ANNALS OF ARID ZONE - 13 (4'

TERRACING IN YAMUNA RAVINES FOR

AGRICULTURAL CROPS

M. C. PRAJAPATI*. A. B. PHADKE, M. C AGRAWAL A.ND RAGHUVIlt

Soi 1 Conservati{)l] Research Demonstntaon aoo Training Centre, Agra

( Received on 28-11-72 r

ABSTItACT

Terracing has been one of the most effective erosion-lOOntrol measures in ravine lands. In the coarse soil of Yamunaravines tabre-top or level bench terraces have been success-fully constructed on very small and small gullies. in the bedsof medium and deep gullies and on the hump tops of thethree kinds of power viz. bullock-curn-man power, m~chine-cum-man power and hydraulic-cum-man power used forterrace construction, the rn lchine-curn-man power proved tobe the most suitable. Grassed outlets for drops upto 1.5 mwith 6:' slopes served well as ramp-cum-waste wcir. Amongstthe masonry outlets the chute spillway with the conduitcapable of gently conducting the excess water to the outletproved to be most suitabte for drops upto 4.0 m. Oynodon

. dactylon grass provided efficient protection to all types ofearthen structures. The construction cost during 1958 to1963 by machine-cum-man power varied from Rs 860.00 toRs. 4325.00 per hectare dependin·g 00 quantity of eartb workinvolved. Construction of terraces on medium and deep-gullies is. not advisable due to exhorbitant cost and highdegree of instability. The entire capital investment with sixpercent compound interest can be recovered between f to 6years through judicious agricultural practices •

• Presently Junior Plant Scientist, Regional Soil C<Jnservation Research Demonstrationand Training Centre, KOTA-324002.

318 I M. C. PRAJAPATI, A. B. PHADKE, M. C. AGARWAL AND RAGHI.:JVIR

INTRODUCTION

Of the 3.67 million hectares (Bali, 1972) of unproductive and socio-economically problematic waste ravinelands in India (photo 1) about 25 per centare estimated to consist of marginal humps, very small and small gullies and

fairly wide, long and gently sloping gully-beds which can be profitably terracedfor crop cultivation. This fact is amply evidenced by fifteen years' teHacingexperiences gained at the Research Station, Chhalesar of the Soil ConservationResearch Demonstration and Training Centre, Indian Council of AgriculturalResearch, Agra. Patnaik (1958) in Chambal ravines of Kota, Tejwani andDhruvanarayana (1960) in Mahi ravines of Vasad and phadke (1960) in Yamunaravines of Agra studied vario us aspects of ravine reclamation in differentedaphic, topographic and climatic conditions and acclaimed terracing supportedI:y approved cropping and tillage practices as one of the most effective erosioncontrol measures applicable to cultivated lands. Terracing on sloping lands hasbeen advocated by U.S.D.A. (1954 and 1958), Lakshmipathy and Narayanaswamy(1956), Michael and Ojlu (1966) and several others.

LOCALITY FACTORS

Research Station, Chhalesar is situated onYamuna 10 Km east of Agra at 160 metres above78° 02' E) in very severely gulli-::d land. The

presented in Table I.

the left bank of

M. S. L. ( 27° 02' Nclimatological data

river

andare

Table I. Monthly average (1958-1968) climatological data ofResearch Station, Chhalesar

Months Rainfall Maximum Minimum Evapo- Bright Wind(mOl)· Temp. Temp. ration sunshine velocity

(0C) (0C) (mOl) (hrs/day) (Km/hr)

January 15.0 22.4 6.2 99.4 8.3 4.9February 10.2 27.4 10.0 1384 9.3 5.8March 7.0 32.5 14.6 243.8 9.1 6.6April 6.0 38.3 20.7 350.4 9.8 7.3May 7.1 41.7 24.9 444 3 9.8 8.2June 65.0 40.8 28.8 435.7 7.5 9.7July 195.2 35.4 265 234.0 5.7 8.3August 270.2 32.9 25.4 156.6 5.2 6.4September 112.0 33.3 23.9 153.1 7.6 5.5October 16.0 33.4 -175 160.1 9.0 4.2November f).0 28.5 10.8 122.3 8.6 3.8December 4.0 22.8 7.4 94.4 7.4 4.4Total 713.7 2632.5

• Average of 34 years (1934 to 1968 except 1957)

TERRACING IN YAMt1MA RAVINEs FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS I 319

Some times heavy downpours amounting from 160 to 200 mm arereceived on a single oay causing neavy damage to terr-aces and oiher' earthen!ield structures. The soils are very deep and alluvial with distribution of Kankarin profile, moderately drained, having rapid permeability. The soil char~cteristics(Prajapati eJ ai, 1968) are given -in Table 2.

Table 2. Soil characteristics of Research Station, Cbhalesar

Soil depth (em)

Characteristics 0-12 12··48 48-104 104-183

Clay percent 13.89 19.71 11.33 10.13Silt percent 7.44 3.45 3.94 7.90Sand percent 80.56 76.76 85.72 81.70Textural class Loamy Sandy Loamy Loamy

sand loam sand sand

pH 7.8 ,7.6 7.5 7.8Organic carbonpercent 0.19 0.11 0.05 0.04-Total Nitrogenpercent 0.022 0.020 0.010 0.010CJN ratio 8.64 5.50 5.00 4.00Available KIOpercent 0.0063 0.0036 0.0030 0.0035Avaibble PaOspercent o 0006 0.00 I0 0.0001 0.0002Sesquioxidepercent 6.81 8.21 9.93 850

TERR.AIN CHARACTERISTICS

From the top of the dra;nage system to the bottom the Yamuna ravinesare found almost in the same ascending order of eNsion as the Mahi-ravinesat Vasad as described by Tejwani and Dhruvanarayana (1960) namely G1 (verysmall gullies upta I m ,depth, upto 18 In bed-width and varying side slopes),G2 (small gullies from 1 to 3 m depth, more than 18 m bed-width and varyingside stopes), Ga (medium gullies from 3 to 9 m depth, ,more than 18 m bedwidth and varying side slopes and G4 (deep gullies more than 9 m depth,

320 M. C. PRAJAPATI, A. B. PH,~DKE, M. C. AGRAWAL AND RAGHUVIR

variable bed'-width, and varying side slopes having ip.tricate branch gullies).In the ar.e~silnder, Ga and G4 ty.pes of erosion hazard isolated humps ofvarying sizes baving: upto two hectares of top area and long, wide and gentlysloping gully,-beds are common. The terms Gl, 92, 'Ga and G4 will be usedin this text ahd will carry the same concept as described by Tejwani andDhruvauarayana (1960).

At Kese~reh Station, Chhalesar about 36 per cent area is under G1 andG2 and 64 per cent under Ga and Gj types of erosion hazard. The. isolatedhumps and g~~t1y sloping wide gully beds comprise about 20 per cent of Ga andG4 type land.

TERRACE PLANNING

In· view of their suitability for medium rainfall and highly permeableand very deep soil conditions at the Soil Conservation Research Station,Chhalesar (Agra) the table-top or level bench terraces were planned (Lakshmi-pathy and Narayanaswamy, 1956). Due to frequent variations in slupe, soilcharacteristics, surface conditions, grades, land-use, etc. no hard and fast rule regardingthe terrace design specifications viz. the spacing, length, cross.section, etc. wereused. lustead the faculty of good judgement combined with agricultural background and a general understanding of various phases and measures of erosioncontrol were given weightage and consideration in designing the terraces.Accordingly terrace specifications comprised of uniform moisture distribution,minimum soil mo\'ement between terraces, straight regular shape for leastinterference with tillage practices and, above all, minimum quantity of earthworkto keep the construction cost at the lowest. Provision to impound the rainwaterto a 20 em column for absorption within 10-12 hours was made. Excess ofrainwater. was dispos~d' 'off safely through protected outlets and waterways.

(a) €onstruction technique

(i) Very sl~all and small gullies (G1 and G2) : Level bench terraceswere form,ed .by cu~ting soil outcrops, humps and tide slopes and filling thesoil so obtai!le'~ into adjacent gullies and depre$sions. Soil filling was doneIa.yer after . layer • Some extra fill was done at the crossing point of gulliesand dep~essl~n$ tq maintain proper terrace location. Adequate compaction at alltbe stages of ,soil filling was accomplished through repeated to and formoven:i~nt of. the bulldoze.r or manual ramming to ensure teHace stability.Finally a conli~uous 'j;urid of one sq. m cross-section ~ll along. the pedphery ofthe terrace was constructed with-provision of an outlet (photo 2).'

TERRACING IN YAMUNA RAVINES FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS

Photo 1. A, view of ravines : About 3.67 million hectares areunder revines in India.

320. A

Photo 2. A panoramic view of terraces constructed in very small gullies(0 I) : The grassed bunds, grassed outlets and grassed water-wayall can be seen.

TERRACING IN YAMUMA RAVINES FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS I 321

(ii) Medium and deep gullies (Gs and G4) : F.ormati.on .of levelterraces by .cutting ~.oil .outdr.ops, humps and sl.opes and filling the sail sa.obtained int.o adjacent gullies and depressi.ons is n.ot advisable because .ofexh.orbitant CDSt .of c.onstructi.on and high degree .of instability due t.o verydeep fills.

(iii) Medium and deep gul!y (Gs and G.•) beds: Depending up.onthe terrace characteristics described earlier the work cDnsiSts .of plugging thegully either at the narr.owest p.oint.or at 1.5 t.o 2.0 m vertical interval .or at150 ta 200 m h.oriz.ontal interval with an earthen .or campa site check damf.oll.owed by clearing of ·vegetati.on, levelling and regular shaping of area.behind the check dam (ph.ot.o 3).

(iv) Hump tops: Terracing c.onsists.of flattening the hum,p t.op andc.onstructi.on .of c.ontinuous bund aU al.ong the periphery with .outlets etc. Incase .of terraces .on hump taps a high degree .of fill-cDmpa€tion at every stage.of sail m.ovement, a very gently sl.oping (say 0.5 per cent) 'saucer shapedcross-sectiDn .of the terrace, .obtained by same extra fill all al.ong the peripheralp.orti.on, and a set .of restricted cultivati.on practices andcr.ops viz, farmingacr.oss the slape and raising er.osi.on resisting craps are essential f.or thestability .of the terrace. Within 3-4 seas.ons the treated area becomes ac.ompletely flat bench.

(b) Kinds of power

Three different powers described bel.ow were empl.oyed far terracec.onstructi.on.

Bullock-curn-man powe, : Ready availability with farmer pr.ompted toharnessing the bullock-enm-man p.ower. After s.oaking. rains the sail waspulverised by crass pl.oughing and m.oved by bullock driven levelling Ka,akto gullies and depressi.ons to f.orm level terrace. Apart fr.om its feeble andslaw process the utilization .of. this p.ower fDr terrace c.onstructi.on during rainydays synchronized with cultivati.on .operati.ons resulting into either its nDn-availability at the right time Dr at eX~Drbitant cost.

Machine-cum-man pow" : Crawler type 10 tanner 102 HP Inter-natiDnal Harvester BulldDzer (TD 18A) was the maj.or machine t.o cut andpush-transp.ort the sail fDr filling gillies and depressi.ons to farm level terrace.Meritted with ease .of w.orking even und<:r unfav.ourable conditions like ruggedterrain, rough, hard and eroded S.oils and injuri.ous deep r.o.oted woody vegetatiDn

m M. ell.'PRA1lfPA:TI, A. B. PinD.KE,M. C; >tGR;\WAL. AND RA:GHUVIR

the versatile ana. might¥: bulldozer provides the rigbt answer to the problemof terrace construction -in Yamuna ravines throughout the year at a reasonablylow cost- and high speed (photo. 4).

I -Hydraulic-cum-man power: Exhorbitant cost ofbuflock·cum-man powerand non-availability of bulldozer to common farmer prompted to harnessing theerodibility ,of soil, erosivity of rainfall and runoff for ,terrace (ormation particu-. ~. -'

larly in gnlly 'beds~ Afte~ construction of the chc:ckdam and surplusing outlet...the soil of upper half portion behind it was thoroughly pulverised by cross~ploughing and leaving the final furrowing along the slope to enchance soUe~odiQiJlty' ~ncf its tr~nsp?rtation by surface running rainwater and finally siltingliehind thc'checkdam to result into a Ie~el field in course, of time. The, .method is reasonably qnick (viz. 3-4 seasons), exceedingly cheap and highlypracticable .due to- ease' of working, and$imple teclmqlogy. Final levelling hasto be done by hullock or machine or man power. However the method isapplicablcto gully beds .only.

(c) Supplemental structures.

- - Diagrams of some of the s1.lit~blestrnctures are given in figur~ I., ,. ;

RG L F/EUJ STRUIJTUR£SAT RESEARCH 5~T/ON. CRHALEEAR( AGRA,) -

ALL DIMENSIONS IN"CENT/METERS

NA<;o/V/l.y STRA.G'''T DROP SPilL

-.!AY Wlnl STILL!M; BASiN aJTl£T

SECTION ON AA

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TERRACING IN YAMUNA RAVINES FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS 322 A

Photo 3. A view of terrace constructed in a medium gully bed (03).The slopes and checkdam are well protected with grass andtree species.

Photo 4. The versatile and mighty buldozer. (IH TD 18A) atwork at Agra Centre.

"'It

" ~- (~, ' ~

/

TERRACING IN YAMUNA RAVINES !!O,R AGRICULTURAL CROPS .I 323

(i) Bunds: Based on the angl,e of, repose of soil narroW' baseearthen bunds of one sq. m. cross s~ctioli ~na 1:1 s~de' slopes (i.e, 45 cm,: top,205 em. bottom and 80 cm height) with outlet we~e constructed ....after ensaring~ .. -. >adequate compaction at every stage cif soil piling.

(ii) Checkdams: Earthen check4am$ of 6 sq.m. cross-section and 1.5: 1side slopes (i. e. 75 em -top, 425 cm; bottom and 150 cm' height) originallydesigned :to impound 60 cm column of water are quite succeSsful.

(iii) Outlets: The peak rate of run off for the ~erraces, after dueconsideration to the slope range and soil type, was .~de~erinined by rationalformula Q = 0.0276 CIA where Q is design ,peak runoff tate in ,.cubicmeters per second, C is' runoff coefficieqt, I is maximum. average of r,ainfallin centimeters per hour over the entire area which may occur during thetime of concentration aud A is watershed area in hectares.

Depending on the design peak runoff. ra~e contracted rect~gularmasoury weir by Francis formula Q = 00184 (L-0.2:H)H3,2 '::Ind trape~oid,alearthen weir by Cipollctti's formula Q = 0.0186 LH3/~ where Q;.is discha'~ge inlitres per second, L is iength of crest in centimeters ~and His' head on thecrest in centimeters were designed to discharge 20-30 cm. colwnn of 'sprpluswater. Whereever the earthen outlet, was. used as ramp-cum-~aste weir theDJ,iniinum length was maintained at 4 m for easy movement of &rm ma<:hineryand'im£lements.

Comparative utility of' different outlets is preseoted in thetable 3.

The type of conduit capable of gently receiving the water from inletand 'safely conducting to the outlet has been most imp0rtant 'under the soil andclimatic conditions of Yamuna ravines. Sloping rectangular iCond}lits of grassedoutlets or chutes have exhibited better performances as compared to drop typeconduits.

(iv) Waterways: The v~getated waterways of parabolic cross-sectionwere constructed to carry the maximum runoff from a storm of 10 yearrecurrence interval. : The ninoff was estimated by the rational formula discLlssedabove (photo 5).

'.

(d) .. Protection and m:rintenance.

The breaches need be repaired SOOD after each down pour. Allearthen structures like bunds, checkdams, outlets and waterways can be very

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TERRACING IN YA1\IUMA RAVINES FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS I 325

successfully stabilised,consolidated and protected by sodding Cynodon dacty/on(L) Pers. grass at 30 cm x 30 cm espacement in quincunx order. DichanthtUmannulatum (Forsk) stapf, Panicum antidotale Retz. and Cenchrus ciliaris Linn.grasses in addition to providing superior protection to earthen structures alsoprovide 5-10 tonnes per hectare of palatable and nutritious green forage foranimals (Prajapati et aZ, 1973). During the settlement period of first 2-3 yearsof construction breaches in terraces particularly at the points of deep fills arecommon specially during long duration high intensity down pours. Rat burrowsare also harmful to the stability of the structures. Regular surveillance andinstantaneous repairs to breaches is the most effective and cheapest method, ?fmaintaining the terraces and structures.

(e) Terrace construction cost.

The average and computed cost figures' of some basic major itemsare presented in table 4.

Table 4. Basic cost figures (Average) of major items (1958-1963)

Normal requirements ofthe cost items per ha.Quantity Cost

300 r.m. Rs. 50.00

20 r.m. Rs. 160.00

20 r.m. Rs. 20.00

Rs. 40.00

Rs. 50!>:OO

Rs. 300.00

Name of item

International Harvester TD18A Bulldozer (10.25 tonnerand 101.98 HP)

Bullock pair

Manual labour

Mason

Earthen peripheral bund

Earthen checkdam

Water-way

Grassed outlet

Masonry straight drop spill-way with stilling basin outlet

Masonry straight rectangularchute spillway with stillingbasin outlet

Range of cost

Rs. 25.00fhr.

Rs. 8.00/day

Rs. l.SO/day

Rs. 5.00/day

Rs. 00.15 to 00.20per r.m.

Rs. 8.00/r.m.

Rs l.OO/r.m.

Rs. 25.00 to 50.00

Rs. 350.00 to600.00

Rs. 150.'10 to5QO.00

60 hrs.

70 pairs

Rs. 1500.00

Rs. 560.00

, 'rh'e cost figures presented in table- 5 are hasedon< -actual expend,Huleincurreclon terracins by different -~ethods and computed with the help of table4 f0r average' qrtantity of earth-work'involved for- different ~ites and the typeof supplemental structure there at.

Table ~." Gost of construction of bench terraces try different powers-at R:esearch Station,' Chha'esar (1958-1963)

Normal 'cost of terrace construction throughdifferent powers '(Rs I ha )

Bu1l0ck-cum· Machine-cum- Hydraulic-cum-

Terrace

site

Normal 'Quan~ity r ofEirtHwork invoh ed

( cu.m·fha )

1200

3200

MOO

man power

1190.00

3450,00

5280.00

man power

-;, .'860.00

2895.00

1'325.00

man power

Hump top

2800

1400

3000.00

1780.00

1705.00

1595.00

780.00

Cost of terrace C0nstruction through bullock-cum-man power isexhorbitant while that through machine cum man power is reasonably low.The power of hydraulic aided by, man is no douht the cheapest' has a limitedapplication in .guily beds only and is comparatively a slow process. The costof terrace construction is further dependent on the quantity of earthworkinvolved and iype ef supplementtal structure needed.

FARMING PRACnCES

Farming across the original or exist,iug slope is bencfici~1. Theinfertile ;nd . u~weathered subsoil exposed to the t0p during terrace formatl,incan be enriched through yearly dose of 25tonnes of F.Y M. per :hectarc forfirst three years and 'Crotolaria juncea (satinhemp) green-manuring, once inthree years. Further doses of 10~ Kg. nitrogen through ure~, 50 K~. P J. 05

TERRACING IN YAMUNA RAVINES FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS l 327 A

Photo S. A view of grassed waterway witb a masonry "Dropspillway with stilling basin" at its bead. The surpluswater is thus led to a well protected drainage sy.tem.

Photo 6. Wheat crop on a revine-terrace at Agra Centre.

TERRACING IN YAMUMA RA~INES FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS I 327

through single superphosphate and 50 Kg. K,IO through muriate of potash perhectare for rainfed crops and about one' and aha:If.times .of these doses for irrigatedcrops have. been the normal fertilizer requirement of ravine-terr~ces to producegood yeilds. Pennisetume typleoideum (Bajrn)"' and Cajanus cajan (Ark'lr)as rain fed during kharif and Triticum aestiuum (Guhen) as irrigated duringrabi are the common crops (photo 6).

ECONOMICS

The annual yeilds of rain fed and irrigated crops and the correspondingnet income obtained during the years; 1958 to 1964 are presented in tahle 6below :

Table 6. Grain yield and net-income per hectare from ravine-terrace

Rainfed (Bajra +Arhar) crops Rainfed (Bajra) and irrigated (Wheat) cropsGrains IKg.) Grains (Kg.)

Year Bajra Arhar Net income Bajra Wheat Net incomefrom main from mainand bye' and bye " .~,prodllcts(Rs.) products (Rs. ) .

1958 127 261 70.45 170 1400 . 298. 801959 135 208 29.10 180 t·t 385 ' 244.251960 135 239 55.75 ·180 l865 681.251961 401 412 342.85 535· - 22·10 1186.401962 720 507 590.40 960"' 2555 1648.251963 757 419 534.00 1010 2500 1622.201964 965 1242 1349.90 1287 2676 1912.70Average 463 469 425.00 617 2084 1085.00

,. ~ ..Consistent increase in yields with t]-te passing of ,time indicates to the

fast and regular build-up of soil fertility as a result of we:ii~ering, manuringand fertilization. The ave,rage net iQcome at the end of seven years comeslO Rs. 425.00 per hectare ,from rain fed crops ;md R, 1085.00 per, h.ectarefrom rainfed plus irrigated crops. Based on the cost (t~b,le 5) and net income(table 6) a' statement of time p~riod ~,Il'which the entire capital investmentwithsbC"percent compouud interest. is recovera~le has been worked out. Tilesame is pr~sented in table 7 below ~

328 I M. C. PB.AJAPATI, A. B. PHADKiE, M. C. AGAR.WAE AND RAGHUVlR

Table 7. Number of years in which the capital investment with sixpercent compound interest is recoverable.

Terrae Rainfed (Bajra+ Arhar) Rainfed (Bajraj + irrigated (Wheat)site

,Bullock. Machine- Hydraulic- Bullock- Machine- Hydraulic-cum-man cum-man cum-man cum-man cum-man cum·manpower power power power power power

G1 4 3 2

G211 'I ' '12 9 4- 3

Ga 23 16 6 5

Gs & G4beds 10 5 2 4- 2

Hump top 5 5 2 2

The time of recpvery of the capital investment on ravine terracingvaries from 2 to 23 years in case of rain fed crops and 1 to 6 years in caseof rainfed plus irrigated crops. The useful life of such projects is normally50 years (Bali, 1972). The terraced ravine lands thus·create· oa-511:--asset- (jf

productive land providing handsome tangible benefits in terms of food, fodder,fuel and money as well as innumerable intangible benefits such as nativeemployment, income generation, stability to agriculture, revival of bio-activities,natural balance of eco-system, aesthetic "alue, funherence of civilization etc.for a very long time.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors express their gratefulness to Mis. S. K. Sindhwani, Ex-Research Asstt. (Agronomy) and Nandan Singh Bisht and Iqbal Ahmed Khan,Tractor Operators for their valuable assistance in execution of field works.

~l:{jREFERENCES

Ayres, Q. C. 1936. Soil erosion and its control~ -McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.New York and London.

Bali, J. S. 1972. Report of the working group on Ravine reclamationprogramme for the decoit infested - areas of Uttar Pradesh, MadhyaPradesh and R1jasthan: Govt. of India, Ministry of Home Affairs,New Delhi.

Reclamation of 'small andJ our. Soil and Water Cons.

Conservation of Soil and Water. ,.ta.griculturalGovernment Printing Office, Washington

'TERRACING IN YAMUNA RAVINES FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS I 329

Gidwani, H. M., Agarwal M. C. and Dubey, L. N. 1967. Crop rotation for, reclaimed ravine lands, "J'pilr 'Soil and Water Cons. India 15 : 55-60.

Lakshmifathy, B. M. and ~ar~yanaswamy, S. 1956, Nench terracing in Nilgiris,Jour. Soil and Water Cons. India 4- : 161-168.

, , , \ .Michael, A. M. and Ojha; T. P.1966. PrinciPles of Agricultural Engineering,

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Patna'ik, N. 1958, Ravine problems in the alluvial banks of Chamble (Kota-Region) Proceedings of Sec'md Seminar on Soil Conservation at Ootaca-mund (India) : 161-167.

Phadke, A. B. 1960. Annual Progress Report of Soil Conservation Research'Demonstration and Training Centre, Govt. of India, Agra (U., P,) 1957-58to 1959-60.

Phadke, A. B, 1963. Annual Progress Report of Soil Conservation ResearchDemonstration and Training Centre, Govt. of India, Agra (U. P.)1960--61 to 1962-63.

Prajapati, M. C, Phadke, A. B. and Agarwal, M. C. 1968. Soil working techniquefor afforestation of ravine land by direct seeding Ind. For. 94: 733-744.

Prajapati, M. C., Phadke, A, B. and Agarwal, M. C. 1973. Studies on suitabilityof grasses for protection of fieldearthen' structures in Agra region ofYamuna ravines. Ind. For. 99: 193-204., .....

Tejwani, K. G. and Dhruvanarayana, V. V. 1960.medium size gullies in Gujarat ravines.India 8 : 26-39.

U. S. D. A. 1954. A manual onHand book No. 61 U • .s.25 D. C.

U. S. D. A. 1958. Engineering Hand book for ,Soil Conservation in the corn-belt. Agric~,l'~ure);l;and b00k No. 135, U. S. G~vernment Prin~ing Office,Washingtou 25 D. C.

Yang, W. Y. 1962. Methods of farm manageinentinvestigationt; F. A. O.Agricultural" Dcvelopment Paper No. 64 F. A. of -the Uni'ted Nati,ons,Rome.