By: Emma Mariz Garcia

Integumentary System

Function of the Skin

Protection Covers internal structure and protects them from the

external environment

Synthesizes Vit. D Exposure to UV light causes skin to make vit. D Liver and Kidney turn Vitamin D into calcitriol Calcitriol regulates calcium and phosphorous

production

Function of the Skin

Sensory reception Specialized nerves in the skin Receive messages of touch, pressure, pain and

temperature

Temperature Regulation Sweat gland w/in the skin Evaporate cooling

Layers of the Skin

3 Major Layersa. Epidermisb. Dermisc. Subcutaneous

Epidermis

Outer layer Thin Divided into 2 layers

-Stratum Germinativum Superior to dermis Produce cells of epidermis

-Stratum Corneum Tough layer of epidermis Protects body from water loss and gain

Dermis

Region of connective tissue

Under epidermis

Contains collagenous and elastic fibers

There are flexible, but also resilient

Sensory Nerves

Take nerve impulses from the skin

Subcutaneous

Under the dermis

Fatty layer

Energy Storage

Insulation

Protection

Can result in obesity

Other parts of skin

Hair Project from follicles in the dermis Smooth muscles attached to hair root

Nails Grow from nail root Visible part of the nail is nail body Cuticle covers nail root

Other parts of skin

Sweat glands Found in all regions of the skin Evaporate cooling

Sebaceous glands Secrete oil into the hair follicle Waterproofing

Skin

A.K.A Integument which means “covering”

Insulates and cushions the deeper body organ

Protects the entire body from any damage

Upper most layer is full of “KERATIN and

CORNIFIED”

Rich in capillary network and sweat gland

Skeletal System

Function of the Skeletal System

Supports the body

Protects innards

Production of blood cells

Provide place for muscle attachment

Store various minerals and salts

Skeletal System

Made up of 206 different bones

4 Basic ShapesLong bones: FemurShort bones: wrist and ankleFlat bones : Skulls and scapulaIrregular Bones: Vertebrae

Skeleton is divided in to Parts Axial Skeleton : 80 bones. Which forms the

longitudinal axis in the body (skull, vertebrae, &

bony thorax)

Appendicular Skeleton : composed of 126 bones

of the limbs and the pectoral and pelvic girdles,

which attach the limbs to the axial skeleton

Parts of the Bone Structure

Parts of the Bone Structure

Periosteum tough outer cover of the bone Contains blood vessels

Compact bone Dense bone Made of osteocytes

Parts of the Bone Structure

Spongy bone Lighter and less dense than compact bon Still strong

Marrow Red and yellow

Parts of the Bone Structure

Epiphysis Expanded part of long bone at each end

Diaphysis Part between epiphysis

Articular Cartilage Cartilage at a joint

Three Types of Bone Cells

Osteoblast ( Bone forming)

Osteocytes (Mature Bone Cells)

Osteoclasts ( Bone Dissolving)

Fractures

Breaks in bones Body able to repair Possible problems if not set by the doctor Main descriptors used with fractures

Types of Fractures

Comminuted: Bone breaks into many fragments Compression: Bone is crushed Depressed: broken bone portion is pressed

inward Impacted: broken bone ends are into each other Spiral: Ragged break occurs when excessive

twisting forces are applied to a bone Greenstick: Bone breaks incompletely, much in

the way a green twig breaks

Muscular System

Functions

Produce movement

Maintaining Posture

Stabilizing joint

Generalizing heat

Types of Muscles

Smooth Involuntary Walls of hollow organs

Cardiac Involuntary

Skeletal Voluntary Attached to the skeleton

Structure of Skeletal Muscle Fascia

Covering of muscle Become the tendons

Myofibrils Muscle fibers Contraction

Parts of Myofibrils

Actin Thin filaments Contraction

Myosin Thick filaments Contraction

Nervous System

Master controlling and communicating system of the body

3 functions Monitor changes occurring both inside and

outside the body (stimuli) and then gathered information is the sensory input

Processes and interpret the sensory input and makes decision what should be done (integration)

Effects as response by activating muscle or glands via MOTOR OUTPUT

Nervous System

Does not work alone in regulating and maintaining body homeostasis

Endocrine system is the 2nd important regulating system

Structural Classification

Central Nervous System

consists of the brain and spinal cord

act as integrating and command centers of the nervous system

Peripheral Nervous System

outside the CNS

Consists of nerves

Spinal Nerves – impulses to and from the spinal cord

Cranial Nerves – impulses to and from the brain

PNS Functional Classification

Sensory(afferent) Division keeps the CNS constantly informed of events going on both inside and

outside the body

Motor (efferent) Division activate muscles and organs, they effect a motor response

2 subdivision Somatic nervous system

Voluntary

Autonomic Nervous System involuntary

2 Principal types of cells

Supporting cells

Neurons

Supporting Cells in CNS

“lumped together” as NEUROGLIA

Has many types of cells that support, insulate, and protect the delicate neurons

CNS Glia

Astrocytes star shaped cells account nearly half of the neural tissue form a living barrier between capillaries and

neurons and play a role in making exchanges between the two

Help protects the neurons from harmful substances

Help control the chemical environment in the brain by picking up excess ions and recapturing release neurotransmitters

CNS Glia

Microglia Spiderlike phagocytes It dispose debris, including dead brain cells and

bacteria

Ependymal Cells Line the cavities of the brain and the spinal cord Beating of their cilia helps to circulate the CSF

that fills the cavities and forms a protective cushion around the CNS

CNS Glia

Oligodendrocytes Wrap the flat extensions tightly around the nerve

fibers Produce fatty insulating coverings called myelin

sheath

PNS Glia

Schwann Cells form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers that

are found in CNS

Satellite Cells Act as protective, cushioning cells

Functional Classification and Structural Classification

Sa book Lang lantaw. Kapoi Type

2 Major Functions of NeuronsIrritability

the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into the nerve impulse

Conductivitythe ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Central Nervous System (Functional Anatomy of the Brain)

Cerebral Hemispheres Called Cerebrum Most superior part of the brain Enclose and obscure most of the brain stem Gyri - elevated ridges of tissue cells Sulci - shallow grooves that separates Gyri Fissures – deeper grooves w/c separates large

regions of the brain Broca’s Area – involved in ability to speak

Parietal Lobe

Cognition Information Processing Pain and Touch Sensation Spatial Orientation Speech Visual Perception

Damage to the left parietal lobe

can result in what is called "Gerstmann's

Syndrome.

includes right-left confusion

difficulty with writing (agraphia)

difficulty with mathematics (acalculia).

It can also produce disorders of language (aphasia)

inability to perceive objects normally (agnosia).

Damage to the right parietal lobe

can result in neglecting part of the body or space

(contralateral neglect), which can impair many

self-care skills

such as dressing and washing. Caused

difficulty in making things (constructional

apraxia)

denial of deficits (anosagnosia)

drawing ability.

Bi-lateral damage (large lesions to both sides) can cause "Balint's Syndrome," a visual

attention and motor syndrome. inability to voluntarily control the

gaze (ocular apraxia) inability to integrate components of a

visual scene (simultanagnosia) inability to accurately reach for an

object with visual guidance (optic ataxia)

Frontal Lobe

motor function problem solving Spontaneity Memory Language Initiation Judgment impulse control social and sexual behavior.

frontal lobe damage exhibit little spontaneous facial expression, which points to the role of the frontal lobes in facial expression

Broca's Aphasia, or difficulty in speaking, has been associated with frontal damage

frontal damage displayed fewer spontaneous facial movements, spoke fewer words (left frontal lesions) or excessively (right frontal lesions).

difficulty in interpreting feedback from the environment

Occipital Lobes

center of our visual perception system Visual Perception Color Recognition not particularly vulnerable to injury because

of their location at the back of the brain

trauma to the brain could produce subtle

changes to our visual-perceptual system, such as

visual field defects and scotomas

Damage to one side of the occipital lobe

causes homonomous loss of vision with exactly

the same "field cut" in both eyes.

visual hallucinations and illusions]

Temporal Lobe

Emotional Responses Hearing Memory Speech

8 principle symptoms of temporal lobe damage

1) disturbance of auditory sensation and perception2) disturbance of selective attention of auditory

and visual input3) disorders of visual perception4) impaired organization and categorization of

verbal material5) disturbance of language comprehension6) impaired long-term memory7) altered personality and affective behavior8) altered sexual behavior.

Diencephalon (Interbrain)

Major Structures Thalamus

relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to the sensory cortex

Hypothalamus Regulate body temperature, water balance, and

metabolism Center of many drives and emotions

Epithalamus Important parts

Pineal Body Choroid Body – form the CSF

Brain Stem Major Structures

Midbrain Reflex centers involved w/ vision and hearing

Pons Control of breathing

Medulla Oblongata Centers that control Heart rate Blood pressure Breathing Swallowing Vomiting

Reticular formation

Involved in motor control of the visceral organs

Reticular Activating System (RAS) Plays a role in consciousness and the

awake/sleep cycles

Damage to this area can result in permanent unconsciousness (coma)

Cerebellum

Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity

Controls our balance and equilibrium

Protection of the CNS

Meninges connective tissue membranes covering and

protecting the CNS Meningeal Layer

Dura Mater Outermost layer “tough of hard mother”

Arachnoid mater Middle layer

Pia Mater Innermost layer

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Watery “broth” similar in its makeup to blood and plasma

Contains less protein, more Vit. C, and ion composition is different

Forms a watery cushion that protects the fragile nervous tissue from blows and trauma

Endocrine System

Uses chemical messenger called HORMONES

Chemistry of Hormones

Hormones – chemical substances that are secreted by the cells into the extracellular fluid and regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body

Mechanism of Hormone Action

Target cells / Target organshormones affects only certain tissue cells/ organs

Major Endocrine Organs

Pituitary Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal Pineal Thymus glands Pancreas Gonads

Major Endocrine Organs

Hypothalamus is considered as a majorendocrine organ

Pituitary Gland

Two functional Lobe Anterior Pituitary Posterior Pituitary

Hormones of Anterior PituitaryTropic Hormones – stimulates the target organs

to secrete hormones

All AP hormones are proteins (peptides) act through second messenger systems regulated by hormonal stimuli and in most cases,

negative feedback

Hormones of Anterior Pituitary Growth Hormone

Metabolic Hormone

Major effects are directed to:

Growth of skeletal muscles and long bones of

the body

Play important role in determining final body size

Hormones of Anterior Pituitary Prolactin (PRL)

protein hormone Known target is the “BREAST” Stimulates and maintains milk production

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) regulates the endocrine activity of the

cortex portion of the adrenal gland

Hormones of Anterior Pituitary Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland

Gonadotropic Hormone Regulate the hormonal activity of the gonad

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Stimulates follicle development in the ovaries

Luteinizing Hormone triggers ovulation of an egg from the female ovary and causes the

ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and some estrogen Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone

LH in men stimulates tertosterone production

Hormones of Posterior Pituitary Oxytocin

release during childbirth and nursing women stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine

muscle Causes milk ejection Stop postpartum bleeding

Hormones of Posterior Pituitary Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water from the urine

as a result urine volume decreases and blood volume increases

Increase BP by constricting the arterioles sometimes referred as VASOPRESSIN

Thyroid Gland

Hormone producing gland Makes 2 hormones

Thyroid Hormone – derive from colliod Calcitonin

Thyroid Gland

Thyroid Hormone Body major’s metabolic hormone 2 active iodine containing hormone

Thyroxine (T4) Major hormone secreted by the

thyroid follicle Triiodothyronine (T3)

controls the rate @ w/c glucose in “burned”, or oxidized, and converted to body heat and chemical energy

important for normal tissue growth and development

Thyroid Gland

Calcitonin (Thyrocalcitonin) decreases blood calcium level made by the so-called C (parafollicular) cells found

in connective tissue between the follicles Released directly to the blood Hypocalcemic hormone

Parathyroid Gland

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) or parathormone Important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of

the blood a hypercalcemic hormone Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb

more calcium

Adrenal Glands

Hormones of Adrenal Cortex produces three major groups of steroid hormones

collectively called – CORTICOSTERIODS Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids Sex Hormones

Hormones of Adrenal Cortex

Mineralocorticoids mainly aldosterone important in regulating the mineral (salt) content

of the blood Particularly Na & K concentration Target is the KINDEY TUBULES that selectively

reabsorb the minerals Help regulate both water and electrolyte balance

in body fluids

Hormones of Adrenal Cortex

Glucocorticoids include cortisone and cortisol promote normal cell metabolism help the body to resist long0-term stressors hyperglycemic hormones control unpleasant effects of inflammation by

decreasing edema reduce pain by inhibiting some pain causing

molecules called – PROSTAGLANDIN released from the adrenal cortex in response to

rising blood levels of ACTH

Hormones of Adrenal Cortex

Sex Hormones produced in relatively small amounts androgens ( male sex hormones) estrogens (female sex hormones)

Hormones of Adrenal Medulla

Stimulated by sympathetic hormone Releases two similar hormones referred as

CATECHOLAMINES: epinephrine (adrenaline) norepinephrine

“misplaced sympathetic nervous system ganglion”

Pancreatic Islets

Formerly called the “Islets of Langerhans” 2 important hormones it produced:

Insulin release by beta cells acts on all body cells and increases the ability to transport

glucose across the plasma membrane Hypoglycemic effects

Glucagon antagonist of the insulin release by alpha cells stimulated by low blood level of glucose hyperglycemic effects

Pineal Gland

Function is still a mystery Secretes Melatonin

it levels rise and fall during the course of the day and night

peak levels occur @ night that make us drowsy daylight around noon is the lowest level believe to be “sleep” trigger plays important role in establishing the body’s day-

night cycle coordinate the hormones of fertility inhibit the reproductive system

Thymus Gland

Large in infants and children Decreases size throughout adulthood Produce a hormone THYMOSIN During childhood, Thymus acts as an

incubator for the maturation of a special group of WBC (T cells)