ASSIGNMENT

Course Code : MS - 54 Course Title : Management of Information Systems Assignment Code : MS-54/SEM – I /2011 Coverage : All Blocks

Note: Answer all the questions and send them to the Coordinator of the Study Centre you are attached with.

Q1. Discuss the rational individual models of decision making. What are the implications of these models to information system analysts?

Q2. Discuss the critical success factor method for the purpose of information requirement analysis.

Q3. Explain the concept of System and its usefulness in MIS.

Q4. Discuss the various Kinds of network topologies.

Q5. Outline the basic sequences of steps to acquiring a DBMS.

Q6. Differentiate among Trojans, Worms and Viruses. Give one example of each.

Q1.        Discuss the rational individual models of decision making. What are the implications of these models to information system analysts?Rational decision making models involve a cognitive process where each step follows in a logical order from the one before. By cognitive, I mean it is based on thinking through and weighing up the alternatives to come up with the best potential result.

There are different types of rational models and the number of steps involved, and even the steps themselves, will differ in different models.

Some people assume that decision making is equivalent to problem solving. Some decisions however are not problem oriented.

Steps in a rational decision making model    Define the situation/decision to be made   Identify the important criteria for the process and the result   Consider all possible solutions    Calculate the consequences of these solutions versus the likelihood of satisfying the criteria   Choose the best option

The comparison is often performed by filling out forms or charts that have many names. Decision matrix, Pugh matrix, decision grid, selection matrix, criteria rating form, amongst others. A relative importance is given to each criterion and the options are scored against each of the criteria and the highest 'wins'. Pros and cons A rational decision making model presupposes that there is one best outcome. Because of this it is sometimes called an optimizing decision making model. The search for perfection is frequently a factor in actually delaying making a decision. Such a model also presupposes that it is possible to consider every option and also to know the future consequences of each. While many would like to think they know what will happen, the universe often has other plans! It is also limited by the cognitive abilities of the person making the decision; how good is their memory? how good is their imagination? The criteria themselves, of course, will be subjective and may be difficult to compare. These models require a great deal of time and a great deal of information. And, of course, a rational decision making model attempts to negate the role of emotions in decision making.

Specific types of rational decision making models Bounded rational decision making modelsA decision maker is said to exhibit bounded rationality when they consider fewer options than are actually available, or when they choose an option that is not ?the best overall? but is best within the current circumstances. Eg, someone spills coffee on a shirt in a restaurant, and goes next door and buys a poorly fitting shirt to change into immediately. Obviously it would be optimal to buy a proper fitting shirt. But if the person is in a hurry and cannot wear a wet, coffee stained shirt, then buying the poorly fitting one is appropriate. This is an example of bounded rationality.

Vroom-Jago decision model This model originally was created by Vroom and Yetton in 1973 and later modified by Vroom and Jago. Basically there are five situations for making decisions, from a single individual making the decision, to an individual making the decision with varying amounts of input from the rest of the group, to the whole group making the decision. The Vroom-Jago decision model has a series of seven yes/no questions that elicit the important criteria and indicate which of the five decision-making processes is the most appropriate.

Intuitive decision making models Some people consider these decisions to be unlikely coincidences, lucky guesses, or some kind of new-age hocus-pocus. Many universities are still only teaching rational decision making models and suggest that if these are not used, failure results. Some researchers are even studying the logic behind the intuitive decision making models! The groups who study intuitive decision making models are realising that it's not simply the opposite of rational decision making. Carl Jung pointed out that it is outside the realm of reason. In military schools the rational, analytical models have historically been utilised. It is also long been recognised, however, that once the enemy is engaged the analytical model may do more harm than good. History is full of examples where battles have more often been lost by a leader?s failure to make a decision than by his making a poor one.

The military are educating the soldiers of every rank in how to make intuitive decisions. Information overload, lack of time and chaotic conditions are poor conditions for rational models. Instead of improving their rational decision making, the army has turned to intuitive

MS - 54

decision models. Why? Because they work!

Recognition primed decision making model

Describes that in any situation there are cues or hints that allow people to recognise patterns. Obviously the more experience somebody has, the more patterns they will be able to recognise. Based on the pattern, the person chooses a particular course of action. They mentally rehearse it and if they think it will work, they do it. If they don't think it will work, they choose another, and mentally rehearse that. As soon as they find one that they think will work, they do it. Again past experience and learning plays a big part here. There is no actual comparison of choices, but rather a cycling through choices until an appropriate one is found. Obviously people become better with this over time as they have more experiences and learn more patterns. But can this be taught? YES, IT  CAN  BE   TAUGHT.

The ultimate decision making model The ultimate model will allow you to rapidly assimilate the available information in a situation, bring all the relevant learning and past experiences to bear and allow you to quickly and easily decide what to do, while knowing for certain that you're making the right decision.

==================================THE  RATIONAL  APPROACH.Basic Guidelines  Decision Making1. Define the problemThis is often where people struggle. They react to what they think the problem is. Instead, seek to understand more about why you think there's a problem. Defining the problem: (with input from yourself and others)Ask yourself and others, the following questions: a. What can you see that causes you to think there's a problem? b. Where is it happening?c. How is it happening?d. When is it happening?e. With whom is it happening? (HINT: Don't jump to "Who is causing the problem?" When we're stressed, blaming is often one of our first reactions. To be an effective manager, you need to address issues more than people.)f. Why is it happening?g. Write down a five-sentence description of the problem in terms of "The following should be happening, but isn't ..." or "The following is happening and should be: ..." As much as possible, be specific in your description, including what is happening, where, how, with whom and why. (It may be helpful at this point to use a variety of research methods.

Defining complex problems:a. If the problem still seems overwhelming, break it down by repeating steps a-f until you have descriptions of several related problems.Verifying your understanding of the problems:a. It helps a great deal to verify your problem analysis for conferring with a peer or someone else.Prioritize the problems:a. If you discover that you are looking at several related problems, then prioritize which ones you should address first. b. Note the difference between "important" and "urgent" problems. Often, what we consider to be important problems to consider are really just urgent problems. Important problems deserve more attention. For example, if you're continually answering "urgent" phone calls, then you've probably got a more "important" problem and that's to design a system that screens and prioritizes your phone calls.Understand your role in the problem:a. Your role in the problem can greatly influence how you perceive the role of others. For example, if you're very stressed out, it'll probably look like others are, too, or, you may resort too quickly to blaming and reprimanding others. Or, you are feel very guilty about your role in the problem, you may ignore the accountabilities of others.----------------------------------------------2. Look at potential causes for the problema. It's amazing how much you don't know about what you don't know. Therefore, in this phase, it's critical to get input from other people who notice the problem and who are effected by it. b. It's often useful to collect input from other individuals one at a time (at least at first). Otherwise, people tend to be inhibited about offering their impressions of the real causes of problems.c. Write down what your opinions and what you've heard from others.d. Regarding what you think might be performance problems associated with an employee, it's often useful to seek advice from a peer or your supervisor in order to verify your impression of the problem.e.Write down a description of the cause of the problem and in terms of what is happening, where, when, how, with whom and why.---------------------------------------------------- 3.Define the Goal or Objective

In a sense, every problem is a situation that prevents us from achieving previously determined goals. If a personal goal is to lead a pleasant and meaningful life, then any situation that would prevent it is viewed as a problem. Similarly, in a business situation, if a company objective is to operate profitably, then problems are those occurrences which prevent the company from achieving its previously defined profit objective. But an objective need not be a grand, overall goal of a business or an individual. It may be quite narrow and specific. "I want to pay off the loan on my car by May," or "The plant must produce 300 golf carts in the next two weeks," are more limited objectives. Thus, defining the objective is the act of exactly describing the task or goal. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Identify alternatives for approaches to resolve the problema. At this point, it's useful to keep others involved (unless you're facing a personal and/or employee performance problem). Brainstorm for solutions to the problem. Very simply put, brainstorming is collecting as many ideas as possible, then screening them to find the best idea. It's critical when collecting the ideas to not pass any judgment on the ideas -- just write them down as you hear them. -------------------------------------------------------------5. Select an approach to resolve the problem When selecting the best approach, consider:a. Which approach is the most likely to solve the problem for the long term?b. Which approach is the most realistic to accomplish for now? Do you have the resources? Are they affordable? Do you have enough time to implement the approach?c. What is the extent of risk associated with each alternative?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6. Plan the implementation of the best alternative (this is your action plan)a. Carefully consider "What will the situation look like when the problem is solved?"b. What steps should be taken to implement the best alternative to solving the problem? What systems or processes should be changed in your organization, for example, a new policy or procedure? Don't resort to solutions where someone is "just going to try harder". c. How will you know if the steps are being followed or not? (these are your indicators of the success of your plan)d. What resources will you need in terms of people, money and facilities? e. How much time will you need to implement the solution? Write a schedule that includes the start and stop times, and when you expect to see certain indicators of success. f. Who will primarily be responsible for ensuring implementation of the plan?g. Write down the answers to the above questions and consider this as your action plan.h. Communicate the plan to those who will involved in implementing it and, at least, to your immediate supervisor.(An important aspect of this step in the problem-solving process is continually observation and feedback.) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7. Monitor implementation of the planMonitor the indicators of success: a. Are you seeing what you would expect from the indicators?b. Will the plan be done according to schedule? c. If the plan is not being followed as expected, then consider: Was the plan realistic? Are there sufficient resources to accomplish the plan on schedule? Should more priority be placed on various aspects of the plan? Should the plan be changed? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8. Verify if the problem has been resolved or notOne of the best ways to verify if a problem has been solved or not is to resume normal operations in the organization. Still, you should consider:a. What changes should be made to avoid this type of problem in the future? Consider changes to policies and procedures, training, etc. b. Lastly, consider "What did you learn from this problem solving?" Consider new knowledge, understanding and/or skills. c. Consider writing a brief memo that highlights the success of the problem solving effort, and what you learned as a result. Share it with your supervisor, peers and subordinates==================================

The information  SYSTEM   used  for   various  purposes,

-strategic planning-delivering increased  productivity-reducing  service cycles-reducing  product development  cycles-reducing  marketing life cycles-increasing  the  understanding  of  customers' needs-facilitating business and  process re-engineering.

THE  INFORMATION  SYSTEM  IS  USED   as an  informationutility  to

-support  policy making-meet  regulatory  and  legislative requirements-support  research  and  development-support  consistent and  rapid  decision  making-enable  effective  and efficient  utilization  of resources-provide evidence of  business transactions-identify  and  manage  risks-evaluate  and document quality, performance and achievements.

MAKING INFORMATION  AVAILABLEThe  availability  of  information is  fundamental  to  the  decision makingprocess. Decisions  are  made within the organization at-STRATEGIC-OPERATIONAL-PROGRAMMES-ACTIVITY  LEVEL.

The  information  needs and decision making  activities  of the  various  levels of  management

SENIOR  MANAGEMENTStrategic business  direction

-information  for  strategically positioning  the  organization-competitive  analysis and  performance evaluation,-strategic  planning and policy,-external factors that  influence  the  directionetc

MID LEVEL MANAGEMENTOrganizational and operational functions

-information  for  coordination  of  work units-information  for  delivery  programmes-evaluation  of  resources usage-budget control-problem  solving-operational  planning

etc

MID  LEVEL  MANAGEMENTProgramme  management within units

-information  for  implementing programmes-information  for  managing   programmes-management   of  resources usage-project scheduling-problem  solving-operational  planningetc

LINE  MANAGEMENTActivity management

-information for  routine  decision  making-information  for  problem solving-information  for  service deliveryetc.

MANAGEMENT  SUPPORT  SYSTEMS

The  management  oriented  support  systems   provide supportto  various  levels  of  management.

Executive  Information  Systems  allow  executives to see where  aproblem  or  opportunity  exists.

Decision  Support  Systems are  used  by  mid-level management  to support  the  solution  of  problems that  require judgementby  the  problem solver.

Line  Managers   use Management  Reporting Systems  for  routine operational  information.

FUNCTIONAL   INFORMATION  SYSTEMS

These  include

-Accounting  Information  Systems-Marketing  Information  Systems-Enterprise  Information  Systems-Decision  Support  Information  Systems-Executive    Information  Systems-Quality  Management   Information  Systems-Manufacturing   Information  Systems-Financial   Information  Systems-Human resource   Information  Systems################################

Q2.        Discuss the critical success factor method for the purpose of information requirement analysis. Critical success factor (CSF) is the term for an element that is necessary for an organization or project to achieve its mission. It is a critical factor or activity required for ensuring the success of a company or an organizationCritical success factors are elements that are vital for a strategy to be successful. A critical success factor drives the strategy forward, it makes or breaks the success of the strategy CRITICAL   SUCCESS  FACTORS  COVERS

• Organizational factors (such as top management sponsorship).• Environmental factors (such as business competition).• Project-related factors (such as skills of project team and end-user involvement).• Technical factors (such as quality of data sources)• Educational factors (such as training courses).FOR  IDENTIFYING  THE  CRITICAL  FACTORS, -the  value  analysis-the swot  analysis  OF  THE  VALUE   CHAIN   WOULD  REVEAL  THE  CRITICAL   SUCCESSS  FACTORS.The value chainThe concept of value added, in the form of the value chain, can be utilised to develop an organizational competitive advantage All organisations consist of activities that link together to develop the value of the business, and together these activities form the organisation’s value chain. Such activities may include purchasing activities, manufacturing the products, distribution and marketing of the company’s products and activities . The value chain framework has been used as a powerful analysis tool for the strategic planning of an organization. The aim of the value chain framework is to maximise value creation while minimising costs .

Main aspects of Value Chain AnalysisValue chain analysis is a powerful tool for managers to identify the key activities within the firm which form the value chain for that organisation, and have the potential of a sustainable competitive advantage for a company. Therein, competitive advantage of an organisation lies in its ability to perform crucial activities along the value chain better than its competitors.The value chain framework of  is “an interdependent system or network of activities, connected by linkages” . When the system is managed carefully, the linkages can be a vital source of competitive advantage . The value chain analysis essentially entails the linkage

of two areas. Firstly, the value chain links the value of the organisations’ activities with its main functional parts. Then the assessment of the contribution of each part in the overall added value of the business is made . In order to conduct the value chain analysis, the company is split into primary and support activities . Primary activities are those that are related with production, while support activities are those that provide the background necessary for the effectiveness and efficiency of the firm, such as human resource management. The primary and secondary activities of the firm are discussed in detail below.Primary-activitiesThe primary activities  of the company include the following:•   Inbound-logisticsThese are the activities concerned with receiving the materials from suppliers, storing these externally sourced materials, and handling them within the firm. •   Operations These are the activities related to the production of products and services. This area can be split into more departments in certain companies. For example, the operations in case of a hotel would include reception, room service etc. •   Outbound-logistics These are all the activities concerned with distributing the final product and/or service to the customers. For example, in case of a hotel this activity would entail the ways of bringing customers to the hotel. •   Marketing-and-sales This functional area essentially analyses the needs and wants of customers and is responsible for creating awareness among the target audience of the company about the firm’s products and services. Companies make use of marketing communications tools like advertising, sales promotions etc. to attract customers to their products. •   ServiceThere is often a need to provide services like pre-installation or after-sales service before or after the sale of the product or service. Support-activitiesThe support activities of a company include the following:•   Procurement This function is responsible for purchasing the materials that are necessary for the company’s operations. An efficient procurement department should be able to obtain the highest quality goods at the lowest prices. •   Human-Resource-Management This is a function concerned with recruiting, training, motivating and rewarding the workforce of the company. Human resources are increasingly becoming an important way of attaining sustainable competitive advantage. •   Technology-Development This is an area that is concerned with technological innovation, training and knowledge that is crucial for most companies today in order to survive. •   Firm-Infrastructure This includes planning and control systems, such as finance, accounting, and corporate strategy etc. . Figure 1: The Value Chain:

The word ‘margin’ IS  USED  for the difference between the total value and the cost of performing the value activities . Here, value is referred to as the price that the customer is willing to pay for a certain offering . Other scholars have used the word ‘added value’ instead of margin in order to describe the same . The analysis entails a thorough examination of how each part might contribute towards added value in the company and how this may differ from the competition.How to write a Good Value Chain AnalysisThe ability of a company to understand its own capabilities and the needs of the customers is crucial for a competitive strategy to be successful. The profitability of a firm depends to a large extent on how effectively it manages the various activities in the value chain, such that the price that the customer is willing to pay for the company’s products and services exceeds the relative costs of the value chain activities. It is important to bear in mind that while the value chain analysis may appear as simple in theory, it is quite time-consuming in practice. The logic and validity of the proven technique of value chain analysis has been rigorously tested, therefore, it does not require the user to have the same in-depth knowledge as the originator of the model . The first step in conducting the value chain analysis is to break down the key activities of the company according to the activities entailed in the framework. The next step is to assess the potential for adding value through the means of cost advantage or differentiation. Finally, it is imperative for the analyst to determine strategies that focus on those activities that would enable the company to attain sustainable competitive advantage.It is important for analysts to remember to use the value chain as a simple checklist to analyse each activity in the business with some depth . The value chain should be analysed with the core competence of the company at its very heart . The value chain framework is a handy tool for analysing the activities in which the firm can pursue its distinctive core competencies, in the form of a low cost strategy or a differentiation strategy. It is to be noted that the value chain analysis, when used appropriately, makes the implementation of competitive strategies more systematic overall. Analysts should use the value chain analysis to identify how each business activity contributes to a particular competitive strategy. A company may benefit from cost advantages if it either reduces the cost of individual activities in the value chain or the value chain is essentially reconfigured, through structural changes in the activities. One of the problematic areas of the value chain model, however, is that the costs of the different activities of the value chain need to be attributed to an activity. There are few costing systems that contain detailed activity level costing, unless an Activity Based Costing (ABC) system is in place in the company. Another relevant area of concern that analysts must pay particular attention to is the customers’ view point of value. The customers of the firm may view value in a generic way, thereby making the process of evaluating the activities in the value chain in relation with the total price increasingly difficult. It is imperative for analysts to note that the overall differentiation advantage may result from any activity in the value chain. A differentiation advantage may be achieved either by changing individual value chain activities to increase uniqueness in the final product or service of the company, or by reconfiguring the company’s value chain.The difference between a low cost strategy and differentiation in practice is unlike the rigidity that is provided regarding the same in theory. Analysts must note that the difference between these two strategies is one of the shades of grey in real life compared to the black and white that is offered in theory.Note that in a company with more than one product area, it is appropriate to conduct the value chain analysis at the product group level, and not at the corporate strategy level. It is crucial for companies to have the ability to control and make most of their capabilities. In the advent of outsourcing, progressive companies are increasingly making their value chains more elastic and their organisations inherently more flexible . The important question is to see how the companies are sourcing every activity in the value chain. A systematic analysis of the value chain can facilitate effective outsourcing decisions. Therefore, it is important to have an in-depth understanding of the company’s strengths and weaknesses in each activity in terms of cost and differentiation factors.

________________________________________What Does Value Chain Analysis Entail?In identifying opportunities for upgrading and the constraints to these opportunities, the analysis should focus on answering the following questions:    What and where are the market opportunities? (End market analysis)    What upgrading is needed to exploit them? (End market and chain analysis)

   Who will benefit from this upgrading? (Chain analysis)    Who has the resources, skills and incentives to drive upgrading? (Chain analysis)    Why has it not happened already? (Chain analysis)    What will it take to make it happen? (End market and chain analysis)

End Market Analysis- goes beyond confirming the general existence of demand to understanding market trends, high-potential market segments, benchmarking and market positioning. Research into market trends highlights where the industry is headed in the future in terms of opportunities, problems and competition. Market segmentation identifies the segments of the larger market that offer the greatest opportunity for a particular value chain, given its capacity. Within a market segment, benchmarking identifies and compares competitors with one another against criteria important to buyers. Market positioning involves identifying the various positions of competitors in a given market segment in terms of their competitiveness strategy (lower cost, better quality, etc.) and selecting a position that will maximize competitive advantage. While secondary data can be important to understanding market trends, primary research with buyers is critical to effective segmentation, benchmarking and positioning. Finally, good end-market analysis will include buyer contacts--the names, addresses, contact information and specifications of buyers who have articulated a clear interest in purchasing the product or service in question if certain conditions ARE  MET.Chain Analysis-focuses on constraints to the opportunities identified in the end market analysis. The value chain framework defines the scope of the chain analysis, serving as a checklist and organizing framework for the research. Chain analysis examines both structural and dynamic factors affecting value chain competitiveness and the depth and breadth of benefits, including: Structural factors    end markets    business enabling environment    vertical linkages    horizontal linkages    supporting markets Dynamic factors    value chain governance    inter-firm relationships    upgrading How to Conduct Value Chain AnalysisValue chain analysis is a process that requires four interconnected steps: data collection and research, value chain mapping, analysis of opportunities and constraints, and vetting of findings with stakeholders and recommendations for future actions. These four steps are not necessarily sequential and can be carried out simultaneously. Briefly, the steps can be described as follows: 1.   The value chain team collects data through primary and secondary sources by way of research and interviews. 2.   The team compiles a value chain map, which helps to organize the data. 3.   By using the value chain framework, the collected data is further organized and analyzed to reveal opportunities and constraints within the chain. 4.   The resulting analysis of opportunities and constraints is vetted with stakeholders and used to design a strategy for the value chain to improve competitiveness and to agree on upgrading investments. WE  CONDUCT  THE   ‘’SWOT’’   ANALYSIS  OF  THE ELEMENTS  OF  THE  ‘’VALUE  CHAIN’’  FRAMEWORK.THEN  MATCH  WITH  THE  CRITICAL   SUCCESS FACTORS  REQUIRED   WITH   THE  FRAMEWORK  AND  THEN SELECT  AND  DEVELOP   THE STRATEGY  FOR  THE  ORGANIZATIONAL   FRAMEWORK. THIS  ANALYSIS  PLUS  THE  DATA  FROM  THE  ‘’SWOT’’WOULD  OFFER  THE  CRITICAL  SUCCESS  FACTORS  FOR  THE  ORGANIZATION.1.   Provides information to support managerial functions like Planning, organizing, directing, controlling.2.   Collects information in a systematic and a routine manner which is in accordance with a well defined set of rules.3.   Includes files, hardware, software and operations research models of Processing, storing, retrieving and transmitting information to the users.

OBJECTIVES OF MIS:-

An effective MIS has the following objectives1.   Facilitate the decision - making process by furnishing information in the proper time frame. This helps the decision - maker to select the best course of action.2.   Provide requisite information at each level of management to carry out their functions.3.   Help in highlighting the critical factors to the closely monitored for successful functioning of the organization.4.   Support decision-making in both structured and unstructured problem environments.5.   Provide a system of people, computers, procedures, interactive query facilities, documents for collecting, sorting, retrieving and transmitting information to the users.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MIS:-Management OrientedThe system is designed from the top to work downwards. It does not mean that the system is designed to provide information directly to the top management. Other levels of management are also provided with relevant information. For example, in the marketing information system, the activities such as sales order processing, shipment of goods to customers and billing for the goods are basically operational control activities. A salesman can also track this information, to know the sales territory, size of order, geography and product line, provide the system has been designed accordingly. However, if the system is designed keeping in mind the top management, then data on external competition, market and pricing can be created to know the market share of the company's product and to serve as a basis of a new product or market place introduction.

Management DirectedBecause of management orientation of MIS, it is necessary that management should actively direct the system development efforts. In order to ensure the effectiveness of system designed, management should continuously make reviews.

IntegratedThe world "integration" means that the system has to cover all the functional areas of an organization so as to produce more meaningful management information, with a view to achieving the objectives of the organization. It has to consider various sub-system their objectives, information needs, and recognize the interdependence, that these subsystem have amongst themselves, so that common

areas of information are identified and processed without repetition and overlapping

Common Data FlowsBecause of the integration concept of MIS, common data flow concept avoids repetition and overlapping in data collection and storage combining similar functions, and simplifying operations wherever possible.

Heavy Planning ElementA management information system cannot be established overnight. It takes almost 2 to 4 years to establish it successfully in an organization. Hence, long-term planning is required for MIS development in order to fulfill the future needs and objectives of the organization. The designer of an information system should therefore ensure that it will not become obsolete before it actually gets into operation.

Flexibility and Ease Of UseWhile building an MIS system all types of possible means, which may occur in future, are added to make it flexible. A feature that often goes with flexibility is the ease of use. The MIS should be able to incorporate all those features that make it readily accessible to the wide range of users with easy usability.

2.   Explain strategic MIS categories in detail. Give illustrations for each category.

Answer: Strategic Information System - A Strategic Information System (SIS) is a system to manage information and assist in strategic decision making. A strategic information system has been defined as, "The information system to support or change enterprise's strategy."

A SIS is a type of Information System that is aligned with business strategy and structure.

The alignment increases the capability to respond faster to environmental changes and thus creates a competitive advantage. An early example was the favorable position afforded American and United Airlines by their reservation systems, Sabre and Apollo. For many years these two systems ensured that the two carriers' flights appeared on the first screens observed by travel agents, thus increasing their bookings relative to competitors. A major source of controversy surrounding SIS is their sustainability.SISs are different from other comparable systems as:

1.   they change the way the firm competes.2.   they have an external (outward looking) focus.3.   they are associated with higher project risk.4.   they are innovative (and not easily copied).

It is mainly concerned with providing and organization and its members an assistance to perform the routine tasks efficiently and effectively. One of the major issue before any organization is the challenge of meeting its goals and objectives. Strategic IS enable such organization in realizing their goals. Strategic Information System (SIS) is a support to the existing system and helps in achieving a competitive advantage over the organizations competitors in terms of its objectives. This unit deals with the critical aspects of the strategic information system. This units indicates the theoretical concepts and the way in which the same are realized in practice. The flow of the unit is in such a way that it starts with the development of contemporary theory about strategic uses of corporations' internal information systems leading to systems which transcend the boundaries of particular organizations. The process whereby strategic information systems are created or identified is then examined. A number of weaknesses in the existing body of theory are identified, and suggestions made as to directions in which knowledge is or may be progressing. A strategic information system is concerned with systems which contribute significantly to the achievement of an organization's overall objectives. The body of knowledge is of recent origin and highly dynamic, and the area has an aura of excitement about it. The emergence of the key ideas, the process whereby strategic information systems come into being is assessed, areas of weakness are identified, and directions of current and future development suggested.

Information system is regarded as a tool to provide various services to different management functions. The tools have been developing year by year and the application of the tool has become more and more diverse. In management it is now a very power means to manage and control various activities and decision making process. The original idea of automating mechanical processes got quickly succeeded by the rationalization and integration of systems. In both of these forms, IS was regarded primarily as an operational support tool, and secondarily as a service to management. Subsequent to the development, it was during the last few years that an additional potential was discovered. It was found that, in some cases, information technology (IT) had been critical to the implementation of an organization's strategy.

An organization’s strategy supported by information system fulfilling its business objectives came to be known as Strategic Information System. The strategic information system consists of functions that involved gathering, maintenance and analysis of data concerning internal resources, and intelligence about competitors, suppliers, customers, government and other relevant organizations.######################################################

Q4 > Types of Network TopologiesA network topology describes the configuration of a network and the physical and logical arrangement of the nodes that form the network. To know all about the different types of network topologies, read on…

A topology describes the configuration of a communication network. The way in which the elements of a network are mapped or arranged is known as a network topology. A topology describes the physical and the logical interconnection between the different nodes of a network. Network topologies are classified as physical, logical and signal topologies. A physical topology describes the mapping of the network nodes and the physical connections between them. Signal topology describes the paths, which the signals take while they pass over the network. The mapping of the paths taken by data as they travel over the network is known as a logical topology. The terms, signal topology and logical topology are closely related. Let us see the different types of network topologies in detail.

Types of Network Topologies

Bus Topology: In this type of network topology, all the nodes of a network are connected to a common transmission medium having two endpoints. All the data that travels over the network is transmitted through a common transmission medium known as the bus or the backbone of the network. When the

transmission medium has exactly two endpoints, the network topology is known by the name, ‘linear bus topology'. In case the transmission medium, also called as the network backbone, has more than two endpoints, the network is said to have a distributed bus topology. Bus topology is easy to handle and implement and is best suited for small networks. But the downside of this topology is that the limited cable length limits the number of stations, thus limiting the performance to a less number of nodes.

Ring Topology: In a ring topology, every node in the network is connected to two other nodes and the first and the last nodes are connected to each other. The data that are transmitted over the network pass through each of the nodes in the ring until they reach the destination node. In a ring network, the data and the signals that pass over the network travel in a single direction. The dual ring topology varies in having two connections between each of the network nodes. The data flow along two directions in the two rings formed thereby. The ring topology does not require a central server to manage connectivity between the nodes and facilitates an orderly network operation. But, the failure of a single station in the network can render the entire network inoperable. Changes and moves in the stations forming the network affect the network operation.

Mesh Topology: In a full mesh network, each network node is connected to every other node in the network. Due to this arrangement of nodes, it becomes possible for a simultaneous transmission of signals from one node to several other nodes. In a partially connected mesh network, only some of the network nodes are connected to more than one node. This is beneficial over a fully connected mesh in terms of redundancy caused by the point-to-point links between all the nodes. The nodes of a mesh network require possessing some kind of routing logic so that the signals and the data traveling over the network take the shortest path during each of the transmissions.

Star Topology: In this type of network topology, each node of the network is connected to a central node, which is known as a hub. The data that is transmitted between the network nodes passes across the central hub. A distributed star is formed by the interconnection of two or more individual star networks. The centralized nature of a star network provides a certain amount of simplicity while also achieving isolation of each device in the network. However, the disadvantage of a star topology is that the network transmission is largely dependent on the central hub. The failure of the central hub results in total network inoperability.

Tree Topology: It is also known as a hierarchical topology and has a central root node that is connected to one or more nodes of a lower hierarchy. In a symmetrical hierarchy, each node in the network has a specific fixed number of nodes connected to those at a lower level.

Apart from these basic types of network topologies, there are hybrid network topologies, which are composed of a combination of two or more basic topologies. These network mappings aim at harnessing the advantages of each of the basic topologies used in them. Network topologies are the physical arrangements of network nodes and wires. What is interesting is that the inanimate nodes and wires turn 'live' for the transmission of information!

NETWORK TOPOLOGIESTOPOLOGY – defines the structure of the network. There are two parts to the topology definition: the physical topology which is the actual layout of the wire (media) and the logical topology which defines how the media is accessed by the hosts. It refers also to how computers are being connected with each other. The types of topologies:1. BUS topology – uses a single backbone segment (length of cable) that all the hosts connect to directly. The idea is that is just like riding a bus. It has only one driver and many passengers who are riding.2. RING topology – connects one host to the next and the last host to the first. This creates a physical ring of cable. 3. STAR topology – connects all cables to a central point of concentration. This point is usually a hub or switch. It has a focal point where all the resources are there.4. EXTENDED STAR topology – uses the star topology to be created. It links individual stars together by linking the hubs/ switches. This will extend the length of the network5. HIERARCHICAL topology - is created similar to an extended star but instead of linking the hubs/ switches together, the system is linked to a computer that controls the traffic on the topology6. MESH topology – is used when there can be absolutely no break in communications. So as you can see in the graphic, each host has its connections to all other hosts. This also reflects the design of the internet which has multiple paths to any one locationHOSTS – devices that connect directly to a network segment. These hosts include computers, both clients and servers, printers, scanners and many other devices. These devices provide the users with connection to the network, with which the users share, create and obtain information.Network Interface Card (NIC) – is a printed circuit board that fits into the expansion slot of a bus on a computer’s motherboard or peripheral device. It is considered to be found in Layer 2 devices because each individual NIC throughout the world carries a unique code, called the Media Access Control (MAC) address.You can build computer networks with many different media types. Each media has advantages and disadvantages. What is an advantage for one media (category 5 cost) might be a disadvantage for another (fiber optic cost). Some of the advantages and disadvantages are: Cost Ease of installation Cable length REPEATER - is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances. It is used when the type of cable (CAT5 UTP) is long. CAT5 UTP has a maximum length of 100 meters (approximately 333 feet). The purpose of a repeater is regenerate and retimes network signals at the bit level to allow them to travel a longer distance on the media. HUB - is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and thus making them act as a single network segment. There are different classifications of hubs in networking:1. The first classification is active or passive. Most modern hubs are active; they take energy from a power supply to regenerate network signals. Some hubs are passive devices because they merely split signal for multiple users, like using a “Y” cord on a CD player to use more than one set of headphones.2. Another classification of hubs is intelligent or dumb. Intelligent hubs have console ports, which mean they can be programmed to manage traffic in the network. Dumb hubs simply take an incoming networking signal and repeat it to every port without the ability to do any management.BRIDGE – refers to a device which has just two parts. It filters the frames and how this is actually accomplished.SWITCH – is to concentrate connectivity, while making data transmission more efficient. A device that is able to combine the connectivity of a hub with the traffic regulation of a bridge on each port.ROUTER – the first device that you will work with that us at the OSI’s network layer, or other known as Layer 3. The purpose of a router is to examine incoming packets, choose the best path for them in a network and then switch them to the proper outgoing port

Q6

Viruses, worms and Trojan Horses are all malicious programs that can cause damage to your computer, but there are differences among the three.One common mistake that people make when the topic of a computer virus arises is to refer to a worm or Trojan horse as a virus. While the words Trojan, worm and virus are often used interchangeably, they are not exactly the same thing. Viruses, worms and Trojan Horses are all malicious programs that can cause damage to your computer, but there are differences among the three, and knowing those differences can help you better protect your computer from their often damaging effects.

What Is a Virus?A computer virus attaches itself to a program or file enabling it to spread from one computer to another, leaving infections as it travels. Like a human virus, a computer virus can range in severity: some may cause only mildly annoying effects while others can damage your hardware, software or files. Almost all viruses are attached to an executable file, which means the virus may exist on your computer but it actually cannot infect your computer unless you run or open the malicious program. It is important to note that a virus cannot be spread without a human action, (such as running an infected program) to keep it going. Because a virus is spread by human action people will unknowingly continue the spread of a computer virus by sharing infecting files or sending emails with viruses as attachments in the email.What Is a Worm?SponsoredEnter Your Apps in the Intel AppUp Developer Challenge::  Win Amazing Trips or Thousands in Cash!A worm is similar to a virus by design and is considered to be a sub-class of a virus. Worms spread from computer to computer, but unlike a virus, it has the capability to travel without any human action. A worm takes advantage of file or information transport features on your system, which is what allows it to travel unaided.The biggest danger with a worm is its capability to replicate itself on your system, so rather than your computer sending out a single worm, it could send out hundreds or thousands of copies of itself, creating a huge devastating effect. One example would be for a worm to send a copy of itself to everyone listed in your e-mail address book. Then, the worm replicates and sends itself out to everyone listed in each of the receiver's address book, and the manifest continues on down the line. Due to the copying nature of a worm and its capability to travel across networks the end result in most cases is that the worm consumes too much system memory (or network bandwidth), causing Web servers, network servers and individual computers to stop responding. In recent worm attacks such as the much-talked-about Blaster Worm, the worm has been designed to tunnel into your system and allow malicious users to control your computer remotely.What Is a Trojan horse?A Trojan Horse is full of as much trickery as the mythological Trojan Horse it was named after. The Trojan Horse, at first glance will appear to be useful software but will actually do damage once installed or run on your computer.  Those on the receiving end of a Trojan Horse are usually tricked into opening them because they appear to be receiving legitimate software or files from a legitimate source.  When a Trojan is activated on your computer, the results can vary. Some Trojans are designed to be more annoying than malicious (like changing your desktop, adding silly active desktop icons) or they can cause serious damage by deleting files and destroying information on your system. Trojans are also known to create a backdoor on your computer that gives malicious users access to your system, possibly allowing confidential or personal information to be compromised. Unlike viruses and worms, Trojans do not reproduce by infecting other files nor do they self-replicate.What Are Blended Threats?Added into the mix, we also have what is called a blended threat. A blended threat is a more sophisticated attack that bundles some of the worst aspects of viruses, worms, Trojan horses and malicious code into one single threat. Blended threats can use server and Internet vulnerabilities to initiate, then transmit and also spread an attack. Characteristics of blended threats are that they cause harm to the infected system or network, they propagates using multiple methods, the attack can come from multiple points, and blended threats also exploit vulnerabilities.To be considered a blended thread, the attack would normally serve to transport multiple attacks in one payload. For example it wouldn't just launch a DoS attack — it would also, for example, install a backdoor and maybe even damage a local system in one shot. Additionally, blended threats are designed to use multiple modes of transport. So, while a worm may travel and spread through e-mail, a single blended threat could use multiple routes including e-mail, IRC and file-sharing sharing networks.Lastly, rather than a specific attack on predetermined .exe files, a blended thread could do multiple malicious acts, like modify your exe files, HTML files and registry keys at the same time — basically it can cause damage within several areas of your network at one time.Blended threats are considered to be the worst risk to security since the inception of viruses, as most blended threats also require no human intervention to propagate.Tips to Combat Viruses, Worms and Trojan Horses on Your ComputerKeep The Operating System UpdatedThe first step in protecting your computer from any malicious there is to ensure that your operating system (OS) is up-to-date. This is essential if you are running a Microsoft Windows OS. Secondly, you need to have anti-virus software installed on your system and ensure you download updates frequently to ensure your software has the latest fixes for new viruses, worms, and Trojan horses. Additionally, you want to make sure your anti-virus program has the capability to scan e-mail and files as they are downloaded from the Internet, and you also need to run full disk scans periodically. This will help prevent malicious programs from even reaching your computer.Use a FirewallYou should also install a firewall. A firewall is a system that prevents unauthorized use and access to your computer. A firewall can be either hardware or software. Hardware firewalls provide a strong degree of protection from most forms of attack coming from the outside world and can be purchased as a stand-alone product or in broadband routers. Unfortunately, when battling viruses, worms and Trojans, a hardware firewall may be less effective than a software firewall, as it could possibly ignore embedded worms in out going e-mails and see this as regular network traffic.For individual home users, the most popular firewall choice is a software firewall.  A good software firewall will protect your computer from outside attempts to control or gain access your computer, and usually provides additional protection against the most common Trojan programs or e-mail worms. The downside to software firewalls is that they will only protect the computer they are installed on, not a network.It is important to remember that on its own a firewall is not going to rid you of your computer virus problems, but when used in conjunction with regular operating system updates and a good anti-virus scanning software, it will add some extra security and protection for your computer or network. 

Key Terms To Understanding Computer Viruses: virus: A program or piece of code that is loaded onto your computer without your knowledge and runs against your wishes. Trojan Horse: A destructive program that masquerades as a benign application. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses do not replicate themselves worm: A program or algorithm that replicates itself over a computer network and usually performs malicious actions blended threat: Blended threats combine the characteristics of viruses, worms, Trojan Horses, and malicious code with server and Internet vulnerabilities . antivirus program: A utility that searches a hard disk for viruses and removes any that are found.

It a common mistake for people to refer to a worm or Trojan horse as a computer virus. While the words Trojan, worm and virus are often used interchangeably, they are not exactly the same. Even though they are all malicious programs that can cause damage to your computer, but there are differences among the three, and knowing those differences can help you to better protect your computer from their often damaging effects.

What Is a Virus?

A virus attaches itself to a program or file enabling it to spread from one computer to another, leaving infections as it travels. Like a human virus, a computer virus can range in severity: some may cause only mildly annoying effects while others can damage your hardware, software or files.Almost all viruses are attached to an executable file, which means the virus may exist on your computer but it actually cannot infect your computer unless you run or open the malicious program. It is important to note that a virus cannot be spread without a human action,

(such as running an infected program) to keep it going. People continue the spread of a computer virus, mostly unknowingly, by sharing infecting files or sending e-mails with viruses as attachments in the e-mail.

What Is a Worm?

Although similar to a virus by design and is considered to be a sub-class of a virus. Worms spread from computer to computer, but unlike a virus, it has the capability to travel without any human action. A worm takes advantage of file or information transport features on your system, which is what allows it to travel unaided.One of the biggest danger with a worm is that, its has capability to replicate itself on your system, so rather than your computer sending out a single worm, it could send out hundreds or thousands of copies of itself, creating a huge devastating effect. One example would be for a worm to send a copy of itself to everyone listed in your e-mail address book. Then, the worm replicates and sends itself out to everyone listed in each of the receiver's address book, and the manifest continues on down the line. Due to the copying nature of a worm and its capability to travel across networks the end result in most cases is that the worm consumes too much system memory (or network bandwidth), causing Web servers, network servers and individual computers to stop responding. In recent worm attacks such as the much-talked-about Blaster Worm, the worm has been designed to tunnel into your system and allow malicious users to control your computer remotely.

What Is a Trojan horse?

Lastly, Trojan Horse is full of as much trickery as the mythological Trojan Horse it was named after. The Trojan Horse, at first glance will appear to be useful software but will actually do damage once installed or run on your computer. Those on the receiving end of a Trojan Horse are usually tricked into opening them because they appear to be receiving legitimate software or files from a legitimate source. When a Trojan is activated on your computer, the results can vary. Some Trojans are designed to be more annoying than malicious (like changing your desktop, adding silly active desktop icons) or they can cause serious damage by deleting files and destroying information on your system. Trojans are also known to create a backdoor on your computer that gives malicious users access to your system, possibly allowing confidential or personal information to be compromised. Unlike viruses and worms, Trojans do not reproduce by infecting other files nor do they self-replicate.