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ANNUAL REPORT 1999
ECN
Westerduinweg 3
P.O. Box 1
1755 ZG Petten
Phone: +31 224 5649 49
Fax: +31 224 564480
www.ecn.nl
NetherlandsEnergy ResearchFoundation ECN
Cover illustration
The FPTO – Fuel Processing Test Facility – is used to examine various ‘fuelprocessing’ options. The aim of ‘fuel processing’ is to obtain hydrogen fromconventional fuels such as natural gas or gasoline which is sufficiently pure tofeed polymer fuel cells. The fuel cell is very suitable for electricity and heatgeneration in small units, such as combined micro-heat/power installations.The facility has been built by Technological Services & Consultancy for theApplied Catalysis group of the Clean Fossil Fuel unit who developed the newprocess. For research into mobile applications – electrical transport – theFPTO II is being designed and constructed.
1
Preface 3
Introduction 4
Solar Energy 10
Wind Energy 14
Biomass 17
Clean Fossil Fuel 19
Energy Efficiency 22
Policy Studies 25
Renewable Energy in the Built Environment 28
Technological Services & Consultancy 31
Nuclear Research 33
Financial Report 35
Collaboration with Universities 42
Members of the Supervisory Board, Advisory Bodies, Management 44
Colofon 46
Contents
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3
Preface
In 2000 the Netherlands Energy Research Founda-tion ECN will complete the implementation of the
Strategic Plan 1997-2000, in which the objectives areto focus on sustainable energy, achieve a considerablegrowth in sales, greater market-orientation and astrengthening of net assets. It is clearly evident fromthis 1999 report that these strategic objectives were al-ready largely achieved by the end of 1999. With the im-plementation of this strategy, ECN has provided a val-ued contribution to the innovation urge of the businesscommunity as was also expressed in mid ’99 in the cab-inet opinion on the advice of the Advisory Board forScience and Technology Policy about the position ofthe Major Technological Institutes (GTIs).
In this policy document the cabinet laid down a new vi-sion on how GTIs should operate within the Dutchknowledge-based infrastructure: a vision which couldalso have considerable consequences for ECN. The de-velopment of technologies which will then be commer-cialised and exploited by commercial organisations, isand will remain an important task, although ECN willhave to consider, more than previously, whether it willdevelop a specific technology itself or whether it willdraw the relevant knowledge from other knowledgedevelopers at home or abroad. ECN plays a linking rolebetween basic knowledge development and the market.Its association with the work carried out by the univer-sities in particular has to be strengthened. In addition,ECN should operate as a national knowledge centre inthe field of energy.
In the course of 2000 ECN will develop a new strategicplan for the period 2001-2005 which will be submittedto the Minister of Economic Affairs for approval. The
challenge now facing the organisation is to develop astrategy to fit within the policy profile outlined above.ECN will therefore have to expand its position as atechnology developer in an energy market which is be-coming increasingly more liberalised and, in addition, itmust consolidate its function as a national knowledge-based centre for issues on the interface between sus-tainable development and energy.
As the Supervisory Board of ECN we fully endorse thenew vision of the cabinet. In our opinion it acknowl-edges the special significance of ECN in our knowl-edge-based infrastructure and the innovation capacitiesof the business community. At the same time, however,we realise that the knowledge centre function and thecloser collaboration with university organisations areactivities that are only partly relevant for the market.These efforts include a general social benefit, for whichthe material preconditions have to be fulfilled primarilyby the government.
Given this starting point – and considering the flexibili-ty and thoroughness with which the organisation hasmanaged to recover its leading position in recent years– we are all confident that ECN shall continue to pro-vide a considerable contribution in the coming years tothe sustainability of the Dutch energy economy. TheSupervisory Board would like to express its apprecia-tion for the effort and the performance of the manage-ment and staff during the last year.
On behalf of the Supervisory Board,
Prof.dr. J.C. TerlouwChairman
Mrs Annemarie Jorritsma, Minister of Eco-nomic Affairs, visiting ECN in November.
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The Royal Dutch/Shell prize for Sustainable Develop-ment and Energy 1999 was awarded to the Manager ofthe ECN Solar Energy Unit, prof.dr. Wim Sinke. Hereceived the prize for his pioneering scientific work onsilicon, his many technological innovations in the fieldof solar cells, and his special contribution to the startof solar energy research and implementationprogrammes.
From left to right:. Drs. M.A. van den Bergh,President-Director of Royal Dutch/Shell, Wim Sinke,Pelle Sinke, ir. H.G. Dijkgraaf, Director ShellNederland, and Koen Sinke.
Introduction
There was again a steady interest in the development of a sustainable energy economy. ECN was
able to achieve a greater number of projects in 1999due to the increase in government grant made possibleby the Ministry of Economic Affairs. Further evidencethat 1999 was an innovating year for ECN is demon-strated by the 16 registered patent applications. Thefocus on sustainable energy innovation was enhanced inthe Strategy Plan 1997–2000 by bringing all R&D pro-grammes under six priority areas in 1998. In 1999 thisarrangement was also put into organisational effect byanchoring each priority area in a separate business unit.
In 1999 the ECN operating income increased by 3.8%from NLG 179.8 million to NLG 186.7 million. Thisincrease can be attributed to the increased governmen-tal grant and an increase of 3.5% in the third partyrevenues of the units involved in sustainable energyand clean fossil fuels. The operating income of NRG(70% ECN and 30% KEMA) decreased slightly toNLG 82.2 million. The operating result decreased by
NLG 1.8 million to NLG 10.4 million. The decrease isdue to a lower result on financial income and expenses,increased training costs for new scientists and inciden-tal costs as a result of new-building and renovation.The NRG result fell from NLG 3.2 million to NLG2.9 million.
The consolidated result 1999 increased by NLG 0.8million to NLG 7.6 million. The group assets increasedby 15% to NLG 61 million and the solvency improvedfrom 22% to 26%. The number of holding interestsincreased in 1999 by six to a total of twelve, of whichfour are in knowledge-based companies.
A unit for each priorityThe activities in the priority fields of solar energy andbiomass advanced to such an extent in the year underreview that it was considered beneficial to set up inde-pendent units both from the technical and from theorganisational aspects. Each priority area of ECN isnow a business unit:• Solar Energy, under the leadership of
prof.dr. Wim Sinke;• Wind Energy, under the leadership of
ir. Jos Beurskens;• Biomass, under the leadership of
prof.dr. Hubert Veringa;• Clean Fossil Fuel, under the leadership of
dr. Kees van der Klein;• Energy Efficiency, under the leadership of
ir. Willem Tazelaar;• Policy Studies, under the leadership of
dr. Jos Bruggink.The units develop the knowledge on energy policy andtechnology that is required to realise the ambitiousDutch objectives in the field of sustainable energy, en-ergy efficiency and climate policy. Furthermore, ECN’sambition goes beyond the national borders: our organi-sation will be striving to develop into one of the lead-ing knowledge-based institutes of the European Unionworking within the established priority areas.
HighlightsIn 1999 a large number of research projects and studieswere once again completed, while many new projectswere started. The following chapters highlight the mainachievements during the year under review within theseparate priority areas and associated fields.
For the Solar Energy unit the presentation of the Pin-Up Module was a milestone. The cells of this moduleare connected in series in a very ingenious manner toproduce a larger active surface than with the traditionalmulticrystalline silicon solar cells. The resulting energyyield increases by approximately 5 % (relatively). Not
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only has the Pin-Up Module an attractive appearance,this cell and module concept also lends itself ideally tofully-automated production, and makes it possible touse larger and/or thinner wafers of silicon. Together,these elements contribute to a further reduction of themodule cost. It is anticipated that the new module willgo into pilot-production with Shell Solar in the courseof 2000.
After an extended search, the Wind Energy unit hassucceeded in finding a site in the Wieringermeer inNorth Holland for the construction of a new wind testfield. This facility, for which construction is expectedto start at the end of 2000, is a necessary step for thedevelopment of the next generation of high-powerturbines. These installations with powers up to 5 MWwill mainly be used offshore, which places particularrequirements on both the material properties and thefrequency and the extent of the maintenance. In themeantime, the wind energy sector has been showing agreat deal of interest in this unique facility which willfurther strengthen the position of wind research in theNetherlands in the coming years.
A milestone for the Sustainable Energy in the BuiltEnvironment (SEBE) group was the construction offour linked test houses. This R&D facility is unique forthe Netherlands and it will be used in the coming yearsfor the development and testing of a variety of technicalinnovations. The aim is to achieve building conceptswhich improve the overall ecological performance ofhouses (energy consumption, air quality, comfort,environmental performance, materials, etc.). Withintwo years it is anticipated that the energy consumptionof houses can be halved at affordable investment costs.
Tar and other contaminants in fuel gas are an inhibitingfactor in the use of biomass as a renewable energysource. The Biomass unit has developed ‘Gasreip’, atest facility for gas cleaning. Gasreip shortened from‘gasreiniging en prime movers’ (gas cleaning and primemovers) consists of a cleaning installation which can beconnected to various types of gasifiers and prime mov-ers. With this facility the cleaning procedure can be op-timised for any configuration of gasifier and primemover.
600
700
800
900140
130
150
160
170
180
190
95 96 97 98
MNLG employees (FTEs)
temporary employeespermanent staff
Consolidated turnover ECN
99
Mission• The Netherlands Energy Research Foundation ECN is an independent Dutch
organisation for long-term research and medium-term development in theenergy sector and for the related short-term services and knowledge transfer.
• ECN makes every effort to meet the needs and the requirements of theindustrial world, the energy sector and the government. It contributes totechnological innovation by developing and transferring specific knowledgeand technologies for its target groups and clients.
• With sustainability as a guideline, ECN works on the development of a reliable,ecologically sound and cost-effective energy economy.
The BV Solar century, founded by ECN researchers(from left to right) John van Roosmalen, Martin Späthand Paul Sommeling, develops and manufactures solarcell do-it-yourself kits for educational purposes. Makeyour own solar cell with blackberry juice and hybiscustea. The kits are dispatched to schools and other cus-tomers all over the world.
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Patent applications in 1999 InventorHeat storage device for a motor vehicle F.A.T.M. Ligthart
Improvement in hydrogen separation with the aid of membranes by using an inert flushing gas R.R. van der Woude, M. Bracht, R.K.A.M. Mallant
Thermofort to reduce pipe losses in hot tap water installations E. Sjoerdsma
Wind state meter G.P. Corten
Wind turbine generator system A.T. Veltman
Fuel cell internal seal G. Rietveld
Fuel cell external seal G. Rietveld
Flow outlet for SOFC mini-tubes F.P.F. van Berkel, J.P. de Jong, G.M. Christie
Device for localising production faults in a photovoltaic element A.S.H. van der Heide
Reduction of N2O emissions M.J.F.M. Verhaak
Forming a selective emitter by applying a local diffusion barrier J.H. Bultman
Blade for a wind turbine G.P. Corten
Corrosion protection of bipolar plate R.C. Makkus, A.H.H. Janssen, M. Hoffmann
Solar cell with selective emitter A. Schönecker, N. Hamelin, J.H. Bultman
Recovery of furnace waste heat by an air turbine M.A. Korobitsyn, A.W.M. van Wunnik
Combination stencil and dispension techniques or comparable contact-free techniques H.H.C. de Moor, J. Hoornstra, M.W. Brieko, A.W. Weeber
The Fuel Processing Test Facility (FPTO) convertsnatural gas into pure hydrogen. The polymer fuel cellthen converts the H
2 into heat and electricity. The
FPTO is a research instrument for demonstrating thatthis form of micro-cogeneration (combined heat andpower production) is feasible in households. In com-parison with a conventional power supply, the combi-nation of gas processing and stationary fuel cell withthe same yield of heat and electricity saves approxi-mately 30% of primary fuel. Keen industrial interestfor the FPTO underlines the value of the findings whichhave been patented by the Clean Fossil Fuel unit.
Successful tests with ceramic pervaporation membranesresulted in a breakthrough for the Energy Efficiencyunit in the field of industrial energy saving. With aconsiderably higher temperature range and a bettermechanical resistance than their polymer counterparts,ECN’s ceramic membranes lived up to their promiseunder both laboratory and practical conditions. Thesemembranes improve the energy efficiency of industrialdistillation by up to 75%. The world leader in the fieldof pervaporation installations, Sulzer Chemtech, has inthe meantime agreed to an exclusive licence with ECNfor the production and sale of these membranes.
The Climate Policy Implementation Document providesguidelines for the reduction of the emission of green-house gases in the coming years. Together with theNational Institute for Public Health and the Environ-ment and the Netherlands Bureau for Economic Policy,the Policy Studies unit calculated the effects of the ba-sic package of measures. If all of the measures encour-aged by the document were actually implemented thenthe emission of CO
2 equivalents will be 26 Mton lower
in ten years. The advice concerning the improvement ofthe Czech Republic Energy Economy was also a mile-stone: Policy Studies mapped out a large number ofcost-effective measures for the government of theCzech Republic by which the national power demandcould be reduced by 20%.
Assignments per customer category (NRG not included)
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10
20
30
40
50
60
1996 1997 1998 1999
MNLG
Trade and industry (national)
International
Ministries
Novem, agencies etc.
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ECN patents are valuedIn the past, the decision as to whether or not to applyfor a patent for an invention was left to the businessunits. Since 1996, ECN has been stimulating patentapplications for research results by constantly raisingawareness of the importance of protecting knowledge,by making a central budget available for patent costsand by emphasising the value of inventors and theirinventions. A central database of all ECN patents hasalso been set up which is accessible to all staff via theintranet. This has resulted in a considerable increasein the number of internal requests per year as shownin the graph. Almost all internal patent requests haveresulted in official application and issue, sometimeswith a little delay.
Patent applications in 1999The threshold for patent application has deliberatelybeen made as low as possible. This approach appearsto have been successful but also makes it necessary toconsider the maintenance of all patents much morecritically, certainly before also seeking internationalprotection with its associated high increase in costs.For this, a procedure has been set up for estimatingthe net present value of the patent over the entireperiod of validity.
Initially, all the patents relating to the same technolo-gy are collated as a patent series. In a series it is pos-sible to differentiate between various patent families,which each describe a specific partial aspect of thetechnology. A patent family consists of the actual
patents that have been granted in the various coun-tries for the relevant aspects of the technology.
All uncertain factors which determine the value of apatent series, such as the development time of thetechnology, period of market introduction, market ex-tent, market share, sales to be achieved and royaltiesto be claimed by involved parties are then estimated inranges from a low, a middle and a high value. A cal-culation model is then set up through which theseranges are translated into probability distributionfunctions. The model is then elaborated in a probabi-listic way, resulting in a probability distribution func-tion of the patent value. Finally, the value of the totalpatent portfolio can be determined by aggregating theprobability distribution functions of thevalue of all patents in a probabilistic way.The value of patents is evaluated in order to:• make the researcher more aware of the commercial
value of inventions;• provide a basis for negotiation with potential
licensees• make clear which patents have to be maintained
and which do not have to be maintained;• give an indication of the total value of ECN’s
knowledge.On the basis of this method the value of ECN’s currentpatent portfolio is estimated to be at least NLG 60million and probably amounting to around NLG 200million. The graph shows that the expected value ofthe patent portfolio has increased since 1995 by afactor of 6.5.
Number and value of ECN patents
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1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999year
number
0
50
100
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450value in MNLG
quantity per yeartotal quantityestimated value
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ECN turnover per business unit (NRG not included)
Solar Energy 15%
Policy Studies 9%
Energy Efficiency 27%
Clean Fossil Fuel 28%
Biomass 10%
Wind Energy 11%
The Open Day Fun Lab:who said that only boysare interested in Scienceand Technology?
NRGThe Nuclear Research & consultancy Group, whichcombines the nuclear activities of ECN and KEMA,has gone through its first year as an independent or-ganisation. The turnover of NLG 82.2 million wasNLG 2.7 million below that of ‘98, while the result fellslightly from NLG 3.2 million to NLG 2.9 million.NRG concluded a contract with the Joint ResearchCentre of the European Union, the owner of the HighFlux reactor, to take over the exploitation of the reac-tor. The agreed business approach will particularlybenefit the production efficiency of medical isotopes.Together with the take-over of TNO’s dosimetry activ-ities at the beginning of 2000, NRG has strengthenedits position in the field of medical-nuclear technologyand services.
In 1999 the Council of State (Raad van State) declaredthat the objections raised against the granting of ECN’sNuclear Energy Act permits were unfounded. Thisdecision by the Administrative Law Judge brought toan end a year of uncertainty which delayed the furtherdevelopment of the nuclear operation. This develop-ment is aimed at strengthening medical-nuclear services.Furthermore, the problem of the irradiated nuclear fuelof the High Flux Reactor also played a role. In mid ’99there was the threat that the reactor would have to beshut down because the storage space for irradiated nu-clear fuel in the reactor basin was full and, at that time,there was no possibility of shipping the elements else-where. As the deadline approached a permit fromVROM made it possible to load a number of contain-ers as a result of which the operation of the reactorwas assured for approximately one year. However, in aprovisional order, the Council of State judged that thetransport permit had to be suspended on proceduralgrounds. This impasse lasted until the end of ’99. Anew transport permit has now been granted that allowstransport to COVRA, while the decision of the Euro-pean Commission to convert the reactor to low-en-riched uranium makes it also possible in principle totransport the irradiated nuclear fuel to the UnitedStates.
Supporting activitiesIn 1999 the Facility Service devoted much effort tomaking the PC network and the many hundreds of in-stallations and test facilities ‘millennium-proof’. Thiswas successful because the only problems were soft-ware failures on a few electronic diaries. The manynew construction and renovation projects increased thegeneral workload and the need for technical support.For example, the roof structure of the General Work-shop was extended to accommodate a number of labo-ratories and the modernisation of the workshop itselfwas also completed. The south wall of the GeneralLaboratory was renovated: the new wall consists of aseparate adjustable system for solar cells which simul-taneously provides power generation and shade for theoffices behind them. The construction of a new modu-lar office building to accommodate approximately 100staff was also started.
The preparation for a new license application under theEnvironmental Management Act was a major task ofthe Quality, Safety and Environment department.The current environmental license, with its detailed‘means’ regulations, is no longer adequate to cover theconstantly changing activities of a large research or-ganisation. In agreement with the local authoritiesECN will apply for an outline environmental licence: insuch a licence the means regulations are replaced by
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0
3
6
9
12
15
InvestmentMNLG
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
(Early) retirement
New employees came from: And left to:
ECN
Trainees from educational institutions
Knowledge institutions 13
Industry 17
Governmental bodies 3
Other 31
6 Knowledge institutions
8 Industry
2 Governmental bodies
28 Other
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10197
‘target’ regulations. In ’99 the first integrated Healthand Safety, Environment and Energy Plan was alsodrawn up. For its own energy consumption, ECN hasset the objective of achieving a 40% reduction in theCO
2 emissions by 2020, compared to 1995. ECN is
currently well on target with the implementation of thebusiness energy plan – a cumulative reduction of ap-proximately 10% was achieved by 1999.
As a follow-up to the 1996 qualitative customersatisfaction study, the Market Development staffdepartment arranged a similar study in 1999. From thissurvey it appears that ECN’s customers are reasonablysatisfied with ECN’s performance and that its know-how and expertise in particular are valued positively.Although respondents in 1996 raised question marksregarding the market-orientation of our organisation,they now believe that ECN has taken the right roadand is showing itself to be active in the market.
The Clean Project Investment Initiative was set up, inwhich ECN collaborates with the ING Bank, KPMG,Cogen Projects and ETC Energy. The intention of theinitiative is to support Dutch companies and govern-ment agencies with the implementation of CO
2 reduction
measures in Central and Eastern Europe as well as indeveloping countries.
In the year under review, the Personnel & Organisa-tion department consulted with its social partners andthe Works Councils of ECN and NRG with a view toupdating the terms and conditions of employment.Individual choices on working hours and time havebeen expanded, while possibilities have been createdfor care leave, sabbatical leave, etc. Furthermore, anagreement was reached on a pension arrangement tooffer the individual member of staff flexibility on pen-sionable age and the terms of pension.
ProspectsThanks to the considerable effort of our members ofstaff, ECN again ended the year with a good result;furthermore, the objectives of the current strategyplan, which runs until the end of 2000, have virtuallyall been achieved. However, this in no way means thatwe can relax our efforts in 2000. The portfolio ofassignments is once again challenging and the develop-ment of the strategy plan for the next four years willdemand a great deal of commitment from many peoplein the organisation. Furthermore, this year we wish toachieve a flatter organisation by integrating two man-agement layers: the purpose being to shorten commu-nication lines and to improve further the decision mak-ing process. And, last but not least, ECN will be payingextra attention to the positioning of its activities in
which technologies for various priority areas cometogether, such as system integration, technologicalservices, sustainable energy in the built environmentand implementation of sustainable energy. In brief,there is a great deal of work to be undertaken and wewould like to thank, in advance, all of those ECN staffwho unrelentingly devote their efforts and creativity.
Prof.dr. F.W. Saris, Chairman of the BoardIr. W. Schatborn, Managing Director
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Solar Energy
The year 1999 marked a change in the field of pho-tovoltaic solar energy (PV). Although there has
always been optimism about the long-term potential ofPV, the ambitions for the short and medium-term weremodest. However, during the last year the convictiongrew that the development of solar energy could befaster than was considered possible until recently. Dueto active market developments and scaling-up of pro-duction and installation it is possible to achieve aconsiderable cost price reduction. The social climate forPV has also developed very favourably both in compa-nies and among the public.
ECN Solar Energy has played an important role in thischange through various joint-ventures set up to stimu-late PV and through the development of new knowledgeand understanding. In order to utilise the new opportu-nities as much as possible and to keep the technologicaldevelopment in line with the rapidly growing interest insolar cells, part of the PV research programme hasbeen aimed at optimising the entire production chainfrom raw material to finished product. In addition tothis, the programme focuses on developments for thelonger term.
Andries Tip (left) and JanBultman show the Pin-UpModule which is expectedto enter the stage of pilotproduction at Shell Solarby the end of 2000. Thismodule has a higherefficiency and comprisessignificantly less partsthan a standard module.
Crystalline siliconThis part of the research programme focuses on devel-oping the knowledge and technology which, within fiveyears, will enable large scale production of crystallinesilicon solar cells and modules at considerably reducedcost. In addition to a basic route with limited techno-logical risks, ‘high-risk, high-potential’ options are alsobeing elaborated. If these options are successful, thecost price reduction will be larger than in the basicscenario.
The development is centred around three core themes.Firstly, a reduction in the material used and, wherepossible, a changeover to less expensive material (suchas solar grade silicon). Secondly, efficiency improve-ment of solar cells and modules: more electricity fromthe same surface area. Finally, a redesign of the mod-ules to make their manufacture easier and quicker, sothat further cost reduction can be achieved. An attrac-tive appearance also plays a role in this design process.
In 1999 ECN Solar Energy took a number of steps inthis direction. For example, together with Dutch andGerman partners, a new production method with asso-ciated equipment has been developed in order toprovide solar cells with a layer of silicon nitride (SiN).This SiN coating acts as an excellent anti-reflectioncoating, and ensures that the losses in the volume andon the surface of the silicon material are reduced bypreventing ‘recombination’(the undesirable and earlyjoining of electrons and holes created by the absorptionof sunlight). The reduction of such losses results in ahigher efficiency. This SiN coating can be easily andquickly applied to the cell using a newly developedreactor. In most important respects this new reactor isrepresentative of a production machine. SiN has ad-vantages over other coatings and may even be essentialif material of lower quality is used, such as solar gradesilicon. When the current material quality is used SiNapplication and other improvements can boost the cellefficiency from the current 13-14% to 16-17% in threeyears. When using material of lower quality the drop inefficiency can be prevented or reduced to a minimum.
In order to achieve lower material costs, ECN SolarEnergy commenced research in 1999 into replacing theoff-spec electronic grade silicon (a residual flow fromthe semi-conductor industry) which is currently used,by solar grade silicon that will be made specially forsolar cells. This material may be of lower quality but itis considerably less expensive and is readily available.For a rapidly growing PV industry dependency on alimited residual flow of varying quality is of courseundesirable. Research is also being initiated into thepossibility of making slices of crystalline silicon with-
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out sawing. The benefit of this is also evident: only50% of the silicon put into the production processfinds its way into the final cell, the other half being lostduring the casting and sawing processes. Additionally,these processes are time consuming and expensive anddo not lend themselves well for scaling up.
In a doctoral research project a method has been de-veloped to detect inhomogeneities within the solar cell.With this method a relationship can be established bet-ween local properties and the electrical behaviour of acomplete solar cell. The inhomogeneities can be relatedto both the material used and its processing. Quick butdetailed measurements can help to control and to opti-mise the production process. A patent application hasbeen submitted for this method.
‘Organic’ solar cellsIn 1999 the European project Indoor Dye PV was con-cluded successfully. In this project, work was under-taken on the short term possibilities for application oforganic (here: dye-sensitised) solar cells. Solar cellsand mini modules for indoor applications, such asconsumer electronics have been developed using ECNtechnology. A pilot line has been developed for the
production process. This pilot line for the productionof small modules in large numbers also providesimportant knowledge for the future production ofmuch larger solar panels for outdour use. The econom-ic value of this project is its pioneer function for theprofessional organic cell market. The development willbe actively pursued and broadened with new partnersin 2000.
Within the framework of the European project LOTS-DSC, ECN Solar Energy has demonstrated that sun-light (alone) does not lead to degradation (‘bleaching’)of dye-sensitised cells. This research shows that the‘heart’ of the cell is very stable and answers the funda-mental question of whether this type of solar cell is es-sentially stable. Naturally, the cell must be stable in allaspects. The research is therefore also focused onachieving a completely stable module structure withassociated materials. The improved manufacturingtechnique, the understanding of the stability-determiningfactors and the improvement of the design and materialselection, have considerably increased the efficiency ofthe organic solar cell. A reproducible efficiency of 5%has already been achieved and the prospect of evenhigher efficiencies is good.
Identifying processing anomalies in asolar cellTo control the production process for solar cells, it isnecessary to be able to assess accurately the quality ofa produced cell. It is not sufficient simply to know howthe complete cell operates, because if the output is lowthe cause is not always easily identified. The cause isoften a too high contact resistance between the siliconcell surface and the front metallisation. Until thepresent time this contact resistance was measured us-ing a method from the chip industry, applied to asmall strip cut out of the cell. This method had consid-erable disadvantages. Firstly it was time-consuming:it would take two working days for a complete cell.Moreover, the method was based on the – often invalid– assumption of equal contact resistance for all metallines. As a result, only one contact resistance valuecould be given for the complete strip. It is preferableto measure the contact resistance quickly at each pointof the metallisation. This is achieved as follows: thesurface of the cell is exposed and short-circuited andis then scanned with a fine electrode. The contact re-sistance can then be calculated at each point from themeasured potential difference between the metal lineand the adjacent silicon. The computer constructs aplot from the empirical data showing the location andseriousness of any processing fault, for example, an
excessively high contact resistance. A cell measuring100 cm² can now be scanned in less than twenty min-utes. The method already provides more informationin a shorter period of time than all the other methodswhich are used worldwide. Inventor: Arvid S.H. vander Heide.
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Another important development is the design of a basicprocess with equipment for the small-scale productionof dye-sensitised solar cells. This so-called baseline,which will become fully operational in 2000, can serveas a reference and aid for the further development ofthis organic solar cell technology.
Anorganic thin-film solar cellsIn the film-silicon programme ECN has carried outresearch into inexpensive ceramic substrates and thegrowth of silicon from a melt or from a gas phase onthe substrates. Work is also being undertaken to findan adequate barrier layer which will prevent the inex-pensive substrate having a negative influence on thehigh-grade top layer. The resulting SiAlON thin-filmsilicon cells have an efficiency of more than 5%.
System technologyA central activity for system technology is the develop-ment of various test methods and procedures forcomponents and systems. The growing market for PVsystems demands quality assurance, normalisation andstandardisation. ECN has therefore published a guide-line for assessing PV inverters. A flash tester for PVmodules has been put into service to predict the outputunder practical conditions, making also use of outdoormeasurements. This fits in with the trend of not speci-fying PV systems any longer in terms of peak powerunder standard test conditions, which seldom occur inpractice, but in terms of energy yield under relevantpractical conditions.
Alternative application of metallisationDuring the production process of solar cells the frontmetallisation pattern can be printed in one step bysilkscreen printing. The throughput speed, however,cannot be very high, otherwise insufficient metal isapplied to the cell, which will cause losses due to anincreased resistance. The use of metal foil stencilsproved a better option. This method enables the print-ing of narrower and higher lines (narrower, so thatmore light can fall on the cell which results in a high-er yield; higher, so that the resistance cannot increaseas a result of the narrowing). The application of thenarrow line pattern goes smoothly, but the subsequentapplication of the busbars is more difficult. A dryingstep between the two metallisation steps is necessaryto prevent the print technique used for the applicationof the busbars from damaging the narrow line patternwhich is still wet. If a dispension technique (or ‘deposi-tion’ technique, think of tooth paste from a tube) oranother contact-free technique is used to apply thebusbars, the drying step after stencilling the narrowline pattern becomes superfluous. The solar cell indus-try will undoubtedly welcome this method whichavoids a time and energy-consuming drying step.Inventors: Hugo H.C. de Moor, Wim Brieko, JaapHoornstra, Arthur W. Weeber (from left to right).
At an earlier stage ECN had already succeeded indeveloping a new method for metallisation application:an advanced stencil with which the complete patterncan be applied in one step. It is difficult to predictwhich technique will eventually be preferred byindustry.
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External partners and customersSolar EnergyAlpha Real (CH), ASE, BP Solarex (UK), BPPT (Indone-
sia), CIEMAT (Spain), CNRS-Phase, CNRS-LMPM (F),
De Steltenberg/Bouwmag, DSM, EC (Energie, Joule, Ther-
mie, BRITE-EURAM), Ecofys, EET, ENW, EPFL (CH),
Eurosolare (I), Everest Coatings, FESTO B.V., FhG-ISE
(D), Fokker Space, Free Energy Europe, Georgia Tech
(USA), HBG, Volker Stevin Ontwikkelingsmaatschappij,
IMEC (B), INAP (D), IPM (I), ISET (D), ISFH (D),
Isobouw, Isofoton (Spain), IST (D), IVF (SE), University
of Nijmegen, Wageningen University, Leclanché (CH),
Logic Electronics, Mastervolt, MPI-FF (D), NKF, NMRC
(Ireland), Novem, NUON, Philips, Pricer (SE), PT Cilengka
(Indonesia), REMU, University of Groningen, SEVA (F),
Shell Solar, Solaronix (CH), Soltech (B), Stork Veco,
Sunergy, Delft University of Technology, Techn. Univ.
Denmark (DK), Eindhoven University of Technology,
TNO, Uni Freiburg-FMF (D), Uni Konstanz (D), University
of Twente, Univ. Uppsala (SE), Utrecht University, World
Bank (USA).
Quality aspects are not only of great importance forgrid-connected systems, but also for stand-alone sys-tems with the solar home systems (SHS) as the mostimportant exponent. With sponsorship of the WorldBank ECN has drawn up a handbook for the designand improvement of SHS components. This handbookcan be used by local manufacturers of system compo-nents.
Application of selective emitters using localdiffusion barriersA significant loss factor in solar cells is the recombi-nation of charge carriers on the surface. By ‘passiva-tion’ of the surface, the efficiency can be increased bymore than 10% in relative terms. However, this is onlyeffective if the n-type layer, which is created by aphosphorous diffusion, is lightly doped. The metalcontact, which is applied by means of screen printing,must make good electrical contact and that specificallyrequires a high level of doping. Three methods havebeen developed throughout the world to obtain a highlevel of doping locally under the metal contacts and alight doping outside this. Each of these has its draw-backs. Some successful attempts have been made tofind improvements. The desired effect can be achievedby applying, prior to doping, a diffusion barrier/atten-uator on the places where a lightly doped emitter is re-quired. The procedure can then be carried out withonly one additional silkscreen printing and dryingstep, and these can be fitted directly into any existingproduction process. Inventor: Jan H. Bultman (left).
A second method has been found for obtaining aselective emitter in a simple and inexpensive process.Firstly the whole of the cell surface is given a lowuniform doping, then on applying the metallisation,the desired selectivity of the emitter is achieved aspart of the same process step through the properchoice of materials, temperature and gas atmosphere.
The application of selective emitters with a good elec-trical contact in only one process step is of coursecommercially attractive. Inventors: Axel Schönecker(right), N. Hamelin (not shown in the photograph) andJan H. Bultman.
14
Wind Energy
recalibrateOK
Condition
5 25
1.00 1.50
Air density
Velocity
W E
N
S
Wind
Direction
Power supply
COROTORQ gets more out of windThe three basic parameters for the operation of windturbines are: the speed, the direction and the densityof the air. This data should be measured close to theturbine and must be reliable. Wind speed is usuallymeasured using a cup anemometer which rotationalspeed is a measure of the wind speed. The wind direc-tion is indicated by the familiar wind vane and thedensity of the air can be determined using a thermom-
eter and a barometer.These three values cannow be determined withgreat reliability usingone instrument which hasbeen named Corotorq(COnstant ROtation andTORQue analysis) toillustrate the workingprinciple.The Corotorq is an elec-trically-driven rotor witha sphere fitted eccentri-cally. The wind forcesacting on the sphere thusproduce a varying torqueon the axis. The windparameters to be deter-mined each have theireffect on that torque, thealternating magnitudeand phase of which aremanifested in variationsin the voltage and
current of the drive mechanism. A microprocessorcontinuously calculates the three parameters from thesignals. What makes the Corotorq particularly attrac-tive is its ability to determine its own state of operation.By regularly predicting the torque and the torque vari-ation at a higher rpm, then increasing the rpm untilthat higher rpm is reached and checking whether theprediction is correct, the Corotorq is able to check it-self whether it is working properly or not. This featuremakes the Corotorq extremely valuable, in particularfor use in offshore wind turbines. The drift in calibra-tion is a notorious source of error for cup-anemome-ters, which – unlike the constantly rotating Corotorq –become jammed once every couple of years as a resultof ice accretion or bird excrements.Inventor: Gustave P. Corten
The most rapidly growing sustainable energysource in 1999 was wind energy. The worldwide
installed capacity grew by 40% from 10.000 to 14.000MW, with a turnover of well over six billion guilders.85% of this capacity is stationed in only five countries:Germany, Denmark, India, the United States of Ameri-ca and Spain. There is still an enormous growth poten-tial. In particular, Italy, France, China and Ireland haveambitious plans to expand their wind capacity consid-erably. The capacity in the Netherlands increased byaround 10% to approximately 400 MW and thus re-mained once again below expectations. The principlebottleneck is still the lack of public acceptance. As aresult plans for erecting turbines were aborted in 70%of the cases. Despite this disappointing development,Dutch project developers and financial institutionshave been fairly successful in setting up wind farmsabroad. Last year they achieved a gross turnover of600 million guilders.
Knowledge centreThere are three manufacturers of wind turbines basedin the Netherlands (Lagerwey the Windmaster, andNEG-MICON Holland and Vestas, both subsidiaries ofDanish companies) and three manufacturers of rotorblades. Although the production of complete wind tur-bines did not grow, the Dutch wind industry has gaineda considerable international position based on its designand manufacture of rotor blades, technical innovationsand advanced concepts, such as the development ofoffshore wind farms. The same applies to Dutchresearch on wind energy. In the reporting year ECNand TU Delft laid the foundation for a more intensivecollaboration, including research into the effects ofoblique flows on the rotor. For this project ECN devel-oped a model which was validated in the wind tunnelof TU Delft. Furthermore, a very detailed ‘catalogue’was drawn up giving the aerodynamic power coeffi-cients of a variety of blade profiles. This database is
15
Compact wind turbine generator for low rpmA regular electric generator has a nominal speed of1500 or 3000 revolutions per minute. However, the ro-tor of a wind turbine rotates fifty times slower so a windturbine must be equipped with a gearbox – anotherexpensive, heavy and high-maintenance component,which is also susceptible to failures. An alternativesolution for a wind turbine is the multipolar directdrive generator, whose rotor is connected directly tothe wind turbine’s rotor. The disadvantage of thisdirect drive generator is the necessity for a very largediameter in order to generate sufficient torque at thelow frequency of the turbine rotor.
A generator, without a gearbox, a low rotor volumeand a high torque at a low frequency, would representa real breakthrough. A generator design is now beingstudied by ECN, in which the electromagnetic systemconstitutes part of the mechanical transmission.Because of this integration, this generator assemblyseems very suitable for use in a wind turbine in a com-pact form. Provisional calculations give a reduction ofthe generator rotor mass by a factor of 6 in relation toan existing direct drive generator. Although the other
components will be heavier than in a conventionalgenerator, the expectation is that the total mass of thegenerator assembly will ultimately be significantlylower than when using a direct drive generator or aconventional generator with a gearbox. Inventor: ArieT. Veltman.
used forrotor design. Together, ECN and TU Delft form a cen-tre of expertise rating with the best three in the world.
PowerIn 1999 the Wind Group was particularly active in thefields of aerodynamic and aeroelastic rotor design andthe development and use of control systems. The pre-vious annual report gave details about the developmentof an aerodynamic diagnostic aid, the so-called ‘stallflags’: flaps on the blade surface that open when theflow separates from the profile. In 1999 the diagnosticvalue of this was clearly proven. Under assignment ofNEG-MICON and LM Glasfiber, ECN carried outmeasurements using these stall flags on wind turbinesin California where, for a long time, there had beenparticular trouble with the occurrence of multiple pow-er levels. This phenomenon resulted in a considerablereduction in the energy output (as much as 45%).By using the stall flags it was found that the flow aboutthe blades separated early, which could ultimately beattributed to insects being deposited on the leadingedge of the blades. The power level seemed to dependconsiderably on the thickness of the layer ofinsects. The formation of the deposit only occurredduring warm weather with light wind and high humidity.With light wind the insect ‘cake’ that formed did notappear to have any effect on the behaviour of the tur-
bine, but it did at higher wind speeds. Thus, a 15-yearstanding problem was resolved. Thanks to the stallflags this analysis could be carried out quickly and atrelatively low cost – only 10% of the annual incomeloss caused by the low power levels.
In the research aimed at the improvement of the powerperformance and the mechanical behaviour of rotors,two inventions were made for which patent applica-tions have been submitted. One innovation relates tothe increase of the aerodynamic performance of theblade root (with which a rotor blade is connected tothe hub flange). This component nearly always reducesthe energy output of the rotor. The invention can havea slightly positive contribution. The other inventionconcerns the shape and the precise location of vortexgenerators on blades. Vortex generators serve to post-pone stalling, which would otherwise cause vibrationand loss of output.
Control systemsThe development of control algorithms for adjustingthe blade angle in strong winds is a good example ofECN’s work on control systems. New control algo-rithms were developed for the larger turbines of vari-ous manufacturers, such as the Newinco 3-bladeNW62 with constant speed and an installed power of 1MW and the Lagerwey 3-blade LW58/B3 with variable
16
External partners and customersWind EnergyAerpacAerolaminates (GB), Atlantic Orient (VT, USA),
ATO-DLO, Bomus (DK), BuZa-DGIS, CIEMAT (E),
CIWI, CRES (GR), Det Norske Veritas (DK), DEWI (D),
Ecotecnia (E), ENERCON (D), Essent (formerly EDON),
European Commission, EWEA, Gaarad & Hassan (GB),
Germanischer Lloyd (D), Turbowinds (B), Imperial Col-
lege (GB), Jeumont (F), KEMA, Lagerwey the Windmas-
ter, LM Glasfiber Holland, Mie University (JP), Dutch
Embassy Kazakhstan, NedWind, NEG-MICON, NEL
(GB), NEWIN, Newinco, NLR, Nordex (D), Nordic
Windpower (S), Novem, NREL (USA), NTUA (GR),
NUON, Oak Creek Energy (CA, USA), Polymarin, Profin,
Province of North Holland, RAL (GB), RED, RES (GB),
Risø (DK), SPE, Stentec, Tacke (D), Teknikgruppen (S),
Traedon Utilities, TUD Civil Engineering, TUD Applied
Sciences, TUDk (DK), Turbowinds (B), University of Sun-
derland (GB), University of Uppsala (S), van Oord ACZ,
Vestas (DK), Windtest (D), Zephyr Windpower (S).
speed and a power of 0.75 MW. By deviating from theusual control method for wind turbines, it was possibleto achieve a gradual speed increase during the start-upand a much more constant consumed wind power. As aresult, the loads at the moment of grid connectionwere considerably reduced. Substantial improvementswere achieved for the Lagerwey LW58/B3 by an antic-ipation system for heavy wind gusts and by incorpora-tion of the transition between nominal (750 kW) andbelow-nominal operation in the control. This preventsinstantaneous rotor speed excursions taking place. Aflexible and readily adaptable software package hasbeen developed for the control of derived turbinetypes.
ParametersWind speed, wind direction and air density are themost important input factors needed to determinate theperformance of wind turbines at a specific location.The reliability of the measuring instruments in practiceis often inadequate. In 1999 ECN developed a measur-ing method with which wind speed, wind direction andair density could be determined using one instrument,the COROTORQ. A patent has been applied for.Finally, a concept was developed for a ‘direct-drive’generator with a potentially much lower weight thanthe slow-running, ‘direct-drive’ systems currently used.In the new concept use is made of an advanced trans-mission, which is integrated within the generator. Apatent has also been applied for on this concept.
Test fieldIn 1999 the financing for the multi-megawatt test fieldto be built in Wieringerwaard was virtually completed.Agreements with the inhabitants of the area and thelandowners also reached the final stage. This is one ofthe few projects in the Netherlands in which the threemost important parties, namely the government, repre-sentatives of the public and the initiator (in this caseECN with the support of the wind energy industry),have been systematically and fully involved from thebeginning. The design of the measuring infrastructurewas also completed. It is expected that, by the end ofthe year 2000, there will be a research facility in theNetherlands for testing quickly and adequately verylarge turbines with powers of up to 5 MW. The facilityis crucial for the development of reliable turbine con-cepts for offshore applications.
In 1999 NEG-MICON, Aerpac, LM-Glasfiber, vanOord ACZ, TU Delft and ECN jointly started on thedevelopment of a very large wind turbine (5 MW) in-tended for future offshore applications. The design hasto meet many extra requirements because the turbinesare erected offshore where the climatological circum-
stances are much more severe than on land. Because ofthe large diameter (>100 m) the wind load over the ro-tor can also vary strongly (wind shear). In addition, thewave load on the structure will have to be taken into ac-count. Furthermore, stringent requirements are placedon the reliability, because in the event of failure theloss of output can increase considerably and also be-cause offshore turbines are only accessible for mainte-nance and repair for a few months every year.
The erection of wind turbines in the Netherlands ismeeting considerable resistance from the local inhabit-ants and the local governments. The main objectionsare noise hindrance, shadow effects, visual intrusionand avian aspects. When erecting the wind turbinesoffshore there are in addition some offshore-relatedaspects. During last year various attempts were madeto remove these social barriers. In addition to involve-ment in MER procedures (Environmental ImpactReporting, now compulsory for wind farms larger than20 MW) new participation concepts have been devel-oped. For example, for the test field in Wieringermeera structure was invented whereby the landowners andthe inhabitants of the surrounding area participate assleeping partners in the test field.
17
Biomass
In the Energy Bill the target is to produce 120 peta-joules of energy from biomass (75 PJ) and waste
(45 PJ) by 2020. The first steps in this direction havealready been taken. Biomass, mainly consisting of agri-cultural and wood waste, is co-fired in three basic loadunits. In 1999 the Cuijk power station came on-line,where biomass is burned for the production of heat andelectricity. Construction was started on a power stationin Flevoland. Additionally, the construction of a largegasifier for biomass which will supply fuel gas to thecoal boiler of the Amercentrale, is fully underway andthe plan has been put forward to supply the coal gasifi-cation unit in Buggenum partly with organic residualwaste.
Biomass in the Netherlands mainly consists of wastestreams, such as wood, GFT, verge grass and wastefrom the food industry (cocoa husks, soya scraps, po-tato peelings): a multitude of streams of very diversecomposition and origin, which creates difficulties forthe conversion of biomass into electricity or heat. Inaddition, part of the streams are seasonal which meansthat the use of biomass, in particular for decentralisedgeneration, has to be carefully controlled. In order tolimit the risks associated with the diversity of biomassand industrial waste, gasification or pyrolysis can beused as an intermediate step, such as in the Amercen-trale.
Thermal conversionIn recent years ECN has developed into a centre forresearch and services in the field of gasification of bio-mass and waste. An experimental infrastructure hasbeen built up in the form of test installations for gasifi-cation, hydrogasification and pyrolysis which is uniquein Western Europe and which is increasingly used bycommercial parties. In addition, the programme includesresearch into the availability and characterisation offuels, the formation of tar and ash, and co-conversion,i.e. co-firing of biomass and/or gas derived frombiomass.
During the establishment of the infrastructure at ECNthe development of the gasification techniques initiallyconcentrated on the characterisation of biomass andwaste. Because of the diversity and seasonal variationin the character of the fuel, knowledge of the conver-sion of the streams is essential. The choice for thecirculating fluid bed gasification technique is thereforelogical. Considerable experience has since been gainedwith the operation of this gasification technology andthe time is ripe for market introduction. However, themarket has adopted a ‘wait-and-see’ attitude, becausethere is still uncertainty about the cost of the technolo-gy and its reliability is yet unproven.
In order to overcome this reluctance to use gasifica-tion for decentralised heat/power generation, a TaskForce was set up in 1999 to introduce into the marketthe gasification technology with which ECN has sever-al years of experience. This collaboration betweenShell, HoSt and ECN examines the possibility of pro-ducing power and heat from biomass via gasification ata competitive price. At the end of 1999 the researchwas nearly complete.
The gas formed during the gasification of biomass usu-ally has to be cleaned before it can be used in a turbineor gas engine. The contaminants mainly consist ofdust, ashes, tar, nitrogen compounds and other com-pounds depending on the type of biomass or wastebeing gasified. Last year a research project was started(GASREIP: gas cleaning and prime movers) for thetesting of gas cleaning systems. To this end, an installa-tion was constructed in which a combination of twogasifiers, a system for gas cleaning and a prime mover,a turbine or gas engine, can be tested. The researchinitially focused on the ‘classic’ combination of a gaswasher with adjoining sawdust bed filter. Contractshave been made for testing other cleaning systems suchas the plasma reactor and a rotating filter.
Cultivation of algae requires sunlight, CO2 and simple
minerals, mainly ammonium, nitrates and phosphates.These inorganic nutrients can be efficiently removed bythe algae from waste water, leading to the purificationof this waste water. The algal biomass is used as asource of biofuel and fine chemicals.
18
External partners and customers BiomassAVR, BTG, CORUS, CSIC, Demkolec, Ecofys, EERC, EET,
Elcogas, EnergieNed, EPRI, EPZ, EZH, Gasunie, GGR,
Gibros, HoSt, HVC Alkmaar, IFRF, IMAG-DLO, Kachel-
bouw Doetichem, KANDT, KEMA, Krupp Uhde, LEI-DLO,
NEM, Novem, NREL (USA), NRG, NVA, PNEM, PROAV,
PSI, UU (NW&S), SDE, Shell SIOP, Siemens/KWU, Stork
Thermeq, Stork E&C, Suikerunie, TNO-MEP, TUD, TUE,
UNA, Uni-Essen, Uni-Ulster, US DOE, VROM.
The Pyromaat II, put intooperation by AndréOudhuis (left) and JohanBeesteheerde, is an ex-perimental installationfor two-step gasificationof high-caloric wastestreams, such as wastefrom scrap shredding,building, demolition andelectronics.
Synthetic natural gasIn 1999, research was undertaken into the technical andeconomic feasibility of hydrogasification, i.e. the gasifi-cation of biomass with hydrogen. This process producesSNG (Synthetic Natural Gas) of a quality comparableto natural gas. Model calculations demonstrated thatvarious types of biomass and GFT waste can be usedin combination with various hydrogen sources. Thechlorine manufacturers Akzo Nobel and GE Plasticsare optimistic about the use of hydrogen, which is re-leased during chlorine manufacture, for the productionof SNG. Akzo Nobel is willing to supply hydrogen to asmall demonstration plant. The gasification of poplarwood with hydrogen would produce SNG at a costprice of approximately NLG 11 per GJ. The currentnatural gas price is approximately NLG 8 per GJ.
Pyrolysis – heating without air or oxygen – has provento be an interesting technique for processing wastestreams, for example cables and scrap from electronics,which are heavily contaminated with a wide range ofmetals. The pyrolysis process produces a fairly cleangas which can be used for energy generation, and a sol-id fraction containing the metals. By melting this frac-tion it is possible to recover metals for reuse. The heatrequired for melting is supplied by burning the fuelwhich remains in the solid fraction. A new pyrolysis in-stallation was built last year, the Pyromaat II. Comput-er models have been developed for both the pyrolysisprocess and the reactor.
19
Clean Fossil Fuel
The Clean Fossil Fuel programme rests mainly onthree pillars: new technologies for gas-fired instal-
lations, energy supply in the transport sector and theenvironmental aspects of energy supply (with the em-phasis on aerosols and the role of fine dust in the urbanenvironment). The leading concept throughout this re-search programme is the shift from combustion to oth-er less environmentally polluting electro-chemical ener-gy conversion techniques.
An important candidate for the ‘New Energy’ is thefuel cell. Two types of cells in particular offer goodprospects for use in the near future: the solid-oxidefuel cell (SOFC) and the polymer fuel cell (SPFC). Theresearch into the development of the molten carbonatecell (MCFC) has been suspended for the time being,because the requirements for the large-scale develop-ment of this type of fuel cell cannot be achieved withinthe current budget and because industrial interest isstill lagging behind. The emphasis in the Clean FossilFuel programme is mainly aimed at the (further)development of the polymer cell and the solid-oxidecell.
TransportThe polymer cell is of particular interest in the trans-port sector. The problem is that this cell requires purehydrogen as a fuel. The current trend is towards fuelconversion ‘under the bonnet’ for which methanol or
diesel are currently being considered as the favourites.A drive based on a fuel cell demands the integration ofa large number of components which must fit withinthe limited space of the vehicle. In the year under re-view a ‘stack’ of polymer cells of 1 kW was devel-oped, which seemed to operate excellently when usedin a scooter. Thanks to its low dust and noise emis-sions the scooter was ideally suited for use in the built-up area. The know-how developed in the field of sys-tem integration and miniaturisation in this experimentcan be used for the development of passenger cars andother means of transport.
Micro-heat/powerIn 1999 a Fuel Processing Test Facility (FPTO) wasdeveloped and constructed which converts natural gasinto pure hydrogen. The polymer fuel cell then con-verts the H
2 into heat and electricity. The FPTO is a re-
search instrument to demonstrate that this form ofcombined micro-heat/power installations is feasible inhouseholds. Compared with the conventional energysupply the combination of gas processing and station-ary fuel cell saves approximately 30% of primary fuelat the same output of heat and electricity.
Both polymer and solid-oxide cells are suitable for sta-tionary energy applications, if natural gas is used as thefuel (directly or via a conversion into hydrogen de-pending on the cell). An important advantage over the
Reduction of N2O-emissions - continuedTwo years ago ECN introduced a catalyst, whichefficiently removes the harmful N
2O (laughing gas)
from industrial exhaust gas flows or combustiongases. In terms of importance for this invention therewas indeed a positive stimulus to continue the work onthis subject. The efforts have in the mean time lead toan improvement in the catalyst, namely in the form ofa very small quantity of one additional component.The adapted catalyst converts N
2O at low temperatures
(<350ºC) into harmless nitrogen even more efficientlythan its predecessor and at the same time achieves alower slip of carbon monoxide and other hydrocarbons.This slip has been reduced to no more than one in amillion particles. Inventor: Michiel Verhaak
20
Sealing a fuel cellA molten carbonate fuel cell (surfacearea 0.1-1 m², a few millimetres thick)provides a voltage of 0.8 volt. Toobtain a usable voltage, the cells arestacked and switched in series. Sepa-rator plates in the stacks separate thecells and the gas flows. Internal gasleaks have a very negative effect onthe cell efficiency and the life expect-ancy. Leaks to the outside are less se-rious to the operation of the stack, butare detrimental for the environmentand fuel consumption. An effective gasseal is therefore essential. Generally astack is assembled from detachableparts and three ‘green’ ceramic layers(for the matrix with electrolyte, anode
and cathode) and then as a whole placed in an ovenunder mechanical pressure so that the ceramic layersare sintered to form a single entity. During this heattreatment, cracks unavoidably occur in the ceramicmaterial. To provide an effective seal, a piece of metal
foil on the transition from the cell area to the sealarea appeared to be the solution. During sintering, thepressure will be more even and slightly higher in thelocation of the foil than elsewhere. It thus becomesimpossible or at least makes it very difficult for cracksto form at this point. When the inventor realised thatthis simple yet effective technology was not beingemployed anywhere else, he applied for a patent.Inventor: G. Rietveld.
A similarly simple solution was found for the externalsealing. The effect of the additional foils can also beachieved by applying a groove on the sealing surfaceof the cell. In this area the slightly higher and evenlydistributed pressure will prevent the formation ofcracks in the ceramic material during sintering.Continuous cracks, which would result in gas leakage,are thus stopped in the area of the grooves. In allother developments elsewhere in the world the sealingsurface is kept flat. For this reason, a patent applica-tion has also been made for the grooves, which arenormally pressed in when making the separator plate.Inventor: G. Rietveld.
polymer cell is that the solid-oxide cell is more tolerantin its choice of fuel and has a higher system efficiencyof over 50%. The disadvantage is the high temperatureof the cell which is consequently less suitable for mo-bile applications.
An attractive stationary application is a small-scale mi-cro-heat/power generation system for houses; in effecta central heating boiler which also generates electricity.In co-operation with Sulzer Hexis tests have startedfor the practical testing of combined micro-heat/powerinstallations based on SOFC cells. The production ofECN’s solid-oxide cells is undertaken in a separatecompany; InDEC. This company has a production ca-pacity of 25,000 cells, but as yet the annual productionis around 5,000 cells.
Together with ENATEC – a joint-venture betweenATAG Verwarming, the energy company Eneco andECN – work has been undertaken on the developmentof a ‘home power station’ which ‘runs’ on a stirlingmotor. Successful tests have been undertaken with asystem with an electrical power of 250 W. In the USA,
the Stirling Technology Company commissioned byENATEC has started building a prototype of a micro-heat/power installation with an electrical power of 1 kW.
Laughing gas catalystA number of important results have been achieved onthe environmental aspects of energy supply. Two yearsago a patent was acquired for a catalytic converter forconverting N
2O (laughing gas) into nitrogen and oxy-
gen with an efficiency of more than 90%. If this tech-nique were used in installations for the production ofnitric acid – the most important industrial laughing gassource – it would be possible to achieve a reduction ofapproximately 8 Mton of CO
2-equivalent in the Neth-
erlands: approximately 30% of the domestic reductiontarget. It is true that laughing gas is not produced inlarge quantities, but it does have a high greenhouse gaspotential: around 300 times that of CO
2. It also ap-
pears that the process works well under high pressure.A number of promising reactor concepts were present-ed in a feasibility study. Preparations have been madefor testing the process in a practical arrangement withexisting production installations.
21
External partners and customersClean Fossil FuelAB-DLO, Afvalzorg, Alstom, Andersen, ATAG, BCRS,
Bertin &Cie (Fr), Brandstofcel Nederland B.V. (BCN),
British Gas Technology, CdF (Fr), Centrum voor Constructie
en Megatronica (CCM), CRI, Den Oudsten Bussen, DSM,
Enatec, ENECO, EU, Fluor Daniel, FZ Jülich, Gasunie, Gaz
de France, Huls/Creavis, IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D, IFT-
Germany, IKC-N, IMAG-DLO, Imperial College, InDEC
Pilot Productions b.v., ITE, JRC, KEMA, KTH (Z), KWA,
LEI-DLO, Linde AG, M&I, MEL (Japan), Ministries:
VROM, EZ, V&W (DWW), Nedstack, NEM, NIZO,
Novem, NREL (USA), Prototech, Provinces: South Holland,
North Holland, North Brabant, Gelderland, Utrecht, R&R,
RIVM, RIZA, SC-DLO, Schelde Technology Services B.V.,
Traxis, Shell Hydrogen, Shell International Oil Products
b.v., Siemens AG, Siemens Erlangen, Stork, Stork Alpha
Engineering B.V., Stork E&C, Stork Special Products SPE,
Sulzer Hexis, Sydkraft, Steward Electrolyser (Canada),
This, TNO-Glas, TNO-NITG, TU-Delft, Univ. Beijing,
Universities of Birmingham, Colorado, Wageningen,
Nijmegen, Utrecht, Amsterdam, Usine de Metz (F), UU-
NW&S.
Efficient use of heatThe heat from hot exhaust gases from industrial ovensis often discharged into the environment because thisheat cannot be exploited economically and also be-cause the exhaust gases are polluted. By transferringthe heat via a heat exchanger to an inexpensive cleanair cycle, the thermal energy from the exhaust gasescan be utilised, for example, for the production of elec-tricity, pre-heated combustion air and/or compressedair. Variants in this air turbine cycle are also possible
downstream from a standard gas turbine, for example,to supply hot air for a baking process (for bakeries) ora drying process (for the dairy industry). Anotherpromising variant is the air cycle downstream from abiomass installation. The ‘sensitive’ turbine installa-tion only comes into contact with clean air and alsosupplies pre-heated dry air and/or combustion air.Inventors: Mischa Korobitsyn and Toine van Wunnik(inset).
Fine dustWithin the Clean Fossil Fuel programme it was demon-strated last year that aerosols can obscure the green-house gas effect. Nitrate and organic substances in par-ticular seem to play a more important role than has sofar been assumed. Further research is needed to revealthe actual mechanisms. A method has been developedfor measuring nitrate, based on the previously devel-oped so-called Steam Jet Aerosol Sampler, which hasbeen tested successfully in the United States.Fine dust measurements have been undertaken aroundmotorways. Epidemiological research has shown thatemissions of particles smaller than 1 µm (1 µm =10-6
m; indicated by PM-1) have a greater effect on healththan the larger particles in fine dust. The current mea-suring method for fine dust (PM-10) only measures themass of particles smaller than 10 µm. The experimentsdemonstrate that the amount of smaller particles in finedust is more essential for determining the health effectthan the total quantity of fine dust. The urban environ-ment and its effect on health is mainly determined byPM-1 dust. It appears that soot filters for diesel en-gines only capture the larger soot particles as a resultof which the positive effects of this type of filter onpublic health are limited.
22
Energy Efficiency
A large part of Dutch industry is linked to processes and is therefore energy intensive. On the ‘out-
side’ of the production process the energy economyhas improved considerably in recent years due to theuse of co-generation and optimisation of the heat econ-omy. Improving the production process itself is thenext step. The most important route to a more energyefficient and more sustainable process industry will bethrough process modernisation and process intensifica-tion. Within the energy efficiency priority area, ECN isworking on a number of projects towards achievingthat objective. Important research themes are separationtechnology, use of residual heat and the developmentof new process techniques.
Separation using membranesAlmost half of all energy used in the Dutch process in-dustry is for processes in which the product is separatedfrom by-products. The main separation techniquecurrently used is distillation. For some years the mem-brane technique has been promising to take over thatrole, but the great breakthrough has still not beenachieved mainly due to material problems. ECN devel-ops anorganic membranes. Compared with polymermembranes these have a better resistance to increasedtemperatures and to a wide range of chemicals andthey are mechanically stronger. The emphasis of the
Sulzer Chemtech, world leader in the separation instal-lation sector, expects a great deal of industrial interestin the ECN pervaporation membranes and is takingthem into production. The license agreement has takeneffect as of January 1, 2000.
development is on molecular separation, where consid-erable energy savings are possible. The availability ofthese membranes at competitive prices can also resultin process intensification and in new products and pro-cess routes.
ECN works on a broad range of membrane separationtechniques: microfiltration, ultrafiltration, pervapora-tion and gas separation. In 1999 a license agreementwas concluded with EcoCeramics for the exploitationof the ECN microfiltration technology.
The development of the technology for dewatering oforganic mixtures with silicon membranes gained mo-mentum in 1999. In collaboration with end-users (in-cluding Akzo Nobel, Solvay, Caldic, Quest, DSM,IFP) the performance characteristics were determinedfor a number of industrially relevant mixtures. In themajority of cases excellent separation, high fluxes anda satisfactory service life were achieved. Technical-economic evaluations show a market potential of manytens of thousands of square metres of membrane sur-face. In Europe this technology could save approxi-mately 400 PJ/year.In preparation for the market introduction a moduleconcept was developed in which mass and heat trans-port are optimised. A separation installation with sucha module is currently being tested by various industrialcompanies. Sulzer Chemtech, a manufacturer of distil-lation columns and pervaporation systems, has nowcommenced the worldwide introduction of the newtechnology under licence.
Furthermore, it has been established that this type ofmembrane can be used for reactor concepts in which ashift in balance is achieved (process intensification) bycombining reaction and separation. Examples of suit-able processes are esterification of acids and alcoholsand dewatering during urea production. At the labora-tory level, the hydrophobic silicon membrane has beenused for separating methanol/toluene and ethanol/ETBE mixtures. The results were very promising.They provide a good basis for a research and develop-ment project for separating organic components.
The use of gas separating membranes is further away,although the development of a membrane module forhydrogen separation has so far been running success-fully. A separation unit was made, based on ECN tech-nology, which can serve as an alternative for the selec-tive oxidation of CO in polymer fuel cell applications.The outstanding performance of this membrane prom-ises far-reaching cost reductions. It also seems that amembrane with this flux and selectivity also meets thepreconditions set in the process industry for the sepa-
23
Extending the service life of MCFCThe anode side of the separator plate in a molten car-bonate fuel cell (MCFC) is susceptible to corrosion.Iron and chrome from the stainless steel separatorplate react at the operating temperature of 650°C withthe molten carbonate salts and also partially dissolvein it. Because hydrogen, the feed gas for the fuel cell,is always present at the anode side, no oxide layer canbe formed to prevent corrosion. The separator platetherefore has to be protected in some other way. Thishas recently been done using a three-layer coating.The first layer consists of NiCrAlY, the second ofceramic TiO
2 and the third of pure nickel. The final
top layer ensures the quality of the electrical contactbetween the plate and the cell, the middle layerprevents the diffusion of iron and chrome from thesteel to the nickel layer and the first layer ensures themechanical (and electrical) contact of the second layer with the stainless steel in the plate. This first
coating in particular absorbs the differences in expan-sion. The three layers are applied by means of APS (At-mospheric Plasma Spraying) or HVOF (High VelocityOxygen Flame spraying). Formerly, only the third lay-er made of pure nickel was applied. As a result corro-sion was prevented with great efficiency, but unfortu-nately for no longer than 8 to 10 thousand operatinghours. The new three-layer protection extends the ser-vice life of the cell considerably. Precisely how muchhas not yet been determined. Life tests obvious takelonger as results improve.Inventors: Robert C. Makkus (right), Arno H.H. Jans-sen and Michael Hoffmann (not shown in the photo-graph).
ration of pure hydrogen, such as for steam reforming,cracking and dehydrogenation reactions. The use ofhydrogen selective membranes in syngas productioncan lead to an energy saving of approximately 14 PJper year in the Netherlands.
Process modernisation and chainoptimisationProcess intensification, the concentration of variousprocess functions within one piece of equipment, canlead to a radical improvement of production processes.Within this framework, ECN is working on HEX reac-tors (combination of reactor and heat exchanger),membrane reactors and PEC reactors (photo-electro-chemical reactors, a combination of a photovoltaic celland an electrochemical reactor).A HEX reactor has a higher selectivity than a single re-actor which can lead to fewer by-products and lowerenergy consumption. A PEC reactor offers possibilities
for sustainable production of chemicals from carbondioxide and water by means of sunlight. In 1999 alaboratory prototype of a 1-channel HEX reactor wasbuilt for experiments. The availability of compact heatexchangers suitable for use as HEX reactors was alsoinvestigated. Potential saving in the Netherlands forthis type of reactor is estimated at 20 PJ/year. A‘proof-of-principle’ arrangement was designed andconstructed for the PEC reactor in 1999. However,the operating principle has not yet been demonstrated.
Far-reaching energy saving can also be achievedthrough optimisation in production chains and localcollaboration. Together with Cogen Projects andKEMA, ECN has mapped out approximately 40improvement options for Lyondell Chemical Neder-land. A quarter of the improvements involves the useof membranes and four involve process intensification.Optimisation in production chains was central in a
24
External partners and customersEnergy EfficiencyAarding Energo, ADMES, AKMC, AKZO Nobel, Alpha
Reaal (CH), Aster, ATO-DLO, BASF(D), Bayer (D), BHR
Group (GB), Caldic Chemie, CERES, Chart Marston (GB),
CINTEC, COGEN Projects, Continental Engineering,
Corus, De Beijer RTB BV, De Graaf CA, DLR (D), DSM,
EcoCeramics, EnergieNed, Enersearch (Sydkraft, IBM
Zweden, ABB, PreussenElektra, Iberdrola), ENPROSOL,
EPFL (CH), ESD, EU, Everest Coatings, Exxon Chemical
Europe Inc (B), Exxon Corporate Research (VS), FOCWA,
Haltermann (B), Heat Exchanger Action Group (GB), Hoek
Loos, IFP (F), IMAG/DLO, Imperial College (GB), Inalfa-
Ares, IRC-CNRS Lyon (F), KEMA, Kropman, KTH Stock-
holm (S), Linde AG (D), Lyondell, Matech (D), MCA,
NEAT, NL-GUTS, Novem, NUON, Pall (VS), Purac, Quest,
Romesq, Rover, Sara Lee, SCC (GB), SDE, Senter, Shell,
Siemens KWU (D), SKW Trostberg (D), Stork SPE, Sulzer
Chemtech (CH), SWEAT BV, TNO-MEP, TU Delft, TU
Eindhoven, Universities of Aken, Salford (GB), Utrecht,
Twente, Universities of Messina (I), Newcastle (GB), Sevilla
(S), Ulster (GB), Vestolit (D), VU Amsterdam, Wellman
CJB Ltd (GB), Wientjes Emmen.
study into the effects of product improvement on ener-gy saving in the consumption phase. This study per-formed at the metal manufacturer Corus resulted in ageneral methodology for determining indirect energysaving as a result of product innovation.
Residual heatThe potential for energy saving due to better utilisationof residual heat is approximately 400 PJ per year in theNetherlands out of a total consumption of 1050 PJ(1997). Industrial residual heat is released in two par-ticular temperature ranges, namely 50-200°C and 300-600°C. Process integration and optimisation have al-ready reduced considerably the quantity of residualheat at the high temperature level, but the utilisation ofthe large quantities of residual heat in the low tempera-ture range is hindered by economic preconditions andmismatch of supply and demand with regard to temper-ature, location or time. For example, in the Europoort/Botlek area approximately 40 PJ/year is released attemperatures up to 150°C.ECN is working on the development of heat pumps for(re)use of residual heat, on storage systems and on sys-tems for converting residual heat into electricity. In1999 research was undertaken into two types of chem-ical heat pump systems, the organic chemical systemsand the solid matter/vapour systems. Both systems arebased on reversible chemical reactions, make a largetemperature rise possible, and can store residual heatfor an unlimited duration and at a much higher energydensity than in conventional systems. A technical-eco-nomic evaluation of the IPA heat pump (isopropanol⇔ acetone + hydrogen) showed that a substantial cost
reduction of the organic chemical systems cannot beexpected at the present time.The economic perspectives of solid substance/vapoursystems, that offer temperature rises of more than100oC are, however, more favourable. On the basis ofinitial thermal design studies it is concluded that theeconomic feasibility is determined by the size of theheat exchanging surface. Pay back times of 3-5 yearsappear feasible, provided the reaction kinetics and thesubstance transport are not hindering factors. In theNetherlands the market amounts to approximately 70PJ/year. The energy savings are expected to be lessthan NLG 10/GJ. On the basis of these results it hasbeen decided to concentrate the research on solid sub-stance/vapour chemical heat pumps and transfers, com-bined with storage.
The development of a solid matter/vapour absorptioncooler, based on the Na
2S/H
2O couple (SWEAT sys-
tem), has started with the establishment of SWEATBV, a joint-venture between NUON, De Beijer RTBand ECN. This cooler can store residual heat at 80°Cand transform it to approximately 10°C for cooling inindustry, in offices and industrial buildings and in thetransport sector. In each of these sectors a saving of inexcess of 10 PJ per year can be achieved. Stage 1 ofthe development was completed successfully. The in-fluence of geometry, material selection and load tem-perature on the load behaviour of a SWEAT modulewhich was determined using model calculations corre-sponds well with the experimental data. In stage 2 theemphasis is on the corrosion of the wire heat exchang-er that is integrated in the salt.
25
Policy Studies
D iscussions in the energy world are currentlyrevolving – both nationally and internationally –
around two crucial and mutually dependent issues: theliberalisation of the energy market and the climatechange problem. It is precisely this interaction betweenthe environment and the economy that characterisesthe work of ECN Policy Studies. In this respect themain issue is how market instruments and sustainabilitygoals can be achieved at the same time and alsostrengthen each other. The projects implemented byPolicy Studies in 1999 approach this question from theaspect of liberalisation and also from the aspect of theclimate problem.
LiberalisationAn important question is the effect of energy marketliberalisation on specific sustainable energy options.What is the future for the previously popular combinedheat and power option in the unfavourable ‘hard’ mar-ket scenario in which energy companies produce ener-gy at marginal costs and have difficulty covering thefixed costs of electricity generation over the longer-term. Policy Studies has made an estimate for the En-ergy Report of the Ministry of Economic Affairs of thefuture of combined heat and power in a liberalised en-ergy market. The outcome of this report is simple: theopportunities for combined heat and power are lessfavourable in a liberalised energy market than was thecase in the past.
Electric car with less refuellingA membrane that separates hydrogen from a gas mix-ture works significantly better if the hydrogen is con-tinuously removed. This is done using a flushing gas.Nitrogen, steam or carbon dioxide are suitable flush-ing gases. Oxygen is not because it reacts with hydro-gen. Such a hydrogen membrane can be used in theengine compartment of an electric car. The hydrogenis the fuel for the fuel cell which produces the electric-ity to drive the car. The driver will have to fill up regu-larly with petrol, methanol or another convenient hy-drogen compound, but will also have to take in aflushing gas at set times. This is onerous. Producing asuitable flushing gas on board from ingredients al-ready present would immediately make the electric carmore popular. This idea has been patented, togetherwith two interpretations for the production of theflushing gas. The simplest method is to introduce nor-mal air into the hydrogen circuit when starting andcombust a quantity of hydrogen until the unwanted ox-ygen has been consumed. The remainder – nitrogenand water vapour – is an excellent inert flushing gas.Inventors: Ruud van der Woude, Maarten Bracht andRonald Mallant.
For the same Energy Report, Policy Studies also lookedat the position that sustainable energy will attain in theenergy market in the coming two decades. Liberalisa-tion was also an important consideration for this topic.It appears that the share of sustainable energy undercurrent policy – including the anticipated increase ofthe regulatory energy tax – will increase to around 5%by the year 2020. This is less than the 7% stipulated inprevious white papers such as the Sustainable EnergyAction Programme and the Third White Paper onEnergy. The target of 10% can only be achieved withadditional policy efforts.
The opportunities for new energy technologies aredetermined strongly by the above-mentioned crucialthemes: liberalisation and the desire for drastic CO
2 re-
duction. ECN investigated which categories of energytechnologies and particularly which primary energycarriers fit well into such goals. It is uncertain whetherthe existing infrastructure is sufficiently well equippedfor the future. A gradual changeover to hydrogen orelectricity as the dominant energy carriers might benecessary.
Uncertainties and a lack of incentives have influencedthe parties involved not to consider how the energysystem can best be prepared for the long-term future.Modifications to the infrastructure demand a great deal
26
During a working visit inthe Netherlands, Ilja II,Patriarch of the Georgianorthodox church, wasreceived by ECN andinformed of the latestdevelopments in renewableenergy.
of time, and as a result the hydrogen option will dropout automatically due to time constraints. Additionally,it appears that energy saving remains essential for allenergy systems, and that central technology will alwaysremain very important (particularly for the productionof secondary fuels).
Research into the liberalisation effects is not restrictedto the Netherlands. Together with a number of otherresearch institutes in Europe and with the financialsupport of the European Union, the unit looked at thepossibilities offered by Tradable Green Certificates(TGC) in order to give a considerable impulse to theshare of sustainable energy in Europe. A number ofEuropean countries are at the point of taking the steptowards a system of certificates, as has already beentried in the Netherlands. A carefully designed TGCsystem can function well, according to the research.However, for some technologies, such as PV, supple-mentary instruments are required.
Together with a number of other European researchinstitutes and commissioned by the European Commis-sion, Policy Studies explored the most important prob-lems that can occur on the interface between energy,the environment and liberalisation. In this study ECN
examined the developments in the European gas sectorwith the aid of scenarios. It appeared that the fruits ofa fully liberalised gas market could only be harvestedwhen the existing ties between the various players aresevered. An ‘untwining’ of the sector is thereforeneeded for both capital and management. Integrationalong vertical lines – from extraction, storage andtransport up to sales – would otherwise play a (too)dominant role in determining gas prices and trade inthe European Union. There should be free access tothe transport network. Powerful supervisory bodiesshould be appointed at both EU and national level.
Climate problemThe White Paper on Climate Policy Implementationfrom the Ministry of Environment (VROM) will offerthe route along which the emission of greenhouse gas-es must be reduced in the coming years. Together withRIVM and CPB, Policy Studies has analysed theeffects of a basic package of measures. If all measuresencouraged in the White Paper are actually implementedthen the emission of CO
2 equivalents by 2010 will be
26 Mton lower than without these measures. Of thosetonnages, 15 Mton is ‘hard’ and 11 Mton uncertain. Alarge part of the uncertainty (70%) is due to actions ofenergy companies: both the effect of the coal agree-
27
In the year under reviewthe Ministry of Environment(VROM) published the WhitePaper on Climate PolicyImplementation. In prepara-tion for this bill ECN togetherwith RIVM mapped out thereductions feasible in theNetherlands. The whole circlegives the total feasiblereduction, the darker wedgesindicate the fractions chosenby the Ministry to be actuallyimplemented.
White Paper on Climate Policy Implementation (25 Mton)
Energy saving transport 10%
Energy saving other sectors
30%
Renewable 15%
Electricity production 15%
Other greenhouse gases30%
CO2 retention/storage0%
ment and the extra use of sustainable energy areuncertain. With regard to the reduction measures, 80%complies with the cost effectiveness requirement ofNLG 150 per ton of CO
2 equivalents.
In the framework of the BRED project of the Euro-pean Commission (Biomass for greenhouse gasemission REDuction) a technology assessment ofbiomass was undertaken. The emission reductiontargets of 50-75% for greenhouse gases by around2030 were examined to see what these mean for theuse of biomass. From the MATTER model calcula-tions which were carried out it appeared that agri-culture and forestry together can contribute morethan 500 Mton to the reduction of CO
2 emission.
With this, biomass is not only used as an energysource, but also as an alternative raw material forthe chemical industry. In order to be able to achievethis a considerable quantity of biomass is requiredand that requires a corresponding intensification inproduction. Technically this is possible, but it canconflict with the current extensification tendenciesin the EU Agricultural Policy.
In recent years national climate change policy has beengiven a clear international component. Consequently,the Netherlands can only achieve the reduction objec-tives from Kyoto if it is allowed to implement part ofits measures abroad, within the framework of theso-called Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).Together with a number of foreign partners and com-missioned by the Directorate General for DevelopmentCooperation, Policy Studies has examined the marketfor CDM amongst the ‘Non-Annex 1’ countries andhas identified the most likely technologies. The reduc-tion potential in these countries is considerable. Usingmeasures that cost less than $50 per ton, 2.25 Gton ofCO
2 equivalents can be reduced per year. The greatest
part of the potential can be harvested through energyefficiency improvements in both the energy sector andon the demand side.
External partners and customersPolicy StudiesMin. Economic Affairs, Min. VROM, Novem, DGIS,European Union, IEA, multilateral banking institutions,provinces, municipalities, energy companies.
28
Renewable Energy in the Built Environment
D utch government policy aims at an energy savingof 33% and a renewable energy share of 10% by
the year 2020. Houses, offices and other utility build-ings account for approximately one third of the Dutchenergy consumption. This means that the built environ-ment must provide a major contribution towardsachieving these ambitious energy targets.
The improvement of the energy performance of build-ings demands major technological efforts. In additionto the development of many new techniques, the inte-gration and combination of these techniques in particu-lar must advance. Renewable Energy in the Built Envi-ronment (REBE) is endeavouring to play an importantrole in the achievement of a higher sustainable energyshare and improved energy efficiency at district levelthrough the implementation of a programme that cov-ers the entire R&D chain: from long-term research toapplication development, and from the design stage ofan individual building to the preconditions for town
No pipe losses in hot tap water installationsThe low level of efficiency of hot tap water installationsis in need of improvement. Pipe losses represent asignificant factor. Improvement is possible with the aidof some simple technical means, a stainless steel ther-mos flask and a reversing valve. The system has beennamed Thermofort because it also enhances user com-fort.
There is an air bubble at pipe pressure inside the topof the inverted thermos flask, which is fitted close tothe water tap in the hot water pipe. When switching onthe tap, the pressure in the pipe falls so that the airbubble pushes the hot contents of the flask into thepipe. The contents of the flask mixes with cold waterfrom the hot water pipe heating it to hand tempera-ture. When switching the tap off, the pressure in thepipe rises again and the air bubble is compressed bythe hot water flowing in. The reversing valve, which isfitted next to the hot water appliance, responds to this.When the water tap is switched on, the hot water pipeis connected with the hot water appliance, but whenthe water tap is switched off, the valve connects thehot water pipe with the cold water pipe. Then coldwater consequently flows via this valve into the hotwater pipe, thus forcing any hot water still present init into the thermos flask (the contents of the pipe fitinto the thermos flask). The water in the thermos flasknot only remains hot, but is also replenished each timethe tap is used. The Legionella bacterium is thus givenno chance of establishing itself in the flask. No hot
water is left behind in the hot water pipe. Under nor-mal domestic use, this finding represents an annualgas saving of 100 - 125 m³ and water saving of 5000 -12000 litres. Inventor: Evert Sjoerdsma.
planning. REBE is carrying out its activities in closecollaboration with parties from the construction world,governmental bodies, universities and other knowledge-based institutions.
ProjectsThe use of solar energy systems will be given an extrastimulus if these installations can be used more effi-
29
Car as a CH boilerA car engine has an efficiency of approximately 20%.It is difficult to avoid this poor level of efficiencybecause there are limiting physical laws. 80% of thefuel is therefore lost out of necessity. The enginesimply needs to be cooled. The heat, which the averagecar emits to the outside air on an average winter’sday, is more than sufficient to heat a house. How cana house and a car be combined to make one heat andpower installation or how can the engine heat becaptured and transferred into the house. Car engineswear out particularly quickly and produce an extremelyhigh amount of harmful emissions for the first fewminutes after a cold start. This can be prevented byusing a ‘heat battery’ which is able to bring theengine up to the operating temperature before startingand is already on the market. Whilst driving the heatcontainer stores residual heat in a saline substance ata temperature of around 80° C. With larger dimensionsand other adaptations it is possible to store sufficientheat in this type of system to heat an entire house.Thus domestic gas consumption can be reduced to lessthan half. Inventor: Frans A.T.M. Ligthart.
ciently in buildings. In the year under review, ECNresearched the possibility of integrating solar collectorsand PV panels. In practical tests thermal PV appearedto utilise the energy content of sunlight much betterthan individual solar collectors or PV. Furthermore, theproduction and installation costs of such a combinedpanel are relatively low and the architecture is easier toadapt than with individual systems.
Cost price reduction is a main concern in the develop-ment of a PV system for corrugated steel roofs whichare used in commercial and industrial buildings and inthe agricultural sector. Together with the Corus subsid-iary company Laura Star Roof, ECN is developing asystem in which thin-film solar cells are bonded to steelprofiles. The solar cells are fitted in the factory andtherefore demand no extra installation costs.
For the Dutch building market REBE tested an ad-vanced Swiss PV roof module which can be quicklyfitted as a roof tile and has the same building-physicalproperties. It is anticipated that this modular system,with a few modifications for Dutch building practice,could be introduced into the market within the not toodistant future.
Together with TU Delft, REBE has started a pro-gramme for the development of super-insulating walls.In 1999 the effect of spectral selective foils on the en-ergy input and the insulation value was calculated.These foils are stretched in the cavity of a glazing sys-tem. Designs were also developed for a super-insulat-ing frame. Although a great deal of development workis still required here, super-insulation seems to be apromising technology and can also be used for renova-tion purposes because the systems require little space.
It is possible, though still very expensive, to satisfy thetotal heat demand of a house with heat from the sur-rounding air or from the ground. Together withEconosto, REBE developed two relatively simple hori-zontal ground heat exchangers which are installed justbelow ground level. A heat pump removes the thermalenergy from the exchangers and brings it to the re-quired temperature level. During the summer, bothheat exchangers can be used for cooling the house withvery low energy consumption. A prototype has beenconstructed for both systems.
An unexpected spin-off from this development wascreated when the Environmental Department of theCity of Amsterdam asked ECN to assess the heating ofthe practice pitches at the Amsterdam Arena. Thesepitches must be available for football training through-out the year and this requires a great deal of energy.
30
External partners and customers REBEAedes, Avio-Diepen, BEAR Architecten, Bouwfonds
Woningbouw, CSG Eemkwartier, De Laurens Rotterdam,
Durisol, E.E.T, Ecofys, Econosto (a.o. van der Beijl, AGPO/
ZEN, J.E.StorkAir), Ekomation, ENECOLO, Energiebedrijf
Noord West (NUON), European Union, Fonteinkerk Voor-
burg, Gasbedrijf Midden Kennemerland, City of Alkmaar,
City of Amsterdam, District Council of Castricum, City of
Haarlem, District Council of Heemskerk/Beverwijk, District
Council of Zijpe, Heembeton, ISOVER, ISSO, Jan Brouwer
Associates, KODI elektrotechniek, Koot Energieconsulenten,
Laura Star Roof, Laurenskerk Alkmaar, Limburg Kozijnen,
NMB Amstelland/Wilma Bouw, Nor-Dan Nederland,
Novem, Prisma Architecten, Projectbureau Consortia IJburg,
Province of North-Holland, Recreatie Beheer, RTC Alkmaar,
Shell Solar, Sportinstituut De Geus, Stadion Amsterdam,
Support Partners in sport, Syntens, TNO-Bouw, TNO-MEP,
TU Delft, TU Eindhoven, Unidek, Utrechts Centrum voor
Energie-onderzoek, Vesteda.
REBE listed a number of measures which could drasti-cally reduce the energy consumption. Through optimis-ation of the heating controls and a connection to thedistrict heating system a 50% energy saving can beachieved.
For districts in Haarlem, Amersfoort and Amsterdam,REBE listed the city planning preconditions for thebest possible utilisation of renewable energy and thehighest possible energy efficiency. ECN proposed avariety of measures that together could halve the useof fossil fuels within the districts. The proposals arestill being discussed in the municipal decision-makingprocess. The energy demand of a district can also becovered completely by using renewable energy, asappears from a desk study to which several ECN unitscontributed. By making maximum use of passive solarenergy, and the combined use of PV-thermal, electricalheat pumps, decentral high-temperature heat storage,low-temperature heat networks, aquifers and combinedmini co-generation units based on fuel cells, a districtcan produce a quantity of renewable energy equal tothe total energy demand throughout the entire year.The theory will be tested in the coming years in Heer-hugowaard, the ‘Town of Sun and Wind’.
Improve the world…REBE and its partners are active throughout the Neth-erlands with field tests and demonstrations of energyinnovations for the construction industry. At its ownECN site the group also has an excellent test facility atits disposal. In the year under review, the General Lab-oratory was fitted with a PV wall which generatespower and at the same time provides the lighting con-
trol in the offices behind the wall. The sun blind is ad-justable for each room: in due course research will beundertaken on the effect that the individual adjustabili-ty has on the electricity production. Furthermore, forthe new business energy plan of ECN, REBE mappedout a large number of measures. In that plan ECN setsas its target a 40% reduction of CO
2 emissions by 2020
compared with the reference year 1995.
A unique research facility consisting of 3 linked testhouses was built on the Petten site. The project wasundertaken by ECN together with Wilma Bouw andvarious suppliers of building materials, prefabricatedelements and installations. In the coming years a varietyof new technical developments, varying from an inte-grated PV thermal roof system to heat storage in theunderfloor space, will be tested and monitoredextensively.This ambitious programme – Ecobuild Research – isintended to result in building concepts to improvefurther the ecological performance of houses.
For primary energy consumption, Ecobuild Researchintends to make an energy performance coefficient of0.5 feasible and affordable within two years for newlybuilt houses. In a subsequent stage an even greaterreduction will be strived for. A fourth house in the testfacility will be equipped as a demonstration housecommissioned by the Province of North Holland. Inthis project research is being undertaken into whether avariety of living functions (heating, lighting, alarm,security, etc.) can be integrated with the aid of advancedcontrol systems.
31
Technological Services & Consultancy
The realisation of theFPTO is an example ofhigh-grade technicalsupport to the ECN re-search activities.
T he Technological Services & Consultancy group(TSC) supplies products and services not only to
ECN units, but also to other innovative companies.Furthermore, TSC plays an important role in marketingthe knowledge built up within the ECN units and whichhas outgrown the R&D stage.
The TSC field is broad: it ranges from resolving simplematerial problems and finding simple mechanical solu-tions to the design, construction, testing and demon-stration of complete tailor made installations andresearch facilities, such as the Pyromaat (see Biomass).The required competence is particularly in the area ofmaterials engineering and technology: characterisation,design, manufacture, production of coatings and com-pounds. Process automation and control, and the de-velopment of special software are also included in theexpertise. The Technological Services & Consultancygroup owes its particular competence and experiencein technical ceramics to former ECN activities whichresulted in the establishment of the ‘Nationaal Keram-isch Atelier’ (National Ceramic Workshop) within ECN.
In the year under review, a close collaboration wasestablished with the technical-service department ofShell Research and Technology Centre Amsterdam atproject level. TSC also works regularly with TNO-In-dustry, the University of Twente and the Universitiesof Technology in Delft and Eindhoven.
Fuel ProcessingThe realisation of the Fuel Processing Test Facility(FPTO) is an example of high-quality technical supportto the research activities of ECN. The purpose of ‘fuelprocessing’ is to obtain hydrogen from conventionalfuels such as natural gas or gasoline, which is pureenough to supply a polymer fuel cell. The fuel cell isvery suitable for the generation of both electricity andheat in small units, in other words, for combined mi-cro-heat/power units. The arrangement was construct-ed for the Applied Catalysis group of the Clean FossilFuel unit, which has developed a new process and isusing the FPTO to run an intensive test programme forresearching various ‘fuel processing’ options and eval-uating the effect of the various components. Motivatedby the great significance of this development – whichcould also create a revolution in the transport sector:electrical power derived from conventional fuel – thetest arrangement was completed and delivered in theextremely short period of three months. The FPTO hasbeen constructed for studying stationary applicationsof the process. For research into mobile applications –such as electrical transport – TSC is now building asecond test arrangement: FPTO II.
Ceramic precisionCeramic pipes to test the superconducting magnets ofthe Large Hadron Collider (LHC) are being made forCERN, the European laboratory for elementary parti-cle physics in Geneva. The LHC is an undergroundcircular accelerator with a circumference of 27 kmwhere protons and antiprotons will be accelerated toenergies never before achieved. The straightness of the120 cm pipes and also the hole patterns have to meethigh geometric requirements: an accuracy of only afew micrometers (10-6 metre). This precision is noteasy to attain in conventional construction materials,and more difficult still in ceramic material, which hasthe hardness of a diamond. There are only a few manu-facturing sites in the world where the precision re-quired by CERN can be achieved. CERN has selectedPetten.The Dutch manufacturer of production equipment (wa-fer steppers) for the chip industry ASML has benefitedfrom ECN’s ceramic expertise. The bearing of one oftheir wafer stepper components uses a very thin airfilm. The guideways are applied by means of ceramicprocessing techniques. The dimensional tolerances forthis air bearing were also only a few microns.
32
A ceramic filter is a promising solution for car manu-facturers wishing to prevent the emission of soot fromdiesel engines. A normal filter clogs up and must beconstantly emptied or replaced. A filter from which thesoot is ‘internally removed’ as part of a catalytic pro-cess can remain in-situ. Such a filter/catalytic con-verter must be made from ceramic material because ofthe high temperatures and it must be possible to manu-facture this at a reasonable price in mass production.With its knowledge of technical ceramics ECN devel-oped the material with the correct properties and geo-metric shape.
External partners and customersTechnological Services & ConsultancyAkzo Nobel, Auris, AVR-Rotterdam, AWS BV, Babcock
Power Services, Bodycote, Chromalloy, Coatings Industries
SA (F), CSI, Corus, DEI, Delta, Demaco and Cryojet, Dinex
(DK), ECO Ceramics, Elbar BV, Entry Technology, Ernst en
Young, FME-CWM, Fokker Space, FOM, Heerema, HEF-
Hydromécanique et Frottement (F), Hoek Loos, Holec,
IFAM-Fraunhofer Institut (D), Imtech Marine & Industry,
Interturbine Coating Center BV, Kon. Luchtmacht, Kon.
Marine, Kvaerner Process, Licotech, Linde AG (D), Marine
Service Noord, MAVOM, Mech. Ind. Habets, Medicoat AG
(CH), MESA, NITG-TNO, NLR, Novem, Nusys, Avira,
EPON, EZH, KEMA, KLM, OBZ Dresel und Grasme GmbH
(D), Peek Traffic, Philips, PMP, PomWeld, PWI-Oekraïne,
Province of Gelderland, Putzier Oberflaechentechnik GmbH
(D), Revamo, Rijkswaterstaat, Shell, Siemens Nederland,
Stichting Neurale Netwerken, Stork, Sulzer Metco, Syntens
Alkmaar, TAFA, Tanis, Technische Keramiek Nederland,
Technisupport (VTS), Ten Cate Business Consultants,
Thomassen International BV, TNO-Industrie, TU-Delft,
Urenco Ned., VAM, VGT, WL/Delft Hydraulics.
Sealing conceptEnergy and environmental experts are hopeful of suc-cess in the use of ceramic membranes for separatinggas and/or liquid mixtures. During the production ofseparation modules, connections always have to bemade between the ceramic components and the com-ponents of other materials. This is not easy because inthe modules the connections must also be able to resistlarge differences in pressure and temperature. Thequality of the connections with the ceramic material isactually a crucial factor. In the year under review, ECNachieved promising results with a new sealing conceptwhich has still to be patented. This technological de-velopment has gained momentum due to the interest ofa large industrial partner, Sulzer Chemtech.
In the field of fibre reinforced plastics, ECN has devel-oped new expertise in recent years. Commissioned bySyntens and in collaboration with Haarlem Polytechnic,a manual on composite materials has been compiledspecifically for small and medium-sized enterprises. Inaddition to the usual information in a handbook, it alsocontains an overview of the most important practicallimitations in using composite materials.
33
Nuclear Research
The Nuclear Research and Consultancy Group(NRG) is the joint venture in which ECN and
KEMA have combined their nuclear expertise since1998. The Group’s main task is to maintain the qualityof nuclear knowledge and competence in the Nether-lands at an international level. In addition to researchNRG undertakes consultancy activities closely relatedto the research. Furthermore, the organisation producesradionuclides for medical purposes. The efforts in thethree areas are of equal importance when measured bytheir returns.
After a period when the neutron beams available forresearch in the HFR were not fully used, the demandfor beam capacity is now increasing (partly in collabo-ration with IRI of TU-Delft), especially for powderdiffraction studies and residual stress measurements(using neutron diffraction) and also for patient irradia-tion as part of the European BNCT Project.
High Temperature Gas-cooled ReactorNRG participates in an international consortium devel-oping the HTGR, the high-temperature gas-cooledreactor. In South Africa the consortium is constructinga 100 MWe prototype of this innovative reactor typewith a direct cycle gas turbine fed by the helium gaswhich cools the reactor. The short construction periodand the relatively low cost make this reactor type at-tractive to electricity companies which need to be ableto operate dynamically in the liberated electricity mar-ket. An additional advantage is the excellent safety andoperational characteristics. The HTGR concept itself is
The new crystal structureof a powder which hasundergone a phasechange is determinedwith the neutrons frombeam channel HB5 at atemperature of 500°C.In collaboration with IRI,NRG has begun to utilisethe High Flux Reactormore intensively forfundamental research.
not new, but modern technology now means that thestrong points of the concept can now be fully exploit-ed. The actual construction of the prototype near CapeTown is to start in 2001. If the test stage proves suc-cessful, the construction of a 1000 MW power plantconsisting of ten modules will follow.NRG’s contribution to the HTGR project includesreactor shielding calculations, analysis of the impact ofa helium pipe rupture in the reactor hall, computer codevalidation and preparations for obtaining an operatinglicence.
No long-lived wasteWhere nuclear energy is used, waste is produced.Nearly all this waste will have decayed after 100 to200 years, but a fraction of approximately 1% – ac-tinides and some lighter fission products – will remainradiotoxic 1000 times longer. To address this problemtwo lines of research are pursued. By recycling thelong-lived component in a nuclear reactor, its lifetimecan be shortened significantly. Another possibility is toprevent the production of long-lived waste, for example,by using thorium instead of uranium in the fuel. NRGworks on both options, also at the international level.
The recycling of actinides and long-lived fission prod-ucts requires that they are fed into the reactor embeddedin an appropriate material and in an appropriate chemi-cal form suited to the material. Under certain condi-tions the neutrons are able to ‘crack’ the actinides orto transmute them into lighter and short-lived nuclides.The material in which the actinides are embedded must
34
Every day ten thousandpatients in Europeanhospitals are treated withradionuclides from theHFR.
be neutron irradiation resistant. NRG has designed andmanufactured several materials and tested them in theHFR. It is evident that embedding the long-lived prod-ucts in micro-spheres in the fission material gives betterresults than a homogeneous distribution.
The thorium cycle looks promising for achieving aminimum waste production and a better burn-up ofplutonium. Plutonium largely determines the radiotox-icity and the lifetime of the waste. Reactor physics cal-culations have shown that plutonium in the thoriumcycle can be burnt up very efficiently. Twice as muchplutonium can be burnt up in a mixture of thorium andplutonium oxides compared to ‘normal’ MOX fuel, amixture of uranium and plutonium oxides. The reactorphysics calculations as well as the experimental fuelmanufacture and the irradiation were performed atPetten.
Medical isotopesThe production of radionuclides for medical applica-tions, generally referred to as radioisotopes, is a grow-ing industry. There is an increasing demand in the diag-nostic sector as well as in the therapeutic and palliativesectors. More than 70% of all the ‘medical’radioisotopes used by medical specialists in Europeanhospitals are produced in the HFR at Petten. It is notjust a routine production: research and developmentactivities remain important for streamlining the produc-tion process of ‘new’ isotopes and operating more costefficiently by minimising the radioactive waste and theuse of materials.The production of iridium-192 is a typical example. It
is mainly used industrially for non-destructive inspectionof steel constructions. The irradiation characteristicshave also been proven suitable for the treatment ofvarious types of brain, prostate and breast tumours.Iridium-192 is produced by neutron irradiation of iridi-um-191, which is found in natural iridium. Researchhas shown that the most efficient production method isobtained by enriching the natural iridium first (in its191 isotope). The enrichment takes place at Urenco.An additional benefit is that the size of the iridium radi-ation source which the doctor inserts in the patient canbe smaller thanks to its higher specific activity.
Glioblastoma multiformeBoron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) is a newform of therapy which is still in the demonstrationproject stage. This EU project is carried out in andaround the HFR and is currently aimed at the treatmentof one type of brain tumour: glioblastoma multiforme.Some twenty patients have been treated with the ex-perimental method. On the basis of the positive – butstill preliminary – results the research is being continuedmore intensively. The next step will be the determina-tion of the dose a patient’s healthy tissue can toleratewithout damage. In addition, three new clinical BNCTstudies will be initiated at the beginning of 2000, incombination with research into the distribution of boronin the brain outside the tumour. This activity is part ofthe Fifth Framework Programme of the EuropeanCommission. The patient irradiation takes place at theHFR at Petten. NRG has designed and constructed theirradiation facility, and is responsible for the technicalexecution of all irradiations and related dosimetry.
35
Consolidated Financial Statements 1999
36
1999
63,307
401,347
74,0083,972
142,674
20,55137,69513,70642,175
114,127
256,801
1998
60,961
141,027
85,0652,885
149,952
8,59339,776
055,976
104,345
254,297
1999
59,4011,645
61,046
47,17426,09648,3267,260
128,856
2,100
64,799
256,801
1998
51,8171,320
53,137
50,05528,08546,6807,926
132,746
0
68,414
254,297
Consolidated Financial Statements 1999
Consilidated balance sheet at December 31 ( in NLG x 1000)
Liabilities
Group equityEquityThird party share
ProvisionsProvisions early retirementProvisions redundancyProvisions radioactive wasteOther provisions
Long-term liabilities
Short-term liabilities
Total
Operating incomeFinancing and other income• Basic, ENGINE, and Collaboration
financing from the Dutch government• Third party revenues• Increase/decrease work in progress
Capitalized production for own organisationIncome from licencesOther operating income
Operating expensesWages and salariesDepreciationOther operating expenses
Operating result
Result financial income and expensesResult before extraordinaryincome
Extraordinary income and expensesResult before share of third parties
Third party share in the result
Consolidated result
1999
62,865
102,48711,958
177,310
4,7242,0882,606
186,728
104,33011,10964,995
180,434
6,294
4,115
10,409
-/- 2,5007,909
-/- 325
7,584
1998
57,860
114,051-/- 499
171,412
4,975793
2,581179,761
99,32310,60163,005
172,929
6,832
5,337
12,169
-/- 4,9007,269
-/- 450
6,819
Consolidated statement of income ( in NLG x 1000)
Cash flow from operating activitiesOperating resultDepreciationIncrease/decrease provisionsIncrease/decrease extraordinary income
Change in working capitalIncrease/decrease extraordinary expenses
Result financial income and expenses
Cash flow from investing activitiesIncrease/decrease financial fixed assetsInvestments tangible fixed assetsContribution third parties tangible fixed assetsDisposals tangible fixed assetsIncrease/decrease participations
Cash flow from financing activities
Increase of long-term liabilities
Increase/decrease liquid assets
1999
6,29411,104
-/- 3,8900
13,508-/- 27,198-/- 2,500-/-16,190
4,115-/-12,075
9,970-/- 13,526
076
-/-346-/- 3,826
2,100
-/- 13,801
1998
6,83210,58850,87146,000
114,291-/- 1,968
-/- 50,90061,423
5,33766,760
-/- 656-/- 13,457
-/- 19765
870-/- 13,375
0
53,385
Consilidated cash flow statement ( in NLG x 1000)
Assets
Fixed assetsTangible fixed assetsFinancial fixed assets:• Participations in knowledge-based companies• Other participations• Securities• Other receivables
Current assetsWork in progressReceivables and prepaid expensesSecuritiesLiquid assets
Total
37
Tangible fixed assets
Movement of the tangible fixed assets is as follows
Industrial buildings/Site facilitiesPurchase priceDepreciationBookvalue
Industrial installations/fixturesPurchase priceDepreciationBookvalue
Instruments, machinery, etc.Purchase priceDepreciationBookvalue
Fixed assets in progressPurchase price
TotalPurchase priceDepreciationBookvalue
Fixed assets
GeneralECN is statutory established in Petten, in the municipality of Zijpe. For thefoundations’ aim is referred to the mission statement as described in the annualreport.
Principles of ConsolidationPrinciples of ConsolidationPrinciples of ConsolidationPrinciples of ConsolidationPrinciples of ConsolidationThe consolidated financial statements in which all important mutual assets,liabilities, income and expenses have been eliminated, include the financialstatements of ECN, the subsidiaries NRG v.o.f. and NRG Personeel v.o.f. allestablished in Petten, municipality Zijpe. ECN owns 70% and KEMA owns30% of both subsidiaries.
Principles of valuation of assets and liabilitiesThe tangible fixed assets are valued at purchase price or manufacturing priceless scheduled depreciation. The site was obtained in ground rent in 1957 fromthe Dutch Forestry Commission. The term of the lease was extended in 1996from 2007 to 2032.
Fixed assets are depreciated straight line, and the depreciation period is asfollows:• Industrial buildings 20 years• Temporary buildings and site facilities 10 years• Industrial installations and fixtures 10 years• Instruments, machinery, etc. 5 years• Computer hardware and software 3 years• Licenses economic lifecycleParticipations in knowledge-based companies are defined as inputted expertiseby ECN, which is a critical successfactor for the establishment or continuationof this company.ECN is able to exercise significant control regarding to business conduct andfinancial conduct of NRG. Therefore subsidiary NRG is valued at the net equityvalue. The net equity value is calculated on the basis of similar principles whichare used by ECN.The other participations are shown at acquisition price less provisions, if any.
The bonds are valued at purchase value, with any premiums or discounts on the
Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements
Notes to the consolidated balance sheet ( in NLG x 1000)
Movements in 1999
58,11943,20114,918
80,30859,45320,855
74,39160,56913,822
13,712
226,530163,223 63,307
Disposals Book value at31-12-1998
Book value at31-12-1999
Additions
3,6731,7351,938
5003,972
-/- 3,472
7,0845,397
1,687
2,269
13,52611,104 2,422
54,44641,46612,980
79,88755,48424,403
67,79055,65512,135
11,443
213,566152,605 60,961
00
0
793
76
483483
0
0
562486
76
purchase of bonds being debited or credited to the result, divided over thematurity period.
The valuation principle and presentation of shares has been altered as per yearend 1999 with respect to 1998. As per 31 December 1999 it appeared that theshares were not longer necessary for debt financing of provisions. Thereforeshares are valued at purchase price and are presented as current assets.
Work in progress is valued at the costs incurred, net of a provision for expensesto be expected.
The provision for early retirement (referred to as FUT), reorganization andnuclear waste are calculated on the basis of net present value. The redemptionof the FUT by the Department of Economic Affairs is calculated on the basis ofaccepted actuarial principles.
The other assets and liabilities are included for the nominal amounts; a deductionhas been made on the receivables for the provisions deemed necessary.
Principles for determination of the resultAll items in the consolidated statement of income are included for the amountswhich should be allocated to the year under review.
The presentation of the revaluation of the UCN-loan has been adjusted as peryear end 1999 with respect to 1998. In 1998 these items were presented asfinancial income; per year end 1999 as income from licences. Reason is theloan relates to normal business operations and therefore should be included inoperating income. The comparative figures 1998 have been adapted likewise.
The presentation of the addition to the provision for nuclear waste ECN hasbeen adjusted as per year end 1999 with respect to 1998. In former years theaddition has been presented as operating expenses. However this addition is notany longer included in the costs which are the basis of the calculation of bud-geted and actual rates. This adjustment results in a better view of the operatingincome. The addition has been presented as extraordinary expense now. Thecomparative figures 1998 have been adapted likewise.
38
Provisions for early retirement (FUT)This provision is intended for the costs of the FUT scheme.At December 31, 1999 the provision was built up as follows:Balance at January 1, 1999• Minus: withdrawal• Plus: interest addition
Balance at December 31, 1999
3,9651,084
50,055
-/- 2,881
47,174
Provision for redundancyThis provision is intended for costs resulting from staff reductions due toreorganizations.
The movement of this provision is as follows:Balance at January 1, 1999• Minus: withdrawal• Plus: interest addition
Balance at December 31, 1999
3,3111,322
28,085
-/- 1,989
26,096
Provision for radioactive wasteThis provision is intended for the costs of the future storage or treatment ofradioactive waste.
The movement of this provision is as follows:Balance at January 1, 1999• Minus: withdrawal• Plus: addition• Plus: interest addition
Balance at December 31, 1999
As the valuation dating from 1994-1995 is no longer current, an investigation hasbeen started in order to detect the exact composition and state of nuclear wasteand to estimate costs relating to the disposal of high radio active waste and thedecommissioning of nuclear installations and buildings. The results of theinvestigations are expected in 2002.
3,6773,0252,298
46,680
1,64648,326
Other provisionsOther provisions include the provision for functional reduncancy due to age(FLO), disability insurance (AOV) and periodic maintenance.
Balance at January 1, 1999• Minus: withdrawal• Plus: addition• Plus: interest addition
Balance at December 31, 1999
FLO4,066
879750
200
4,137
Current assets
Receivable and prepaid expensesThe receivables are included for the nominal amounts net of a deduction for thenecessary provisions. The receivables expire within 1 year and can be specifiedas follows.
SecuritiesThe bond portfolio has a face value of NLG 79,519. The market value as peryear end 1999 is NLG 66,569.
The share portfolio has a face value of NLG 13,706. The market value as peryear end 1999 is NLG 15,667. There is a long term deposit of NLG 5,000.
The movement of the securities is as follows:Balance at January 1, 1999• Plus: buy• Minus: sell
Exchange resultsPresentation shares as current assets
Balance at December 31, 1999
Bonds are at a free disposal for ECN.
85,065
-/- 512,700
-/- 13,706
74,008
Other receivablesThe other receivables include a loan to Ultra-Centrifuge Nederland NV (UCN)which represent a fee for transferred knowledge on the ultracentrifuge process.Other receivables also include a licence for micro filtration membranes resultingfrom a contract with Eco Ceramics.
Trade receivablesOther receivables and prepaid expenses
Total
19992
177
14
40
19982
1200
14
199924,62813,067
37,695
199829,07710,699
39,776
16,71916,770
Liquid assets
As per December 31, 1999 liquid assets include an amount of NLG 44,880, ofwhich NLG 880 interest, to appropriate to the FUT scheme.Other liquid assets are at free disposal.
Provision for FLO schemeEmployees working in shifts may make use of the FLO scheme (Functionalredundancy due to Age) as from the age of 57.5 years.
Provision AOV (disability insurance)As at Januari, 1, 1998 ECN has taken over the risk for disability insurance. Thisconcerns the differentiated part within the present WAO (legal disability) as wellas the additional private insurance (AOV) like this was executed by third parties.
AOV873406
1,476 70
2,013
Maintenance2,9872,477
600 0
1,110
Totaal7,9263,7622,826
270
7,260
1999270
500500
40100
15525
1.347
199827
0500500
0
00
1.027
SecuritiesShares are presented as current assets as a result of a change in investment policy.As the sum of all securities, including the redemption of the FUT scheme by theDepartment of Economic Affairs, exceeds the sum of all provisions for the firsttime, an inactive policy has now been adopted. Shares are free at disposal.
Financial fixed assets
Participations at December 31
• BCN BV• ENATEC BV• NEDSTACK holding BV• SWEAT BV
Total
Other participations at December 31
• DNC Nuclear Technology BV• COVRA NV• RTC Noord-Holland Noord BV• TIFAN BV• ECN-INTERNATIONAL BV• SOLAR INTERNATIONAL
BOTSWANA PTY LTD• AWS BV• ENERSEARCH AB
Total
Provisions
The remaining term of the provisions has a long-term character in general.
39
Interest incomeInterest expenses
Other financial income and expenses
Total
The interest paid includes the interest added to the provisions for an amount ofNLG 4,974 (NLG 4,007 in 1998).
The other financial income and expenses consist of realized profits on securitiesand received dividends.
Capitalized production for own organizationThe capitalized production for own organization concerns the own operatingexpenses due to work carried out by own staff and work carried out with ownoperating assets which can be allocated to investments or provisions.
Financial income and expenses
19996,7785,4001,3782,737
4,115
19986,5634,249
2,3143,023
5,337
Extraordinary income and expenses
Extraordinary income:• Redemption FUT• Contribution Department of Economic
Affairs regarding radioactive wasteTotal extraordinary income
Extraordinary expenses:• Addition to provision FUT• Addition to provision radioactive waste• Depreciation COVRA
Total extraordinary expenses
Total extraordinary income and expenses
19990
0
0
02,500
0
2,500
-/- 2,500
199844,000
2,000
46,000
44,0004,500
2,400
50,900
-/- 4,900
Provision for periodic maintenanceThe provision for periodic maintenance functions as an exchange equilizationfund.
Notes to the consolidated statement of income ( in NLG x ƒ1000)
Operating income
Basic and ENGINE financingCollaboration financing
Third party revenuesIncrease/decrease work in progressOther income
Total third party revenues and other income
Breakdown into market segments:
Domestic trade and industry sectorDomestic energy sectorEuropean CommissionForeign trade and industry sectorGovernmental departmentsNOVEMMiscellaneousUnspecified revenues and other income
Total
199931,72531,140
62,865
102,48711,9582,606
117,051
199938,55410,47527,759
8,3897,964
22,5521,358
0
117,051
199829,16128,699
57,860
114,051-/- 499
2,581
116,133
199830,9592,309
31,3315,2038,651
22,163902
14,615
116,133
Personnel costs
Salaries of permanent employeesCost of impermanent employeesSocial securityPension chargesOther personnel costs
Total
The average number of employees (in FTEs) was:
• Permanent contract of service• Impermanent contract of service
(including PhD candidates)Total
These figures are exclusive of personnel on loan and agency workers.
Operating expenses
1999
68,51515,297
8,6144,1307,774
104,330
1999
706.5140.5
847.0
199866,52513,322
9,1103,1627,204
99,323
1998
686.0154.9
840.9
Depreciation
Industrial buildings, installations, fixturesand site facilitiesInstruments and other inventorySubtotal depreciationWrite off disposals
Total
1999
5,7075,397
11,1045
11,109
1998
5,5745,014
10,58813
10,601
Short-term liabilities
Deferred income from third partiesTrade liabilitiesWage taxes and social insurance premiumsOther social charges and personnel costsValue added taxMiscellaneous liabilities and accrued expenses
Total
19995,404
28,7004,2219,684
54416,246
64,799
19986,559
40,7072,4598,718
5639,408
68,414
Long-term liabilities
A long term deferred loan of NLG 2,100 has been procured by KEMA to NRG.ECN procured a long term deferred loan of NLG 4,800, which result in a totalprocured loan to subsidiary NRG of NLG 6,900. The deferred character is basedupon requirements for solvency as per joint venture agreement ECN-NRG.
40
Company only balance sheet at december 31 (x NLG 1000)
Liabilities
Equity
ProvisionsProvisions early retirementProvisions redundancyProvisions radioactive wasteOther provisions
Short-term liabilities
Total
Assets
Fixed assetsTangible fixed assets:Financial fixed assets• Participation in knowledge-based companies• Participation in subsidiary NRG• Other participations• Deferred loan subsidiary NRG• Securities• Other receivables
Current assetsWork in progressReceivables subsidiary NRGReceivables and prepaid expensesSecuritiesLiquid assets
Total
1999
60,344
405,5131,3204,800
74,0083,971
149,996
17,2751,325
22,25813,70622,40376,967
226,963
1998
57,039
142,8971,000
085,065
2,885148,900
9,0826,982
22,2440
53,58091,888
240,788
199959,401
47,17426,09647,6756,747
127,692
39,870
226,963
199851,817
50,05528,08546,5557,926
132,621
56,350
240,788
Operating incomeFinancing and other income• Basic, ENGINE and Collaboration
financing from the Dutch Government• Third party revenues• Increase/decrease in work in progress• Income from subsidiary NRG
Capitalized production for own organizationIncome from licensesOther operating income
Operating expensesWages and salariesDepreciationOther operation expensesExpenses from subsidiary NRG
Operating result
Result financial income and expensesResult before extraordinaryincome
Extraordinary income and expensesCompany only result
Result group company
Result
1999
45,01545,7938,193
16,139115,140
3,5822,0882,606
123,416
70,4629,836
37,8851,874
120,057
3,359
4,110
7,469
-/- 2,5004,969
2,615
7,584
1998
40,70045,8094,168
18,258108,935
2,498793
2,581114,807
65,0819,219
35,1731,703
111,176
3,631
5,337
8,968
-/- 4,9004,068
2,751
6,819
Company only statement of income
41
Principles of valuationThe principles stated in the notes to the consolidated financial statements applyalso to the company only financial statements.
Receivables from subsidiary NRGConform the joint venture agreement ECN-KEMA, the outstanding account of
subsidiary NRG has been converted into a long term deferred loan of NLG 4,800.
Directors and Supervisory BoardThe remuneration of directors amounts NLG 626.The remuneration of the members of the Supervisory board is NLG 105.
Notes to the company only financial statements (x ƒ1000)
evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that ouraudit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion.
OpinionIn our opinion, the financial statements give a true and fair view of the finan-cial position of the foundation as at December 31, 1999 and of the result forthe year then ended in accordance with accounting principles generally accept-ed in The Netherlands and comply with the financial reporting requirements
included in Part 9, Book 2 of The Netherlands Civil Code.
Arthur Andersen
Amsterdam, The Netherlands,April 7, 2000
Equity at December 31
• Foundation capital• Capital consisting of investment contributions received up to
1984 mainly from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, net ofwrite-off for depreciation
• Result financial years from 1983
Total
1998
100
38,70213,015
51,817
Changes in 1999
7,584
7.584
1999
100
38,70220,599
59,401
Participation share in group companyThe movements in the participating share are as follows
Balance at January 1, 1999• Result subsidiary NRG
Balance at December 31, 1999
2,8982,615
5,513
Petten, April 7, 2000
Prof.dr. J.C. TerlouwChairman of the Supervisory Board
Prof.dr. F.W. SarisManaging Director
Ir. W. SchatbornManaging Director
Other information
Auditor’s report
IntroductionWe have audited the financial statements of the Stichting EnergieonderzoekCentrum Nederland, Petten, The Netherlands, for the year 1999. These finan-cial statements are the responsibility of the foundations’ management. Ourresponsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based onour audit.
ScopeWe conducted our audit in accordance with auditing standards generally ac-cepted in The Netherlands. Those standards require that we plan and performthe audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statementsare free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a testbasis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial state-ments. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used andsignificant estimates made by the management of the Foundation, as well as
42
ECN Biomass Unit Managerdr. Hubert Veringa wasappointed at the beginning of2000 as (part-time) Professorof Thermal Engineering atthe University of Twente.
University Most important specialist groups, Subjectsinstitutes and research schools
TUD Chemical Technology and Wind Research, Solar Cells, Energy efficientDelft Materials Science Building, Climate Control,
Institute for Wind Energy Membranes, CatalysisOTB SPFC, Biogas, LecturerBuilding
TUE Chemical Faculty Biomass, Fuel Cell, CatalysisEindhoven Materials Engineering Membranes, Electronics, Solar Cells,
Electronic Conversion PV-combipanel,Techniques Technology and Behaviour,NIOK Developing Countries, Professor,International Development LecturerMechanical Engineering
UT CSTM Gasification, Stirling Heat Pump,Enschede Inorganic Materials Fuel Cell, Laser Techniques,
Biomass Membranes, Mechanical Engineering,Solar Cells, Climate Research,Developing Countries, Professor
UU UCE Catalysis, Solar Cells,Utrecht Science and Society Environmental Research,
NIOK Social Research, Behaviour Research,Inorganic Chemistry ProfessorAtomic and Interface Physics
WU Environment and Technology Biological Conversion, Organic Solar CellsWageningen Organic Chemistry Environmental Research, Professor
Environmental Research
UvA Exact Sciences Biochemistry, Environmental Research,Amsterdam Economy Energy Economy
SENSEFoundation for Economic Research
VU IVM Social Studies, Economy,Amsterdam Economy Business Administration
RUG Plant Ecology Biomass, Environmental Research,Groningen Solar Cells, Economy
KUN Environmental Biology Environmental Research,Nijmegen Physics Solar Cells
KUB Behaviour ResearchTilburg
UL Chemistry CatalysisLeiden
Collaboration ECN and Dutch Universities
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University Subject Business Unit
Imperial College SSM technology Clean Fossil FuelIBAC (Aken) Environmental Research Clean Fossil FuelNERC (England) Environmental Research Clean Fossil FuelEAWAG (Switzerland) Environmental Research Clean Fossil FuelUniversität Wien Environmental Research Clean Fossil FuelRutgers State University of New Jersey Environmental Research Clean Fossil FuelUniversity of New Hampshire Environmental Research Clean Fossil FuelPeking University Environmental Research Clean Fossil FuelGeorgia Institute of Technology Environmental Research Clean Fossil FuelUniversity of Newcastle Chemical Engineering Energy EfficiencyUniversität Mulheim Catalysis Energy EfficiencyRWTH (Aken) Membranes Energy EfficiencyKTH Stockholm Membranes Energy EfficiencyUniversity Salford Membranes Energy EfficiencyCNRS-TRC Lyon Catalysis Energy EfficiencyUniversity of Bath Chemical Engineering Energy EfficiencyTechnical University of Helsinki Heating and Air Conditioning Energy EfficiencyUniversity of Dayton Mechanical Engineering Energy EfficiencyNational Technical University of Athens Scenarios Policy StudiesCicero/University of Oslo Cost distribution Climate Policy Policy StudiesUniversity Freiburg (FMF) Dye-sensitised solar cells (DSC) Solar EnergyUniversity Uppsala Dye-sensitised solar cells (DSC) Solar EnergyEPFL (CH) Dye-sensitised solar cells (DSC) Solar EnergyHahn Meitner Institute Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS) Solar EnergyUniversity Gent Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS) Solar EnergyUniversity Talinn Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS) Solar EnergyUniversity Linz Organic solar cells Solar EnergyUniversity Konstanz Crystalline silicon (c-Si) Solar EnergyISET (D) Systems technology Solar + Wind EnergyISFH (D) Crystalline silicon (c-Si) Solar EnergyFhG-ISE (D) Crystalline silicon (c-Si),
Film silicon (f-Si), Systems technology Solar EnergyINAP (D) Dye-sensitised solar cells (DSC) Solar EnergyMPI-FF (D) Film silicon (f-Si) Solar EnergyCNRS-Phase, CNRS-LMPM (F) Film silicon (f-Si) Solar EnergyIVF (SE) Dye-sensitised solar cells (DSC) Solar EnergyIPM (I) Dye-sensitised solar cells (DSC) Solar EnergyTechnical University of Denmark Crystalline silicon (c-Si) Solar EnergyIMEC (B) Crystalline silicon (c-Si), film silicon (f-Si) Solar EnergyGeorgia Institute of Technology (USA) Crystalline silicon (c-Si) Solar EnergyCIEMAT (Spain) Systems technology Solar + Wind EnergyNMRC (Ireland) Systems technology Solar EnergyIST (D) Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS) Solar EnergyRisø (DK) All wind energy aspects Wind EnergyCRES (Greece) All wind energy aspects Wind EnergyDEWI (D) All wind energy aspects Wind EnergyNational Technical University of Athens Aerodynamics Wind EnergyUNA (University Nederlandse Antillen) System design Wind EnergyLoughborough University of Technology Stand alone systems Wind EnergyNREL (USA) Aerodynamics and measuring techniques Wind EnergyAbo Academi University Ash research BiomassImperial College London Gasification technology BiomassLund University Ash research BiomassNational Technical University of Athens Gasification technology BiomassSwedish University of Agricultural Science Coal conversion BiomassTechnical University of Danmark Gasification technology BiomassTechnische Universität Braunschweig Ash research BiomassUniversität Essen Ash research BiomassUniversität Stuttgart (IER; IVD) Ash research BiomassUniversity of Cambridge Biofuels Biomass
Collaboration ECN and foreign universities and institutes
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Members of the Supervisory Board,Advisory Councils, Management
Supervisory Board.
Prof.dr. J.C. Terlouw, ChairmanH.A.D. van den Boogaard, StorkIr. L.M.J. van Halderen, EPONDrs. P.A. Scholten, Min. Economic AffairsIr. A. van der Velden, CorusDr. N. de Voogd, TU-Delft
Programme Advisory Council.
Ir. J. den BoerIr. G.H. Bontius, EnergieNed (till 31-12-99)Prof.ir. J.P. van Buijtenen, TU-DelftDrs. B.J.M. Hanssen, Min. Economic Affairs(till 31-12-99)Dr.ir. G.E.H. Joosten, GasunieIr. G. Kliffen, Noord West NetIr. G.R. Küpers, Kandt ManagementMr.drs. P.W. Kwant, Shell InternationalW.J. Lenstra, Ministry VROMIr. P.A.M. van Luyt, NovemDr.ir. B. Metz, RIVMMw. drs. M. Quené, NUON (from 07-04-00)Prof.dr.ir. W.P.M. van Swaaij, Universiteit TwenteMr.drs. A.A.H. Teunissen, Min. Economic AffairsProf.dr. W.C. Turkenburg, University UtrechtIr. J.J. Veenema, EPON (from 07-04-00)Drs. J.W. Weehuizen, Min. Economic Affairs(from 07-04-00)Prof.dr. J.H.W. de Wit, Corus
Industrial Advisory Council.
Ir. J.A. Dekker, TNOIr. J.G. Dopper, DSMIr. H.A. Droog, EPZIr. H.G. Dijkgraaf, Shell NederlandDrs. C.J.M. Geenen, SyntensProf.ir. H.P. van HeelIr. W. HofmanIr. N.G. KettingIr. D. Kooman, NUONIr. P. Koppenol, Amsterdamse Industrie VerenigingDrs. H.B.M. van der Laan, Min. Economic AffairsIr. R.M.J. van der Meer, Akzo NobelDr.ir. W.J. NaeijeJ. van RooijenProf.dr.ir. A.W. Veenman, StorkIr. A. van der Velden, CorusDrs. G.H.B. Verberg, GasunieDrs. P. Wilson, NUONF.J. de Wit
External Review Committees
• Solar EnergyIr. P.W. Bergmeijer, NUON (till 01-06-99)Mw. J. Cace, NUON (from 01-06-99)Ir. E.W.L. van Engelen, EssentIng. W. van der Heul, Min. Economic AffairsIr. G.J.J. Jongerden, Akzo NobelIr. E.H. Lysen, Utrecht Centrum voor EnergieonderzoekProf.dr. J. Schoonman, TU-DelftB. Wiersma, SunergyDr. F.M. Witte, NovemDr.ir. R.J.C. van Zolingen, Shell Solar Energy
• Wind EnergyH.W. Boomsma, Min. Economic AffairsIr. H. Heerkes, AerpacIr. D. Kooman, NUONIr. W. Kuik, StentecProf.dr.ir. G.A.M. van Kuik, TU-DelftIng. H. Lagerweij, Lagerwey the WindmasterIr. J. Olthoff, LM Glasfiber NederlandIr. F.J. Verheij, NovemIng. C.J.A. Versteegh, Lagerwey the Windmaster
• BiomassIr. A.J.P.M. Atteveld, EPZProf.ir. J.P. van Buijtenen, TU-DelftDrs. G.J. van Dijk, Min. Economic AffairsIr. D.H. van der Horst, Koninklijke Schelde GroepH. Klein Entink, IWACODr.ing. J. Klimstra, GasunieIr. K. Kwant, NovemIr. G.L. Nieuwendijk, Huisvuilcentrale Noord-HollandDr. F. van Overbeeke, ENECOTh. J.J. Simons, Afvalzorg HoldingDr. W.T.M. Wolters, EnergieNed
• Clean Fossil FuelIr. A. Brouwer, NovemDr. H.M. Calis, DSMDrs. B.C.M. van Engelenburg, Ministry VROMM.J. Groeneveld, ShellIr. D.H. van der Horst, Koninklijke Schelde GroepDr.ir. A.H.M. Kipperman, NovemDr.ing. J. Klimstra, GasunieIr. C.A.M. de Koning, BCN /Fokker Aerospace StructuresIr. U.P. Lely, EssentE. Middelman, Akzo Nobel / NedStackIr. E.A.M. de Nie, GGRDr. F. van Overbeeke, ENECO
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• Environmental ResearchIng. M.M. Allessie, Min. VROMProf.dr. P.J.M. Builtjes, TNO-MEPIr. G.J. Heij, RIVM / NOPDr. J.J. de Jong, Min. Economic Affairs(till 31-12-99)Ir.A.A. Jongebreur, IMAG-DLOH. Klein Entink, IWACOB. Krom, Afvalzorg HoldingIr. W. Ruijgrok, KEMAIr. J. van der Vlist, Hoogheemraadschap ED
• Energy EfficiencyIr. H. Davidse, Akzo NobelIr. A.G. de Jong, CorusIr. B.Ph. ter Meulen, MolaTechW.C. Nuijen, NovemIr. E.J. Postmus, GasunieIr. J.W.M. van Rijnsoever, Antheus MagnesiumMw. ir. T. de Vries, Min. Economic Affairs(from 01-06-99)Dr. W.T.M. Wolters, EnergieNed
• Policy StudiesDrs. H.E. Brouwer, Ministry Economic AffairsIr. E. Freese, GasunieDr. J.J. de Jong, AERIr. B.A. Kleinbloesem, TenneTIr. M.P.H. Korten, VNO-NCWW.J. Lenstra, Min. VROMDrs. F. van Nielen, NovemR. Swart, RIVM
• Renewable Energy in the BuildEnvironment
Ir. P.W. Bergmeijer, NUON (till 31-12-99)Ir. W.C.T. Berns, NovemIr. H.G. de Brabander, Min. Economic AffairsMw. J. Cace, NUON (from 01-01-00)Ir. H.R. Haarman, Ministry VROMIr. J.C. Heemrood, Ministry VROMIr. H.J.M. van Hout, Algemene Associatievan EnergieconsulentenIr. P.C. KampIr. A. Koedam, Nederlandse Woning RaadIr. A.J. Molendijk, BNADrs.ing. A. Schuurs, NVOBIr. C. Zydeveld
• Nuclear ResearchIr. J.W.M. Bongers, EPZDr. H.D.K. Codée, COVRAProf.dr.ir. H. van Dam, IRIDr.ir. N.H. Dekkers, EPZIr. G.R. Küpers, Kandt ManagementDr.ir. J. van Liere, KEMAMw. mr. A. van Limborg, Min. VROM (from 01-06-99)Dr. C.M. Plug, Min.VROM (till 01-06-99)Ir. P.H.M. te Riele, UrencoIr. R.J. van Santen, Nuclear InspectorateDrs. R.W.P Steur, Min. Economic AffairsIr. J.J. Veenema, EPONProf.dr.ir. A.H.N. Verkooijen, TU-Delft
ECN Management.
• Executive BoardProf.dr. F.W. Saris, ChairmanIr. W. Schatborn
• Managers Business UnitsIr. H.J.M. Beurskens, Wind EnergyDr. J.J.C. Bruggink, Policy StudiesDr. C.A.M. van der Klein, Clean fossil FuelProf.dr. W.C. Sinke, Solar EnergyIr. W.H. Tazelaar, Energy EfficiencyProf.dr. H.J. Veringa, Biomass
• StaffJ.M. Bais, Market DevelopmentDr. R. Blackstone, Secretary to the ManagementH. Bolwijn AC, FinancesJ.A.J. Bos, Personnel & OrganisationDrs. R.J.T. Dortmundt, CommunicationsDrs. B.J.M. Hanssen, Director Renewable Energy ProjectsMr. G.P.J. den Hartogh, FacilitiesIr. G. Peppink, Programme CoordinatorDr. H. Willems, Information Manager
• Executive Board NRGIr. A.M. Versteegh, ChairmanIr. H. BergmansIr. A.M. van Dort
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Editorial Team
Coordination an Final Editing ECN Communications
Text Jan Heijn, BetaTextWim Heiko HoutsmaJoost van KasterenPeter KosterArno SchrauwerRob Dortmundt
Design & Figures Eva Stam (Publication Services ECN)
Printing Publication Services ECN
Photographs Aris Homan (Publication Services ECN)Philips D.C.E. / Glass Development
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