica

3hree o" the nine regions are classi"ied as more de!eloped& 3hey are Anglo-America$ ,&urope$ and & urope& %Fapan and the 0& Paci"ic as well+ 3he other si5 areconsidered less de!eloped&


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'D

2e!eloped 6egions

A.GO-A6I*A has an H2I o" &D>,036. 46OP has an H2I o" &D'A036. 46OP has an H2I o" &J& It is the only region on arth where the H2I

has actually declined& 3his is due to production cutbacs$ higher death rates$and !arious other hardships as a result o" o!ercoming communism and ha!ing torebuild their economies& 3he H2I is actually identical to that o" atin America&Howe!er$ because o" & urope;s history o" economic de!elopment$ it is listedas a more de!eloped region&

FAPA. has an H2I o" &D(0O43H PA*I7I* has an H2I o" &D(

2e!eloping 6egions

A3I. A6I*A has an H2I o" &J& 2e!elopment is high along coast$ where 2*;s

ha!e established manu"acturing centers or tourist destinations$ but the standardo" li!ing is lacing elsewhere in the region&A03 A0IA has an H2I o" &J'& *hina is e5pected to o!ertae 4&0& as the world;s largest

economy win a "ew years&0O43H03 A0IA has an H2I o" &J1I22 A03 has an H2I o" &EE& any o" the wealthiest people in the world are

clustered here because o" oil& Howe!er$ only a select "ew ha!e access to thismoney$ and it is poorly distributed to the general public&

0O43H A0IA has an H2I o" &B04#-0AHA6A. A76I*A has an H2I o" &>J

Key Issue (: ,here does le!el o" de!elopment !ary by gender?

#ender-related development inde)- %#$& compares the level of development of women

with that of both se)es.

#ender empowerment measure- %#EM& compares the ability of women and men toparticipate in economic and political decision ma"ing.

3he G2I uses the same indicators o" de!elopment used in the H2I adLusted to re"lectdi""erences in the accomplishments and conditions o" men and women& 3heG2I re"lects impro!ements in the standard o" li!ing and well being o" women$whereas the G measures the ability o" women to participate in the process o"achie!ing those impro!ements& 3he G is calculated by combining:-3wo indicators o" economic power -income -pro"essional Lobs-3wo indicators o" political power -managerial Lobs -elected positions

3he G2I and G are both substantially higher in 2*;s than in 2*;s&


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()

Key Issue >: ,hy do less de!eloped countries "ace obstacles to de!elopment?

3here are two models o" de!elopment that an 2* can tae&

1& 28OP.3 3H6O4GH 07-0477I*I.*: According to this

approach$ a country should spread in!estment as eually as possible across allsectors o" its economy and in all regions& 3he growth may tae time$ but willoccur o!er a broader spectrum& 3he idea is accomplished by protecting internalbusinesses by setting barriers that limit the import o" goods "rom other placesusing tari""s$ uotas$ etcM and limiting the amount o" goods that can be e5ported toother countries& An e5ample o" this approach is India$ which "or years madee""ecti!e use o" barriers to promote internal growth& Problems with the sel"-su""iciency approach are that it is ine""icient because internal businesses areassured o" the maret and do not ha!e to compete by de!eloping new products orlowering their prices& 3he sel"-su""iciency model also demands a largebureaucracy to administer the controls$ and this opens the go!t& up to corruption&

'& 28OP.3 3H6O4GH I.36.A3IO.A 36A2: 3his model wasde!eloped by ,&,& 6ostow in the 1DB)s& 3he model is di!ided into "i!e stages:

1& +he traditional society. 3his stage is be"ore a country has started tode!elop& A large number o" the population is engaged in subsistence ag&

'& +he preconditions for ta"eoff& At this stage$ a group o" elite businessmenbegin to organi/e the economy and create in"rastructure "or "uturemanu"acturing and ser!ices&

2. +he ta"eoff. 6apid growth is e5perienced in "ew select businesses& 3hesead!ances


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switched to the international trade approach ha!e seen "ar greater results& 3o"urther promote this model the ,orld 3rade Organi/ation %,3O+ was "ounded&

6egardless o" the approach taen$ nearly all 2*;s "ace the challenge o" "inancing theirde!elopment& 2*;s can borrow money "rom 2*;s to build in"rastructure in

order to instigate growth$ but many are unable to e!en pay the interest on theloans$ much less actually pay them o""& 6ecently$ 2*;s ha!e grownincreasingly unwilling to lend money to 2*;s because o" their history o"de"aulting& any 2*;s "orce the 2*;s that wish to borrow money to adoptstructural adustment programs- economic policies that create conditions

encouraging international trade, such as raising ta)es, reducing govt. spending,

controlling inflation, selling publicly owned utilities to private corporations,

and charging citi(ens more for services.

In recent years$ 4&0&$ Fapanese$ and uropean multinational corporations %.*+ ha!ebeen created& 3hese companies tae ad!antage o" the cheap labor and rela5ed

regulations "ound in many o" the 2*;s to produce products cheaply and sellthem bac home "or much higher& 3he main problem with .*s is that 2*go!ernments concentrate only on creating the in"rastructure to attract these largecompanies$ there"ore using crucial "unds to draw big business instead o"in!esting in the standard o" li!ing o" its citi/ens& In addition$ the go!t& mayo!erloo labor !iolations in order to eep the .* "rom lea!ing&

Ch. 1/ 0griculture

Key Issue 1: ,here did agriculture originate?

/griculture- the deliberate modification of Earths surface through cultivation of plantsand rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain.

#e"ore ag$ humans e5isted through hunting and gathering$ meaning the collection o" "oodon a daily basis& About 'B)$))) people still engage in hunting and gatheringMthese people li!e in isolated areas o" the Arctic$ A"rica$ Australia$ and 0&America& 3he "irst "orm o" agriculture was vegetative planting- thereproduction of plants by direct cloning from e)isting plants, i.e. cuttingroots=stems. ater$seed agriculture- the reproduction of plants through annualplanting of seeds that result from se)ual fertili(ation.

8egetati!e planting originated in three primary hearths: 0&& Asia$ ,est A"rica$ andnorthwest 0outh America&

0eed ag also originated in se!eral primary hearths: west India$ north *hina$ thiopia$south e5ico$ and north Peru&

Subsistence ag- the production of food primarily for consumption by the farmers family.!ommercial ag- the production of food primarily for sale off the farm.


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7i!e "eatures distinguish commercial ag "rom subsistence:-Purpose o" "arming: subsistence ag is to produce "ood "or own consumption&

*ommercial ag is produced "or sale to others&-Percentage o" "armers: in 2*;s less than BC o" worers are "armers$ compared

to BBC in 2*;s& 3he "armers in 2*;s are typically commercial$ whereas the

2* "armers are subsistence&-4se o" machinery: *ommercial ag maes hea!y use o" machinery wheresubsistence ag uses mainly hand tools and animals&

-7arm si/e: *ommercial "arms are much larger than subsistence "arms& 3hecommercial "arms ha!e to be larger in order to pay "or their hea!y machinery$and to mae a pro"it&

-6elationship o" "arming to other business: *ommercial "arms are commonly parto" an agribusiness- the many facets of food production, not ust isolated familyfarming.

Key Issue ': ,here are agricultural regions in less de!eloped countries?

3he three primary types o" ag in 2*;s are:

Shifting cultivation- characteri(ed by slash-and-burn ag- the clearing o" land by slashing!egetation and burning debris, and using a select field %swidden& for only a fewyears before leaving it fallow for many years to recover the soil.

0hi"ting culti!ation is practiced most commonly inthe tropics and other regionswhere soil uality is relati!ely poor "or supporting ag& 3he process wors wellwith "ew people$ but grows ine""icient as the number o" people increases andmore "ields must be le"t "allow longer& 0hi"ting culti!ation has been looeddown upon in recent years as the importance o" the rain "orests to the arth;secosystem becomes more apparent&

Pastoral nomadism- a form of subsistence ag based on the herding of domesticatedanimals. Primarily practiced in the large belt of arid and semiarid land that

includes north /frica, the Middle East, and parts of !entral /sia. /bout estern

Bemisphere, >estern Europe, and East /sia.


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On a global scale$ many industries "ace a stagnant demand "or products& any people aresimply trading in older models o" an appliance$ rather than purchasing one "orthe "irst time& 3he other maLor problem is the increased capacity o" industries allo!er the world to produce& 2ue to the high e""iciency o" modern manu"acturing$the marets ha!e been saturated with products& 3he supply is plenti"ul$ the

demand is not&In 2*;s$ trading blocs stand in the way o" industry& ,hile they promote economiccooperation win a bloc$ the three blocs seemingly do e!erything in their powerto compete with the other blocs& Also$ disparities e5ist win trading blocs&

2*;s "ace the same industrial problems that the 2*;s "aced V century agoM distance"rom marets and inadeuate in"rastructure& In addition$ they "ace newproblems& As more and more countries industriali/e$ "ewer are le"t to sell goodsto& 3hus$ more countries are competing "or "ewer marets& 2*;s also "aceincreasing e5ploitation at the hands o" the 2* multinational corporationstaing ad!antage o" cheap labor&

ew international division of labor- the selective transfer of uns"illed obs to *!swhile retaining the highly s"illed and managerial positions in the M!s.

Ch. 12 erice&

Key Issue 1: ,here did ser!ices originate?

Service- any activity that fulfills a human want or need and returns money to those who

provide it.Settlement- a permanent collection of buildings, where people reside, wor", and obtain

services.

!onsumer service- provides services to individual consumers who desire them and canafford to pay for them.

Retail services- provide goods for sale to consumers.

Personal services- provide for the well-being, health, and personal improvement ofindividual consumers.

4usiness services- facilitate other businesses through .producer ser!iceswhich areban"s, insurance, lawyers, engineers, etc and 9. transportation and in"ormationser!iceswhich are businesses that diffuse and distribute services.

Public services- provide for the security and protection of citi(ens and businesses.

3he ser!ice sector is subdi!ided into three types: consumer$ business$ and public ser!ices&

3he breadown is as "ollows: %numbers in bracets are C o" total pop in that ser!ice&+

068I*0

*onsumer #usiness Public

% Y >C+

6etail Personal Producer 3rans& and In"o%1> pop+ %1B pop+ %1E pop+ %JC+


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All o" the growth in employment in the 4&0& has been in the ser!ice sector&!lustered rural settlements- settlements where a number of families live in close

pro)imity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and

farm buildings. E). !ircular rural settlements, linear or Clong-lotD settlements.

ispersed rural settlements- characteristics of the contemporary . /merican rurallandscape. Settlements in which farmers living on individual farms are isolated

from neighbors. !ommon in Mid-/tlantic and Midwest.

Enclosure movement- to improve ag production, #reat 4ritain transformed the rurallandscape by consolidating individually owned strips of land into single, large

farms. Sometimes the land was ta"en by force.

Key Issue ': ,hy are consumer ser!ices distributed in a regular pattern?

!entral place- a mar"et center for the e)change of goods and services by people

attracted from the surrounding area.

!entral place theory- a geographic concept that see"s to e)plain how services aredistributed and why a regular pattern of settlements e)ists. Proposed by >alter

!hristaller in the G25s. !hristallers theory states that cities and services havea hierarchical setup. +hat is that the largest cities have the most services with

the largest range, and their range overlaps those of smaller settlements which

are spaced at even intervals between the mega-cities.

Mar"et area- hinterland? the area surrounding a service from which customers areattracted. Represented by he)agons, because they are relatively uniform and do

not overlap or gap when nested together.

Range- the ma)imum distance people are willing to travel to use a service. Ranges arefarther for certain services li"e concerts or sporting events, and they are shorter

for everyday services li"e groceries. ot measured ust in absolute distance, but

also the amount of time it ta"es one to arrive, given certain traffic conditions.+hreshold- the minimum number of people needed to support the service. Every

enterprise has a minimum number of customers re'uired to generate enough

sales to ma"e a profit. 3nce the range of a service has been calculated, aprovider must ensure that enough individuals are within that range to meet the

services threshold.

3he optimal location "or a business is one in which it has the most number o" peoplewithin its range with a minimum dri!ing distancetime without o!erlapping therange o" a similar ser!ice and thus rising the possibility o" losing customers tothat competitor&

Ran"-si(e rule- there are two different definitions. One is that in a gi!en country$ then-thlargest city contains 1nthe pop o" the largest city& eaning that the country;ssecond largest city contains V the pop o" the largest city& 3he other de"inition isthat i" "or instance a country had a city with 1$)))$))) people$ then it wouldha!e two cities with B))$)))$ "our cities with 'B)$)))$ etc&

Primate city rule-the largest settlement in a state has more than 9) pop of the secondlargest city? in which case that city is referred to as a primate city.


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Key Issue (: ,hy do business ser!ices locate in large settlements?

!ery settlement in an 2* such as the 4&0& pro!ides ser!ices to people in asurrounding hinterland$ but not e!ery settlement o" a gi!en si/e has the samenumber and types o" business ser!ices& #usiness ser!ices disproportionately

cluster in a hand"ul o" settlements&

Ancient world cities were organi/ed into city-states- independent self-governingcommunities that include the settlement and the nearby countryside. 0omeancient world city e5amples are: 4r$ 3itris Hoyu$ Athens$ and 6ome&

A"ter the "all o" the 6oman mpire$ urbani/ation was halted "or some time& Howe!er$when it resumed$ certain cities emerged as medie!al world cities& 3hese citieswere trading capitals$ go!ernment seats$ and religious centers& 0ome prominente5amples are: #aghdad$ *onstantinople$ Kyoto$ #eiLing$ and *airo&

In modern times$ se!eral world cities ha!e emerged where a high percentage o" theworld;s business is transacted and political power is concentrated& 3hese citiesare centers o" business ser!ices$ and they stand at the top o" the central placehierarchy in the pro!ision o" consumer ser!ices& 3he modern world cities arethose that are most closely integrated into the global economic system and at thecenter o" the "low o" in"ormation and capital& 3he three modern world cities are.ew or *ity$ ondon$ and 3oyo& 3he other le!els o" maLor cities are:

-*ommand and control centers: contain the HQ o" many large corporations$well-de!eloped baning "acilities$ and concentrated businesses& 5& #oston$2en!er$ etc&-0peciali/ed producer-ser!ice centers: responsible "or the "abrication o" aspeci"ic good or ser!ice& 5& semiconductors in 0an FoseM cars in 2etroitM etc&-2ependent centers: pro!ide unsilled Lobs and depend on decisions made inworld cities& 5& 7t& auderdale$ as 8egas$ etc&

4asic industry- industries that e)port primarily to consumers outside the settlement and

thus bring in capital from outside the settlement.

onbasic industries are enterprises whose customers live in the same community.

According to researcher 6ichard 7lorida$ the principal reason enticing talentedindi!iduals to cluster in some cities more than others is cultural rather thaneconomic& 3hose cities with a higher degree o" cultural di!ersity %measured byC gay men$ C cultural "acilities per capita$ and : ,hy do ser!ices cluster downtown?

!entral business district- %!4& the area of a city commonly referred to as downtown?

6etail ser!ices in the *#2 tend to be those with a high threshold %although in recentyears$ these ha!e migrated to the suburbs+$ high range$ and retail ser!icing


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downtown worers& Producer ser!ices tend to locate downtown since the actuallocation o" their business is not critical and so cluster in the *#2 "oraccessibility&

High land costs in the *#2 %more than Z1$)))$)))$))) per acre in 3oyo+ ha!e led to

intensi!e use o" the land that is a!ailable& *ities o"ten ha!e undergroundnetwors$ and subways to "acilitate the mo!ement o" the masses& In addition$the buildings are !ertical rather hori/ontal& 0yscrapers are especially commonbecause they allow large amounts o" people and euipment to residewor in arelati!ely small land area& 2ue to the high price o" land$ manu"acturing is lesscommon downtown than in the past$ instead many companies choose to mo!e tothe suburbs where land is cheaper$ but the *#2 is still readily accessible& 7ewerpeople are li!ing in the *#2 than in the past& One reason is that the businessesare more able to pay the high rents associated with downtown apartments$ andalso many people want to mo!e to the suburbs to access better schools$ lesscrowded streets$ and larger homes& 3he "ew residents le"t downtown are o"ten

poor and trapped in a cycle o" po!erty&

#ecause o" the a!ailability and low cost o" land in the suburbs$ many department storesand other businesses with high thresholds that used to be downtown$ ha!eclustered in the suburban malls& 3hese malls are agglomerations o" !ariousser!ices in one large building or networ o" buildings surrounded by paring$that is easily accessible "rom a nearby road Lunction&

Ch. 13 r*an Pattern&

Key Issue 1: ,here ha!e urban areas grown?

@rbani(ation- the process by which the population of cities grows? by an increase in the

number of people living in cities and=or an increase in the percentage of people

living in the cities.

A large percentage o" people li!ing in urban areas is a measure o" a country;sde!elopment& In 2*;s appro5 X o" pop li!e in urban areas$ compared to 'B"or 2*;s& 3he increase in ser!ice sector Lobs pull people to the cities$ while theneed "or "ewer "arm worers has pushed them out o" the rural areas&

Although 2*;s generally ha!e a higher percentage o" people li!ing in the cities$ 2*;sha!e most o" the world;s largest cities& About hal" the growth results "rom

people emigrating "rom the countryside to the city$ e!en without the prospect o"a!ailable Lobs& 3he other hal" o" growth occurs because o" high .I6 in the 2*cities&

2e"ining where urban areas end and rural areas begin is becoming increasingly di""icult$especially in areas dominated by urban sprawl$ lie the 4&0& ouis ,irth arguedthat an urban resident "ollows a di""erent way o" li"e "rom a rural dweller& 3hus$,irth socially de"ined the city as ha!ing these three characteristics:

-arge si/e


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-High density-0ocial heterogeneity

Physically designating a . 4urgess, it shows the city as growingoutward in concentric rings. +hough the ring si(e may vary betwi)t cities, the

same order is always evident; !4? (one of transition %industry and slums&?

wor"ing class (one? middle-class family (one? commuter (one. +his modeldisplays that wealth is what designs the city, as one moves out from the !4,

the residences in each (one are progressively nicer, and the people are

progressively richer.

Sector model- created in G2G by Bomer Boyt, it is essentially a modification of the

concentric (one model. Rather than rings however, this model uses sectors that

lead out from the !4 generally in a radial pattern, with transportation andindustry sector running alongside the !4. /s in the concentric (one model,

wealth increases as one moves out from the !4. +his model is especially

helpful in showing the clustering of ethnicities along certain sectors.

Multiple nuclei model- created in G:< by !.. Barris and E.*. @llman, it says that the

pattern of urban development is that there is no pattern and a city is a comple)

structure that includes more than one center around which activities revolve.


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.o model is truly better than another& .ormally one can argue any o" the three to "it anycity& 3he three models are used primarily to help in the understanding o" wherepeople with di""erent social characteristics tend to li!e within an urban area&

!ensus tract- urban areas that contain appro)


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3he concentration o" low-income residents in the inner-city$ with most o" the middle andupper classes in the suburbs$ has le"t city go!ernments with e5treme "inancialproblems& ,ithout a strong ta5 base$ many go!ernments are unable to "undschools or other social programs that would help end the underclass cycle$ thusthe problem continues& *ities are less able to anne5 compared to the past&

0uburbanites wish to ha!e their own ser!ices and ha!e Lurisdictions independento" the city& 0uburbs wish to remain close to the city to enLoy its amenities$ butnot become part o" it and ha!e to Loin in its problems&

Key Issue >: ,hy do suburbs ha!e distincti!e problems?

Peripheral model- developed by !.. Barris, it suggests that an urban area consists of

an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and business areas tiedtogether by a beltway or ring road. Peripheral areas lac" the problems of many

inner-cities, but often result in a large amount of inefficient urban sprawl.

Edge cities- areas that develop along the ring road that are nodes of consumer and

business services.ensity gradient- the density change as one leaves the inner city. +ypically drops from

e)tremely high in the !4, to low in the rural surroundings. Bowever, in recentyears, fewer people are living in the center thus creating a CholeD in the density

gradient with the highest pop density surrounding this hole. /lso, as suburbs

Cfill inD, the density differences are softened as one moves in a given direction.

Sprawl- the progressive spread of development over the landscape.

3he most important cause o" sprawl is the automobile& ore than any other in!ention$ ithas increased the daily range o" people$ and thans to highways$ people can li!emany miles "rom their Lob$ and commute e!eryday in their pri!ate !ehicle$causing e5treme congestion o" roadways and accelerated le!els o" pollution&*ities must also de!ote an enormous amount o" land to paring e!eryone;s!ehicles& ass transit is popular in many American cities$ and in other 2*;s&Howe!er$ the a!ailability o" public transportation is limited at best "or all but aselect "ew cities in the 4&0$ compared to near uni!ersal usage throughouturope& As resource crises loom on the hori/on$ many go!ernments areresearching new and impro!ed "orms o" mass transit&

#reenbelt- rings of open space found within European cities.

7oning ordinances- laws developed in Europe and . /merica in the early 95thcentury

that encourage spatial separation by congregating people of similar bac"groundand economic state.

!ouncil of government- a cooperative agency consisting of representatives of the variouslocal governments in the region.

Smart growth legislation and regulations to limit suburban sprawl and preserve

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