anomie/strain theories of crime

Anomie/Strain Theories of Crime

Challenge biologically based theories◦ Argue internal drives and motives are not implicated in

crime

Rather, the motivation for crime is derived from society ◦ Societal forces pressure people to commit crime◦ Certain phases of the social structure generate

circumstances in which violation of the law constitutes a “normal” response

◦ Social structures exert a definite pressure upon people to engage in crime

Anomie and Strain Theories

Anomie and strain theories are distinct, but related, theories

Anomie theories have a macro-level focus while strain theories have a micro-level focus◦ Anomie theories explain why some societies have

higher rates of crime than others

◦ Strain theories explain why some individuals commit more crime than others

Anomie Theories

Merton’s (1938) anomie theory◦ Argues the U.S. places a relatively strong emphasis

on the goal of monetary success, but a weak emphasis on the legitimate norms (e.g., education, hard work) for achieving this goal

◦ The goal-seeking behavior of individuals is subject to less regulation Societies with little regulation are characterized by a

sense of “anomie” or normlessness Free to pursue monetary success using

whatever means necessary, including crime

Anomie Theories

Most widely read article in sociology Presents both an anomie theory and a strain

theory Anomie theory focuses on why the U.S. has

higher rates of crimes than others◦ Focuses on the relative emphasis placed on

cultural goals and institutionalized norms for achieving these goals

Merton: “Social Structure and Anomie” (Anomie Theory)

Implicates the cultural and social structures in the explanation of crime◦ The cultural structure consists of the goals and norms

Goals: what people are supposed to achieve Involves varying degrees of prestige and sentiment In the U.S., monetary success is a major goal

Norms: how people are to achieve the goals

◦ The social structure provides people with the actual means to achieve the cultural goals In the U.S., everyone does not have the same access to legitimate means


Emphasis on these two elements, the cultural goals and institutional norms, vary independently

◦ Excessive emphasis on the goals with little concern for the norms This gap puts a strain on the norms, and anomie ensues

People then are free to use any means necessary to achieve the goals, including criminal behavior

Merton focused on this disjuncture

◦ Excessive emphasis on the norms with little concern for the goals People ritualistically adhere to the norms to the point where the behavior could be obsessive

Stability is maintained and change is flouted


Societies that have a similar emphasis on the goals and norms are integrated and relatively stable, but still allow change◦ Successful equilibrium is maintained between the

goals and the norms when satisfactions accrue to the individual from both the achievement of the goals and the process from which it was achieved


In the U.S., there is an excessive emphasis on the cultural goal of monetary success for all while there is little emphasis on the institutional norms

◦ The goals transcend class lines and are held by everyone in society

◦ This excessive focus on the goals generates literal demoralization or a deinstitutionalization of the institutional means to achieve a goal, which leads to anomie Anomie—sense of normlessness

Norms lose their power to control people’s behavior

◦ The emphasis on the culturally induced success goal becomes divorced from the coordinated institutional norms emphasis Fraud, corruption, robbery, etc., become common The “end-justifies-the-means” doctrine is the guiding tenet


The lack of high integration between the means-and-end elements of the cultural pattern and the particular class structure combine to favor a heightened frequency of antisocial conduct in society

Also, legitimate means (e.g., formal education, economic resources) to achieve valued goals are often limited to certain groups

There exist class differences in the accessibility of the means needed to reach these goals

Thus use any means necessary (including illegitimate means) to obtain the monetary success goal


This theory can help explain the correlations between poverty and crime◦ When poverty is combined with limited opportunities

and a commonly shared system of success symbols, there is an association between poverty and crime This is the case in the U.S.

◦ Do not see an association between poverty and crime where there is a rigidified class structure coupled with differential class symbols of achievement


Merton’s anomie theory was largely ignored until the 1980s ◦ Rather his strain theory was more popular

Messner and Rosenfeld drew heavily on Merton when developing institutional-anomie theory◦ Attempt to explain why the U.S. has such high crime rates

◦ Argue the “American Dream”—the emphasis on the unrestrained pursuit of monetary success by everyone—plays an important role

Merton’s Anomie Theory to Messner and Rosenfeld’s Institutional-Anomie Theory (IAT)

Argue the cultural emphasis on money is paralleled by an institutional structure that is dominated by the economy ◦ Other institutions (e.g., school, family, politics) are

subservient to the economy

◦ Noneconomic goals are devalued

◦ Noneconomic institutions must accommodate the economy

◦ Economic norms have permeated other institutions

Messner and Rosenfeld’s IAT

Levels of crime in the U.S. are very high compared to other nations

High rates of crime are not due to biological or moral failings

Rather, high crime rates are due to the “American Dream”

Based off Merton’s theory, but extend in two ways

1. Restore the macro-level intent of Merton’s anomie theory

2. Extend anomie theory by considering connections between core elements of the American Dream and other social institutions

Rosenfeld and Messner: Crime and the American Dream

The American Dream has been highly functional in that it encourages high levels of ambition, but it also can exert a pressure for crime

Anomic tendencies inherent in the American Dream both produce and are reproduced by an institutional balance of power dominated by the economy


The anomic tendencies of the American Dream derive from four value commitments:

1. Achievement orientation

Personal worth is evaluated on what people achieve Success is the ultimate measure of social worth Leads to pressure to achieve at any cost

2. Individualism

Encouraged to make it own your own Others are seen as competition


The anomic tendencies of the American Dream derive from four value commitments:

3. Universalism

Everyone is encouraged to aspire to social ascent No one is exempt from the pursuit of success

4. Monetary rewards

A distinctive feature of American culture is the preeminent role of money as the “metric” of success

A “currency” for measuring achievement Open-ended so there is no stopping point,

which leads to never-ending achievement


These four value commitments encourage members of society to pursue ends limited only by expediency considerations


IAT also examines the role of social institutions in society◦ Social institutions are the building blocks of

society

◦ Relatively stable sets of norms and values, statuses and roles, and groups and organizations that regulate human conduct to meet the basic needs of society


The main social institutions include:◦ Economy: organize the production

and distribution of goods and services◦ Polity: mobilize and distribute power to

obtain collective goals◦ Family: maintenance and replacement of

members in society◦ Education: transmit basic cultural standards

to new generations and prepare youth for the demand of adult occupational roles


Functions of the different social institutions are overlapping and interdependent ◦ Thus, some coordination and cooperation among the

institutions is required for societies to “work”

◦ However, this can also lead to conflict between the institutions

◦ In any given society, there is an institutional balance of power

A distinctive arrangement of social institutions that reflect a balancing of the different institutional claims and requisites


The core elements of the American Dream have their institutional underpinnings in the economy

◦ The most important feature of the U.S. economy is its capitalist nature (e.g., private ownership, free markets)

◦ Private owners of property are profit-motivated, and workers are willing to exchange labor for wages The motivation underlying this is financial returns

◦ Capitalist economies are also highly competitive Cultivates a competitive, innovative spirit


What is distinctive about the U.S. is the exaggerated emphasis on monetary success and unrestrained receptivity to innovation◦ Monetary success overwhelms all other goals and

is the principal measuring rod of success

Other institutions are unable to tame economic imperatives


Capitalism in the U.S. developed without institutional restraints

◦ Thus, the economy assumed an unusual dominance in the balance of power

◦ This has continued and is manifested in three ways:

1. Devaluation of noneconomic functions and roles

2. Accommodation to economic requirements by other institutions

3. Penetration of economic norms into other institutional domains


1. Devaluation of noneconomic institutional functions and roles

◦ Education

Seen as a means to occupational attainment in the economic system

Acquisition of knowledge/learning is not valued

Being a good student/teacher is not prestigious

◦ Family

Homeowner, not homemaker, has prestige

Stay-at-home moms/dads have inferior status

◦ Polity

Little social honor on the politician

If refuse to vote, mild disapproval; if refuse to work, socially degraded

Purpose of the government tends to be conceptualized in terms of its capacity to facilitate the individual pursuit of economic prosperity


2. Accommodation of other institutions to the economy

◦ Family Routines are dominated by schedules, rewards, and penalties of labor markets Employers resist family leave time

There is a necessity of paid employment to support the family

◦ Education The timing of school reflects occupational demands rather than features of the

learning process

People go to school to prepare for “good” jobs

Return to school to upgrade skills

◦ Polity Must take care to cultivate and maintain an environment hospitable to investment or

risk being “downgraded” by financial markets


3. Penetration of economic norms into other institutional areas

◦ Education Rely on grading system as extrinsic rewards, like wages, to insure compliance with goals

Individual competition for external rewards

Teaching oriented toward testing

◦ Polity

A “bottom-line” mentality develops

Belief government would work better if it were run like a business

◦ Family

Language of the household: husbands and wives are partners who manage the household

Huge movement of women into the workforce


Thus, the American Dream contributes to high levels of crime in two important ways:

1. Direct: through the creation of an anomic normative order (an environment in which social norms are unable to exert a strong regulatory force on members of society)

2. Indirect: contributes to an institutional balance of power that inhibits the development of strong mechanisms of external social control


Most studies have suggested that crime rates are lower in societies and areas that are not dominated by the economy

◦ Crime rates are lower in areas with stronger families, schools, religion, and political institutions

More difficult to test the prediction that crime is higher in the U.S. due to the emphasis on the pursuit of money

◦ One study showed that people in the U.S. do not place a relatively strong emphasis on money

◦ However, a 2007 study found crime is higher in areas in the U.S. where people express a high commitment to monetary success and a low commitment to the legitimate means for achieving success

Empirical Support for IAT

Focuses on the micro level ◦ Explains why individuals and groups within a society

are more likely to engage in crime◦ Argues individuals are pressured into crime when

prevented from achieving cultural goals through legitimate channels

◦ In the U.S., everyone is encouraged to pursue monetary success, but some are prevented from achieving that success through legitimate means Some people may respond by engaging in crime

(most conform)

Also presented in Merton’s (1938) “Social Structure and Anomie”

Classic Strain Theory

The gap between the cultural goals and the institutionalized means puts strain on individuals

Individuals can adapt in five ways:1. Conformity

2. Innovation

3. Ritualism

4. Retreatism

5. Rebellion

People can shift from one adaptation to another as they engage in different social activities

Merton: “Social Structure and Anomie” (Strain Theory)

1. Conformity◦ In all societies, conformity to both the goals and

the means is the most common adaptation

◦ This is why stability and continuity of a society is maintained

◦ Conventional role behavior is the rule, not the exception


2. Innovation◦ Occurs when people still value the cultural goals

but reject the institutionalized means

◦ Thus, individuals are free to obtain the goals by the most efficient means necessary, which can often be crime (e.g., stealing, prostitution, drug dealing)

◦ Often occurs in areas where there is limited opportunity


3. Ritualism◦ Occurs when people reject the cultural goals but

still value the institutionalized means

◦ Gain pleasure from practicing traditional ceremonies

◦ Low expectations regarding the goals

◦ Individual just goes through the motions


4. Retreatism◦ Occurs when people reject both the cultural goals and

the institutionalized means

◦ Least common of the adaptations

◦ These people are in society, but not of it

◦ Can include the activities of psychotics, psychoneurotics, tramps, vagrants, drug addicts, and alcoholics

◦ Have sense of defeatism/resignation manifested in escape mechanisms


5. Rebellion◦ Occurs when people reject both the cultural goals and the

institutionalized means but substitute an alternative set of goals and means

Example: become a good fighter

◦ Can include revolutionaries who seek radical change in the existing social structure

◦ Often new goals and means are in direct contrast to the conventional goals and means of mainstream society


Albert K. Cohen was a student of both Sutherland and Merton

Argued that strained individuals are unlikely to engage in crimeunless they first form or join a delinquent subculture whose values are conducive to crime

Cohen’s Extension to Merton’s Classic Strain Theory

Provides a general explanation for the origin of deviant subcultures and applies this theory to explain the origin and content of male, working-class urban gangs

Like Merton, he argues delinquency is caused by goal blockage

Unlike Merton, monetary success is not the only goal that is blocked◦ Middle-class status (respect from others and financial

success) is also blocked

Cohen: Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang

Argues all human behavior, including delinquency, is based on the psychogenic assumption◦ Our behavior is an ongoing series of efforts to

solve problems

◦ Seek to solve problems and not create new ones Select solutions from those established in our social

groups


In order for this culture to form that has a solution to a problem, there must be effective interaction with one another and a number of actors with similar problems of adjustment

Individuals in these groups come up with an innovative solution to solve these common problems


In lower- and working-class areas, youths must solve the problem of not being able to obtain middle-class status

◦ They experience status frustration

◦ Can achieve financial success through crime; however, cannot achieve other aspects of middle-class status (e.g., respect) through crime

◦ Thus, lower- and working-class boys adapt to their goal blockage by setting up an alternative status system in which they can achieve success Value everything the middle-class rejects

Gain status within their subculture by being everything the middle class is not; however, they lose status with the middle class


This explains higher rates of crime in the lower and working classes◦ Working-class boys are more likely than their

middle-class peers to be at the bottom of the status hierarchy when they enter a middle-class world

◦ To the degree they value middle-class standards, they face a problem of adjustment because they do not have the resources to gain that status Thus, they are “in the market” for a solution to this

status frustration and join delinquent subcultures that value crime and aggression


Dominated the field in the 1950s and 1960s with major impacts on public policy

One of the inspirations for the War on Poverty◦ Increase the opportunities of the poor to achieve success through

legitimate means

Came under attack in the late 1960s and 1970s

◦ Many studies failed to find support for the theory Tested by examining the disjuncture between expectations and aspirations

Found crime highest among those with low expectations and aspirations—not supporting the theory

Self-report studies found delinquency not concentrated just in the lower class

Empirical Support for Classic Strain Theory

Recently, researchers have argued there are better ways to measure strain than the disjuncture between aspirations and expectations

Using alternate and more direct measures, this research has found some support for classic strain theory


Recently, classic strain theory has been used to explain group differences in crime rates◦ Economic deprivation is found to be a huge predictor of

community differences in crime rates; however, it is only weakly related to societal differences All societies do not value economic success to the same

extent

◦ Economic inequality is a strong predictor of societal differences in crime rates Especially if the inequality is due to discrimination


In response to the criticisms of classic strain (e.g., it cannot explain middle-class crime), several efforts have been made to revise the theory

One major revision is that strain is a function of relative deprivation

◦ One’s level of strain is dependent on how much money one has relative to those in one’s reference group

◦ Compare self to people around you If do not match up, can feel strain

Revisions to Classic Strain Theory

Another revision argues adolescents pursue a variety of goals in addition to middle-class status◦ These include: popularity with

peers and romantic partners,athletic success, positive relationswith parents, teachers, and others, good grades, etc.

◦ Thus, middle-class youth experience strain quite frequently (not just lower-class youth)

◦ Not tested adequately, but preliminary research is not promising

Revisions to Classic Strain Theory

Robert Agnew significantly broadened the focus of strain theory

Argued there are multiple sources of strain◦ Merton focused on the goal blockage of monetary

success or positively valued goals through legitimate means

◦ Agnew presented more strains, distinguished between objective and subjective strains and experienced, vicarious, and anticipated strains

◦ Discussed which strains are most likely to lead to crime and why

Agnew’s General Strain Theory (GST)

People engage in crime because they experience strains or stressors

Crime is a type of corrective action people can use to cope with, reduce, or escape their strains and negative emotions (e.g., anger and frustration) associated with the strain

Crime is not the only way to cope◦ Crime is more likely when the individual lacks the

ability to cope in a legal manner Do not have the verbal skills to negotiate, the costs of

crime are low, etc.

Agnew: Pressured Into Crime: General Strain Theory

Strains are events or conditions that are disliked by the individual

Strain results from negative relationships with others

There are three major types of negative relations, which include relations that:1.Prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of

positively valued goals2.Remove or threaten to remove the achievement of

positively valued goals3.Present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli


Agnew discusses a variety of strains◦ Objective strains: events and conditions are that generally disliked

by most people Physical assaults, deprived of food and shelter, etc.

◦ Subjective strains: people differ in their subjective evaluations of the same events/conditions What is strongly disliked by one, may only be mildly disliked by another

Influenced by people’s personality traits, goals and values, prior experiences

Must look at the individual person

Must look at the individual’s subjective evaluation of a strain in order to determine the real relationship between crime and strain


Agnew also focused on experienced, vicarious, and anticipated strains◦ Experienced: strains the individual personally endured

◦ Vicarious: strains experienced by others around the individual, especially those to whom the individual feels close (e.g., family, friends) Can upset the individual and lead to criminal coping Could be seeking revenge, trying to prevent further harm

◦ Anticipated: the individual’s expectation that the current strains will continue into the future or new strains will be experienced May commit crime to try to prevent the strain from occurring


Not all strains result in crime

Strains are most likely to lead to crime when they are seen as:

1. High in magnitude2. Unjust3. Associated with low social control

4. Create some pressure or incentive for criminal coping


1. High in magnitude◦ More severe strains result in stronger negative emotional reactions

◦ Severity refers to the extent to which the strain is negatively evaluated Extent to which it is disliked

◦ Creates a stronger pressure for corrective action

◦ More likely to be seen as severe if: 1. High in degree or size

2. Frequent, recent, long in duration, or expected to continue

3. Threatens the core goals, needs, and/or values of the person


2. Unjust◦ Makes individuals more angry

◦ Seen as unjust when: It involves the voluntary and intentional violation

of a relevant justice norm or rule

The perpetrator freely chose to treat the victim in a way he/she knew the victim would dislike


3. Associated with low social control◦ Several types of social control

Direct: extent to which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person’s behavior, and sanction violations

Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others: care what others think and do not want to let these others down

Investment into conventional institutions: have time and resources invested in conventional behaviors and do not want to lose them through crime

Beliefs regarding crime: believe the laws are valid


3. Associated with low social control

◦ When the strain lowers the amount of social control on an individual, the person is more likely to cope criminally

◦ Examples: Parental rejection (associated with little direct control

and low emotional bonds)

Unemployment (associated with low investment)


4. Create pressure or incentive for criminal coping◦ Some strains easily resolved through crime and less easily

resolved through legal channels

◦ Some strains expose individuals to others who model, reinforce, and teach beliefs favorable to crime

◦ Examples: Desperate need for money (quicker to get through crime than

through a job) Child abuse victims (exposed to criminal models)


Crime is also especially likely:◦ When individuals experience two or more strains

◦ Experience strains close together in time

This taxes the individual’s coping responses


Strains increase the likelihood of crime because:

1. Strains lead to negative emotions Anger, jealousy, frustration, depression, fear

Anger found to partially mediate the effect of strain on crime

Creates pressure for corrective action

Reduces perceived costs of crime



2. Strains lead to the personality traits of negative emotionality and low constraint

People with negative emotionality are easily upset and have an aggressive interactional style

Tend to act without thinking, engage in risky behavior, reject social norms

Studies have found support for this



3. Strains may reduce levels of social control Many strains involve negative treatment by

conventional others

Strains are often chronic and occur on a repeated basis

This reduces one’s emotional bond to others, reduces investment in conventional activities, reduces direct control, and reduces a person’s belief in the law



4. Strains may foster the social learning of crime Increases the likelihood that individuals will join or

form criminal groups The members of these groups model, reinforce, and

teach criminal behaviors

Increases the appeal of criminal groups Increases the likelihood that a person views crime

as desirable or justifiable


Not all people cope with strains through crime, and most cope in a legal manner

Criminal coping is most likely when:1. Individuals lack the ability to cope with strains in a legal

manner Due to individual traits, resources, and social support

2. The costs of criminal coping are low Low probability for sanctions, nothing to lose, procriminal

beliefs

3. Individuals are disposed to crime Personality traits, believe crime is appropriate, associate with

criminal others


Policy implications◦ Eliminate strains conducive to crime

◦ Alter strains to make them less conducive to crime

◦ Remove individuals from strains conducive to crime

◦ Equip individuals with the traits and skills to avoid strains conducive to crime

◦ Alter the perceptions and goals of individuals to reduce subjective strains


Strategies for reducing the likelihood that individuals will respond to strains with crime include:◦ Improving conventional coping skills and

resources◦ Increasing social support◦ Increasing social control◦ Reducing associations with delinquent peers and

beliefs favorable to crime


Some support has been found for GST◦ Delinquency is higher among individuals

experiencing a variety of negative life events and various relational problems

◦ Strain more likely to lead to crime among individuals with negative emotionality and low constraint

Empirical Support for GST

Strain and anomie theories focus on how social influences pressure individuals into crime

Anomie focuses on the macro-level, while strain focuses on the micro-level

Anomie theory has seen a resurgence with Messner and Rosenfeld’s Institutional-Anomie Theory

Strain theory has seen a resurgence with Agnew’s General Strain Theory

Overall, there is some empirical support for both the anomie and strain theories

Summary

anomie/strain theories of crime

Documents

theories anomie theories

anomie anomie theoryimplicates

anomie anomie theorysocieties

anomie anomie theoryemphasis

anomie anomie theoryin

crime anomie theories

norms goals

strain theories anomie