1.1 - DNA and the Genetic CodeStudents:1. Relate the organs involved in the human reproductive system to their functions1. Identify that genetic information is transferred as genes in the DNA of chromosomes.1. Outline how the Watson-Crick model of DNA explains:2. The exact replication of DNA2. Changes in genes.1. Recall evidence Watson and Crick used to determine structure of DNA.Watson and Crick specialised in interpreting previous data of others, not researching new facts for themselves. In order to make the double-helix model of DNA, they put together the following information: DNA was a large, long, thin molecule composed of units called nucleotides, made of the four different nitrogenous bases of adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), Phoebus Levene stated that the four bases were arranged in a repeating pattern. Linus Pauling stated that DNA had a helial or a spiral structure. Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin showed markings and photographs of DNA that confirmed the theory that DNA had indicated that the DNA's shape was that of a helix. Erwin Chargaff indicated that the amounts of guanine in DNA is equal to adenine, and the amount of cytosine is equal to thymine.Watson and Crick had put this information together and built the model of DNA that we currently use, the double helix, in February 1953.1. Describe the basic structure of a nucleotide and the double helix.Nucleotide

A nucleotide is a basic unit of nucleic acids made of three components: A nitrogenous base A five-carbon sugar A phosphate group.Double HelixA double helix is made of: A pair of sugar-phosphate chains, joined together by nucleotides. Nucleotides in the middle.1. Relate nucleotides to genes and chromosomesGenes Nucleotides, with its four bases, make up the 'ladder rungs' of a strand of DNA. A gene is a length of DNA that has a specific pattern for its base pairs (eg. AGTTCGTTGA), which make up the characteristics of the gene. Nucleotides are part of what creates a gene, alongside the sugar phosphate strands.Chromosomes Chromosomes are strands of DNA, and the length of the strands varies from organism to organism. Chromosomes are made of genes. Nucleotides make genes, which make chromosomes.1. Recall and name the five nucleotides and describe complementary base pairing in DNA and RNA.Nucleotide Names Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uracil (U)Complementary Base PairingRNA Adenine pairs with Uracil, Guanine pairs with Cytosine.DNA Adenine pairs with Thymine, Cytosine pairs with Guanine.1. Describe the main processes involved in mitosis and meiosis, including replication.Mitosis1. Chromosomes of cell condense and appear.1. Nuclear membrane of cell dissolves.1. Centrioles (the things at the end of the cells like the North Pole) form, and produce spindle fibres.1. Chromosomes form a single line down the cell (lining up along the equator).1. Spindle fibres extend towards the centrometre (the middle dot of the chromosomes), forming the longitude-like lines.1. Chromosomes are then separated at centrometres, and move towards the end of their respective cell.1. The cells separate completely, and the nuclear membranes of the cells form again.

Meiosis1. Chromosomes condense and become visible.1. Chromosomes are doubled, and attached by centrometres and begin to create spindle fibres.1. ologous pairs of chromosomes line up together at the middle of the cell, and centrometres are attached to the spindle fibres.1. Homologous pairs of chromosomes separate, and move towards the ends of each cell, pulled by the spindle fibres.1. Cells separate.1. Chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell once again, and connected by spindle fibres. 1. Chromosomes separate at the centrometre and move to separate ends of each cell.1. Cells separate completely, and haploid cells form.1. Nuclear cell membranes form again.

1. Compare and contrast the processes of meiosis and mitosis.SimilaritiesDifferences

Both processes start with a diploid cell. Both processes start the same way, where chromosomes are condensed, and doubled. Both processes dissolve the nuclear membranes of the cell when chromosomes line up against the equator of the cell, and form the membranes again when all daughter cells have been made. Mitosis results in two daughter cells, whereas meiosis results in four daughter cells. Mitosis has only one round of genetic separation and cellular division, while meiosis has two. Daughter cells as a product of mitosis are diploids where daughter cells of meiosis are haploids. The daughter cells of meiosis are not necessarily identical to each other, unlike mitosis. Mitosis occurs in all organisms, however meiosis can only occur in humans, animals, plants and fungi. The purpose of mitosis is for general cell reproduction, growth and repair of the body. The purpose of meiosis is genetic diversity through sexual reproduction.

1. Determine complementary sequences from a template strand.GTCAATCGTGTACATThe complementary sequence to this would be:CAGTTAGCACATGTAAs A (Adenine) pairs with T (Thymine) and C (Cytosine) pairs with G (Guanine).Identify the advantages of meiosis in the genetic diversity of a species. Gives species a better chance of survival, as if there are many different characteristics within the same species, there will be a greater chance that a few will survive if unpredictable drastic changes occur.1. Use a genetic code to predict an amino acid sequenceIf the genetic code was AUG CAG GUA CAG CGthe amino acid sequence would beMet/Start Glutamine Valine Glutamine Arginine.1. Explain the difference between genetic and chromosomal mutationsGene Mutations A gene mutation is a permanent change in the genetic code that makes up a gene. These mutations may be able to be rectified by enzymes. Gene mutations can have three different effects: The genetic code differs, however there is no change to the amino acid sequence, as some amino acids have multiple possible code. Therefore, there is no change to the polypeptide (chain of x amounts of amino acids) The genetic code differs, and changes more than one amino acid in the polypeptide. This alters the structure and functionality of the polypeptide to varying degrees. Sequence is changed, and includes an earlier stop codon. This changes the structure, function and length of the polypeptide dramatically.NB: a codon is a group of three nucleotides which form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule.Chromosomal Mutations A mutation involving a long segment of DNA, a chromosome. It is any change in the structure of a chromosome, and can include the addition, subtraction or inversion of chromosomes. Deleted sections of chromosomes may attach to other chromosomes, disrupting both the broken chromosome, and any that the mutated chromosome latches onto. Examples include Tri-21 Down Syndrome, where the person will have three of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two.1. Explain why Mendel's work in genetics is so highly respected.Through many experiments, Mendel had formulated the Laws of Inheritance through the cross-breeding of many generations of peas with contrasting qualities. These laws had lead towards the development of the Punnett Square. These developments have helped further genetic research, and helps predict the characteristics of offspring accurately and easily. 1. Explain the laws of segregation and independent assortment.The laws of inheritance are:1. Law of Segregation0. Alternate versions of genes, called alleles, cause genetic variation in organisms.0. For one characteristic, the zygote always inherits two alleles, one from each parent.0. The dominant allele only requires one parent to possess it for it to be apparent in the zygote, whereas the recessive allele needs to be present in both parents for it to show in the child.0. The two members of a gene pair, the alleles, separate from each other in the formation of gametes. Half of the gametes carry one allele, and half of them carry the other one. eg. mother is Bb, therefore half of the gametes will be B and other half will be b. If father is bb, then half will be b and other half will be b. If B from mum joins with b from dad, then baby will be Bb. The dominant gene will then take over, and the baby will have the phenotype B, and the genotype Bb.1. Law of Independent Assortment1. The genes for different characteristics are considered differently when gametes are made. Traits are transmitted to offspring independently of each other.eg. if you cross a GGyy with a ggYY, G and Y will be punnet-squared separately.1. Describe the differences between genes and alleles, genotype and phenotype, homozygous and heterozygous, and dominant and recessive.GenesGenes are the sequence of nucleotides found in DNA.AllelesEach of the two or more alternative forms of a gene that determines a certain characteristic of an organism.GenotypeThe genetic makeup of an organism (eg. BB, bb, or Bb)PhenotypeA set of observable characteristics of an organism. (eg. brown eyes, blue eyes, long-stemmed, short-stemmed, etc.)HomozygousWhere the genotype of an organism has two of the same allele.HeterozygousWhere the genotype of an organism has two different alleles.DominantThe stronger allele that only needs to be present in one parent to show up in the child.RecessiveThe weaker allele that needs to be present in both parents to show up in the child.1. Define autosome and allosome.AutosomalAny chromosome that is not an allosome (sex-chromosome). In a pair of autosomal chromosomes, both will appear to be identical. Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes, and are chromosomes 1 - 22.AllosomeA sex-chromosome. In a pair of allosomal chromosomes, the appearance will not be identical. Humans have one pair of allsomes, and are chromosomes X and Y.1. Use a Punnet Square and appropriate genetic notation to predict possible outcomes of monohybrid, test and sex-linked crosses.MonohybridThe genetic cross between two individuals that are heterozygous (hybrid) for one (mono) particular characteristic (or gene).Test CrossWhen an individual with the dominant phenotype (the characteristic that can be seen), but with an unknown genotype (Tt or tt) is crossed with a recessive individual. This is because dominant characteristics can be either homozygous or heterozygous, however recessive characteristics are able to be both. Therefore, by crossing an unsure dominant-characteristic-possessing genotype with a recessive genotype, one will be able to tell whether the specimen possessing the dominant characteristic is heterozygous or homozygous.1. Use probability to explain differences between predicted and actual outcomes of monohybrid crosses.If brown eye colour is dominant to the blue eye colour, a monohybrid cross between the two characteristics would result in 25% BB, 50% Bb and 25% bb. However, parents may have 4 children that all possess the bb genotype, contradicting the calculated outcome of the monohybrid cross.1. Provide specific examples of traits which are influenced by a combination of genotype and environment. Handedness Presence of Freckles Appearance of Hair Tongue Rolling1. Explain why boys are more likely to inherit an X-linked trait than girls.0. In order for a newborn to be male, they must possess the X and Y chromosomes, however females need two X chromosomes. 0. If a male inherits an infected X chromosome from his mother, he will not have any perfectly-functional copy of the chromosome to overwrite the defective part of the X-chromosome.0. Girls, however, have two X chromosomes. If they possess an irregularity in one of them and have another perfectly-functional X chromosome, there is less of a chance tha they will inherit the irregularity in the chromosome.0. Therefore, boys are more likely to inherit X-linked traits as they only possess one X-chromosome.1. Interpret and analyse basic pedigrees to determine the form of inheritance.Analysing Pedigrees If neither parent possesses a characteristic, however it shows in their offspring, this characteristic must be recessive.eg. Rr x Rr can equal rr. If both parents possess a characteristic and some of their children have it, then it must be dominant.eg. Rr x Rr can equal Rr or RR If both parents possess a characteristic however their children do not, it must be dominant.Difference with Pedigree and Punnett Square Punnett Square shows the possible genotypes of the offspring, and the percentage of chance for each genotype inherited. Pedigree shows who inherits what, and the characteristics of a family.1. Describe specific examples where improvements in technology has lead to increased genetic understanding.0. Technology had helped sequence fruit fly DNA and discover genomes of many other species, and had also helped lead to the discovery of restriction enzymes and DNA ligases. Used by Thomas Hunt Morgan in the 1920s.1. Compare and contrast restriction enzymes and DNA ligases and provide specific examples for their use.Restriction Enzymes First extracted form DNA in the 1960s. Only found in bacteria. Proteins that can cut DNA at specific base sequences, allowing genetic modification. Natural role is to protect bacteria from foreign DNA, which is then cut up into many pieces and destroyed. Are called restriction enzymes as they 'restrict' the growth of other organisms by destroying their DNA. Restriction enzymes are specific for each sequence, however, and therefore humans are constantly finding new ways to create more restriction enzymes. This is because the more restriction enzymes can be controlled, the more ways there will be to manipulate DNA. Used as 'scissors' in DNA manipulation.DNA Ligases Discovered in 1960s. Found in all organisms, not just bacteria. Attach, or link pieces of DNA together. Less specific than restriction enzymes. Can be used on a number of different sequences. Vital for normal DNA replication, part of main enzyme group responsible for repairing damage to DNA and mutations. Used as 'glue' for DNA manipulation.1. Define the term transgenic and provide specific examples of transgenic organisms that benefit humans.0. Transgenic organisms are organisms with new, inserted genes from restriction enzymes and DNA ligases.0. Genes from other organisms are cloned inside rapidly-multiplying bacteria0. Genes are cut out of the bacterial chromosomes.0. Fresh, healthy genes are in1serted into faulty genes to treat diseases.0. Process is called gene therapy, and creates transgenic organisms.0. Examples include replicating the human gene that creates insulin, and inserting it into someone who has diabetes. As the DNA of the person with diabetes now has recombinant (basically recombined) DNA, the body is now able to produce insulin.1. Prepare a logical argument on an issue, such as GM Foods, etc, using scientific evidence to support views.GM FoodsGM plants are plants that have been modified to enhance desired traits, an example being increased resistance to herbicides, or increased nutritional content.GM foods are a potential threat to biodiversity as they replace the many types of natural varieties of plants with only one type, the one which is genetically engineered. Also, they may pose unknown health risks to those who consume them. Another criticism of GM foods is that they may accidentally transfer genes to other species, and that they may contaminate non-GM plants of the same species through natural cross-pollination.However, GM foods can be beneficial to humans as they may be able to become more prolific in breeding, and have increased nutritional value. This benefits both the economy and general human health.1. Identify possible benefits of and concerns about a particular gene technology.Gene TherapyAdvantages Can treat many diseases that are related to mutations in genes. Therefore, gene therapy is able to save many lives.Disadvantages Processes are relatively new to humans, and are life-threatening, and is therefore a controversial issue. Treatment regarding body (somatic1. Describe how computers and advanced technology is critical in genetic sequencing and coding.0. Computer usage is vital as it enables:1. The comparison of DNA between individuals of the same and different species1. Can help determine changes in DNA over time1. Establish evolutionary relationships1. Identify the type of mutation that results in Cystic Fibrosis and describe how it is inherited. Autosomal recessive trait Predominantly affects children Most common type of mutation is a mutation in the CFTR gene of chromosome 7. The mutation results in the delta F508 allele, which causes a deletion of three base pairs at position 508 of the CFTR gene sequence. Deletion of three base pairs at position 508 prevents the codon for phenylalanine from obtaining its normal position in the protein, coded by the genes. Having two copies of the gene of this mutation inherited from parents is the main cause of cystic fibrosis.1. Relate improvements in technology and the scientific understanding to the treatment of cystic fibrosis Improvements in technology and scientific understanding has increased the lifespan of those with cystic fibrosis by 20 - 30 years, with developments from the 1960s. With current treatment, victims are also able to live normal lives. Improvements in technology which allow scientists to view genes would have contributed to this, as it would have allowed them to actually discover the CFTR gene.1. Suggest possible ethical issues associated with detection and treatment of cystic fibrosis Gene therapy, a possible solution for cystic fibrosis, has a high chance of resulting in death as its development is still in the early stages. Even if successful, the effects are short-lived and benefits are quickly reversed.1. Discuss the significance of the human genome project An international effort to determine the sequence of the human genome, and identify the genes it contains. It has allowed researchers to being to understand how a person is built. As researchers discover more regarding the functions of proteins and genes, better medicines can be made, and improvements in biotechnology and the life sciences will be seen.1. Describe some benefits and problems and some social and ethical issues of using biotechnology including the following:0. GM FoodsBenefits Food will have enhanced traits, such as increased resistance to herbicides, or higher nutritional content. It will be easier on farmers to produce the crop.Problems Poses a threat to biodiversity as the natural number of varieties of one species of plants will be replaced with only one type. If something happens to this particular type of GM plant variety, the species of plant will not be able to be eaten anymore. GM foods may cause health issues. Accidental gene transfer may occur between species, through natural cross-pollination.Social and Ethical Issues The lives of people who consume GM foods may be at risk. Genetic modification makes food 'unnatural'. Transgenic SpeciesBenefits Transgenic animals are able to provide medical benefits to humanity. Transgenic animals are potentially able to create more profit. Examples of this include cows being made to create more milk, or pigs being made to build muscle mass more easily so that more food will be made.Problems The species being treated are at risk of death, should a mutation occur. The creation of transgenic species could potentially lead to the creation of a new disease that humanity has not developed a treatment method for.Social and Ethical Issues Animals are only made transgenic so that they may benefit humans in some way, however little thought or care is given to the animal being treated, and therefore the creation of transgenic species can be said to be akin to exploitation of animals. Putting foreign objects from animals into humans may be dangerous towards humans as well as animals. DNA FingerprintingBenefits Assists law enforcements powers in solving crimes. Provides medical practitioners with information needed to determine hereditary diseases. Allows parents and children to find their relations to other possible family members. Makes identification of a person much easier.Problems Accuracy depends solely on quality of lab equipment, and the experience and skill of the personnel in the laboratory. Errors in DNA fingerprinting can lead to discrimination, or in the worst case - wrongful conviction.Social and Ethical Issues There is a lack of privacy if the DNA if the doctor is not careful with the information. May be carried out without permission of all people involved, resulting in an invasion of privacy. Artificial SelectionBenefits Artificial selection is able to produce the traits that are considered desirable in a species. Artificial selection, or selective breeding, is able to grow crops that grow faster over time, and produce a larger yield when harvested.Problems New defective traits could be born to the organisms that have been artificially selected. Varieties of organisms are lost. New organisms may not be able to resist against diseases the original organisms would be able to.Social and Ethical Issues Some believe that artificial selection may be 'playing with life', or 'usurping the plans of nature'. CloningBenefits Parents without eggs or sperm will be able to create an embryo that is still genetically related to them. Couples of the same sex will be able to have children with their traits in them. Parents that have lost a child will be able to have a child 'returned' to them as a clone. Endangered animals will no longer be endangered as they will be able to be cloned. Organs that are problematic will be able to be replaced with cloned organs.Problems Cloning is highly unsafe, as 95% of animal cloning has ended in failure. Cloned organisms often have a life expectancy that is considerably lower. Cloning is detrimental to genetic diversity. As the diversity in the genes of organisms decrease, so too will adaptability.Social and Ethical Issues If a human is cloned, discrimination may ensue, and they will always be compared to the 'real' one of them. Humans leave their genetic information everywhere simply by walking around. People may take this genetic information and clone others without their permission. Human and animal rights are at stake, and some people believe that cloning is an act against higher deities. Genetic EngineeringBenefits Genetic engineering of plants leads to better nutritional values, and plants may even be able to grow on lands where the conditions would be too harsh for an un-genetically modified plant. Generally, plants will possess better traits and benefit humanity. Humans will be able to change the traits of their children, giving their children traits that are considered superior.Problems Species being genetically engineered are at risk of death, should a mutation occur. The genetic engineering of species could potentially lead to the creation of a new disease that humanity has not developed a treatment method for. Detrimental to genetic diversity, and adaptability.Social and Ethical Issues People believe that genetic engineering is against the will of God.

CHEMISTRYYY

Chemical reactions involve rearranging atoms to form new substances; during a chemical reaction mass is not created or destroyed.Students: Recall that all matter is composed of atoms and has mass Identify a range of compounds using their common names and chemical formulae Construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a range of chemical reactions Deduce that new substances are formed during chemical reactions by rearranging atoms rather than creating or destroying them Balance a range of common chemical equations1. Explain that all matter is made up of atoms which have mass, and that atoms of different elements have different structures.

1. Compare and contrast word and chemical equations.Word Equations. Equations that summarise the changes in a chemical reaction through the use of words.An example of this is sodium + water --> sodium hydroxide + hydrogen.Chemical Equations. Equations that summarise the changes in a chemical equation though the use of symbolsAn example of this is 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) --> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)1. Compare and constrast ionic and molecular compounds.Ionic CompoundsIonic compounds contain both metal and nonmetal elements. The metal atoms donate their valence electrons to the non-metal atoms, causing the metal atoms to form positively charged cations. Accepting the electrons causes the non-metal atoms to form negatively charged anions. The difference in charge forms ionic bonds between ions. Ionic bonds are relatively weak and often break when the compound is dissolved in water. The number of electrons donated or accepted determines the charge of the ion, which in turn influences the ratio of atoms in the compound. Ionic compounds list the metal element first in the name, followed by the non-metal element name. However, the non-metal name is altered slightly so that it always ends in ide. For example, oxygen becomes oxide; chlorine becomes chloride; and sulfur become sulfide. Polyatomic ions (ions made up of a combination of more than one atom and usually more than one element) take on their own specific name, which may not necessarily end in ide. Ionic compounds usually form hard and brittle crystal lattices. The chemical formula of an ionic compound indicates the ratio of different elements in the compound.Molecular Compounds Molecular compounds contain two or more different non-metal elements. The different atoms share electrons in their valence shells and form strong covalent bonds. The number of electrons required to make the valence shell of each atom stable determines the number of electrons shared and the ratio of elements involved in the compound. Molecular compounds form discrete molecules, so the numbers in the chemical formula indicate the exact number of atoms required for each molecule. Molecular compounds are named according to the number of each element in the compound. There are a number of rules involved in naming molecular compounds. The element listed first is found further left on the periodic table than the other element. For example, carbon is listed first in any compound containing carbon and oxygen. The ending of the second element name is changed to ide. Numerical prefixes indicate the number of atoms of each element If there is only one atom of the first listed element, the prefix mono is dropped.0. Appropriately name and write formula for basic/common compounds.

0. Construct word and chemical equations based on reactionsEg. CH4 + O4 --> CO2 + 2H2O Methane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)2C4H10 + 13O2 --> 8CO2 + 10H2OButane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)C5H12 + 16O --> 5CO2 + 6H2OPentane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)C2H5OH + 3O2 ---> 2CO2 + 3H2OEthanol (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)HSO + NaCO3 ---> NaSO4 + HO + COSulfuric Acid (aq) + Sodium Carbonate (aq) ---> Sodium Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)2HNO3 + MgCO3 --> Mg(NO3) + HO + CONitric Acid (aq) + Magnesium Carbonate (aq) ---> Magnesium Nitrate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)HSO4 + MgCO3 --> Mg(SO4) + HO + COSulphuric Acid (aq) + Magnesium Carbonate (aq) ---> Magnesium Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (aq)0. Explain the law of conservation of mass with specific examplesThe law of conservation of mass states that the total mass of the reactants must be equal to the total mass of the products of a chemical reaction.When the products of a chemical reaction are not allowed to escape, the mass of the products is the same as the reactants at the start. An example of this is:Acetic acid (vinegar) + sodium bicarbonate sodium acetate + carbon dioxide + water.7. Balance simple chemical equationsEg. CH4 + O4 --> CO2 + 2H2O Methane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)2C4H10 + 13O2 --> 8CO2 + 10H2OButane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)C5H12 + 16O --> 5CO2 + 6H2OPentane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)C2H5OH + 3O2 ---> 2CO2 + 3H2OEthanol (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)HSO + NaCO3 ---> NaSO4 + HO + COSulfuric Acid (aq) + Sodium Carbonate (aq) ---> Sodium Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)2HNO3 + MgCO3 --> Mg(NO3) + HO + CONitric Acid (aq) + Magnesium Carbonate (aq) ---> Magnesium Nitrate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)HSO4 + MgCO3 --> Mg(SO4) + HO + COSulphuric Acid (aq) + Magnesium Carbonate (aq) ---> Magnesium Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (aq)Chemical reactions involve rearranging atoms to form new substances; during a chemical reaction mass is not created or destroyed.Students: Classify compounds into groups based on common chemical characterisics Investigate a range of types of important chemicals that occur in non-living systems and include energy transfer, including: Combustion Reation of acids including metals and carbonates Corrosion Precipitation Neutralisation Decomposition8. Identify the key chemical properties of the acids and basesProperties of AcidsProperties of Bases

Danger LevelCorrosive and poisonousCaustic and poisonous

Taste SourBitter

FeelIf strong, corrosiveSlipperyCaustic if strong

Effect on Litmus PaperTurns redTurns blue

Substance Released in SolutionHydroxide (H+)Oxide (OH-)

Can NeutraliseBases - Gives Salt and WaterAcids - Gives Salt and Water

React with MetalsTo give Salt and Hydrogen GasNo Reaction

React with CarbonatesGives salt and CO2No Reaction

1. Recall the indicator colours and pH values associated with acids and basesSubstances with a pH of a lower number are acids, and substances with a higher pH are alkalis.

0. Predict the products of neutralisation reactions, reactions between acids and metals, and between acids and carbonates.Acid + Base (or Alkali) ---> Metal Salt + WaterEg. 2HCl + 2NaOH ---> 2NaCl + 2H2OHydrochloric Acid (aq) + Sodium Hydroxide (aq) ---> Sodium Chloride (aq) + Water (l)Acid + Metal ---> Metal Salt + Hydrogen GasEg. Mg + 2HCl ---> MgCl2 + H2Magnesium (s) + Hydrochloric Acid (aq) ---> Magnesium Chloride (aq) + Hydrogen (g)Acid + Carbonate --> Metal Salt + Water + Carbon DioxideEg. HSO + NaCO3 ---> NaSO4 + HO + COSulfuric Acid (aq) + Sodium Carbonate (aq) ---> Sodium Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)0. Identify that combustion can occur at different rates, but still release energyWhen metal elements react with oxygen, a metal oxide is formed. Combustion is Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide.In the case of very reactive metals, this reaction is rapid and produces a lot of heat. For example, if magnesium metal is briefly exposed to a flame or is heated, it will start to react with the oxygen in the air, producing a brilliant white light. For moderately reactive metals like iron, the reaction still produces heat but it is slow.13. Predict the products of combustion, corrosion and oxidation reactions.Complete CombustionWhen ignited with plentiful supply of oxygen, hydrocarbons undergo complete combustion to produce water, carbon dioxide and a large amount of energy.Hydrocarbon + excess oxygen carbon dioxide + waterExample-Methane + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide + water + energyCH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O + energyIncomplete CombustionIf there is insufficient oxygen to ensure complete combustion then incomplete combustion occurs.During incomplete combustion the products carbon monoxide and carbon in the form of soot may be produced as well as water. Hydrocarbon + limited oxygen carbon monoxide + waterExample-4CH4 (g) + 5O2 (g) = 2CO (g) + 2C (s) + 8H2O (g)CorrosionCorrosion reactions are most commonly seen as metals reacting with the oxygen and moisture in their surroundings to produce metal oxides.Metal + water + oxygenrustThe rate of corrosion is different for different metals. For example, zinc corrodes much more quickly than iron, whereas gold corrodes much more slowly. The rate of corrosion of. a metal will also change depending on the conditions.OxidationOxidation is the gain of oxygen.For example, in the extraction of iron from its ore:

The transformation from iron (II) oxide and carbon monoxide into iron and carbon dioxide involves the addition of three more oxygen atoms, an example of oxidation.0. Explain how precipitation occurs.Displacement and precipitation reactionA displacement reaction is the swapping of ions in the compounds of two soluble salts. AB + CD AD + CBSometimes one of the new salts formed is insoluble. This is known as a precipitate, and this formation is known as precipitation. 0. Compare and contrast decomposition and displacement reactionsIn decomposition, the atoms of a compound are separated to form two or more products. The reaction can be generalised as: AB A + BAn example of this is when copper sulfide, is roasted at high temperatures, produces copper metal and releases sulfur dioxide gas as the sulfur reacts with oxygen from the atmosphere.A displacement reaction is the swapping of ions in the compounds of two soluble salts. AB + CD AD + CB0. Classify different types of reactions as either combustion, acid reactions, corrosion, precipitation, neutralisation or decompositionCombustionMethane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon dioxide (g) + Water (aq) + EnergyCH4 + 2O2 --> CO2 + 2H2O + energyAcid + Metal ---> Metal Salt + Hydrogen GasEg. Mg + 2HCl ---> MgCl2 + H2Magnesium (s) + Hydrochloric Acid (aq) ---> Magnesium Chloride (aq) + Hydrogen (g)Acid + Carbonate --> Metal Salt + Water + Carbon DioxideEg. HSO + NaCO3 ---> NaSO4 + HO + COSulfuric Acid (aq) + Sodium Carbonate (aq) ---> Sodium Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)PrecipitationSilver Nitrate (aq) + Sodium Chloride (s) --> Silver Chloride (aq) + Sodium Nitrate (aq)AgNO3 + NaCl --> AgCl + NaNO3NeutralisationEg. 2HCl + 2NaOH ---> 2NaCl + 2H2OHydrochloric Acid (aq) + Sodium Hydroxide (aq) ---> Sodium Chloride (aq) + Water (l)DecompositionCalcium Hydroxide (aq) --> Calcium Monoxide (aq) + WaterCa(OH)2---> CaO + H2OSodium Hydroxide (aq) ---> Sodium Oxide (aq) + WaterNaOH ---> Na2O + H2O0. Identify reactants and products based on chemical properties and other characteristicsTesting for Hydrogen Gas:Equipment: 2 * test tubes Test tube rack Diluted acid Magnesium strip Match Measuring cylinderSteps:1. Measure about 5ml of diluted acid with the Measuring cylinder and pour into one of the test tubes1. Place the test tube with acid on the test tube rack.1. Drop the magnesium strip into the test tube with the acid and immediately place the other test tube over the test tube with the acid and the magnesium strip. 1. Wait about a minute for the bubbling to stop. The bubbles indicate hydrogen gas and due to it being less dense than air, it will rise to the top of the second test tube.1. Remove the test tube on the top and be careful not to flip if over. While keeping the test tube face down, light a match and place it under the test tube. Tilt the test tube slightly on an angle and a distinctive squeaky pop should be heard with the matching going off.Hydrogen gas is less dense than air and will rise to the top of the test tube to the second test tube and remain there. When the test tube is tilted the hydrogen gas will move to the flames directly below the test tube and due to hydrogen gas being very combustible, the pop sound comes from the small explosion formed by the burning of hydrogen with oxygen. Testing for Oxygen GasEquipment: 1. Splint1. Match 1. Oxygen 1. Test tubeSteps:1. Isolate oxygen in a test tube1. Burn a splint and blow out the fire so that the splint is glowing red at the end but not on fire.1. Place the splint inside the test tube with oxygen and it will rekindle This is due to the splint combusting as combustion occurs at maximum rate when oxygen is at its purest state. The reason why the splint doesnt rekindle in normal air is due to the hydrogen being less pure than the pure oxygen in the test tube.Testing for Carbon DioxideEquipment: 1. Limewater 1. Test tube1. StrawSteps:1. Pour limewater into the test tube1. Place straw in the test tube and blow on it1. Change of colour of the limewater to a milky texture will indicate carbon dioxide.Lime water is a solution of calcium hydroxide and if carbon dioxide is bubbled through it,a solid precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed.Calcium carbonate is chalk or limestone,and it is this that makes the lime water cloudy.Identify some examples of important chemical reactions that occur in living systems and involve energy transfer, including respiration and reactions involving acids such as those that occur during digestion.1. Compare and contrast acids and bases, and provide examples of weak or strong acids.Properties of AcidsProperties of Bases

Danger LevelCorrosive and poisonousCaustic and poisonous

Taste SourBitter

FeelIf strong, corrosiveSlipperyCaustic if strong

Effect on Litmus PaperTurns redTurns blue

Substance Released in SolutionHydroxide (H+)Oxide (OH-)

Can NeutraliseBases - Gives Salt and WaterAcids - Gives Salt and Water

React with MetalsTo give Salt and Hydrogen GasNo Reaction

React with CarbonatesGives salt and CO2No Reaction

0. Describe how acids and bases aid in digestionAcidsGastric acid is mostly hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl). It has a pH of 1.43.5. The hydrochloric acid has several important jobs, including reducing the number of bacteria in the food, and dissolving leftover nutrients. The main role of the stomach is to digest proteins. In the acidic environment produced by gastric acid, a substance called pepsin digests most proteins. BasesIn the next stage of digestion, the breakdown of fat, the food travels to a basic environment.0. Compare and contrast the chemical reactions involved in aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic RespirationAerobic respiration needs oxygen. It is the release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by the breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen: Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + waterC6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O A rounded, roughly rectangular structure. Mitochondria are tiny organelles found in the cell cytoplasm. Aerobic respiration happens all the time in animals and plants. Most of the reactions in aerobic respiration happen inside mitochondria in cells.Anaerobic respiration Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration does not need oxygen. It is the release of a relatively small amount of energy in cells by the breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration in muscles Anaerobic respiration happens in muscles during hard exercise: Glucose Lactic Acid C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 Glucose is not completely broken down, so much less energy is released than during aerobic respiration. There is a build-up of lactic acid in the muscles during vigorous exercise. The lactic acid needs to be oxidised to carbon dioxide and water later. This causes an oxygen debt - known as excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) - that needs to be repaid after the exercise stops. This is why we keep on breathing deeply for a few minutes after we have finished exercising.21. Compare and contrast the reactions of respiration and photosynthesisThe overall word and chemical equations for photosynthesis are: Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 The overall word and chemical equations for anaerobic respiration are:Glucose Lactic Acid C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 The overall word and chemical equations for aerobic respiration are:Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide + energyC6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energyRespiration generally transforms substances from glucose, while photosynthesis transforms substances into glucose amongst other substances.22. Identify whether energy is released or required by respiration and photosynthesisEnergy is released through respiration, but is used by photosynthesis.Students: Classify compounds into groups based on common chemical formulae Investigate a range of types of reactions that occur in non-living systems and involve energy transfer, including: Combustion The reaction of acids including metals and carbonates Corrosion Precipitation Decomposition23. Classify the reactions involved in the production of steel from iron ore as either combustion, acid reactions, corrosion, precipitation, neutralisation or decompositionReaction 1Carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) This is a combustion reaction.Reaction 2 Calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) This is a decomposition reaction. Reaction 3Carbon + carbon dioxide carbon monoxideC(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)This is a reduction reaction.Reaction 4Carbon monoxide + iron oxide iron + carbon dioxide3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)This is a precipitation reaction.Reaction 5Iron(III) oxide + sulfuric acid iron(III) sulfate + waterFe2O3(s) + 3H2SO(aq) Fe2(SO4)(aq) + 3H2O(l)This is a neutralisation reaction.24. Explain that the products formed in each stage use the same atoms present in the reactants.As the equations above have been balanced, it is evident that the products in each stage are the same atoms in the reactants, that have been rearranged as a result of the chemical reaction.25. Name each compound and write its formula correctly.