an introduction to research methods in education

TSL 3113Action Research 1

T0PIC 2:An Introduction to Research Methods

in EducationMUNIRAH BT HASHIM

N0R AIN BT ABDUL MANAFAL SAMIHAH AMNI BT D0LLAH @ ABD.AZIZ

Content: Qualitative

– Ethnography – Case study – Historical Quantitative– Experimental – Quasi-experimental – Survey – Correlational

Approaches in

Research

Qualitative approach:• The approach usually associated with the social constructivist

paradigm which emphasises the socially constructed nature of

reality.

• It is about recording, analysing and attempting to uncover the

deeper meaning and significance of human behaviour and

experience, including contradictory beliefs,

behaviours and emotions.

Qualitative approach:

• It can describe events, persons and so forth scientifically

without the use of numerical data.

• It is harder, more stressful and more time-consuming than

other types.

Qualitative approach:

• Concerned with collecting and analysing information in as

many forms.

• Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are

not in the form of numbers. (Punch, 1998: 4)

Qualitative approach:• Qualitative implies a direct concern with experience as it is

`lived' or `felt' or `undergone' ...

• Qualitative research, then, has the aim of understanding experience as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or live it.

Ely et al (Sherman and Webb ,1988)

Ethnography • The study of social interactions, behaviours, and perceptions that occur within groups,

teams, organisations, and communities. • The central aim of ethnography is to provide rich, holistic insights into people’s views and

actions, as well as the nature (that is, sights, sounds) of the location they inhabit, through the collection of detailed observations and interviews.

The key features of ethnographic research.

Space—Physical layout of the place(s)Actor—Range of people involvedActivity—A set of related activities that occurObject—The physical things that are presentAct—Single actions people undertakeEvent—Activities that people carry outTime—The sequencing of events that occurGoal—Things that people are trying to accomplishFeeling—Emotions felt and expressed

Nine observational dimensionsSpace— Physical layout of the place(s)

Actor— Range of people involved

Activity— A set of related activities that occur

Object— The physical things that are present

Act— Single actions people undertake

Event— Activities that people carry out

Time— The sequencing of events that occur

Goal— Things that people are trying to accomplish

Feeling— Emotions felt and expressed

Ethnography Purpose - to describe a culture's characteristics Method •Identify culture, variables for study, & review literature

•Data collection - gain entrance to culture; immerse self in culture; acquire informants; gather data through direct observation & interaction with subjects

Analysis - describe characteristics of culture Outcomes - description of culture

Case study • The in depth analysis of a single or small number of units• A case study unit may include a single person, a group of people, an organisation or an institution• Case study research ranges in its complexity:

– From a simple, illustrative description of a single event or occurrence– To a more complex analysis of a social situation over a period of time– To the most complex approach which is an extended case study which traces events involving the same actors over a period of time -

enabling the analysis reflect changes and adjustments• Case studies aims to:

– Offer a richness and depth of information by capturing as many variables as possible to identify how a complex set of circumstances come together to produce a particular manifestation '...to as identify how a complex set of circumstances come together to produce a particular manifestation.'

• Case study as a method is very versatile, as it uses many methods of gather information, from observation to interview to testing• One of the criticisms of the case study method is that the case under study may not be representative of a wider social setting and therefore it is

argued that the results of the research cannot be used to make generalisations• Therefore, the purpose of case study research is to describe that particular case in detail and take learning from that and develop theory from that

approach - it is particularlistic and contextual

The qualitative methods described below are all likely to be used in case study research.

•Participant Observation. This involves the researcher immersing him or herself in the daily lives and routines of those being studied. This often requires extensive work in the setting being studied. This is called fieldwork. Observation provides insight into the behavior patterns and social organizations that operate and constitute a particular bounded system or case.•Interviewing. Researchers will learn about the person or persons that are part of the case by speaking with these people. Talking with informants is called interviewing. The types of interviews conducted by researchers vary in degree of formality (informal interview to semi-structured to structured interviews).•Collection of Artifacts and Texts. Researchers may also learn about a bounded system by collecting and studying artifacts (e.g. written protocols, charts, flowsheets, educational handouts) - materials used by members of the system or case being studied.

Case study

Purpose - describe in-depth the experience of one person, family, group, community, or institution

Method

•Direct observation and interaction with subject

Analysis - synthesis of experience

Outcomes - in-depth description of the experience

Historical

'The systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects or trends of these events that may help to explain present events and anticipate future events' (Gay, 1996)Historical

Purpose - describe and examine events of the past to understand the present and anticipate potential future effects

Method

•Formulate idea - select topic after reading related literature•Develop research questions•Develop an inventory of sources - archives, private libraries, papers•Clarify validity & reliability of data - primary sources, authenticity, biases•Develop research outline to organize investigative process•Collect data

Analysis - synthesis of all data; accept & reject data; reconcile conflicting evidence

Outcomes - select means of presentation - biography, chronology, issue paper

Quantitative approach:

• Involves collecting and converting data into numerical form

so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions

drawn.

• Quantitative approaches have been seen as more scientific and

`objective'.


• Quantitative research consists of those studies in which the data

concerned can be analysed in terms of numbers.

• Quantitative research is based more directly on its original plans

and its results are more readily analysed and interpreted.


• Concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric

form. It tends to emphasize relatively large-scale and representative

sets of data, and is often, falsely in our view, presented or perceived

as being about the gathering of `facts'.

• Quantitative research is empirical research where

the data are in the form of numbers.

Quantitative research

– Experimental – Quasi-experimental – Survey – Correlational

Experimental

• Studies that make use of both experimental approaches and statistical analyses of quantitative data. This includes comparison of experimental and control groups, and formal, systematic measurement of quantities, with the aim of determining the relationship between variables.

• Experimental designs are said to be the approach for obtaining information about• causal relationships (Robson, 1993), allowing researchers to assess the• correlation (relationship) between one variable and another. A principle factor of• such designs is that one element is manipulated by the researcher to see• whether it has any impact upon another. The element being manipulated by• researchers (e.g. introducing a teenage pregnancy preventative intervention) is• known as the independent variable, whereas the change (or outcome) resulting• from the implementation of the independent variable (e.g. teenage pregnancy• rates) is the dependent variable.

Quasi-experimentalQuasi-experiment refers to studies in which participants are not randomised toconditions. In this type of design, researchers do not have complete control ofindependent variables because the intervention is already in place, or because itis impossible or ethical to manipulate the variable (e.g. when measuring theeffects of smoking on people’s health, it would be unethical to randomise peopleto a smoking or non-smoking group). Researchers rely on existing populations(e.g. people already smoking versus those who do not smoke). Hence, a controlgroup is included, but individuals are not randomly allocated to condition; usuallygroups are naturally occurring (e.g. people in a part of the country where a newservice has been established compared to individuals in another part of thecountry where the service has not been set up).The problem with such designs is that any differences between two groups areharder to control for, giving less certainty of the cause and effect relationship. Butfor many studies this may be the only design option available. Therefore, it is theresearcher’s task to “tease out the threats to valid inferences about causationpresent…and to evaluate how far these threats can be discontinued in aparticular study, taking into account the specific features of the study and thepattern of results obtained” (Robson, 1993: 46-7).

Examples include Pre and Post-test designs With comparison group/groups Comparison treatments/removal of treatment/ Post-test only With one group/with comparison group Interrupted time-series designs Simple No-treatment comparison group Multiple treatments

ReferencesCrombie, I.K. (1996) The pocket guide to critical appraisal. BMJ Publishing:London.Elwood, M. (1998) (2nd Edition) Critical appraisal of epidemiological studies andclinical trials. Open University Press: Buckingham.Foster, J.J and Parker, I. (1995) Carrying out investigations in psychology:Methods and statistics. The British Psychological Society: Leicester.Greenhalgh, T. (2001) (2nd Edition) How to read a paper: The basics of evidencebased medicine. BMJ Publishing: London.Jadad, A. (1998) Randomised controlled trials. BMJ Books: London.Robson, C. (1993) Real world research: A resource for social scientists andpractitioner-researchers. Blackwell: Oxford; Cambridge.

Survey Surveys are the primary method of quantitative research – research with some claim to statistical accuracy. There are several types of surveys – and several key considerations within each. This segment will discuss two important factors in surveying – sampling and return rate – and give short descriptions of survey types – with pros, cons, and cautions. The next segment will discuss questionnaire design.

•Types of Surveys•There are four basic types of surveys: 1) mail, 2) telephone, 3) online, and 4) in person. In addition, some of these might be self-administered or done by interviewers. There are also “hybrid” techniques. Each format is the most appropriate in a given circumstance.•Mail Surveys. Mail surveys are paper and pencil instruments that are mailed to respondents. They are self-administered by the recipient, which means there is little control over the feedback. However, they are the most convenient for respondents, who can complete them in the place and time of their choosing. Mail surveys are best for the collection of sensitive information, because they provide anonymity for the respondent. They provide the best opportunities for both random samples and targeted random samples. They are the least expensive way to collect data from large numbers of people.•Telephone Surveys. Surveys by telephone might be conducted by trained interviewers or by automated systems. Data collected through telephone surveys usually has minimal missing or erroneous data, primarily because it offers the opportunity for personal assistance. New automated random dialing systems increase the “randomness of the sample,” although only people with telephones are included in the sample. Telephone surveys offer a good opportunity to reach “low incidence” respondents – populations of people that are very small within general population. They also allow for relatively quick data collection. New IVR (Interactive Voice Response) provides researchers with the opportunity to branch – take respondents to questions based on previous responses – and otherwise customize the survey.•Computer/Online Surveys. Surveys can also be administered by computer and the Internet. All provide the potential to conduct complicated research because “help menus” can assist respondents through the survey. You can also include visual aids or images as part of these surveys. And perhaps most importantly, they are the least expensive format and have the quickest speed of data collection and reporting. In addition they offer technical advantages, such as control of order bias, etc. The most convenient type of computer/online survey is the Disk by Mail DBM) survey. These are self-administered, with respondents pre-recruited. They allow respondents to work at their own pace and to find answers to questions, such as brand names or number of utensils, as needed. Surveys (CATI) with similar features can be administered by computer – with keyboard, touch screen, electronic pen, or voice-activated response. Computerized surveys administered from a central location (CASI) offer all the same benefits. The downside of computer/online surveys is the skewed or limited sampling. Only participants with access to computers outside the work environment can be reasonably be expected to respond. This sample is further limited by technophobes, who either won’t respond or who have so many problems their data is unusable.•Hybrid Methods. You can combine any of the methods – and additional technologies – to help you get better, faster, and more responses. The most common ones are Telephone – Mail – Telephone (TMT), in which you recruit, screen, instruct respondents by phone and then send them a survey. They can either mail the questionnaire back or call an interviewer. The same method can be used with a fax machine or computer. Online bulletin boards are another hybrid method. Respondents are recruited, screened, and instructed by phone and then respond online – often to comments by other respondents as well as survey questions.

Correlational The purpose of correlational research is to determine the relations among two or more variables. Data are gathered from multiple variables and correlational statistical techniques are then applied to the data. Thus correlational research is a bit more complicated than descriptive research; after the important variables have been identified, the relations among those variables are investigated. Correlational research investigates a range of factors, including the nature of the relationship between two or more variables and the theoretical model that might be developed and tested to explain these resultant correlations. Correlation does not imply causation. Thus correlational research can only enable the researcher to make weak causal inferences at best.

Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach

Scientific method

-Inductive or “bottom up”

-Generate new hypotheses and theory

from data collected.

-Deductive or “top down”

-Test hypothesis and theory with data.

Most common

research objectives

-Description

-Exploration

-Discovery

-Description

-Explanation

-Prediction

Focus

-Wide and deep angle lenses

-Examine the breath and depth of

phenomenon to learn more about

them.

-Narrow-angle lens

-Testing specific hypotheses

Nature of study

- Study behaviour in its natural

environment or context.

- Study behaviour under artificial, controlled

conditions.


Form of data

collected

-Collect narrative data using semi or

unstructured instruments (open-

ended surveys, interviews,

observation, focus groups,

documents)

-Collect numeric data using structured and

validated instruments (close-ended survey

items, rating scales, measurable behaviours)

Nature of data-Words, images, themes, and

categories

-Numeric variables

Data analysis-Holistically identify patterns,

categories and themes

-Identify statistical relationships

Results

- Particularistic findings.

-In-depth understanding of

respondent’s viewpoint.

-Respondent framed results

-Generalizable findings.

-General understanding of respondent’s

viewpoint.

-Researcher framed results


Form of final report

-Narrative report including contextual

description, categories, themes, and

supporting respondent quotes.

-Statistical report including correlations,

comparisons of means, and statistically

significant findings.

Adapted from:Johnson & Christensen. (2004). Educational Research: Quantitative, qualitative and mixes approaches, 2nd ed. Boston: Ally: Bacon.

QUESTION AND ANSWER

SESSION

Questions:1. Why is it important for teachers to do

educational research?2. What must we do to avoid plagiarism in

writing a research article?3. What is research ethics and why is it

important?4. What are the importance of informed

consent?5. Why action research is regarded as an

interactive process?

references

David Coghlan & Teresa Brannick. (2005: 11-13). Doing Action Research InYour Own Words. London: SAGE Publications.

Glenda Nugent, et al. (2012: 4). A Practical Guide to Action Research forLiteracy Educators. Washington: Global Operations Unit.

University of Minnesota. (2003: 8-35). A Guide to Research Ethics.University of Minnesota: Center for Bioethics.

Alzheimer Europe. (n.d). The Four Main Approaches. Assessed on 2013, 23rd December, at http://www.alzheimer

europe.org/Research/Understanding-dementia-research/Types-ofresearch/The-four-main-approaches

Christina Hughes. (n.d). Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Social Research. Assessed on 2013, 23rd December, at http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/sociology/staff/academicstaff/chughes/hughesc_index/teachingresearchprocess/quantitativequalitative/quantitativequalitative/

THANK YOU…