apeh ch 23.notebook · •italy would end up unified by more conservative piedmontsardinia, a...

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APEH ch 23.notebook 1 January 25, 2013 Chapter 23 The Concert of Europe collapsed in the 1850s. The great powers were once again willing to go to war with each other. They no longer feared revolutionary turmoil because all of the revolutions of 1848 had ultimately failed. This explains their eagerness to upset the balance of power in order to gain advantages at the expense of others. Crimean War (18541856) Causes: 1) The Ottoman Empire gave France a custodial role over the empire's Catholics and over the Holy Places in Jerusalem. 2) Russia resented this change and wanted to expand its power in the Balkans at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Russia used its role as protector of the empire's Orthodox population as an excuse to invade the empire through the Balkans. 3) Napoleon III was always eager for a military adventure which would enhance his reputation, so France went to war in response. 4) Britain opposed Russian expansion toward the Mediterranean because it wanted to preserve its dominant position, so it also went to war. 5) PiedmontSardinia joined Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire because it wanted to earn France's gratitude and its support for Italian unification. The Crimean War was the first war to be photographed and to be covered by newspaper correspondents who used the telegraph to transmit their stories. It was also the first war where steamships and railroads were used extensively.

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Page 1: APEH ch 23.notebook · •Italy would end up unified by more conservative PiedmontSardinia, a constitutional monarchy, which wanted to unify Italy in order to achieve economic progress

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Chapter 23• The Concert of Europe collapsed in the 1850s. The great powers were once again willing to go to war with each other. They no longer feared revolutionary turmoil because all of the revolutions of 1848 had ultimately failed. This explains their eagerness to upset the balance of power in order to gain advantages at the expense of others.

Crimean War (1854­1856)• Causes: 1) The Ottoman Empire  gave France a custodial role over the empire's Catholics and over the Holy Places in Jerusalem. 2) Russia resented this change and wanted to expand its power in the Balkans at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Russia used its role as protector of the empire's Orthodox population as an excuse to invade the empire through the Balkans. 3) Napoleon III was always eager for a military adventure which would enhance his reputation, so France went to war in response. 4) Britain opposed Russian expansion toward the Mediterranean because it wanted to preserve its dominant position, so it also went to war. 5) Piedmont­Sardinia joined Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire because it wanted to earn France's gratitude and its support for Italian unification.• The Crimean War was the first war to be photographed and to be covered by newspaper correspondents who used the telegraph to transmit their stories. It was also the first war where steamships and railroads were used extensively.

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• Britain, France, and Piedmont invaded the Crimean Peninsula and eventually captured Russia's main bases, forcing Russia to surrender. Russia's defeat showed how backward it was, since it had not yet industrialized.• In the Treaty of Paris (1856) Russia lost territory at the mouth of the Danube and lost its role as protector of the empire's Orthodox. • Austria had stayed neutral because it did not want Russia to expand into the Balkans. It therefore did not return the favor after Russia had helped suppress the Hungarian uprising in 1849.

Italian Unification• The Risorgimento was the resurgence of Italian identity in the 19th century, beginning with Napoleon's invasion. Its leaders were romantic, revolutionary, liberal, republican nationalists like Mazzini and Garibaldi who spent decades campaigning, writing, speaking, conspiring, and fighting for this cause. Their efforts in Rome in 1849 had failed, however.• Italy would end up unified by more conservative Piedmont­Sardinia, a constitutional monarchy, which wanted to unify Italy in order to achieve economic progress (industrialization, railroads) and create a more powerful state. Count Cavour was Piedmont's chief minister and leader of this effort.

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• After the Crimean War Cavour met with Napoleon III and he used Piedmont's participation in the Crimean War, the memory of Napoleon's role in Italy, and Napoleon III's desire for military glory to convince Napoleon III to support Piedmont's goals. Cavour also argued that Italian unification would help reduce Austrian power. Napoleon III, however, demanded Savoy and Nice in return for aiding Piedmont.• Austro­Sardinian War (1859) France and Piedmont went to war against Austria. Austria was defeated and lost Lombardy to Piedmont.• Revolutions then broke out in Modena, the Papal States, Parma, and Tuscany. All of them joined Piedmont as well. Only Rome itself remained under papal control as it was under French protection.• The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was much more socially and economically backward than northern Italy, and its government was notorious for its corruption and despotism. Garibaldi decided, with Piedmontese support, to form his own army, the Red Shirts, and invade Sicily in 1860. Garibaldi was successful in capturing much of the Two Sicilies but Cavour did not want an Italian republic under Garibaldi, so Piedmontese forces marched southward and captured Naples. • Instead of clashing with the Piedmontese, Garibaldi made a patriotic gesture and handed over the south to the forces of King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont. Garibaldi would rather have a unified Italy than fight, even if it was not the republic of his dreams.   

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• The Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II was established in 1861, still missing Venetia and Rome. By 1870 Italy would be complete, but it still suffered from great disparities between North and South. Italy's king and constitution had been those of Piedmont, and the South felt it had been conquered by the North rather than unified with it.• Italy still claimed Trent and Trieste, territories inhabited by Italians in the Austrian Empire. These were known as "Italia Irredenta" (unredeemed Italy), and this issue poisoned relations with Austria until World War I.

German Unification• The unification of Germany was the most important event in Europe between the defeat of Napoleon and World War I. By virtue of its size, population, industry, technology, and military, Germany was the most powerful and advanced country in Europe.• German unification represented the triumph of conservatism and Prussian militarism over liberalism. Germany was not unified by liberal politicians or speeches, or parliaments, but rather through war ("blood and iron"), under Prussian leadership.• Prussia led unification under King Wilhelm I (r. 1861­1888) and its chancellor, Otto von Bismarck (r. 1862­1890). Bismarck was the dominant European figure of his age. He was like Cavour in Italy. They started wars to achieve their goals, and they unified their countries to make stronger states, not out of romantic, sentimental nationalism.

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• Bismarck stoked nationalist feelings in order to coopt and neutralize liberalism. Winning wars and achieving national unification increased popular support for the monarchy and army, and so liberal nationalists could not oppose these institutions.• As with Italy, Austria was the great obstacle to German unification. Bismarck took advantage of circumstances to maneuver Austria into a disadvantageous position. His first pretext was war with Denmark.• The King of Denmark was also Duke of Schleswig and of Holstein, and Holstein was part of the German Confederation. Denmark annexed the duchies, which became Bismarck's excuse to go to war, along with Austria, in 1864. Prussia and Austria easily defeated Denmark, and the duchies were then jointly administered by Austria and Prussia.• Bismarck then deliberately provoked Austria into war by being as disagreeable and obstructionist as possible in their administration of the duchies. Austria then started the Austro­Prussian War (1866), which is exactly what Bismarck wanted.• Prussia was joined by Italy. Prussia easily defeated Austria, but Bismarck did not punish or humiliate Austria. All he wanted was to exclude Austria from German affairs. Austria only lost Venetia to Italy.

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• Bismarck now only needed to neutralize France and get the other German states to acknowledge Prussian leadership. He found a pretext for war with France in a dispute over the succession in Spain.• In 1868 the Bourbon Queen of Spain was overthrown in a coup. The new Spanish government decided to offer the crown of Spain to a Hohenzollern prince. France found this unacceptable, as it feared that Spain would become a Prussian puppet. The prince withdrew his candidacy. Just to make sure, Napoleon III sent his ambassador to meet with Wilhelm I at Ems to receive his assurances that the candidacy had been withdrawn.• The King sent a telegram to Bismarck reporting on the meeting. Bismarck edited the Ems Dispatch, and leaked it to the press. This version made it seem that the King had insulted the ambassador. This provoked the desired reaction, as the by then unpopular Napoleon III declared war.• Franco­Prussian War (1870­1871) Prussia led all of the other German states in a war against France. France was easily defeated and Napoleon III was captured and overthrown.• French troops withdrew from Rome during the war. Italy then took advantage and seized Rome in 1870, making the city its capital. Pius IX refused to recognize his loss of the Papal States and the existence of a unified Italy.

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• All the German rulers gathered at Versailles in 1871 and created the German Empire, acknowledging Wilhelm I as German emperor (Kaiser). France lost Alsace and Lorraine to Germany in the peace treaty.• The German Empire (1871­1918) had the largest army, densest railroad network, most productive industrial economy, best universities, and most advanced science and technology of any country in Europe. • Germany was a federal monarchy. The German states were still ruled by whatever government or ruler they had before unification. The King of Prussia was also German emperor, and Prussia's chancellor was also the imperial chancellor. The German states lost their sovereignty, however, and Germany had one army and one foreign policy.• The legislature, the Reichstag, was elected through universal manhood suffrage, but Germany was a conservative, militaristic monarchy. The emperor retained control over foreign and military policy and ministers were responsible to the emperor, so Germany had the appearance, but not the substance, of liberalism.

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 France • Second Empire (1852­1870) Napoleon III initially governed as a dictator, restricting freedom of expression and prohibiting unions. His military adventures included the occupation of Rome, the Crimean War, the Austro­Sardinian War, and the invasion of Mexico (1864). The occupation of  Mexico was a failure and Napoleon III lost popularity. As a result, his rule became more liberal in the late 1860s and he allowed freedom of expression and elections.• Paris was besieged by the Germans during the Franco­Prussian War, leading to starvation. After France surrendered, a radical, revolutionary, socialist, anarchist group seized power in the city in 1871, establishing the Commune. Within two months the Commune was liquidated by force by the French army after an assault on the city. Many thousands were executed.• After the emperor's fall in 1870 during the Franco­Prussian War, France had to decide what form of government to adopt. Most members of the newly elected National Assembly were monarchists but France had two pretenders, the grandsons of Charles X and of Louis­Philippe, respectively. The childless Bourbon pretender was willing to compromise. He would assume the throne, but name the Orleans pretender as his heir. The deal fell apart, however, over the French flag, because the pretender refused to accept the revolutionary tricolor.

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• Although conservatives would have preferred a monarchy, these divisions meant the only option left was for France to become a republic, a system which proved to divide the French the least. The Third Republic (1870­1940) was democratic, with an elected National Assembly, universal male suffrage, a prime minister who was head of government, and a president who was ceremonial head of state. The Third Republic would be plagued by scandals, attempted coups, and corruption.• The biggest scandal of all was the Dreyfus Affair. It was discovered that someone was passing French military secrets to Germany, and a Jewish officer, Alfred Dreyfus, was falsely accused of espionage in 1894, convicted, and sent to Devil's Island.• The case divided France. His defenders were republicans, liberals, socialists, and intellectuals who supported fairness and equal citizenship. Their opponents were conservative, anti­Semitic, Catholic, and defenders of the army and patriotism, who believed the army could not have made a mistake and that, as a Jew, Dreyfus was not genuinely French. The affair proved that the social cleavages of 1789 still survived. Dreyfus would eventually be cleared in 1906.• The Dreyfus Affair led to the birth of Zionism, a movement to establish a Jewish homeland which arose in response to the open display of anti­Semitism in a country where Jews enjoyed equal citizenship. Zionism was not a religious movement, but rather a nationalist one.

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Austria• After the Revolutions of 1848, the Austrian authorities repressed nationalist activity as much as possible. Austria lost two wars in rapid succession, in 1859 against Piedmont and France, and in 1866 against Prussia and Italy, losing Lombardy and Venetia. After these defeats, then, Austria was forced to compromise with the empire's liberals and nationalists.• After the first defeat Austria allowed a constitution, the February Patent (1861), which called for an elected assembly, the Reichsrat. Ministers, however, were responsible to the emperor, who could rule by decree. The Hungarians, the most rebellious nationality in the empire, still refused to participate.• After the empire's second defeat, a compromise, the Ausgleich (1867), was reached which granted self­government to the Hungarians. Austria­Hungary was known as the Dual Monarchy. There was a single monarch (emperor and king), currency, army, and foreign policy (including trade), but everything else was separate: citizenships, constitutions, laws, parliaments, and budgets.

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• Hungarians gave no rights to their minorities, like Slovaks and Romanians, with then exception of the Croats, who had some autonomy. Czechs wanted an arrangement similar to Hungary's, but Hungary vetoed the creation of a Triple Monarchy, and the German minority in Bohemia also rejected it. Other minorities wanted to join their fellows across the border (Italians, Serbs, Romanians, even some Germans) in each one's nation­state.• As nationalism grew more acute in the 1890s, Austria grew increasingly ungovernable. Czech members of the Reichsrat refused to allow it to function. The Emperor had to rule by decree.

Russia• Russia was defeated in the Crimean War due to its backwardness, so the new tsar, Alexander II (r. 1855­1881), realized the need for reform. He abolished serfdom in 1861 because Russia needed a free labor force in order to industrialize, and it had discovered that an army of conscripted serfs was ineffective.• Landowners were compensated, but the freed serfs had to pay the debt for the little land they were given. The serfs' debt was to be paid in 49 years, so emancipation was unsatisfactory.• Other reforms included the creation of local governments and a judicial system to replace noble authority and the reduction of conscription from 25 years to 6.

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• Despite the tsar's reforms, Russia was still an autocracy. All opposition was illegal, and so those who wanted change became increasingly revolutionary and some became terrorists. Terrorists even assassinated Alexander II. The new tsar, his son Alexander III, was repressive and did not carry out further reforms.

Great Britain• Britain enjoyed internal stability, and stayed out of any European conflicts between the Crimean War and 1914. Britain did not have to create liberal institutions or establish a state (like Germany and Italy). Britain reformed peacefully, expanding political participation and ensuring stability as a result.• Examples of reforms: 1) Second Reform Act (1867) and the Third Reform Act (1884) expanded the right to vote until universal male suffrage was achieved. 2) Opportunities for jobs in government and the military and for education were expanded: a public school system was created, religious requirements for university admission were dropped, officer commissions were no longer for sale, a civil service was created 3) The House of Lords lost its rights to veto legislation 4) union activity was allowed 5) urban sanitation was required 6) public housing was established.• The two main political parties were the Conservative (Tory) and Liberal Parties. Liberals were reformist, believing in expanding individual opportunity and making society more fair. Tories were more paternalistic and interested in protecting the poor

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January 25, 2013

• The leading Prime Ministers of the period were William Gladstone (Liberal) r. 1868­1874, 1880­1885, 1886, 1892­1894 and Benjamin Disraeli (Tory) r. 1868, 1874­1880.• The most contentious issue in British politics was the Irish Question. Irish nationalists demanded home rule (their own parliament) and land reform (land for poor, landless Catholics farmers). Irish nationalists had a solid bloc of members in Parliament and they could disrupt parliamentary business. The House of Lords, repeatedly prevented enactment of home rule.• Land reform was finally enacted in 1903, under a Conservative government. Liberals supported home rule, which did not pass until 1914, after the House of Lords had lost its power to delay legislation. World War I broke out, however, and home rule was never implemented.