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Ancient Egyptian History

Early Dynastic Period or Archaic Period (1st and 2

nd

Dynasties)

3100–2686 BC

Old Kingdom (3rd

to 6th

Dynasty) 2686–2181 BC

1st Intermediate Period (7th

to 10th

Dynasty) 2181–2055 BC

Middle Kingdom (11th

to 12th

Dynasty) 2055–1650 BC

2nd Intermediate Period (13th

to 17th

Dynasty) 1650–1550 BC

New Kingdom (18th

to 20th

Dynasty) 1550–1069 BC

3rd Intermediate Period (21th to 25th

Dynasty) 1069–664 BC

Late Period (26th

to 30th

Dynasty) 664–332 BC

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Predynastic Period

Badarian Culture

Naqadan Culture

Naqada I

Naqada II

Naqada III

Badarian Culture

The Badarian people lived in Upper Egypt, on the eastern bank of

the Nile, from approximately 5000 BC to 4400 BC. Though they were a

semi-nomadic people, they formed small settlements and began to

cultivate grain and domesticate animals.

They buried their dead in small cemeteries on the borders of these

settlements, and also conducted ceremonial burials for some of their

domesticated animals. Although the graves themselves were simple, the

deceased was buried with fine ceramics, jewellery, cloth and fur, and

they usually included a finely crafted figurine of a female fertility idol.

They did not mummify their dead, instead burying them in a foetal

position, facing west (towards the setting sun).

Naqadan Culture

The Naqadan culture took over from the Badarian around 4500 BC

and became arguably the most important prehistoric culture in Upper

Egypt. It is named after the city of Naqada where many of the

archaeological evidence for the period was found.

Naqada I

The early phase (Naqada 1, also called Amratian because of

deposits found near the village of that name) ran in parallel to the

Badarian culture, but slowly replaced it. They also lived in small villages

and they developed the cultivation of the Nile valley, but the culture is

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most notable for the increase in artistic accomplishment and the

proliferation of bearded male figures in addition to the female fertility

figures.

Each village had its own animal deity which was associated with

the clan of the villagers. This formed the basis of the nome system

which divided Egypt into regions represented by their amulets.

In Naqada I graves, the deceased were buried with statuettes to

keep them company in the afterlife. These were the forerunners of

ushabti figures found in Egyptian tombs. Along with these figures, the

dead person was buried with food, weapons, amulets, ornaments and

decorated vases and palettes.

Naqada II

The Naqada II (also known as Gerzean due to finds near the village

of that name) phase began around 3500 BC. This culture mastered the

art of agriculture and the use of artificial irrigation, and no longer needed

to hunt for their food. The people started live in towns, not just villages,

creating areas of higher population density than ever before.

The culture continued to develop their artistic tendencies, creating

new styles of pottery and more complicated carving. Many animal-

shaped and shield-shaped palettes (used for mixing cosmetics) have been

recovered. They form a clear link in development towards the

ceremonial palettes of the early dynastic period (eg the Narmer palette).

They also developed their skills in metalworking, in particular copper

which they traded with the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia and Asia.

The introduction of cylindrical seals (a typically Mesopotamiam device)

showed that their culture was influenced by their neighbours, but the

familiar Egyptian gods Hathor, Ra and Horus also date to this period.

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Their burial rituals also changed. They created rectangular graves

whose walls were lined with masonry or wood, and the body was not

specifically oriented towards the setting sun. There was a marked

difference in the quality of grave goods between the rich and poor and

many contained pottery.

Architecture also took a leap forward during the Naqada II period.

A palace and ritual precinct was constructed in Nekhen (Hierakonpolis),

which was the cult centre of Horus of Nekhem. It has a large oval

courtyard, surrounded by small buildings, and is clearly the precursor to

the ritual precincts of the Early Dynastic Period. Features of the complex

(built of timber and matting) are echoed in the construction of Djoser's

pyramid complex.

Naqada III

Naqada III (also known as "Semainean") was a short period from

3200 to 3000 BC which is often referred to as the protodynastic period,

or Zero Dynasty. During this period there is a marked difference

between the culture of Upper and Lower Egypt. In Upper Egypt, an

estimated thirteen kings reigned from Nekhen (Hierakonpolis).

Unfortunately, only the last few have been identified. The kings were

named after animals, no doubt relating to the favoured totem of their

home towns. The ruler was seen as the personification of the god (in

much the same way as later Kings were considered to be the "Son of

Ra") and wore the white crown of Upper Egypt. The art work of the time

suggests they were a fairly warlike bunch (for example the scorpion

macehead).

In Lower Egypt, the system was more bureaucratic and

commercial. Important families ruled small areas and there does not

appear to have been a rigid hierarchy. The rulers, such as they were,

wore the red crown of Lower Egypt. Seven kings from Lower Egypt are

listed on the Palermo stone. However, little is known about them and

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some doubt that they ever existed. Buto is generally considered to have

been the largest and most important town, but there were also population

centres at Ma'adi and Tell Farkha.

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Sources of Egyptian history

Ancient Egyptian history originates its events from four basic

sources including: Ancient Egyptian Antiquities, contemporary

civilizations, the writings of historians and Greeks and Romans

adventures, the heavenly books (the Torah and the Bible and the Koran)

1.The Egyptian Monuments: They include temples, royal tombs,

graves individuals, obelisks, paintings, statues, mummies, papyri,

coffins, pottery fragments, and all movable monuments.

The Egyptian Antiquities are one of the most important sources of

ancient Egyptian history, however, the ancient Egyptians did not do

inscribe on the monuments with the aim to record history or historical

events. They inscribed on the monuments with the aim of

commemoration of one of the important events during the reign of a

certain king or to celebrate a particular victory. However, we can not

fully trust what is written on those monuments. In regard to the record of

battles on specific monuments, there is a kind of exaggeration. The

clearest example of this is what is recorded on the temples of King

Ramses II, one of the most important kings of the nineteenth Dynasty.

The king claimed that he defeated the Hittites in the battle of Kadesh in

the fifth year of his reign. On the other side, the Hittites confirm their

victory over the king and his troops. Still there is no conclusive evidence

to prove that Ramesses II defeated the Hittites.

2. Contemporary Civilizations

This source includes the inscriptions and monuments of the

contemporary civilizations throughout the history of the ancient

Egyptian civilization and which record events that reflect the extent of

the relationship and the interaction between them. These civilizations are

the Babylonian, Assyrian, Phoenician, Mittanian and Hittites’

civilizations. Despite the importance of this source, but sometimes it is

unreliable, as what is mentioned on the monuments of these civilizations

is not accurate. For example, Tell el-Amarna letters exchanged between

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King Akhenaten, one of the most important kings of the Eighteenth

Dynasty of the New Kingdom, and the princes of Asia Minor, as their

states were under the control of Egypt. It is one of the most important

sources that provide us with information on the relations between the

ancient Egyptian civilization and other contemporary civilizations.

3. The writings of Greeks and Romans adventurers and historians: They include the writings of adventurers and historians who

visited Egypt during the period from the sixth century BC to the first

century AD. The most famous are Herodotus, Diodorus of Sicily or

Diodorus Siculus, Josephus, Julius Africanus, and Plutarch. The

credibility of this source of the Egyptian history is not high, because

these historians relied on the words of mouth and translators. They did

not rely on archaeological sources due to the lack of knowledge of

religion and ancient Egyptian language. Egyptologists larger trust in the

writings of the Egyptian priest Manetho who lived during the reign of

King Ptolemy II (Philadelphus) (285-246 BC) of the third century BC.

4. Holy Books (the Torah and the Bible and the Koran): The Torah, the Holy Bible and the Holy Koran record many

events that happened during the Dynastic period of Egyptian history,

especially the story of the Prophet Joseph and the story of Moses and the

Exodus Pharaoh. Chapter 14 of the first Book of the Kings in the Old

Testament of the Bible records the wars of King Sheshonq with King

Rehoboam, son of the Prophet Solomon son of King David and the

Kingdom of Israel. However, the names of some kings were not

mentioned explicitly in the heavenly books such as Moses’ Pharaoh,

who is likely Ramses II or Merenptah his son, who ruled during the

nineteenth dynasty.

Kings’ lists:

They are lists of the names of the Egyptian kings

chronologically arranged inside the cartouches (oval shapes) or inside

the rectangulare shapes known in the ancient Egyptian language as

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"Serekh" which depicts the façade of the royal palace. These lists

dropped or omitted the names of specific kings and queens throughout

the ancient Egyptian history due to various reasons related to the

circumstances of their rule, religious or political reasons, such as the

kings of the First Intermediate Period and the second Intermediate

Period as well as the names of the Hyksos kings.

Palermo Stone

The Palermo Stone (more correctly known as the Royal Annals) is

one of the most important primary sources in the study of ancient

Egyptian history. The exact date of the stone’s creation is in doubt, but it

is thought to have been towards the end of the fifth dynasty (Old

Kingdom in the twenty-fifth century B.C.), reign of King Neferirkare.

The Palermo Stone lists the mythical predynastic kings of Egypt

followed by the kings of the first five dynasties. It records information

on taxation, religious ceremonies, the levels of the Nile, building works,

trade and military expeditions during this early period of Egyptian

history making it the world's oldest history book! It was one of the

primary sources from which Manetho compiled his history of Egypt.

It is composed of black basalt and it is estimated that it was

around two metres high when complete, but unfortunately its

significance was not immediate recognised and at one point it was used

as a door! Only a few fragments of the stone have been recovered and

many are badly damaged. There remains some doubt about whether all

of the fragments are indeed part of the same piece, and there is dispute

over the translation of sections of the text. The stone takes its name

from the Palermo Archaeological Museum in Sicily where one of the

largest fragments is housed. Other fragments can be seen in the

Egyptian Museum in Cairo, and the Petrie Museum in London.

The information on the Palermo stone is confirmed by a number

of ebony labels found scattered around Saqqara, Abydos and other

ancient sites. These labels contain some information omitted from the

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fragments of the stone that we have recovered, and the stone itself

records information not covered by the labels so despite the inclusion of

the mythical kings, it is considered to be relatively accurate.

The Palermo stone records the construction of a stone building

called Men-netjeret during the reign of Khasekhemwy or Nebka which

predates the Step Pyramid of Djoser making it the world's first stone

building. It is often suggested that this building is the unfinished

structure now known as Gisr el-Mudir at Saqqara.

The Palermo Stone confirms that the ancient Egyptians had

already developed the technology to smelt copper and create copper

statues by the Second dynasty and it records a trading mission to an

unnamed exotic land during the reign of Sneferu which returned with

forty ships bearing precious wood and mining expeditions to Sinai to

quarry turquoise. The stone also records military expeditions by Den to

the east and by Sneferu to Nubia and Libya

Abydos Kings List

The Abdyos Kings list was inscribed on the walls of the hall of

ancestors in the funerary temple of king Seti I and completed by his son

Ramesses II during the 19th

Dynasty. Abydos is the Greek name of the

city and its current name is the village of el-Araba el-Madfouna at

Sohag governor

The list is not by any means complete and it favours the

Memphite kings. During the First Intermediate Period there were three

rival kingdoms, Memphis, Thebes, and Herakleopolis. None of the

Herakleopolitan kings are included in the Abydos list and it is only after

the Memphite line ceased to exist and Montuhotep I reunited Egypt that

the Theban kings are included.

Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), Tutankhamun and Ay are all

omitted because of their association with the Aten (Akhenaten´s semi-

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monotheistic cult). Hatshepsut and Meryneith are both omitted from the

list, but Neterkare is often considered to be Queen Nitocris. It is

possible that the list was intended to name only male rulers, and

Nitocris slipped in under her throne name.

Turin Kings List

The papyrus was found by the Italian traveler Bernardino

Drovetti in 1820 at Luxor (Thebes). It is on display in the Egyptian

Museum, Turin, Italy. The papyrus is the most extensive list available

of kings, and is the basis for most chronology before the reign of

Ramesses II. The beginning and ending of the list are now lost; there is

no introduction, and the list does not continue after the 19th Dynasty. It

includes mythical kings such as gods, and demi-gods. The papyrus lists

the names of rulers, the lengths of reigns in years. In some cases they

are grouped together by family, which corresponds to the dynasties of

Manetho’s book. The list includes the names of short-lived rulers.

The list also is believed to contain kings from the 15th Dynasty,

the Hyksos who ruled Lower Egypt and the delta. The Hyksos rulers do

not have cartouches, and a hieroglyphic sign is added to indicate that

they were foreigners, although on King Lists foreign rulers are not

listed.

It contains the names of 300 kings. The Turin Canon or papyrus

was found on the back of a papyrus tax roll. It lists many of the kings of

ancient Egypt, including a number of gods! It was composed during the

reign of Ramesses II by Theban scribes and so it presents the Theban

political viewpoint. For example, it begins the Eleventh Dynasty with

the founders of the Theban line rather than with the later reign of

Monthotep II.

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Saqqara Kings List

The Saqqara Tablet or king list is now on display in the

Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The Saqqara Tablet dates to the reign of king

Ramesses II, 19th

Dynasty, Ramesside period of the New Kingdom. It

was found in 1861 inside the tomb of Tjuneroy (*nrwy), who was an

official chief lector priest and overseer of works of all royal monuments

of Ramesses II. It is one of the many kings’ lists dating to that period

but like the other lists it contains a number of inaccuracies and misses

out several Kings.

The inscription lists 58 kings. The names are badly damaged and

only 47 survive. It begins with Anedjib (of the first dynasty in the

Archaic Period and ends with Ramesses II (of the ninteenth dynasty in

the New Kingdom). The Kings are listed in reverse chronological order,

but in many cases they are out of sequence with only the twelfth

dynasty being largely accurate.

The omissions include:

All but four of the rulers of the third dynasty.

All of the rulers from the First Intermediate Period.

All of the rulers from the Second Intermediate Period.

The Kings associated with Akhenaten.

Hatshepsut.

The Karnak king list

It is a list of early Egyptian kings engraved in stone, was located

in the southwest corner of the Festival Hall of Thutmose III, in the

middle of the Precinct of Amun-Re, in the Karnak Temple Complex, in

modern Luxor, Egypt. Composed during the reign of Thutmose III, it

listed sixty-one kings beginning with Sneferu the founder of the 4th

Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Only the names of thirty-nine kings are

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still legible, and one is not written in a cartouche (a border used

normally to surround the name of a king).

It is not a complete list of the Egyptian Kings, as other kings are

known from other ancient lists, but this list is valuable as it contains the

names of kings of the First and Second Intermediate Periods, which are

omitted in most other king lists.

It was first described by James Burton in 1825. In 1843, a German

expedition directed by Egyptologist Lepsius was traveling up the River

Nile to Karnak. A French adventurer called Émile Prisse d'Avennes,

dismantled and "stole" the blocks containing the king list one night in

order to secure it for France, and sent it home. Severely damaged, it is

now on display at the Louvre in Paris.

Manetho

Manetho was a Graeco-Egyptian priest in the Temple of Re at

Heliopolis. He was born in Sebennytos (Sammanod in the Delta) during

the Third Century B.C. His "Egyptian History" divided the rulers into

dynasties, or ruling houses and formed the basis of the modern system of

dating Ancient Egypt. He had access to many sources which no longer

exist (such as temple records), but also included legends and fanciful

stories. As a result, you have to take some of his stories with a pinch of

salt. Manetho is also believed to compose his famous book called the

Aegyptiaca. This work is of great interest to Egyptologists, and is often

used as evidence for the chronology of the kings. The earliest and only

surviving reference to Manetho's Aegyptiaca is that of the Jewish

historian Josephus. It was organised chronologically and divided into

three volumes, and his division of rulers into dynasties was an

innovation. However, he did not use the term by bloodlines, but rather,

introduced new dynasties whenever there is discontinuity whether

geographical, or genealogical.

No full copies of Manetho's text remain, we only have short

sections of text and a few references in the writings of Josephus Flavius

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(first century A.D.), Sextus Julius Africanus (third century B.C),

Eusebius of Cesarea (third/fourth century B.C) and George Syncellos (a

Byzantine historian from the eighth century A.D). As a result, our

knowledge of the original text is limited, and coloured by the opinions of

the authors who referred to him.

Early Dynastic Period

According to Manetho, ancient Egyptian civilisation dawned with

the unification of the country by Menes. Herodotus agrees with Manetho

that Menes (or Min) was the first king of Egypt, and Men is recorded as

the first King of Upper and Lower Egypt in the Abydos Kings list,

inscribed during the reign of Seti (New Kingdom). However,

Egyptologists disagree on the identity of the King Men.

Herodotus claims that Men founded the ancient city of Memphis,

an act that is usually attributed to Hor-Aha. Some scholars have argued

that Hor-aha and Menes are one and the same. They point to the Naqada

label, which bears Hor-aha's birth name and (allegedly) his throne name

- Men (established). However, the birth name faces away from the signs

alleged to be the birth name (totally against convention) and the signs

above the name (the cobra and the vulture, also know as Nebty - "the

two ladies") were not used with Royal names until the reign of Den.

Finally, the Nebty and the sign for Men are surmounted by the sign for a

shrine or funerary tent. It is therefore quite possible that Hor-aha was

burying the previous King, Men.

Other sources attribute the unification of Egypt to one of Hor-aha's

predeccessors called Narmer. Excavations in Hierakopolis (the site of

the ancient city of Nekhen) unearthed many artefacts naming Narmer

and seal impressions found in the tombs of Den and Qa'a imply that he

unified Egypt. Furthermore, the Narmer palette shows the King wearing

both the crown for Upper and Lower Egypt.

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Dynasty Zero: O.C. 3150 B.C. to 3050 B.C.

Scorpion

There were possibly two rulers in the predynastic period who

bore the name Scorpion. This essay considers the later of the two rulers

who is thought to have ruled Upper Egypt at the end of Zero Dynasty (at

the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period).

Identity:

There are several theories regarding his identity and

chronological order. Some Egyptologists, argue that, because Egyptian

kings of the First Dynasty seem to have multiple names, Scorpion was

the same person as Narmer. They also argue that the artistic style seen

on the macehead of Scorpion II shows similarities to that on the famous

Narmer macehead.

An incomplete macehead recovered from the "main deposit" of the

temple of Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) by Quibell. The macehead depicts a

ruler wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt engaged in a ritual

described as either "opening the dykes ritually to begin the flooding of

the fields or cutting the first channel for the foundation of either a temple

(at Hierakonpolis) or of a city". The king is preceded by servants; the

first in row seems to throw seeds from a basket into the freshly hacked

ground. A second servant (his depiction is partially damaged) wears a

huge bundle of grain sheafs, which strengthens the interpretation of a

seed sowing ceremony, possibly connected to the Sed festival or a

founding ceremony. Maybe Scorpion II was the founder of Nekhen,

which would explain why the macehead was found in Hierakonpolis.

Above the servants, a row of standard bearers, who carry the same

standards as seen on the Narmer palette, precede the king. Below the

royal servants, a road and a landscape with people and houses is

preserved. Above the ruler there are a series of standards from which

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hang lapwings, representing the common people who have been

overcome by Scorpion .

The uppermost scene on the macehead shows a row of divine

standards. Each standard is surmounted by a god (Set, Min and Nemty,

for example) or nome crest. The original number of standards is

unknown, but it is clearly visible that one half shows hanged lapwings,

the other shows hanged hunting bows. Both standard rows faces each

other. Lapwings stood for 'Lower Egyptian folks' or 'common folks' and

the bows stood for 'folk of archers', pointing to hostile Asian tribes.

Their hanging is interpreted as evidence that Scorpion II began the

attacks on Lower Egypt and Egyptian enemies at the border lands, which

eventually resulted in Narmer's victory and unification of the country.

On the Scorpion Macehead the glyph of a scorpion appears under a

rosette. It is proposed that the rosette was an early marker of royalty.

However, Malek disputes this reading and doubts that the glyph in front

of the king is his name suggesting that it is an epithet of Narmer. An

Egyptologist has suggested that Scorpion was depicted wearing the red

crown of Lower Egypt on the missing section of the macehead. If this is

the case then he could be the first ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt (an

accolade usually accorded to his successor Narmer).

However, the reconstruction of this Egyptologist is based on two

very small fragments. Another fragmentary macehead from the "main

deposit" of the temple of Nekhen depicts a seated ruler wearing a Heb

Sed robe and the red crown of Lower Egypt. It was proposed that this

ruler was Scorpion, but Adams noted that there was no sign of a rosette

in front of the ruler where his name would be expected to be found. It

was suggested that this fragment is actually part of the Scorpion

Macehead.

In 1995 the "Scorpion Tableau" was discovered by Darnell at south

east of Abydos. They have suggested that the tableau depicts a victory

procession lead by King Scorpion (whose name is written as a hawk

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above a scorpion) and proposed that Scorpion defeated the ruler of

Naqada and unified Upper Egypt as an introduction to the unification of

Upper and Lower Egypt by Narmer. It is also contended that this

Scorpion was one and the same as the "earlier" ruler named Scorpion

(who was buried in tomb U-J at Abydos).

Assuming that Scorpion did in fact exist, it is suggested that rather

than hailing from This (Abydos), like his contemporary rulers, he was

from the ancient town of Nekhen. This is largely due to the fact that his

macehead was discovered in the cache at Nekhen and so is hardly

conclusive. The Narmer Macehead and Palette were also found in the

main deposit of the temple of Nekhen and there is no other evidence to

support the conclusion that Scorpion was based there rather than in This

(Abydos).

The similarity in the style of the Scorpion Macehead and the

Narmer Macehead has led experts to suggest that they were

contemporaries, but it is also proposed by some that Scorpion was

actually Narmer.

No burial site has been conclusively linked to Scorpion but it is

possible that an uninscribed four chambered tomb (B50) in Abydos was

his resting place. Alternatively, Darnell may be right to ascribe tomb U-J

(Abydos) to him. However, it is notable that no artefacts attributed to or

referring to Scorpion have been found at Abydos and Bard suggests that

tomb U-J is at least one hundred years older than the tombs of zero

dynasty at Abydos.

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Narmer (Nar-mr)

His accession to the throne and origin: Narmer was a ruler of Ancient

Egypt at the end of the Predynastic Period and the beginning of the Early

Dynastic Period. He is known as the one who united Egypt and

becoming the first king of Upper and Lower Egypt. There is some direct

evidence for this from near contemporary sources. Seal impressions

found in the Abydos tombs attributed to the Kings Den and Qa'a

provided us with an ancient list of kings and in both cases Narmer is

recorded as the first King. Freidman has also noted that the earliest

inscribed stone vessel found in the Step Pyramid of Djoser dates to the

reign of Narmer and she proposes that Djoser had those vessels placed in

his tomb to stress his link with the founder of dynastic Egypt.

According to Manetho and Herodotus the first King of Ancient

Egypt was Menes. Many experts consider that Menes and Narmer are

the same person. However, many historians now argue that Scorpion and

Narmer are one and the same, but so far no evidence has been

discovered to prove or disprove this theory.

His family affairs and his wife: It is thought that he was married to

Neithhotep (goddess Neith is satisfied). Petrie suggested that she was a

Lower Egyptian (northern) princess and he married her to consolidate

his rule but according to another Egyptologist Neithhotep was from

Upper Egypt and there is no evidence that Narmer did marry a princess

from the north. Neithhotep's name also appears on inscriptions found in

tombs thought to belong to Hor-Aha and Djer and it is possible that she

was the mother of Hor-Aha. However, it is also proposed that she was

the wife of Hor-Aha and the mother of Djer.

His name on monuments: A number of artefacts from his reign have

been unearthed, such as inscribed pottery fragments and seal

impressions from the First Dynasty tombs of Den and Qa’a at Abydos.

Narmer's name and that of his possible predecessor Scorpion have also

been found on pottery in a site called Minshat Abu Omar (in the eastern

delta) and he is mentioned on an inscription on a jar found in Tell

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Ibrahim Awad (in the north eastern delta area). Pottery bearing Namer's

name has been found on several sites in southern Palestine. In Horus

temple of Nekhen (Hierakonpolis or Kom al Akhmar in Aswan) Quibell

and Green found a statue of a Baboon with Namer's name on it as well

as the famous Narmer macehead and Narmer Palette.

His tomb: Tombs B17 and B18 (two linked chambers) in Umm el-

Qa'ab, Abydos are generally attributed to him but it was noted that these

tombs are rather small and so it is possible that Narmer's tomb is still

hidden beneath the sands of Abydos awaiting discovery.

The Narmer Macehead It was found in the so called "main deposit" of

the temple of Horus at Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) along with the Narmer

Palette and the Scorpion Macehead. The Narmer Macehead dates to the

Early Dynastic Period (the end of Zero Dynasty or the beginning of

Dynasty 1), the period of the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. It

probably commemorates the celebration of the king’s Sed (jubilee)

Festival and according to other scholars it commemorates the king’s

marriage.

Narmer Palette

The Narmer Palette is one of the most famous artefacts of Ancient

Egypt. It was found in the "main deposit" of the temple of Horus at

Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) by Quibell and Green along with the Narmer

Macehead and the Scorpion Macehead. Although the Narmer Palette

dates to Early Dynastic Period (the end of Zero Dynasty or the

beginning of the First Dynasty) it shows that both the hieroglyphic

language and symbolic art were already well developed at this early

stage.

In the top register of each side of the palette Narmer's name is

inscribed within a serekh (representing the façade of the royal palace)

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flanked by two cows heads with the faces of human females which in

frontal view (contrary to the usual convention of showing faces in

profile in two dimensional art). This form was regularly used in

depictions of the goddess Hathor (and ocassionally Bat) but some have

argued that the cows are actually bulls and represent the vigour of the

King.

There are three scenes on the back of the palette. In the first,

Narmer inspects the bodies of his slain enemies. The King wears the Red

Crown of Lower Egypt and carries a mace and a flail. He is barefoot,

implying that he is involved in a ritual of some kind. Behind him stands

a seal bearer holding the king’s sandals. He is identified by a rosette and

a jar as the servant of the king. In front of Narmer stands a man with

long hair identified as "tjet". He may also be the Vizier of Narmer (the

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vizier was later known as "Tjety" but it is not clear whether this title

existed at such an early stage.

To the right stand four standard bearers. The standards are often

described as representing territories or emblems of Narmer, but may also

be representing the "Followers of Horus", who are thought to represent

the late predynastic rulers of Egypt and who symbolised kingship.

Above the dead is inscribed a ship with a harpoon and a falcon on it

which possibly represents the site of a battle or the origin of the fallen

enemies. To the left of these glyphs are images of a section of a door and

a falcon which probably refers to the temple of Horus at Buto which is

called the great gate of Horus.

The middle register depicts two men tying together the long necks

of two mythological animals. This is generally considered to symbolise

the unification of the two lands, but there is no example for this symbol

which does not appear again in Egyptian art. In fact it has been noted

that this symbol has more in common with Sumerian art than Ancient

Egyptian art and it may suggest that in the early period Egyptian art

borrowed from other ancient cultures before becoming formalised with

its own unique symbols and emblems. In the final register a bull,

representing the king, tramples a fallen enemy and destroys the walls of

a city or fortress with its horns. The name of the city or fortress attacked

appears as a glyph within the walls and can be read as "styw"

("Asiatics").

The front of the palette is dominated by a high relief which shows

Narmer ready to smite an enemy whom he grabs by the hair. This

"smiting" pose was very common in Ancient Egyptian art. The

hieroglyphs above the victim are often translated as his province "wa

sha", but an alternative reading is "first" (or "number one") and "lake".

The king wears the White Crown (associated with Upper Egypt). Behind

him stands a sandal bearer who is identified with a rosette and inverted

jar meaning ‘the servant of the king’. Above the enemy's head, a falcon

(symbolising the King or Horus) grips a personification of the conquered

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Lower Egypt with a rope. Beneath the feet of the king lie two fallen

enemies probably representing places defeated by the king.

Unfortunately we do not know what towns are referred to.

Narmer may have been the first king of Upper and Lower Egypt

and it is often stated as fact that the Narmer Palette commemorates his

victory and the unification of Egypt. However, we must be cautious of

making assumptions that any piece of Egyptian art depicts an actual

historical event as the Ancient Egyptians themselves did not have such a

rigid view of history and art. There is no firm evidence that Egypt was

unified following a straight forward battle between Upper and Lower

Egypt. The idea of the two lands reflects the Egyptians love of balance.

It is quite possible that the palette depicts the ritual reform of the act of

unification.

Hor Aha (@r-aHA)

His origin and family: Hor Aha (Horus Aha,"Fighting Hawk") may

have been the son of Narmer and his queen, Neithhotep, although Lesko

suggests that he was the husband of Neithhotep. He is the first human

ruler named in the Palermo Stone, and so is often regarded as the first

king of the first dynasty. However, the ancient kings’ lists found in the

tombs of Den and Qaa record him as the second ruler after Narmer.

Closer to his Abydos tomb is the tomb of Berner-ib. She is

considered to have been Aha’s wife as she also appears on fragments

found in Queen Neithotep's tomb (suggesting that Neithhotep was not

Aha's wife). The Cairo Annals Stone confirms that Djer's mother was

Khenthap, who may have been another wife of Aha.

His name on monuments: He is depicted on an ivory fragment found in

the tomb of Neithotep (Saqqara) performing a ceremony called

"receiving the South and the North" which is thought to have celebrated

the unity of Upper and Lower Egypt. His Horus name (Aha) is written in

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a serekh in the top right hand corner of the label and to its right there is

what appears to be a Nebti name (two ladies - referring to Wadjet and

Nekhbet the patron goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt) named

"Men" (stable). Because of this he is considered by many scholars to be

Menes referred to by Manetho as the founder of the first dynasty and

Min whom Herodotus regarded as the founder of the first dynasty.

However, it is also proposed that his Nebti name was Ity a name

associated with Djer (his successor and possibly his son) by other

scholars.

His building achievements: This situation is complicated by the fact

that the Turin Cannon lists Men as the first human ruler. In part because

of his association with Min he is generally known as the founder of Mn-nfr Men Nefer (Memphis in the 1st nome or province of Lower Egypt) at

a strategic important region. According to Herodotus he constructed a

dam to rescue land on which he founded the city. Manetho records that

he reigned from Men Nefer for sixty-two years

His military affairs: Wilkinson suggests that during his reign peaceful

trading with Palestine was replaced by a more aggressive exploitation of

the peoples and resources of that area. Unlike Narmer, no fragments

bearing his name have been recovered from outside Egypt while

fragments found in contemporary noble’s tombs refer to rebels in Nubia,

and foreign campaigns.

His death: Manetho mentioned that he was killed by a hippopotamus

(an animal which was associated with the god Seth who was the enemy

of Horus). A legend tells that the king was attacked by wild dogs in the

Faiyum, but his life was saved by a crocodile. According to this tale, he

thanked Sobek (the crocodile god) by founding the city of Per Sobek

("House of Sobek", in the 21st nome of Upper Egypt - an area later

known to the Greeks as Crocodilopolis in el-Fayum).

His burial place: Aha seems to have constructed tombs at both Saqqara

and Abdyos. The tombs were undecorated, and many were stolen and

damaged by tomb robbers and early archaeologists, but a few labels and

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fragments have been recovered. Emery attributed tomb 3357 at Saqqara

to him because his name was found on seal impressions discovered

there, however, his name was also found on a stone vessel recovered

from tomb 3036 and tomb 3357 is now attributed to an unknown official

of Aha's reign. It is now thought that Aha was buried in Abydos.

His tomb had five subterranean chambers and twenty-seven

storerooms above ground. The outside of his tomb was decorated to

resemble a palace façade. A boat pit on the northern side of the tomb is

thought to have held a wooden solar boat. There were thirty-three

subsidiary burials of servants and officials who according to some

Egyptologists may have been killed or committed suicide to join the

king in the afterlife, as none were over the age of twenty-five, as well as

the graves of seven young male lions.

Djer (+r)

His name, and regnal years: Djer (Hor Djer "Horus who succours")

ruled ancient Egypt during the first dynasty (Early Dynastic Period).

Manetho estimated that Djer's reign lasted 31-39 years, but inscriptions

on the Palermo stone suggest that he actually ruled for about 57 years.

Manetho describes him as a scholar and claims that an anatomy textbook

written by this ancient Egyptian king was still in use in Greek times.

His trips: Fragments of ivory labels from Abydos record trips to Sais

and Buto, in the Delta of Lower (northern) Egypt. Unfortunately, the

hieroglyphs are still at an early state of development making them

difficult to translate.

His tomb at Abydos: His tomb at Abydos was one of the largest and

most complex tombs of the First Dynasty. From the Middle Kingdom

onward, it was thought that the tomb was the burial place of Osiris.

Amongst the pilgrims to this shrine was King Khendjer, who provided a

statue of Osiris for the tomb which was regarded a shrine or a cult centre

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of Osiris. Within the tomb, archeologists discovered the earliest

surviving royal jewellery, four gold and turquoise bracelets.

His building achievements: The King also built two large mastabas at

Sakkara and a temple to the war goddess Neith in Sais (Sa el-Hagar in

el-Gharbyia).

His military achievements: An inscription at Wadi Halfa records a

military campaign deep into Nubia and there is evidence of a campaign

into both Libya and the Sinai. He even went as far as naming one of his

regnal years "The Year of Smiting the land of the Setjet" (Syria-

Palestine). This made him the first King to record military activity

outside the Egyptian borders.

Djet

His name and origin: The ancient Egyptian king Djet (Hor Djet "Horus

cobra or Horus who strikes") ruled during the first dynasty. He was most

likely named after the vulture goddess of Upper Egypt, Wadjet (or

Uadjet). It is likely that he was the son of Djer, although there is no

direct evidence of this. Queen Merytneith (beloved of Neith) became his

wife and was probably the mother of his sucessor, Den. She may also

have acted as her young son’s regent upon the death of Djet.

His building achievements: Manetho suggested that he reigned for

about 23 years. Unfortunately, he left little evidence of his existence

other than his tomb in Abydos. Within this tomb a beautiful serekh with

the name of the King was discovered. Around the tomb archaeologists

found 174 secondary burial sites. Some of them were family members,

but most seem be servants who were buried at the same time as the King

so that they could serve him in the afterlife. A mastaba in Saqqara was

originally ascribed to him, but is now considered to have been

constructed for a Noble called Sekhem-kha who served in the King’s

court.

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Merytneith

Her name and origin: Around the middle of the first dynasty, the king

Den may have been preceded by Queen Merytneith ("beloved of

Neith"), possibly the first female ruler of Egypt. However, it is unclear

whether she reigned alone for a period or simply reigned alongside her

husband Djet and then acted as regent for her son Den. She is named as

the King’s Mother on a seal impression created during Den’s reign, but

was not recorded on any of the kings’ lists. Manetho does not refer to

her by name, but he does state that there were eight kings in the first

dynasty which is "correct" if Merytneith is included as a king. However,

it is also possible that he included Narmer in the first dynasty (and not in

zero dynasty), and so counted eight kings.

Her tombs: Meretneith had two tombs. In her Saqqara tomb,

archaeologists found artefacts naming a high court official called

Seshemka. Her second tomb was in the royal complex at Abydos, along

with most of the Kings of her dynasty. In this tomb, the base of a

stepped structure was concealed within the usual rectangular shape of

the Mastaba (a low flat "bench" shaped tomb). This may have been an

early mixture of Northern and Southern styles which led to the

development of the stepped pyramid complex. Stone vessels and seal

impressions bearing her name and confirming her status as ruler were

found in the tomb, along with a stela on which her name was written in

an archaic form. The stelea also bears the crossed arrows of the ancient

goddess Neith.

Den

Den (Hor Den "Horus who strikes") ruled ancient Egypt during the

Early Dynastic Period. He was probably the fourth king of the first

dynasty, but may have been the fifth ruler as some scholars consider that

his mother Queen Meretneith ruled him.

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His reign is attested on numerous of fragments and inscriptions, on

vases and the Palermo Stone implies that he ruled for around thirty-two

years. As far as we know, he was the first to wear the double crown of

Upper and Lower Egypt and to use the title King of the Two Lands (nb &Awy). His tomb at Abydos also contains the first known example of the

use of red granite in monumental building.

Early Egyptian sources record that he fought the Bedouin tribes in

Sinai and label from Abydos shows "the first smiting of the east".

Another label recovered from Abydos shows Den smiting an Asiatic

captive. His name appears in a serekh topped by a representation of

Horus, but in front of him there is a standard bearing a Seth animal.

We also have an ebony label depicting his Heb Sed or jubilee

festival which was attached to a jar of oil found in his tomb in Abydos.

Den is depicted sitting on a dais wearing the double crown, and also

running around the sacred enclosure. His name appears in a serekh on

the left hand side along with what appears to be a record of preparations

and offerings.

Anedjib

Anedjib ("safe is his heart") ruled ancient Egypt during the first

dynasty (Early Dynastic period). He is recorded as a Thinite (from This,

near Abydos) king on the Saqqara Kings List. Anedjib was probably the

son of Den but it is not entirely clear who his mother was, although

Seshemetka seems to be his mother.

Manetho suggested that he reigned for twenty-six years. However,

most Egyptologists agree his reign was probably much shorter due to his

brief impression on the historical record. Wilkinson has proposed a reign

of around ten years despite the fact that he celebrated a Sed Festival

which normally took place in or around the thirtieth year. As Den

reigned for around thirty years he may have been of a fairly advanced

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age when he became king and there is some evidence that he had to

struggle with a number of revolts in Upper Egypt. The fact that his name

was erased from a number of artefacts suggests that he may be his name

was erased by Semerkhet.

Anedjib may have been the first king to have a Nebty (Two

Ladies) title and the nesu-bity (He of the esparto plant and bee) name in

his royal titulary, although the nesu-bit title (without a name) had

already been introduced in the reign of Den.

Semerkhet

Semerkhet was the sixth king of the first dynasty. We know very

little about his reign. The Palermo stone only records some religious

ceremonies. His name is recorded on an ivory label with that of one of

his officials, Henuka (who also served his successor Qa'a).

According to Manetho Semerkhet had a very difficult reign.

Manetho claims that there were numerous disasters, but he claims that

these were due to the fact he was usurper (which may also explain why

his name was omitted from the Saqqara kings list). He is also accused of

removing Anedjib's name from a number of artefacts.

Manetho states that he reigned for eighteen years, while the

Palermo stone only records an eight year reign and the Turin papyrus

credits him with an unlikely seventy-two years. Either way, he had time

to build a much bigger tomb than his predecessor Anedjib in the royal

necropolis at Umm el-Qa'ab, near Abydos.

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Qa'a

His name and regnal years: Qa'a ("His arm is raised") was the last king

of the first dynasty. Manetho states that he reigned for twenty-six years.

A seal impression bearing the name of Hotepsekhemwy (the first king of

the second dynasty) was found at the mouth of his tomb at Abydos and

so it is thought that he was directly succeeded by Hotepsekhemwy. The

tomb of one of his officials, Merka, contained another stele listing

numerous titles and recording a second Sed festival for the king.

His monuments: A limestone stelea (now in the Louvre) found in his

tomb shows the king wearing the White Crown while being embraced

by Horus. His name appears in a serekh, and the White Crown forms

part of the name. It has been suggested that this indicates the victory of

Upper Egypt in a struggle for power with Lower Egypt.

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