APExamReview1

APPsychologyExamReview

YourAPExamwillconsistoftwoparts.Thefirstpartisa100questionmultiple‐choicetestwhereyouwillbegiven70minutestocompletethatportionoftheexam.Thesecondpartisafreeresponsesectionwhereyouwillhavetwoquestionstoanswer.Youwillbegiven50minutestocompletethissession.Thepurposeofthisreviewistocoverthekeyterms,concepts,andindividualsinpsychology.Wewillgoovermaterialfromallsectionsthatwillbeincludedonyourexamaswellaslookathowtoanswerthefreeresponsequestions.Section1:History&Approaches2­4%TheGreeks:1)Socrates&Plato–Innateintelligence(Nature)2)Aristotle–Peoplechangeduetoexperience(Nurture)RenaissancetoEnlightenment1)ReneDescartes–Dualist(Mind&Bodyareseparate)PinealGland–Wheremind&bodyconnect.2)ThomasHobbs–Thoughtsareby=productsofphysicalphenomena(Startofbehaviorist)3)JohnLocke–TabulaRosa(Peopleareblankslates)Empiricism–Wedevelopbyexperiences.RejectsDescartes4)EmmanuelKant–Nature.Weareprogrammedtoperceivestimuli/perceptions5)CharlesDarwin–NaturalSelection&evolutionTheStartofPsychologyasaScience1)WilhelmWundt–1stpsychologylab,FatherofPsychology,Studiedconsciousness,Psychologyasascience.2)WilliamTitchener–BringsWundt’sideastoAmerica.Startsschoolofstructuralism(mostbasicpartsofconsciousness).Useofintrospection3)WilliamJames–FatherofpsychologyinAmerica.Functionalist(functionofthemindandhowweadapt).Emotions,Streamofconsciousness,FirsttextbookApproachestoPsychology1)BiologicalApproach–Physiologicalbasisofthought.MRI,PET,CTscans.2)BehavioralApproach–Studywhatcanbeobserved.Avoidstatesofconsciousness3)CognitiveApproach–Howwethink.4)HumanisticApproach–Self‐Awareness,freewillandpersonalgrowth5)PsychoanalyticApproach–Unconsciousturmoilandresolvingit6)SocioculturalApproach–Understandingthepersonintheirculture.

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Section2:ResearchMethods6­8%MethodsofCollectingData(ClinicalResearch):1)CaseStudy–Oneorafewindividualsstudiedin‐depth.Atheoryisdrawnfromthis.Theydoordonotproveanything.Freud&Piaget.2)NaturalisticObservation–Observethesubjectintheirenvironmentwithoutbeingdetected.JaneGoodall.3)Survey–Illicitopinionsandbeliefsfromalargesampleofpeople.Easytoskewquestionsandhaveresearchersbiascomeintoplay.4)AppliedResearch–Takingwhatwehavelearnedandusingittohelpothers5)BasicResearch–Researchforthesakeofresearch.TheExperiment:1)Hypothesis–Testableexplanationbetweentwovariables. ‐Theory–anexplanationofasetofrelatedobservations/eventsbasedonhypothesisandverifiedbyrepeatedexperiments.2)Variables–somethingthatcanbemeasured ‐Independent–variablethatyouarestudying ‐Dependent–Whatyouarelookingtoseeachangeinbasedonexperiment ‐Confounding–Twovariablesoccurringatthesametime.Hardtotellwhichonehadaneffect,exercise&takingvitaminsatthesametime.3)OperationalDefinitions–Howdoyouplantodefinethevariables?4)Population–Whereyougetyoursample ‐Representative–Takesintoaccountafairrepresentationofyourstudy5)Sampling–Asmallpartofthepopulation ‐RandomSample–Eachpersonhasanequalchanceofbeingselected. ‐StratifiedSample–Randomsamplingbasedonspecificdemographics.6)Experimental&ControlGroup–(ex–getsthedrug&controlgetstheplacebo) ‐RandomAssignment–Equalchanceofbeingineithergroup ‐SubjectRelevantConfoundingVariables–Ifpeopleareallowedtoselecttheirgroup,itaffectstheoutcomesofresearch ‐GroupMatching–equalrepresentationofmembersinexperimental/controlgroup ‐SituationRelevantConfoundingVariables–Situationsinwhichyouputgroupsmustalsobeequal7)Single&DoubleBlindResearch(Single–participantsdon’tknow&doubleParticipantsandresearcherdonotknow) ‐PlaceboEffect–Getbetterbecauseyouknowyouarepartofanexperiment8)HawthorneEffect–Peopleimprovewhentheyknowtheyaregettingspecialtreatment.Correlations:1)CorrelationStudy–Lookingathowtothingsrelatetoeachother.2)CorrelationCoefficient–Relationshipbetweentwovariables3)PositiveCorrelation–Changeoccursinthesamedirection

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4)NegativeCorrelation–Changeinonehasoppositeeffectontheother.5)IllusionaryCorrelation–Nocorrelationwherewewantonetobe.Statistics:1)DescriptiveStatistics–describesasetofdataFrequencyDistribution–graphshowingyourfindings/dataFrequencyPolygon–Linegraphs(histogram–bargraph)2)InferentialStatistics–CanyouapplyyourfindingstoalargerpopulationformwhichthesamplewasselectedSamplingError–extenttowhichsamplediffersfromthepopulation3)MeasuresofCentralTendency–HownumbersclusteraroundthecenterofthedistributionMeanMedianMode4)MeasuresofVariance/Dispersion–diversityofthedistributionRange–distancebetweenhighestandlowestscoreStandardDeviation–squarerootofthevarianceVariance–Z‐Score–convertedscoresthemeasuredistanceinunitsofstandarddeviation5)StatisticalSignificance–Degreethatscoresmaybeduetochance/errorEthicsInResearch:

1) InformedConsent&StanleyMilgram–mustletpeopleknowtheyarepartofaresearchexperiment

Section3:BiologicalBasisofBehavior8­10%Howwestudythebrain:

1) Lesions–Damagebrainandseehow/whatchanges2) Accidents/PhineasGage–Ex:Damagedfrontallobechangespersonality3) EEG–MeasuresElectricalwavesofthebrain(Sleep)4) CAT/CT–3Dx‐rayofthebrain5) PET–Radioactiveisotopesshowpatternsofactivity(Color/schizophrenia)6) MRI–Moredetailedimageofthebrain7) fMRI–Showsthebraininmotion(moviesofthebrain)

Anatomyofaneuron:

1) CellBody–Nucleusandenergycenterofthecell2) Dendrite–Branchfromcellbody&receiveincomingsignals3) Axon–Leavescellbodycarryingsignals4) MyelinSheath–Cover/protectsaxon:aidesintransmissionofsignal5) AxonTerminals/Buttons–Whereaxonsendandreleaseneurotransmitters6) GlialCells–Supportandmaintainneurons

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7) Synapse–Spacebetweenterminals/buttons&dendrites8) Neurotransmitters–Chemicalmessengersofthenervoussystem

‐ Acetylcholine–Memory&Learning‐ Dopamine‐Movement‐ Endorphins‐Pain‐ Serotonin‐Depression

TheNervousSystem:1) ActionPotential–Neuralimpulsebasedonchangeinions2) RestingPotential–Chargewaitinginthenervetobefired3) Afferent/SensoryNeurons–Fromsensestospinalcord/brain4) Efferent/MotorNeurons–Motorimpulsesfromthebraintospinalcord&

muscles5) Interneuron–Junctionbetweenneurons.Foundmostlyinthebrain&spinal

cord.Involvedinreflexes.6) Reflexes–Behavior/movementrequiringlittletonothought7) CNS–Brain&SpinalCord8) PNS–Nervesmovingoffofthespinalcordto&fromthebody.

‐ SNS–Voluntaryskeletalmuscles‐ ANS–Smoothandcardiacmuscle‐ ‐>Sympathetic–Activatesuswhenstress/fear/angerarepresent‐ ‐>Parasympathetic–Conserveenergy

TheBrain:

1) Hindbrain(Pons,Medulla,Cerebellum)–Oldestpartofthebrain.Monitorsvitallifefunctions,balance,coordination,generalarousal(sleep)

2) Midbrain(ReticularFormation/ReticularActivatingSystem,Thalamus,Colliculi)–Sensorimotorreflexes,receivessensoryandmotorinfo.

3) Forebrain(LimbicSystem–Thalamus,Hypothalamus,Hippocampus,Amygdala)–Higherorderthinking.Limbicsys2ndoldestpartofthebrain

‐PaulBucy&HeinrichKluver‐studiesw/monkeyslinkingaggressivenessw/theAmygdala

4) Hemispheres Right–controlsleftsideofthebody.Creativity Left–controlstherightsideofthebody.Logic

5) CerebralCortex(Frontal,Parietal,Occipital,&TemporalLobes)‐ FrontalLobe–abstractthought(Broca’sArea)‐ ParietalLobe–sensorycortex‐ OccipitalLobe–vision‐ TemporalLobe–sound(Wernicke’sArea)

6) AssociationAreas‐ Broca’sArea‐LanguageProduction‐ Wernicke’sArea–LanguageComprehension

7) BrainPlasticity ‐RogerSperry&MichaelGazzaniga–StudiesoncuttingtheCorpusCallosum(split‐brainoperation)

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8) Phylogeny–EvolutionarydevelopmentofhumansTheEndocrineSystem:

1) PituitaryGland–Masterglandthatsendssignalstoallotherglands2) AdrenalGlands–Releasesepinephrine/norepinephrine(flight/fight)3) Ovaries&Testes–Releasehormonesforsexdevelopment4) Thyroid–Maintainsmetabolism

Genetics:

1) BasicGeneticComponents–RNA,DNA,Chromosomes(23pairs)2) IdenticalTwinStudies–Genetics/Naturestudies3) FraternalTwinStudies–Nurture/Environmentstudies

Section4:Sensation&Perception7­9%Vision:

1) HowtheEyegatherslight–Lightreflectsoffofobjectsandgatheredbytheeye.Lightintensity&wavelength

2) Structureoftheeye:Cornea–protectivecovering,Pupil‐shutter,Iris–coloredmuscle,Lens–focuseslight,Retina–screenonthebackoftheeye

3) Transduction–Translationofincomingstimuliintoneuralsignals.‐Rods–black&white,movement‐Cones‐color‐Fovea–centeroftheretina‐GanglionCells–axonsofthesecellsmakeuptheopticnerve‐BlindSpot–spotwhereopticnerveleavestheretina(norods/cones)‐OpticChiasm–spotwhereopticnervescrosseachother.4)FeatureDetectors–Differentneuronsrespondtovisualstimuli ‐Hubel&Wiesel–discoveredfeaturedetectors5)TheoriesofColorVision‐TrichromaticTheory/Young‐Helmholtz–3typesofconesRed,Blue&Green‐Opponent‐ProcessTheory–Colorsgroupedinpairs.Onefirestheotherisinhibited.Explainscolorafterimages.‐ColorBlind/Deficient–InabilitytoseeonecolororallcolorsHearing:

1) HowtheEargatherssound–Soundwavesentertheearcanal.Wavesaremeasuredinamplitudeandfrequency.

2) PartsoftheEar‐ EarCanal–connectsoutereartoinnerear‐ Eardrum–vibratesassoundhitsit‐ Hammer‐ Anvil‐ Stirrup

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‐ Cochlea–snaillikestructurefilledwithfluid/hairs‐ OrganofCorti–lowerpartofcochleathatislinedwithhair

3)PitchTheories‐PlaceTheory–hairsrespondtodifferentfrequenciesdependingonwheretheyarelocatedinthecochlea ‐FrequencyTheory–Howwehearlowertones.Rateatwhichcellsfire4)Deafness(Conduction–hearingaid&Sensorineural–cochlearimplant)Touch:1)Gate‐ControlTheory–SomepainmessageshaveahigherprioritythanothersTaste:

1) TasteBuds–Sweet,salty,sour,bitterSmell:1)OlfactoryBulb–connectsattheAmygdalaandthenthehippocampus.DoesnotgothroughthethalamusVestibularSense:‐HowourbodyisorientedinspaceKinestheticSense:‐GivesfeedbackaboutpositionandorientationofspecificbodypartsThresholds:

1) AbsoluteThreshold–Smallestamountofstimulidetected50%ofthetime2) Subliminal–Stimulibelowtheabsolutethreshold3) PlaceboEffect–Believesomethingsoweactthepart4) DifferenceThreshold–Theamountastimulusneedstochangetobenoticed5) JND–Smallestamountofchangebeforewecandetectit.6) Weber’sLaw–ChangeinstimulusintensityneededtoproduceaJNDis

directlyproportionaltotheintensityoftheoriginalstimulusSignalDetectionTheory:‐EffectsofdistractionsandinterferenceweperceiveamongcompetingstimulusTop‐DownProcessing:‐Objectperceptionbasedonexpectationsandmemories.FillinginthegapsBottom‐UpProcessing:‐Objectperceptionthatisbasedsolelyonincomingstimuli.FeatureAnalysisFigure‐GroundRelationship:‐Whatpartisthefigureandwhichistheground.GestaltRules:

1) Proximity–Objectsclosetogetherbelongtogether2) Similarity–Objectssimilarinappearancebelongtogether3) Continuity–Continuousformsareseenasbelongingtogether

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4) Closure–Fillinginthegaps.Constancy

1) Size–Remainsconstant.Aidsindepthperception2) Shape–Objectsatdifferentanglesmakedifferentshapes3) Brightness–Objectsmaintainaconstantcolor

DepthCues

1) VisualCliff–Infantspossessdepthperception ‐Gibson&Walk

2) BinocularCues–Twoeyesusedtojudgedepth‐ RetinalDisparity–Eacheyeseesanobjectfromdifferentangles‐ Convergence–Eyesmoveinwardasobjectsgetclosertoourface

3)MonocularCues–Depthperceptionbasedononeeye ‐LinearPerspective–ex:railroadtracks ‐RelativeSizeex:boatsinastream ‐Interpositionex:objectsblockingotherobjectsarecloser ‐TextureGradient–Graineranddensearefurtheraway ‐Shadowing–shadingprovidesdepth ‐MotionParallax–ObjectsatafixedpointmoveoppositeSection5:StatesofConsciousness2­4%LevelsofConsciousness:

1) Conscious–Whatyouareawareof(Thoughts,senses,emotions) ‐Automatic(W/Othought)&ConsciousProcesses(W/Effort)

2) Preconscious–Infoonyouandenvironmentyouarenotthinkingabout3) Subconscious–Memoriesandknowledge4) Unconscious–Thatwhichwearenotawareof(Urges,Taboo)

‐ Repression–DefensethatpushesunwanteditemsintoUnconscious‐ FreudianSlips–Unconsciousthoughtscomingintoconsciousness

5) StreamofThought(WilliamJames)–WakingalertmindSleepCycles:

1) StagesofSleep–4plusREM2) BrainWavesduringSleepCycle–Alpha,Theta,Delta3) REM/ParadoxicalSleep/REMRebound–Sleepyetmindisawake.4) CircadianRhythm–24hrmetabolicprocessesthatfollowapattern5) ReticularFormation–Keepscortexawakeduringsleep

SleepDisorders:

1) Insomnia–Inabilitytosleep,stayasleep2) Narcolepsy–Fallasleepatunpredictabletimes3) SleepApnea–Stopbreathingwhilesleeping(obesity)4) NightTerrors–Norecallofwhathappened

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Dreams:

1) LatentContent–unconsciousmeaningoflatentcontent2) ManifestContent–literalcontentofdreams3) Activation‐SynthesisTheory–Brain’sinterpretationofREMdreams4) Information‐ProcessingTheory–Dealingwithdailystressors

Hypnosis:

1) PosthypnoticAmnesia–Forgeteventsthathappenedwhilehypnotized2) PosthypnoticSuggestion–Bxthatoccursafterbeingbroughtoutofhypnosis3) RoleTheory–Somepeoplearemoreeasilyhypnotized(notanalteredstate)4) HypnoticSuggestion–Somepeopleareeasiertohypnotize(richfantasy)5) StateTheory–Wedoenteranalteredstateofconsciousness6) DissociationTheory–Ourconsciousisdividedinhypnosis

Drugs:

1) Blood‐BrainBarrier–Protectsthebrainfromharmfulchemicals2) Agonists–Drugsthatmimicneurotransmitters3) Antagonist–Drugsthatblockneurotransmitters4) Tolerance–Needformoreofasubstancetogetthesameeffects5) Withdrawal–Physical/psychologicalsymptomswhendrugisremoved6) Stimulants–Speedusup,effectANS(heartrate&respiration)7) Depressants–Slowusdown,(sensereactiontime)8) Hallucinogens–Changeourperceptionsofreality9) Opiates–Actsasagonistsforendorphins

Section6:Learning7­9%ClassicalConditioning/Respondent:IvanPavlov&JohnB.Watson1) CS,CR,UCS,UCR–MustpairCS+UCStogettoCR2) Acquisition–StarttorespondtoCSwithouttheUCS3) Extinction–CSnolongerproducesCR4) SpontaneousRecovery–CRreappearswiththepresenceofCSafterabreak5) Generalization–ResponsetostimulisimilartotheCS6) Discrimination–Abilitytotellthedifferencebetweenstimuli7) AversiveConditioning–Conditionedtohaveanegativeresponse(LittleAlbert)Biology&ClassicalConditioning:

1) LearnedTasteAversion(JohnGarcia)–Resultinpowerfulavoidanceofthetastebasedononeuse.‐GarciaEffect‐Wearebiologicallypreparedtomakesomeconnectionseasierthanothers.(Biology&ClassicalConditioning)

2) Contingency(RobertRescorla)–Themoreyoupairtwoitemsthestrongerthelearning.Thepresenceofonecanpredictthepresenceoftheother.(Cognitive&ClassicalConditioning)

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OperantConditioning/Instrumental:B.F.Skinner

1) LawofEffect–EdwardThorndike–Consequencesshapebehavior(Posincreasesresponses,Neg.decreasesresponses)

2) SkinnerBox–Createdtotestoperantconditioning3) Reinforcer–Anythingthatstrengthensabehavior(food)4) Reinforcement–Thegivingofareinforcer(givingoffood)5) PositiveReinforcement–Additionofsomethingpleasant(Increasebx)6) NegativeReinforcement–Removalofsomethingunpleasant(Increasebx)

‐ Escape–Bxremovessomethingundesirable‐ Avoidance–Advancedwarningthatbxiscoming

7) Punishment–Undesirableactioncausesbxtostop8) PrimaryReinforcer–Satisfybiologicalneeds(Food,water)9) SecondaryReinforcer–Thingswelearntovalue/want10) TokenEconomy–Bxmodificationbasedonincreasingrewards11) Chaining–Performtasksinacertainordertoberewarded12) Shaping–Reinforceeachstepclosertodesiredbx

ReinforcementSchedule:

1) Fixed‐Ratio–Rewardafterasetquantityisreached2) Variable‐Ratio–Rewardonrandomquantities3) Fixed‐Interval–Rewardafterasettimeisreached4) Variable‐Interval–Rewardafterrandomtimes

CognitiveLearning:

1) ContingencyModelofClassicalConditioning–RobertRescorla(Cognitive)‐ ContingencyModel–Presenceofonepredictsthepresenceoftheother

2) ObservationalLearning–AlbertBandura(BoboDollexperiment)‐ Modeling–Speciesspecificwherewelearnfromwatchingothers

3) LatentLearning–EdwardTolman–learningshownwhenrewardispresent‐ Mental/CognitiveMap–Mentalrepresentationofaphysicalspace

4) InsightLearning–WolfgangKohler–DisagreeswithThorndike‐ Sultan&Chimpanzeestudies–Innerrelationshipoffactsthatleadtoa

solutionofaproblemSection7:Cognition8­10%Information‐Processing/Three‐BoxModelofMemory

1) SensoryMemory–GeorgeSperling(weholdinformationforashorttime)‐ IconicMemory–Splitsecondvisualimage(cornerofyoureye)‐ EchoicMemory–Splitsecondmemoryofsound(didyourhearthat)‐ SelectiveAttention–Encodewhatisimportanttous‐ CocktailEffect–Wevoluntarilyattendtostimuli(hearyournameacross

acrowdedroom)2) Short‐Term/WorkingMemory‐Ebbinghaus

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‐ Chunking–Expandthelimitsofshorttermmemory‐ MnemonicDevices–Memoryaides‐ Rehearsal–Methodtoincreaseshorttermmemories‐ GeorgeMiller–Ruleof7(plusofminus2)

3) Long‐TermMemory‐Loftus‐ EpisodicMemory–Memoriesofspecificevents(Yourlife)‐ SemanticMemory–Generalknowledgeandgrammarrules‐ ProceduralMemory–Memoriesofhowtoperformtasks‐ Explicit/DeclarativeMemory–Factsandevents‐ ImplicitMemory–Memorieswedonotrealizethatwehave‐ Eidetic/PhotographicMemory–Perfect“snapshort”memories

LevelsOfProcessing:‐Memoriesarenotshortorlongterm

1) Deeply–Studyandresearchcontent.Moredeeplyprocessedmorelikelytoremembertheinfo

2) Shallow/Maintenance–Repeatinformationseveraltimes,thenreplicateinfoRetrieval:

1) Recognition–Matchingwhatisaskedforwithsomethinginourmemory2) Recall–Memorythatcomesfromanexternalcueandweneedtoconstruct3) Primacy‐RecencyEffect–Rememberthefirstandlastthings4) SerialPositionEffect–Howwerememberthingsonalist5) Tip‐of‐the‐tonguePhenomenon–Temporaryinabilitytorecallknowninfo6) SemanticNetworkTheory–Connectnewmemoriesbasedonmeaningand

contextofthosealreadyinmemory7) FlashbulbMemory–Rememberindetailwhatyouweredoingwhenanevent

happened8) Mood‐CongruentMemory–Recallanitemwheninamoodthatwewerein

whenwestoredthememory9) State‐DependentMemory–Recalleventseasierwhenweareinthestatewe

encodedthemConstructiveMemory:‐Memoriesbasedonfalserecallofevents(Loftus)

1) RecoveredMemory–Suddenlyremembereventsthathavebeenrepressedforyears(oftenduringtherapy)

Forgetting:

1) Relearning–Lesstimetolearninformationthatyouhaveforgotten2) RetroactiveInterference–Newinfointerfereswithrecallofoldinfo3) ProactiveInterference–Oldinfointerfereswithrecallofnewlylearnedinfo

HowMemoriesareStored

1) Hippocampus–Mainregionformemorystorage(Episodic/Semantic)‐ AnterogradeAmnesia–Cannotencodenewmemories

2) Cerebellum–Storesproceduralmemories

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3) Long‐TermPotentiation–Throughrepeatedfiring,neuralconnectionsarestrengthened

Language:

1) Phoneme–Smallestunitofsound2) Morpheme–Smallestunitofmeaning3) Grammar‐Rulesoflanguage

‐Syntax–Rulesforcombiningwords/letters ‐Semantics–MeaningofwordsLanguageAcquisition:‐NoamChomsky&B.F.Skinner

1) TelegraphicSpeech–Simplesentencesthatlackcorrectgrammar2) Overgeneralization–Misusingwords.Notusingrightverbtense3) LanguageAcquisitionDevice–Inbornabilitytolearnlanguage

Language&Cognition:‐BenjaminWhorf1) LinguisticDeterminism–Languageinfluencesthinking

Thinking

1) Concept–Groupedbasedonatleastonecommontrait2) Prototype–Typicalexampleofaconcept3) Image–Mentalpicturesinourmind(Highlightfilm)4) ConvergentThinking–Thinkingtosolveaproblem5) DivergentThinking–Freethinkingwithnoplan6) Metacognition–Thinkingaboutthinking

ProblemSolving:

1) Algorithms–Stepbystepproceduretosolveaproblem2) Heuristics–Generalwayofsolvingproblemsbasedonskippingsteps3) AvailabilityHeuristics–Judgingasituationbasedonexamplesofsimilar

situationsthatcometomindinitially4) RepresentativeHeuristics–Judgingasituationbasedonhowsimilarthe

aspectsaretoprototypesyouholdinyourmind5) BeliefBias–Notchangingouropinionbasedoncontradictingevidence6) MentalSet/Rigidity–Fallintoacommonthoughtpatterntosolveproblems7) FunctionalFixedness–Cannotseeanewuseforanobject8) ConfirmationBias–Lookforinfothatsupportsourbeliefs

Section8:Motivation&Emotion7­9%TheoriesofMotivation:

1) DriveReductionTheory(ClarkHull)–Internalarousaloveraneedorwantdrivesustoreducethearousal.Needs=PushDesires=Pull‐ Homeostasis–Internalbalancedstatethatwestrivefor‐ PrimaryDrive–Satisfiesabiologicalneed

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‐ SecondaryDrive–Learneddrivesthatsatisfywants(Money)2) ArousalTheory–Weseekoutanoptimallevelofarousal(Skydiving)3) IncentiveTheory–Associatethesewithrewards.Labelbx4) Maslow’sHierarchyofNeeds–Satisfybasicneeds&strivefor

Self‐ActualizationHungerMotivation:

1) BiologicalBasisofHunger‐ LateralHypothalamus–Stimulatetoincreasehunger/Lesionnothungry‐ VentromedialHypothalamus–Stimulatestophunger/LesionAlways

hungry‐ SetPointTheory–Hypothalamussetsanoptimalweight‐ MetabolicRate–Howquicklyweburncalories

2) PsychologicalFactorsinHunger‐ External–Attractivenessandavailabilityoffood‐ Internal–Internalhungercues.Thoughtsoffood/eating‐ GarciaEffect–Affectsfoodwearehungryfor

3) EatingDisorders‐ Bulimia–Binge/purgeeating‐ AnorexiaNervosa–stopeating85%belownormalbodyweight‐ Obesity–100lbsovernormalbodyweight

SexualMotivation:

1) SexualResponseCycle–Initial,Plateau,Orgasm,Refractory2) SexualOrientation–Differencesinbrainstructureinhomosexualmales

SocialMotivation:

1) AchievementMotivation–DavidMcClelland‐TATusedtomeasureachievement

2) Extrinsic–Rewardsthatoccuroutsideofus(Money,cars)3) Intrinsic–Internalsatisfactionandhappiness4) TheoryX–Peopleonlyworkwhenitbenefitsthem(Money)5) TheoryY–Peopleareinternallymotivatedtodowell6) HandlingConflict–KurtLewin

‐ Approach‐Approach–Choicebetween2desirableitems‐ Avoidance‐Avoidance–Choicebetween2undesirableitems‐ Approach‐Avoidance–Situation/Itemhasbothadesirableand

undesirableaspect‐ MultipleApproach‐Avoidance–Choosebetweentwoormoreitemsthat

allhavedesirableandundesirableaspectsTheoriesonEmotion:

1) James‐Lange–Awareofemotionsafterphysiologicalreactions2) Cannon‐Bard–Emotionalawarenessreflectsphysiologicalreactionandour

cognitiveexperienceoftheemotion

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3) Two‐FactorTheory–StanleySchachter–Bothphysiologicalarousalandcognitivelabelscombinetocauseanyparticularresponse.Appraisalofsituationdeterminesinterpretation.

Stress:

1) Stress–Reactiontochangesinourenvironment2) Stressor–Items/situationsthatprovokestressreactions3) SRRS–ThomasHolmes&RichardRahe–Ratingscaleofstressors4) GeneralAdaptationSyndrome–HansSeyle(Generalresponsetostress)

‐ Alarm–Flight/Fightisengaged‐ Resistance–Bodyremainsready/onalert(hormonesstillreleased)‐ Exhaustion–Parasympatheticreturnsbodytonormalstate

Section9:DevelopmentalPsychology7­9%ResearchMethods:

1) Cross‐SectionalStudy–Differentagesusedtocomparechange2) LongitudinalStudy–Followsamepeopleovertheyears

PrenatalDevelopment:

1) Teratogens–ToxinsthataffectfetaldevelopmentReflexes

1) RootingReflex–Touchcheek,babyturnstheirface2) SuckingReflex–Itemplacedinbabiesmouthcausingsucking3) GraspingReflex–Touchpalmandbabygraspsobject4) Babinski–Strokefeetandtoesfan5) MoroReflex–Whenstartledbabiesthrowtheirlimbsout6) KonradLorenz–Imprinting(Goslings)

‐CriticalPeriod–OptimumtimetodevelopbraincentersNewbornSenses&MotorDevelopment–Canrecognizefacesandvoices.Motorskillsdevelopwhenneuronsconnectinthebrain.Parenting

1) AttachmentTheory–Relationshipbetweenparentandchild‐ HarryHarlow–researchonmonkeys(Wire&ClothMom)‐ MaryAinsworth–Strangesituationsexperiment‐ ‐>SecureAttachment–Confidentlyexplore,distressedwhenparent

leaves,cometoparentwhentheyreturn‐ ‐>AvoidantAttachment–Resistbeingheldbyparent,explore,donot

gotoparentswhentheyreturn‐ ‐>Ambivalent/ResistantAttachment–Ambivalenttoparents,Stress

whentheyleave,resistbeingcomfortedwhentheyreturn2) ParentingStyles:DianeBaumrind

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‐ Authoritarian–Strictparenting,obedienceisdemanded‐ Permissive–Noclearboundaries.Kidsmaketherules‐ Authoritative–Consistentrules/consequences

Theorists:

1) SigmundFreud&PsychosexualDevelopment‐ Oral–Centerofattentionismouth(Fixation‐excessivedependence)‐ Anal–Pottytraining(Fixation‐excessiveorderlinessormessiness)‐ Phallic–Oedipus/ElectraComplex‐ Latent–Sublimationofsexualurges‐ Genital–Attractiontooppositesex

2) ErikErikson&PsychosocialDevelopment‐Trustvs.Mistrust–Childtruststheirenvironment‐ Autonomyvs.Shame&Doubt–Feelgoodaboutmakingchoices(potty

training)Parentingstyleaffectsthisstage‐ Initiativevs.Guilt–Ask“Why?”&wanttounderstandtheirworld‐ Industryvs.Inferiority–Childfeelscompetent‐ Identityvs.RoleConfusion–Teenstruggle‐ Intimacyvs.Isolation–Abilitytoformintimaterelationships(Love)‐ Generativityvs.Stagnation–Criticallyexamineourlife‐ Integrityvs.Despair–Reflectonyourlife

3) JeanPiaget&CognitiveDevelopment‐ Sensorimotor–(0‐2)Exploretheworldthroughtheirsenses.Must

developObjectPermanence–Objectstillexistswhenmovedfromsight‐ Preoperational(2‐7)Starttodeveloplanguage,usesymbolstorepresent

ourworld.Egocentric–worldrevolvesaroundthem‐ ConcreteOperation(8‐12)Conceptofconservationisestablished‐ FormalOperation(12on)Hypotheticalandabstractthought‐ Schema–Organizedpatternofthought/bx‐ Assimilation–Interpretnewinformationintoexistingschema‐ Accommodation–Newinfodoesnotfitexistingschema‐ Criticizedinthatchildrengothroughstagesfaster.‐ Information‐Processingmodelismorecontinuousinthatwegradually

developasweageinsteadofinstages.4) LawrenceKohlberg&MoralDevelopment–Ethicalreasoningchangedwith

age‐Preconventional–Makedecisionstoavoidpunishmentorgetrewarded‐Conventional–Makechoicesonhowotherswillviewthem.Learnthestandardsofwhatisrightandwhatiswrong.‐PostConventional–Examinetherightsandvaluesinchoices.UniversalEthicalPrinciple–Personalconvictiontoupholdjustice.

GenderRoleTheories

1) Biopsychosocial–Studiesshowtherearedifferencesbetweenthesexes(Nature).Ex:WomenhavealargerCorpusCallosum

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2) Psychodynamic–Resolvingcompetition(Oedipus/Electra)3) Social‐Cognitive–Societiesaffectsongenderroles(Gender‐Schema)4) SandraBem–Researchthatmaleandfemalerolesareinterchangeable.

Researchwasflawed. ‐Androgyny–Showingbothmaleandfemalequalities.Section10:Personality6­8%PsychoanalyticTheory:SigmundFreud

1) PsychosexualStages&Fixations–Personalityissetbyearlychildhood2) LevelsofConsciousness–Conscious,Preconscious,Unconscious3) ThreePartsofthePersonality

‐ Id/PleasurePrinciple–Immediategratification.BornwithId.‐ Ego/RealityPrinciple–Whatyoucando.MediatorofId&Superego‐ Superego–Yoursenseofconscious.Whatyoushoulddo.

4) DefenseMechanisms–Protecttheegofromanxiety‐ Repression–Themaindefense.Pushthingstounconsciousmind‐ Denial–Notacceptingthetruth/reality‐ Displacement–Redirectfeelingstoanotherobject/person‐ Projection–Directingyourfeelingsontosomeoneelse‐ ReactionFormation–Expresstheoppositeofhowyoufeel‐ Regression–Actoutinwaythatsomeoneyoungerwould‐ Rationalization–Goodexcuseforthebx‐ Intellectualization–Academicexplanation/viewofbx‐ Sublimation–Channelenergytoanewpositivegoal

5) Eros(lifeforces)&Thanatos(deathforces)6) CriticsofFreud–Littleempiricalevidence,negativeviewofhumanity,

emphasisonchildsexualurges,negativeviewofwomenPsychodynamicTheory:(Neo‐Freudian’s)

1) CarlJung‐ PersonalUnconscious–SimilartoFreud’sviewontheunconscious‐ CollectiveUnconscious–Passeddownthroughallpeople‐ Archetypes–Universalconcepts(goodvs.evil)

2)AlfredAdler ‐Inferiority–Fearoffailure ‐Superiority–Desiretoachieveandbesuccessful3)KarenHorney ‐NeuroticPersonality–DrivenbybasichostilityandanxietyTraitTheory:

1) RaymondCattell–Developedtesttomeasuretraits‐ 16PF–Personalitytraitsfoundinallpeople‐ FactorAnalysis–Methodoffindingcommonatrait/abilityfromavast

numberofquestions

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2)GordonAllport–Understandthefullpersonalityofaperson ‐CardinalTrait/Disposition–Playalargeroleinwhoyouare ‐CentralTrait/Disposition–Significant/buildingblocksofpersonality ‐SecondaryTrait/Disposition–Tastesandpreferences3)HansEyesenck–Classifypeopleontwoscales ‐Introvert/ExtrovertScale–Shyoroutgoing ‐Stable/UnstableScale–Dealswithemotions4)TheBigFive(Extraversion,Agreeableness,Conscientiousness,OpentoExperience,EmotionalStability)–FoundinsomelevelinallpeopleBiologicalTheories:

1) Heritability–Percentagethatatraitisinherited2) Temperament–Emotionalstyleofdealingwithissues/situations3) SomatotypeTheory–WilliamSheldon–Traitsareassociatedwithbodytype

‐ Endomorph–Fat/Obese‐ Mesomorph–Muscular‐ Ectomorph‐Thin

Social‐CognitiveTheories:

1) AlbertBandura–Personalityiscreatedbyinteractionbetweentraits,environmentandone’sbx‐ TriadicReciprocality–Howtheabovethreeinteract‐ ReciprocalDeterminism‐Youareinfluencedbyandinfluenceyour

environment‐ Self‐Efficacy–Howweviewourselvesandourabilities

2) GeorgeKelly–Developconstructstounderstandtheirworld‐ Personal‐ConstructTheory–Thewaythatweevaluatetheworld

(fair/unfair,smart/dumb)‐ FundamentalPostulate–Bxisinfluencedbyone’scognition

3)JulianRotter ‐LocusofControl–Howwemakedecisions ‐InternalLocusofControl–Weareresponsibleforourgrowth ‐ExternalLocusofControl–LuckandoutsideforcesdirectusHumanisticTheory:

1) ThirdForceMovedawayfromnegativepsychoanalyticandmechanicalbehavioralviews

2) Determinism–Whathappensnowisdictatedbywhathappenedinyourpast3) Self‐Concept–Globalfeelingsaboutoneself4) Self‐Esteem–Positiveself‐concept5) AbrahamMaslow–Developedhierarchyofneeds

‐ Self‐Actualization–Reachonesfullpotential6)CarlRogers ‐UnconditionalPositiveRegard–Acceptanceforapersonforwhotheyare

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AssessmentTools:1) ProjectiveTests–Freeresponseanswers.Thoughttoexposeunconscious

thoughts/feelings‐ Rorschach–Randomstimuli(inkblots)‐ TAT–Tellastoryaboutapicture

2) Self‐ReportInventories‐Forcedanswer3) MMPI–Mostwidelyusedtest4) Meyers‐Briggs–Generalpersonalitytest5) BarnumEffect–Peopleseethemselvesinvague,generaldescriptions

Section11:Testing&IndividualDifferences5­7%Standardization&Norms:

1) StandardizedSample–SimilarpopulationthatistestisfirstusedonReliability:‐Doesthetestprovideconsistentscores

1) Test‐Retest–Givetestandretestafteracertaintimeperiod2) Interscorer–Testscoredbytwopeopleyieldsthesameresults3) Split‐Half–Randomlydividethetestifhalf4) Alternate‐Form–Scoressimilarondifferentformsofthetest

Validity:‐Doesthetestmeasurewhatitissupposedto

1) FaceValidity–Testhasappropriatequestionsonit2) ContentValidity–Doesitmeasuretherangeofmaterialtobelearned3) CriterionValidity‐4) ConcurrentValidity–Howmuchofatrait/characteristicsomeonehas5) PredictiveValidity–Measuresfutureperformance6) ConstructValidity–Measurescorrelationtopeoplealreadyknownforthis

Achievement&AptitudeTests:TheoriesofIntelligence:

1) CharlesSpearman–Two‐FactorTheory(UsedfactorAnalysis)‐ S–Specificabilities‐ G–Singlegeneralintelligence

2) L.L.Thurstone–Intelligenceis7mentalabilities3) J.P.Guilford–Over100mentalabilities4) HowardGardner–Intelligenceencompassawiderangeofabilities

‐MultipleIntelligence5)DanielGoleman–Howpeopledealwithrealworldsituations ‐EmotionalIntelligence6)RobertSternberg–Analytical,CreativeandPracticalintelligence ‐TriarchicTheory

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IntelligenceTests:1) AlfredBinet–Developsfirstwidelyusedinstrument.Measuresmentalage2) LouisTerman–CreatesStanford‐Binet3) Stanford‐Binet–FirstwidelyusedIQtest4) DavidWeschler–Give3intelligencescores(Mostwidelyusedtest)

BiasinTesting:Naturevs.NurtureinIntelligence:1)FlynnEffect–Performanceonintelligencetestinghassteadybeenimprovingoverthepastcentury2)DifferencesinRace–MostlikelyduetoenvironmentalfactorsSection12:AbnormalPsychology7­9%DefiningAbnormality:

1) Maladaptive‐harmful2) DisturbingtoOthers–societysetsthisstandard3) Unusual–notsharedbyothermembersofthecommunity4) Irrational–doesnotmakesense.Nobiologicalcause5) DSM‐IV‐TR–containscategories&criteriaformakingadiagnosis

PerspectivesonCausesofDisorders

1) Psychoanalytic–Internal/unconsciousconflicts2) Humanistic–Failuretostrivetowardsyourpotential.3) Behavioral–Reinforcementhistory,theenvironment4) Cognitive–Irrationalthoughts5) Sociocultural–Dysfunctionalsociety6) Biomedical–Organicproblems,imbalanceinchemicals,genetics

AnxietyDisorders:

1) SpecificPhobia–Intenseunwantedfearofaspecificsituation/object2) GeneralizedAnxietyDisorder(GAD)–Constantlowlevelanxiety/nervous3) PanicDisorder–Acuteepisodesofanxietyw/oapparentreason(Attacks)4) Obsessive‐CompulsiveDisorder(OCD)–Obsessivethoughtsleadto

Compulsivebehaviorstomakethoughtssubside.5) PostTraumaticStressDisorder(PTSD)–Flashbacks/nightmaresafterthreat

hasbeenremoved.Usuallyseveralmonthsaftertheincident.6) PsychoanalyticTheoryofCausation–Unresolvedunconsciousconflicts7) BehavioralTheoryofCausation–Learnedbehavior8) CognitiveTheoryofCausation–Dysfunctionalwaysofthinking

SomatoformDisorders:

1) Hypochondriasis–Frequentmedicalcomplaintsw/oanymedicalcause.2) ConversionDisorder–Paralysis/blindnesswithnobiologicalcause.

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3) PsychoanalyticTheoryofCausation–Outwardmanifestationsofunresolvedconflict

4) BehavioralTheoryofCausation–Peoplearereinforcedintheirbehavior.DissociativeDisorders:

1) PsychogenicAmnesia–Memorylosswithnophysiologicalcause.2) Fugue–TravelingAmnesia.3) DissociativeIdentityDisorder(DID)–Severalpersonalitiesw/oone

integratedpersonality.Canbeofdifferentages/sexes.‐ PsychoanalyticTheoryofCausation–Splitinpersonalityduetotrauma‐ DIDrarelyoccuroutsideoftheUS/Industrializedcountries.

MoodDisorders:

1) MajorDepression–Unhappinesslastinglongerthan2weeks.2) SeasonalAffectDisorder(SAD)–Depressioninthewintermonths(Light

therapyisusedtotreatSAD)3) BipolarDisorder–Combinesdepressedandmanicmoods.4) PsychoanalyticTheoryofCausation–Angerturnedinward,lossduringearly

psychosexualdevelopment,oroverlypunitivesuperego.5) AaronBeck&theCognitiveView–Unreasonablynegativethoughtsaffect

behavior&emotions ‐CognitiveTriad–Unreasonableideasofthemselves,theirworld&future6)MartinSeligman–Cognitive‐Behavioraltheory ‐LearnedHelplessness–priornegativeexperiencescauseonetogiveup7)BiologicalCauses–DisruptionofneurotransmittersSchizophrenicDisorders:‐Disorders,distortedthinkingwiththepresenceofdelusions/hallucinations

1) DisorganizedType–Evidenceofoddlanguage(Neologism–makeuptheirownwords,ClangAssociation–Seriesofnonsensewordsthatrhyme,InappropriateAffect–Laughwhensomeonedies,FlatAffect–Noaffect)

2) ParanoidType–Delusionsofpersecution3) CatatonicType–Remainmotionlessforhours4) UndifferentiatedType–Disorganizedthoughtthatdoesnotmeetonofthe

abovecriteria.5) Delusions–Beliefsthathavenobasisinreality.

‐ DelusionsofGrandeur–Youhavegreatpower/influence‐ DelusionsofPersecution–Someoneisouttogetyou

6) Hallucinations–Perceptionsthatoccurwithoutsensorystimulation7) TheoriesonCausation

‐ DopamineHypothesis–Highlevelsofdopamineaffectperception(Antipsychotics–lowerdopaminelevels.TardiveDyskinesia–movementissuescausedbytheuseofantipsychotics)

‐ BrainAbnormalities–Enlargedventricles,asymmetriesinlimbicsystem‐ Genetics–Abnormalitiesonthefifthchromosome

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‐ Cognitive‐Behavioral–DoubleBinds–givenacontradictorymessage.PersonalityDisorders:

1) Antisocial–Littleregardforothersfeelings/wellbeing.2) Dependent–Relytoomuchontheattentionofothers3) Narcissistic–Centeroftheuniverse4) Histrionic–Overlydramaticbehavior5) Obsessive‐Compulsive‐NotasdebilitatingasOCD.6) Schizoid–Patternofdetachmentfromsocialrelationships&restrictedrange

ofemotions.7) Borderline–Instabilityininterpersonalbehavior,mood,andself‐image.

OtherDisordersofInterest:

1) Paraphilias–Sexualattractiontoanobject,person,oractivitynotusuallyseenassexual.(Pedophilia–Prepubescentchildren,Zoophilia–Animals,Fetishism–Shoes)

2) Voyeur–Arousedbywatchingothersengageinsexualactivities.3) Masochist–Enjoyshavingpaininflictedonthem4) Sadist–Enjoysgivingpain.5) SubstanceUseDisorder–Regularusenegativelyaffectstheirlife6) SubstanceDependence–Increaseinusewithwithdrawalsymptoms7) ADHD–Atypicalinattentionand/orimpulsitivity8) Tourette’s–Motorticdisorder

RosenhanStudy:‐FakedSchizophreniaandenteredaninstitution.1) Shouldyoucarryadiagnosisforlife?2) Howmucharedisordersaproductoftheenvironment,andtowhatextentdo

theyinheretoanindividual.3) Levelofinstitutionalcare(Impostersfakedit)

Section13:TreatmentofPsychologicalDisorders5­7%History:

1) Trephining–Makingholesintheskulltoletoutevilspirits2) Hippocrates&Galen–Mentalillnessinfluencedbybiologicalfactorsand

thereforecanbetreated.3) PhilippePinel&DortheaDix–Treatmentalillnesshumanely(No

caging/beating)4) Deinstitutionalization–Releaseofmedicatedpatients5) PreventiveEfforts

‐ PrimaryPrevention–Treatissuesproactively‐ SecondaryPrevention–Workwithat‐riskpeople‐ TertiaryPrevention–Keepissuesfrombecomingmoresevere

PsychoanalyticTherapy:

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1) Psychoanalysis–DevelopedbyFreud2) Hypnosis–May“lead”peopleintheirunconsciousthoughts3) FreeAssociation–Saywhatcomestomindw/othinking4) DreamAnalysis–Opendoortounconscious5) Resistance–Comingtotermswithissues6) Transference–Patientsdevelopstrongfeelingsfortheirtherapists7) Psychodynamictheory–Workonstrengtheningego&moveawayfrom

earliertechniques.HumanisticTherapy:

1) Self‐actualization–Reachone’spotential2) FreeWill–Youcontrolyourowndestiny3) Determinism–Youhavenocontroloverwhathappenstoyou(Oppositeof

FreeWill)4) ClientCenteredTherapy&CarlRogers–Provideapositiveenvironment

‐ UnconditionalPositiveRegard–Accepttheperson‐ ActiveListening–Givefeedbackonwhatclientissaying‐ Empathy–Understandwheretheclientiscomingfrom‐ Non‐Directive–Donottellaclientwhattodo.Helpthemfindthe

answer.5) GestaltTherapy&FritzPerls–Getintouchwithyour“wholeself”.Explore

feelingsandemphasizetheimportanceofbodypositions.6) ExistentialTherapy–Findanddevelopyourpurposeinlife.

BehavioralTherapy:

1) Counterconditioning&MaryCoverJones–Unpleasantconditionedresponseisreplacedwithapleasantone.

2) SystematicDesensitization&JosephWolpe–Workswellwithanxiety&phobias.‐ Relaxation–1ststepteachthemtorelax‐ AnxietyHierarchy–2ndstepranktheorderofleasttomostanxiety‐ Counterconditioning‐ InVivoDesensitization–Confrontingtheactualanxietysituation

3) ImplosiveTherapy–Imaginemostfearfulsituationfirst.Theyconfrontfearearlyandgetconditionedtoit.

4) Extinguishing–Fearnolongerproducesanxiety5) Flooding–Experiencingfearfulsituationratherthanimaging(Implosive)6) AversiveConditioning–Pairhabitwithunpleasantstimulus7) TokenEconomy–Rewardbehavior8) Modeling–Showwhatyouexpect

CognitiveTherapy:

1) RationalEmotiveBehaviorTherapy–AlbertEllis2) CognitiveTherapy–AaronBeck

‐ CognitiveTriad

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GroupTherapy:1) FamilyTherapy‐2) Self‐HelpGroup–Groupprovidessupport/belongingAA

SomaticTherapy:

1) Psychopharmacology/Chemotherapy2) Antipsychotics(Haldol&Thorazine)–Decreasedopamine3) Antidepressants(MAOinhibitors&SSRI)–Blockseratoninreuptake4) Antianxiety(Xanax&Valium)–Affectnervoussystem5) ECT–Shocktherapy6) PrefrontalLobotomy

TypesofTherapist:

1) Psychiatrists–MDthatcanprescribemeds.2) ClinicalPsychologist–PH.D,research,conductstesting3) CounselingPsychologist–MA,providestherapy4) Psychoanalyst–usesFreud’stheoriestofixpersonality

Section14:SocialPsychology7­9%Attitude:

1) MereExposureEffect‐Themoreyouareexposedtosomethingthemoreyoulikeit

2) CognitiveDissonanceTheory–LeonFestinger–Mentaltensionoccurswhenattitudesandbxisnotconsistent.Wechangeourattitudetoreducetension.

3) SocialCognition–HowpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtoothersComplianceStrategies:

1) Foot‐in‐the‐Door–Peoplewillrespondtoasmallrequesteasierthanalargeone.Buildtowardsalargerrequest.

2) Door‐in‐the‐Face–Ifpeoplerefusealargerequesttheyaremorelikelytoacceptafollowuprequestthatissmallerincomparison.

3) NormsofReciprocity–Whenwedosomethingniceforsomeone,theyshoulddothesameforus.

AttributionTheory:‐FritzHeider–Howweexplain/determinethecauseofbxweobserve

1) Dispositional/PersonAttribution–Internalreasonsforone’sbx2) SituationAttribution–Externalcausesforone’sbx3) Person‐StableAttribution–Onehasalwaysbeenthis/thatway4) Person‐UnstableAttribution–Bxvarieswithinthepersonandtheireffort5) Situation‐StableAttribution6) Situation‐UnstableAttribution7) HaroldKelly–Theoryonhowpeopleattributebxbasedoninformation

‐ Consistency–Doesoneactsimilarinallsituations‐ Distinctiveness–Howsimilarsituationsaretooneanother

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‐ Consensus–Howothersinthesamesituationhaveacted8) Self‐FulfillingProphecy–Expectationsofothersinfluencestheirbx

‐ Rosenthal&Jacobson’sPygmalionintheClassroom–Teachersexpectationsofstudentshelpedstudentsoutperformothers

AttributionalBiases

1) FundamentalAttributionError–Weoverestimateinternalcausesofbxinothersandoverestimatesituationalcausesinourbx

2) TheFalseConsensusEffect–Overestimatetheamountofpeoplewhoholdourbeliefs(Commoninsurveys)

3) Self‐ServingBias–Takemorecreditforgoodoutcomesandlessforbad4) Just‐WorldBelief–Youdeservewhatyouget

Stereotypes:‐Expectationsthataffecthowweinteractwithgroups

1) Prejudice–Undeserved,negativeattitudetowardsagroup2) Discrimination–Isthebxdisplayofprejudice3) In‐Group–Membersofyourowngroup4) Out‐Group–Thosewhoarenotmembersofyourgroup5) In‐GroupBias–Yourgroupissuperiortoothers6) Robber’sCaveExperiment–Increasedhostilitythroughcompetitionand

reducedhostilitythroughcooperation7) Originsofstereotypes&prejudice–Learnedbx8) CombatingPrejudice

‐ ContactTheory–Contactbetweenhostilegroupsreducesbadfeelings‐ SuperordinateGoal–Reducehostilefeelings(Robber’sCaveExp)

Aggression&AntisocialBehavior:

1) InstrumentalAggression–Actisendedtogetyoutoaspecifiedend2) HostileAggression–Aggressionwithnogoal3) Frustration‐AggressionHypothesis–Feelingsoffrustrationmakeaggression

morelikelytooccurProsocialBehavior:‐Helpingbx

1) BystanderIntervention–Peopleclosebyaremore/lesslikelytohelp2) DiffusionofResponsibility–Thelargerthegroupthatwitnessanaccident,

thelesslikelyanyonepersonistohelp3) PluralisticIgnorance–Welooktoseewhatisappropriateinasituationby

lookingatothersAttraction

1) Similarity–Howsimilaroneistous2) Proximity–Howcloseonelivestous3) ReciprocalLiking–Themoresomeonelikeyou,themoreyoulikethem4) Self‐Disclosure–Sharingofpersonalinformation5) HaloEffect–Allowingageneralimpressionofapersontoinfluencemore

specificaspectsofthatperson.

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InfluenceonOthers:1) SocialFacilitation–Thepresenceofothersaffectsourperformanceontasks2) SocialImpairment/Inhibition–Whentaskishardandwearebeingwatched,

performancesuffers3) Conformity&SolomonAsch–Peoplegoalongwiththegroupsviews/actions4) ObedienceStudies&StanleyMilgram–Peoplefollowauthority

GroupDynamics:

1) Norms–Rulesonhowyoushouldact2) Roles–Definedbxofgroupmembers3) SocialLoafing–Takeadvantageinagroup.“Someonewilldoit.”4) GroupPolarization–Groupdecisionspullpeopleinfurtherdirectionsthan

theywouldmakeasanindividual5) Deindividuation–Lossofself‐restraintandsomeself‐identitywhenwefeel

anonymousasagroupmember6) GroupThink–Groupsmakebaddecisionstokeepgoodgroupfeelingsgoing