AP biology review for exam

Chemistry

• 1. Describe the 3 subatomic particles of an atom.

• 2. List 3 types of chemical bonds, how they form and their relative strengths. We have not discussed Van der Waals bonds-they are the weakest.

• 3. Draw 2 water molecules and identify the hydrogen bond and the covalent bonds.

Chemistry

• 4. How is hydrogen bonding important to the unique properties of water? How is “polarity” of water important?

• 5. Interpret a pH scale.• 6. How can changes in pH alter biological

molecules? Biological systems?• 7. Why are buffers important to biological

systems? Ecosystems? Name a buffer or two.

Carbon

• 1. What are the properties of carbon that make it so important to biological systems?

• 2. Describe how carbon cycles through the ecosystem and biological systems.

Biological molecules

• 1. Distinguish between dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis. What is the importance?

• 2. List the 4 organic molecule groups and the elements contained in each. What functional groups or formulas could be used to recognize each group?

Biological molecules

• 3. How are each of the 4 organic groups utilized by cells? In other words, what are some of their functions?

• 4. Describe the 4 levels of protein structure.• What sorts of changes can alter structure?

• 5. How does a protein reach its final folding?

The cell

• 1. Identify 3 key differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

• 2. Identify the general structure & function of each cell organelle.

• 3. How do the organelles of plants and animals differ? How are they similar?

Membranes

• 1. Explain selective permeability. How can this happen? Why is this important?

• 2. Identify and describe the roles of phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates in membranes.

• 3. Distinguish between isotonic, hypotonic andhypertonic solutions. Predict water movement.

Membranes

• 4. What are electrochemical gradients? Where might you find one? What can they do?

Metabolism

• 1. Distinguish between endergonic and exergonic reactions. Draw a graph of these reactions.

• 2. How is ATP used in energy coupling reactions?

• 3. What are enzymes? How do they lower activation energy?

Metabolism

• 4. Explain enzyme structure and relationship to substrate.

• 5. What factors influence enzyme activity?

Cell Cycle

• 1. Terms/structure of duplicated chromosome.

• 2. Cell cycle and stages of mitosis.

• 3. What is the role of kinases and cyclins in the cell cycle?

• 4. What is the role of mitosis in organisms?

Cellular respiration• 1. Write the equation for respiration.

• 2. What is the difference b/n fermentation & • Cellular respiration?

• 3. Explain glycolysis.

• 4. Explain Krebs cycle.

• 5. Explain the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.

Photosynthesis• 1. Write the equation of photosynthesis.

• 2. Relate the anatomy of a leaf and chloroplast to photosynthesis.

• 3. Explain the photosystems and how electrons are moved.

• 4. What is the relationship of the light reaction to the light independent reaction?

• 5. How does chemiosmosis generate ATP?

• 6. Explain the Calvin Cycle.

DNA

• 1. Describe DNA structure. Draw it.• 2. Describe the contributions of: Avery/Macleod,

Hershey/Chase, Franklin, Watson/Crick• 3. Explain DNA replication.• 4. Compare prokaryotic to eukaryotic cells’

chromosomes.• 5. How does DNA packaging effect transcription?• 6. What is transcription and translation?

Meiosis & Life Cycles• 1. Distinguish between sexual and asexual

reproduction.• 2. What is the role of meiosis and fertilization in

sexually reproducing organisms?• 3. What are homologous chromosomes? Their

importance?• 4. Describe the process of meiosis.• 5. Contrast mitosis and meiosis.• 6. What is the importance of crossover?

Independent assortment? Random fertilization?

Cell communication

• 1. List the 3 steps of cell communication:

• 2. How is cell transduction started? Discuss G protein receptors and G proteins.

• 3. How are kinase receptors different from G protein receptors?

• 4. How is a cell signal amplified?

• 5. Provide an example of a cell signal that results in the turning on of a gene and thus the production of a protein.

Gene regulation

• 1. Identify the 3 parts of an operon.• 2. What is the role of repressor genes?• 3. What is DNA methylation? Histone

acetylation?• 4. How does gene regulation effect embryonic

development? Cancer?

Protein synthesis

• 1. What is gene expression? Transcription? Translation?

• 2. Describe trancription & translation.• 3. How is RNA modified after transcription?• 4. Describe the APE sites on the ribosomes.• 5. How do mutations change protein

structure?

• 6. How does RNA differ from DNA?

• 7. Explain the direction of transcription.

• 8. What is the start codon of all protein sequences?

• 9. What is a ribosome made of?

• 10. What are peptide bonds? How do they form?

• 11. Why do amino acids have more than one codon?

• 12. Where do proteins go for “packaging”?• 13. Explain how so many proteins can be

made from so few “genes”.

Biotechnology

• 1. How can you get a gene of interest into a cell? What are restriction enzymes? From what organism do they come?

• 2. What is PCR? Why is it important to the field of biotechnology?

• 3. What is gel electrophoresis? What can you find out?

Biotechnology

• 4. Make sure you can “read” a set of petri dish results when dealing with genetic engineering lab.

Mendel & genetics

• 1. Terms: P, F1, F2, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype

• 2. Compare and contrast allele and gene.• 3. Set up Punnett squares and Pedigrees.

Chromosomes

• 1. What is the chromosomal theory of inheritance?

• 2. Explain sex linked inheritance.• 3. Explain chromosomal deletions,

duplications, inversions.• 4. Exceptions to Mendelian inheritance:

• Genomic imprinting, mitochondrial DNA

Viruses

• 1. Describe viral structure.• 2. Compare the lytic to lysogenic cycle.

Genomes & their evolution

• 1. How do prokaryotic genomes compare to eukaryotic genomes?

• 2. What is the role of transposable elements and retrotransposons?

• 3. What is the idea of “evo-devo”?• 4. What is the role of homeotic genes and

homeoboxes?

Descent with modification

• 1. How did Lamarck’s view differ from Darwin?• 2. List several examples of evidence of

evolution.• 3. Distinguish the terms analogous &

homologous .• 4. Provide examples of adaptations, variation,

time, reproductive success and inheritance in terms of evolution.

Populations and evolution

• 1. Provide examples of how mutation and sexual reproduction produces genetic variation.

• 2. Be able to work problems for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

• 3. What are the conditions for HW equilibrium.

Origin of species

• 1. Define species (biological concept).• 2. Distinguish b/n pre & post zygotic barriers

that maintain population isolation.• 3. How are allopatric & sympatric speciation

similar and different? Provide examples.• 4. Compare punctuated equilibrium &

gradualism.

Earth’s history

• 1. What are some theories about the origin of the Earth?

• 2. How old is the Earth? When did prokaryotic life emerge? Eukaryotic life?

• 3. What were conditions of early earth?• 4. Describe the labs of Miller & Urey…and

Oparin & Haldane.• 5. How can fossils be dated?

• 6. What is endosymbiosis? Evidence?• 7. How does continental drift account for the

distribution of species? Examples?• 8. How is extinction related to adaptive

radiation?

Phylogeny

• 1. Describe the various domains and common traits.

• 2. Classification system… know it.• 3. Read a cladogram.

Bacteria and Archae

• 1. How do prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes?

• 2. How do bacteria get genetic diversity?

Transport in vascular plants

• 1. Distinguish b/n active and passive transport.

• 2. How does diffusion, active transport and bulk flow move water and nutrients?

• 3. Explain how water traits are related to the movement of water through a plant and transpired out stomata.

• 4. Explain the pressure-flow hypothesis of translocating sugars.

Plant signals

• 1. List the 3 steps of cell communication.• 2. What are auxins? Their role?• 3. Describe photoperiodism and phototropism

as a response to environmental change.• 4. How do plants respond to herbivores and

pathogens?

Homeostasis

• 1. Provide several examples of homeostasis.• One negative feedback and one positive

feedback.

Immune system

• 1. Describe the innate immune response.• 2. Distinguish between B and T cells.• 3. How are antigens recognized by immune

system cells?• 4. What is the difference b/n humoral and cell

mediated immunity?• 5. Why are helper T cells crucial to immune

system?

Hormones & endocrine system

• 1. How do hormones bind to target receptors? Are these related to transduction pathways?

• 2. Provide a specific example of the secretion, target, action and regulation of a hormone.

• 3. How are these hormones responsible for positive and negative feedback?

Neurons

• 1. Draw a neuron and label.• 2. Explain the impulse transmission along a

neuron.• 3. Explain the process of releasing a

neurotransmitter and what happens at the synapse.

• 7. What is apoptosis? Why is it important to normal functioning of multicellular organisms?

Nervous system

• 1. Describe the different regions of the brain and their functions.

• 2. How does the vertebrate brain integrate information?

Sensory/motor

• 1. Explain the contraction of a muscle cell.

Animal behavior

• 1. How are behaviors a result of natural selection?

• 2. How does an innate behavior and other behaviors increase “fitness”?

• 3. How do organisms communicate to increase fitness?

• 4. Describe several forms of animal communication.

• 5. What is the role of altruism?

The biosphere

• 1. Describe the abiotic factors determining biomes.

• 2. How are biomes similar?• 3. What changes are occurring that could alter

biomes and their ecosystems within?

Population ecology

• 1. Describe these terms related to populations: density, dispersion, demographics

• 2. Distinguish b/n exponential and logistic growth models.

• 3. Explain the difference b/n density dependent and density independent factors controlling populations.

Community ecology• 1. Distinguish b/n fundamental and realized

niche.• 2. What is competitive exclusion principle?

Provide an example.• 3. Know examples of : mutualism, parasitism and

commensalism (symbiotic relationships)• 4. What is a keystone species? Provide an

example.• 5. Distinguish b/n primary & secondary

succession.

Ecosystems

• 1. Describe how energy flows through an ecosystem in food chains and food webs.

• 2. Distinguish b/n gross primary productivity and net primary productivity.

• 3. Describe the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle in detail. What is their importance to life?

Global change

• 1. Describe the importance of biodiversity.• 2. Identify several human activities that are

threatening biodiversity.

Averages/Means

Initial mass of pumpkin cores was measured in grams. What is the average initial mass for the pumpkin cores? Round to the nearest one-hundredth.

29.15, 28.45, 30.92, 29.25, 32.09, 31.67.

Standard deviation/error

Grasshoppers in Madagascar show variation in their back-leg length. Given the following data, determine the standard deviation and standard error for this data. Length in cm: 2.0, 2.2, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 2.4 and 2.5

Chi-square practice

In pea plants, smooth seeds are dominant to wrinkled, and purple flowers are dominant to white.

In a dihybrid cross where a 9:3:3:1 ratio is expected, the following data was collected. Smooth and Purple= 223, Smooth and White= 84, Wrinkled and Purple= 89, Wrinkled and White= 33.

Determine the chi-square value.

Chi-square continuedTwo Wisconsin fast plants are crossed. One has the recessive dwarf trait, but the normal pigment anthocyanin, while the other has the recessive anthocyaninless trait, but is on normal height. Their offspring consist of 89 plants of normal height and pigment; 93 anthocyaninless plants and normal height; 96 dwarf plants and normal pigment; and 94 anthocyaninless, dwarf plants. A student proposes that the parent plants’ genotype must have been ddAa for the dwarf parent and Ddaa for the anthocyaninless parent.

Calculate, to the nearest 0.01, the chi square value that would be used to confirm this hypothesis.

Chi square continued

The following data were collected from a population of fruit flies. In this monohybrid cross where red eyes are dominant to white, determine the chi square value.

Hardy-Weinberg practice

Consider a population of pigs where B = tan pigs and b= black pigs. We can use Hardy-Weinberg to determine the percent of the pig population that is heterozygous for tan and so arrive at the frequency of the two coat color alleles.

In a pig population there are 4 black pigs and 12 tan pigs.

1. Calculate q2.

2. Calculate q.

3. Calculate p.

4. Calculate 2pq

4/16 = .25

Square root of .25 = .5

p +q = 1 so 1 - .5 = .5 p

2 x (pq) = 2 x .25 = .50

Hardy-Weinberg

If 250 people out of a population of 1,000 are born with sickle-cell anemia, how many people in the population will be more resistant to malaria because they are heterozygous for the sickle-cell gene?

Hardy-Weinberg continued

In a population of 250 peas, 16% of the peas are homozygous recessive wrinkled and the rest are smooth. What is the frequency of the dominant allele for smooth peas?

Hardy-Weinberg

In a population that is Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of the homozygous recessive genotype is 0.09.

What is the p and q value for this population?

What is the frequency of individuals that are homozygous for the dominant trait?

What is the frequency of individuals that show the dominant trait?

Hardy-Weinberg

A census of birds nesting on a Galapagos Island revealed that 24 of them show a rare recessive condition that affected beak formation. The other 63 birds in this population show no beak defect. If this population is in HW equilibrium, what is the frequency of the dominant allele? Give your answer to the nearest hundredth.

Biotic potential/population calculations

There are 2,000 mice living in a field. If 1,000 mice are born each month and 200 mice die each month, what is the per capita growth rate of mice over a month?

Biotic potential/population problems

As N approaches K for a certain population, what is predicted by the logistic equation?

Population problems

In 2009, the US had a population of about 307 million people. If there were 14 births and 8 deaths per 1000 people, what was the country’s net population growth that year (ignoring immigration and emigration)?

Population problems

Water potential

Scientists are trying to determine under what conditions a plant can survive. They collect the following data and would like to know the water potential of the plant cell. The solute potential is -0.6 MPa and the pressure potential is -1.0 MPa. What is the water potential?

Temperature coefficient

Gibbs free energy

A chemical reaction is most likely to occur spontaneously if the a)  Free energy is negative b)  Entropy change is negative c)  Activation energy is positive d)  Heat of reaction is positive

Gibbs free energy

A reaction will be spontaneous if it results in products that have a)  Lower potential energy and less randomness b)  Lower potential energy and more randomness c)  Greater potential energy and less randomness d)  Greater potential energy and more randomness

Enzyme reaction rates

Hydrogen peroxide is broken down to water and oxygen by the enzyme catalase. The following data were taken over 5 minutes. What is the rate of enzymatic reaction in mL/min from 2 to 4 minutes?

Enzyme rates

In a lab experiment, one enzyme is combined with its substrate at time O. The product is measured in micrograms at 20-second intervals and recorded on the data table.

a.What is the initial rate of the enzyme reaction?b.What is the rate after 100 seconds?c.Why is there no increase in product after 100 seconds?d.What would happen if you added only more enzymes after 100 seconds? e. What would happen if you added only more substrate after 100 seconds?

Surface area to volume ratiosFour blocks of phenolphthalein agar are placed in a vinegar solution. Which block would the vinegar solution penetrate most thoroughly into after ten minutes?

Which block would have the greatest volume of pink phenolphthalein remaining at the end of ten minutes? Justify your answer mathematically and relate your predicted results to the surface area of your blocks.

a) Block1: 4cm x 4cm x 4cm b)Block2: 2cm x 8cm x 4cm c)Block3: 1cm x 8cm x 8cm d)Block4: 1cm x 1cm x 64cm

Primary productivity

pH calculations

According to the Acid Rain Monitoring Project at the University of Mass, the pH measured at King Phillip Brook on April 10, 2012, was near 5, which the pH measured at Robbins Pond on that same date was near 9.

Determine to the nearest whole number how many times greater the hydrogen ion concentration was at King Phillip Brook.

pH

What is the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution of pH 8?