an ethnobothanical study of the use of wild herbs in bulgaria

8/16/2019 An Ethnobothanical Study of the Use of Wild Herbs in Bulgaria

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AN ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDY OF WILD HERB USE IN BULGARIA

BY

KERRY L. PLOETZ

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY

MICHIGAN TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

2000


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The thesis, “An Ethnobotanical Study of Wild Herb Use in Bulgaria”, is hereby approved

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN

FORESTRY.

School of Forestry and Wood Products

Signatures:

Thesis Advisor:_______________________________

Blair Orr

Dean:_______________________________ Glenn Mroz

Date:____________


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageLIST OF FIGURES ……………….………………………………………………. v

LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………… vi

ABSTRACT……………………….………………………………………………. ix

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION….…………………………………………….. 1

CHAPTER 2 STUDY AREA………….…………………………………………4

Geography and Mineral Resources…………………………………………4Climate……………………………………….……………………………..6

Flora and Fauna……………………………….…………………………….6Environmental Issues……………………………………………………….7Demographics……………………………………………………………… 8

Agriculture………………………………………………………………….9

Industry………………………………………….………………………….9Language……………………………………………………………………10

Education………………………………………….……………………….. 10

History……………………………………………………………………... 10Herb Use, Personal and Commercial ……………………………………....12

CHAPTER 3 METHODS…………………………………………………..……14

Survey Design………………………………………………………………14

Survey Distribution…………………………………………………………16

Town Descriptions……………………………………………………….…16

Survey Data Compilation……………………………………………...……26Potential Problems……………………………………………………….… 27

CHAPTER 4 GENERAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION…………………...…29

Short Answer………………………………………………………….…… 33


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CHAPTER 5 THE FIFTEEN MOST COMMONLY USED HERBS, RESULTS

AND DISCUSSION………………………………………….……37

Descriptions of the Fifteen Most Commonly Used Herbs…………….……40

CHAPTER 6 REGIONAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION…………….……… 47

Regional Differences of Individual Herb Use…………………………...… 49

Regional Differences for Methods of Acquiring Herbs………………….…59Regional Differences of Uses of Herbs……………………………….…… 63

Regional Conclusions……………………………………………………… 67

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………… 73

LITERATURE CITED…………………………………………………………..… 75

APPENDIX 1 SAMPLE SURVEY…………………………………………….… 77

APPENDIX 2 DATA FOR EACH OF THE 21 SURVEY SETS…………...……82


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Bulgaria within Europe………………………………………………….…….. 5

2. Bulgaria…………………………………………………………………………53. Cities Surveyed and Regional Distribution………………………………..….. 19

4. Areas Where Medicinal Plants are Threatened…………………………………57


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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Age Structure of Bulgarians………………………………………………….…8

2. Town Information……………………………………………………………… 173. Average Herb Use and Population According to Town……………………..… 30

4. Average Percentages of How Herbs are Acquired for Each Town………….… 31

5. Average Percentages of How Herbs are Used for Each Town……………..….. 32

6.

The Fifteen Most Commonly Used Herbs and the Percentages of SurveysThat Indicated Use of Them…………………………………………………… 38

7. Average Percentages of Methods of Acquisition for the Fifteen MostCommonly Used Herbs………………………………………..…………..……39

8. Average Percentages of How the Fifteen Most Commonly Used Herbs are

Used………………………………………………………………………….… 40

9. Average Herb Use According to Region…………………………………….… 4810. Herbs with Significant Chi Square Values in the Pirin Mountains Region….…49

11.

Herbs with Significant Chi Square Values in the Rila Mountains Region…..…5012. Herbs with Significant Chi Square Values in the Central Part of the Northern

Balkan Mountains Region………………………………………………………51

13. Herbs with significant Chi Square Values in the Plains South of the Balkan

Mountains Region………………………………………………………………5214. Herbs with Significant Chi Square Values in the Rhodope Mountains Region.. 53

15. Herbs with Significant Chi Square Values in the Western Part of the Northern

Balkan Mountains Region……………………………………………………... 55

16.

Significant Chi Square Values for Methods of Acquiring Herbs for the PirinMountains Region………………………………………………………………59

17. Significant Chi Square Values for Methods of Acquiring Herbs for the Rila

Mountains Region………………………………………………………………6018. Significant Chi Square Values for Methods of Acquiring Herbs for the

Central Part of the Northern Balkan Mountains Region………………………..60

19. Significant Chi Square Values for Methods of Acquiring Herbs for the PlainsSouth of the Balkan Mountains Region…………………………….………..…61

20.

Significant Chi Square Values for Methods of Acquiring Herbs for the

Rhodope Mountains Region….……………………………………...……..….. 61

21. Significant Chi Square Values for the Methods of Acquiring Herbs for theWestern Part of the Northern Balkan Mountains Region………………………62

22. Significant Chi square Values for the Uses of Herbs for the Pirin Mountains

R i 63


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26. Significant Chi Square Values for the Uses of Herbs for the Rhodope

Mountains Region………………………………………………………………66

27.

Significant chi Square Values for the Uses of Herbs for the Western Part of the Northern Balkan Mountains Region………………………………..……… 66

28. Summary of Regional Data…………………………………..…………………68


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I cannot express enough gratitude to my advisor, Blair Orr, for his unending

assistance and support throughout my graduate career in the “The Loret Miller Ruppe

Peace Corps Masters International Program in Forestry at Michigan TechnologicalUniversity”. While serving in Bulgaria, he kept me connected to the home front and

provided invaluable words of wisdom. Since my return Blair has made sure I kept on

track with what once seemed an insurmountable task, completing my masters.I would also like to thank the remainder of my committee; Peg Gale for giving me

the opportunity to broaden my horizons by assisting her in a wetlands study and for always giving an encouraging smile and kind words; Jim Pickens for providing some

friendly advice or a humorous story when I needed to hear something uplifting; and toRon Gratz, for his valuable suggestions and for understanding and supporting the Peace

Corps experience. Thank you all for your support, time, and critiques. A warm thank

you to Janet Locatelli, a resourceful librarian, for finding some obscure information that Ihad lost hope of ever finding.

Bulgaria is a beautiful country with warm people and a diverse environment. My

service in Peace Corps would not have been as enjoyable or as rewarding without myfriends there. I would especially like to thank Silvia, Ivanka, and Stephen Angelova, our

Bulgarian family, for their constant support and generosity. I will always cherish our

friendship and remember the daily acts of kindness you gave. Special thanks to Ani and

Gergana for their friendship. This study would not have been possible without the PeaceCorps Volunteers that administered the surveys, and the Peace Corps Bulgaria office for

their assistance. Many thanks!

Lastly, I would like to thank my family. All of you have contributed with your love and support. Thank you Mom, for supporting me throughout college and life, and

for teaching me how important it is to enjoy whatever I choose to do. Larry and Denise,

thank you for your editing skills and all of your support. Special thanks to Jeff, for loving Peace Corps and Bulgaria as much as I do, looking forward to our next adventure

together, and for sharing the grueling process of writing a thesis with me.


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ABSTRACT

Bulgaria is a country rich in history, culture and traditions which include the use

of herbs. Herbs are commonly used throughout Bulgaria for medicinal purposes, in the

preparation of food, and as decoration. Bulgaria is a country in political, economic, and

cultural transition. Many privatized herb companies opened after the fall of communism;

a high unemployment rate led to a larger available work force for collecting. Bulgaria is

currently the largest exporter of herbs in Europe.

Herbs play an integral part in the Bulgarian household. I decided to design an

ethnobotanical study to learn which herbs are used, how they are used, and the methods

used to acquire them. I also wanted to learn if the local people believe herbs are

threatened, and if they do, what are those threats? To accomplish these goals, I designed

a multiple choice format survey, listing 128 herbs and short answer questions, that would

be administered by other Peace Corps Volunteers. In this way a wide range of towns

throughout Bulgaria could be surveyed.

Nineteen towns were surveyed. The responses indicate that herbs are primarily

used medicinally and in the preparation of food. The people surveyed indicated that

herbs play an important role in their families and that Bulgarians are knowledgeable on

various uses of herbs, traditional and modern. The responses also indicated that

Bulgarians are concerned about the abundance of herbs because of problems associated

i h h b i i h i h i ll i d d f i


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used in traditional Bulgarian cuisine. These herbs usually have a widespread natural

range or can be easily cultivated and are readily available to most of the population.

Even though some herbs are commonly used throughout Bulgaria, there are

significant regional differences of herb use. Fourteen of the towns were grouped into six

geographic regions. The distinct regions use varying amounts of herbs, different

individual herbs, and have different uses for and methods of acquiring herbs. Local

topography, natural diversity of herbs in proximity to the regions, and traditional

knowledge all affect regional use of herbs.


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Motherland beloved, with beauty so supreme!

Your boundless skies unfold their wondrous azure!

Your fleeting images enchant so like a treasure!

Every glance reveals fresh marvels yet unseen:

Here merry valleys, yonder giant mountains,

The land profuse with flowers, the sky with diamonds abounds…

Motherland beloved, with beauty so supreme!

Is there a country more generous in colour, in largesse?

You are a crucible replete with kindness and grace:

Bread, roses, nectar, flowers, fruit and lace,

The radiance of the East, the South’s lush caress,

Your forests are endowed with harmony and calm,

The valleys full of blossoms, the bosom full of charm.

Is there a country more generous in colour, in largesse?

Motherland, are you not worthy of devotion?

What wanderer ever left you not uttering a sigh?


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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

During my first year in Bulgaria I spent time observing the people and the culture

that surrounded me. I came to the conclusion that herbs are an integral part in most

Bulgarians’ lives. They use them medicinally, for cooking, decoration, and to generate

income. I decided to design an ethnobotanical study, using a survey, that could be used

to determine which herbs Bulgarians used most, how they are acquired and how they are

used.

According to Martin (1995), ethnobotany is defined as the study of people’s

classification, management and use of plants. Ethnobotanical studies can be applied

almost anywhere because plants are an integral part of many societies. The study of

ethnobotany can include many fields of research - botany, biochemistry, pharmacology,

toxicology, medicine, nutrition, agriculture, ecology, evolution, religion, sociology,

anthropology, linguistics, history and archaeology. Therefore, there are numerous

approaches and applications of ethnobotanical studies (Alexiades, 1996).

The following passage from the Encyclopedia of World Cultures (Bennett,1992)

describes what I observed, and what Bulgarians described to me.

“Treatment for illness traditionally included a variety of

possibilities: religious actions, such as drinking holy water

and kissing icons; non-Christian magical incantations


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In the following chapter I will discuss the study area, Bulgaria. I will begin by

discussing the geography and environment of Bulgaria, followed by the demographics

information, agriculture, industry, and education. I will conclude with a brief section on

Bulgaria’s history, including a history of their herb practices.

The methods will be described in Chapter 3. The methods are split into five

sections; survey design, survey distribution, town descriptions, survey data compilation,

and potential problems. I will begin by discussing how I designed and then distributed

the surveys. A brief description of each of the nineteen towns that participated will be

given. A section follows this on the methods used to compile and analyze the data.

Chapter 3 concludes by addressing potential problems with the methodology.

In Chapter 4 I will describe the data collected from the nineteen towns that were

surveyed and then discuss those results. This includes the average number of herbs used

in each to town, along with the population information. Statistically, population size and

herb use are correlated. Herb use data, and methods of acquiring herbs for each town are

also presented in this chapter. Results from the short answer section of the survey are

included in this chapter.

Chapter 5 focuses on the acquisition and uses of the fifteen most commonly used

herbs. The chapter concludes with a description of each of the fifteen most commonly

used herbs and a discussion of why these herbs are frequently used in Bulgaria.

The regional results will be presented in Chapter 6. Fourteen of the towns were


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individual herbs that are used significantly more or significantly less in a particular

region compared to the other towns and the reasons for these differences.

I will briefly discuss conclusions in the final chapter. This is followed by

appendices with a sample survey form and the original data from each of the 21 survey

sets.


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CHAPTER 2

STUDY AREA

Though only the size of Ohio, Bulgaria is a country rich in history and culture and

diverse in climate, flora, and fauna. The traditional use of herbs, recent economic and

political transition, and ecological diversity makes Bulgaria an intriguing study area - the

traditional lifestyle merges with modern economy. This chapter provides the background

on Bulgaria necessary to understand the context in which the study of herb use was

undertaken.

GEOGRAPHY AND MINERAL RESOURCES

This study was conducted in Bulgaria, a country located in Eastern Europe

between 41°14′ and 44°13′ N and 22°21′ and 28°26′E (Bennett, 1992). Bulgaria is

110,993.6 square kilometers and is bordered by Romania (608 km of border), Serbia

(318km), Macedonia (148 km), Greece (494 km), Turkey (240km) and the Black Sea

(354km) (CIA, 1998) (Figures 1 and 2). There is much diversity in the landforms,

dominated by mountains in the central and southern parts of the country and the Danube

plains in the north. The average altitude is 470 meters (Republic of Bulgaria, 1998). The

highest point, at 2925m, is Mount Musala in the Rhodope Mountains. The lowest point,

at 0m is found in the Black Sea (CIA 1998) The Balkan Mountains 530 km long


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Figure 1: Bulgaria within Europe (www.heritagefilms.com)


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Brown coal, also known as lignite, iron ore, copper, zinc, lead, oil, and natural gas

are the chief mineral resources in Bulgaria (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998).

CLIMATE

The climate of Bulgaria is classified as moderate continental, but varies when

close to the Black Sea or in the mountains (Republic of Bulgaria, 1998). A

Mediterranean influence is found in the southern regions of Bulgaria (Bulgarian Travel

Guide, 2000). The Balkan Range provides a barrier to the cold northern air currents.

This produces the effect of cold winters and hot summers in the northern areas, especially

the Danubian Plain. The areas south of the Balkan Mountains have average temperatures

that are several degrees higher and with smaller variations, a climate favorable for

agriculture (Nachev and Velchev, 1999). The average annual air temperature of Bulgaria

is 10.5° C. The highest recorded temperature was 45.2° C and the lowest temperature

was –38.3° C (ICN, 1998).

The average annual rainfall is between 450 to 1300 mm. Rainfall is highest in the

mountains and western Bulgaria. Snow is rarely seen along the Black Sea coast, but

snow usually is found in the high mountains for 200 days (ICN, 1998).

FLORA AND FAUNA

Bulgaria allocates a large percentage of its land for reserves. There are three


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Bulgaria and 285 plant species unique to the Balkan Peninsula (ICN, 1998). About one

third of Bulgaria is covered by forests (Nachev and Velchev, 1999). The most common

trees are oak, beech, elm, white pine, black pine, spruce and fir. Grass communities

cover about 15% of Bulgaria (ICN, 1998: Apostolova and Slavova, 1997).

Bulgaria contains about 15,000 animal species. Plain regions host the majority of

the animal species. Foxes, squirrels, hedgehogs, weasels, polecats and bats can be found

throughout the country. Wild cats, wild boars, bears, badgers, rabbits, mountain goats,

wolves, deer, eagles, vultures and woodpeckers can be found in the mountains. The

swamps along the Danube River and the Black Sea coast are rich in birds, such as

pelicans, ibis, herons, cormorants, gulls and ducks. Storks are abundant in most towns,

on old smokestacks of abandoned factories. Balkan trout, pike, sheat-fish and various

carp are the most common freshwater fishes. Crabs, black mussel, grey mullet, mackerel,

seals and three dolphin species are found in the Black Sea (ICN, 1998).

Most Bulgarian wildlife books and publications list all these species of animals as

being common in Bulgaria. There are many protected areas where hunting is prohibited.

In reality, poaching is a serious threat to Bulgaria’s fauna. With a high unemployment

rate, many Bulgarians need to hunt because they cannot afford to buy meat. During my

27 months in Bulgaria, with much time spent hiking, I saw a total of two deer, two

rabbits, and a squirrel. The birds were plentiful.


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emissions; rivers polluted with raw sewage, heavy metals, and detergents; deforestation;

forest damage caused by air pollution and acid rain; soil contamination from heavy

metals and industrial waste (CIA, 1998).

DEMOGRAPHICS

The population of Bulgaria is 8,194,772, but there is an annual population decline

of 0.52%. The death rate is higher than the birth rate. With the fall of communism the

unemployment rate increased. Bulgarians have said they do not have the money to have

children. Another reason for the population decline is that most Bulgarians, when given

the chance, will emigrate to other countries. The age structure of Bulgarians is shown in

Table 1.

Table 1: Age structure of Bulgarians

Age Bracket (yrs) % of population

0-14 16

15-64 68

65+ 16

The average age in Bulgaria will continue to increase because of the low birth rate. The

average life expectancy is about 72 years old (CIA, 1998).

The majority of the people are ethnic Bulgarians (86%), while 9% are Turkish and

4% are Roma (Embassy of Bulgaria, U.S., 2000). The minority population is growing.

According to statistics from 1956 ethnic Bulgarians comprised 90% of the total


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Bulgarian Christian Orthodox. Sixty-seven percent of the population currently resides in

urban areas compared to 33.5% living in urban areas in 1956 (Embassy of Bulgaria, U.S.,

2000: The Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, 1960). The future of many villages

is in question because of the mass migration to urban areas. Many villages have

primarily elderly residents (Bennett, 1992; Creed, 1998).

AGRICULTURE

Agricultural crops are important to the economy of Bulgaria. Bulgaria was

considered an agricultural country until World War II. Agricultural products account for

about 15% of Bulgaria’s GNP, and about 20% of the total work force (The Columbia

Gazetteer of the World, 1998). The mild climate and fertile soils give way to a variety of

vegetables, fruits and tobacco (Nachev and Velchev, 1999). Bulgaria is the fourth largest

exporter of tobacco in the world (U.S. Department of State, 1999). Other important crops

are wheat, corn, barley, sunflowers, sugar beets, and grapes (The Columbia Gazetteer of

the World, 1998). Bulgaria is also well known for its rose oil, wine, brandy, and yogurt.

INDUSTRY

Bulgaria has been considered an industrial country since the end of World War II.

In 1939 industry accounted for only 25% of Bulgaria’s GNP, by 1957 it was 68% (The

Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, 1960). Industries that are important to the


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LANGUAGE

The official language is Bulgarian, a Slavic language using the Cyrillic alphabet.

The literacy rate is 98%. In 863 AD, two Christian monks that were brothers, Cyril and

Methodius created the alphabet by mixing Latin and Greek letters. This new alphabet is

thought to have helped spread Christianity to other areas in Eastern Europe in the 9th

century (Embassy of Bulgaria, U. S., 2000). Today, the Cyrillic alphabet is also used in

the languages of Russia, Serbia, Macedonia, and the former Soviet republics. Bulgarians

take great pride in this and celebrate Cyril and Methodius Day every year with parades

and other festivities.

EDUCATION

Attending school is required for children from 7 to 16 years old and is free at

public schools. Students choose their career path when entering seventh grade. They can

chose to attend a trade school, a mathematics school, or a language school. Most of the

math and language schools prepare the students for college. Students need to pass an

exam to be admitted into the “better” schools. A university education is free to those

students who qualify on a competitive nation-wide exam, but the majority of students pay

tuition. Sofia University located in the capital, Sofia, is the oldest in the country, founded

in 1888 (ICN, 1998).


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beginnings of Bulgaria as an independent country began in 681 AD, when it was founded

by the Slavs and the proto-Bulgars (Republic of Bulgaria, 1998). It became the most

powerful country in Eastern Europe in the late 9th

and 10th

century. Its reign came to an

end in the centuries to follow due to conflicts with Magyars, Serbs, Russians, the

Byzantine Empire, and, especially, the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire ruled

Bulgaria for almost 500 years, from 1396 to 1878 (Embassy of Bulgaria, U.S., 2000).

The Ottoman Empire was, and still is, accused of many war atrocities and of trying to

destroy Bulgaria’s culture and religion. To this day, many Bulgarians hold a strong

dislike for Turkey and the Turkish people. They refer to that period as the “Turkish

Yoke”.

The Ottoman Empire retreated from Bulgaria in 1878 after Russia defeated them

in the War of Liberation. Bulgaria formally declared independence in 1908, despite

interference from Russia, the Ottoman Empire and other Balkan States. The government

was unstable, as parties struggled for power. During the next 36 years, there would be

many different leaders. The USSR invaded Bulgaria in 1944 and placed the Fatherland

Front (the Communist Party) in power. Georgi Dimitrov became the first Communist

Prime Minister of Bulgaria, winning 70% of the vote in a questionable election (Embassy

of Bulgaria, U.S., 2000). As a result, all the private enterprises and banks were

nationalized, and all of the farmable land became part of cooperative farms (Republic of

Bulgaria, 1998). Bulgaria was a close ally of the Soviet Union for the next 42 years.


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parliamentary republic whose power belongs to the people through elected

representatives. They adopted a constitution in July of 1991 that “…provides for a multi-

party, parliamentary system and free elections on the basis of universal suffrage”

(Embassy of Bulgaria, U.S., 2000). During this time, the property and businesses that

had been seized were slowly reinstated to the previous owners. Zhelyu Zhelev was

Bulgaria’s first president freely elected by the people. He served until 1997. Peter

Stoyanov of the United Democratic Forces party is the current president. Bulgaria is still

going through the difficult transition of government, economy, and culture.

Many Bulgarians still consider themselves communists and want to return to that

system of government. The standard of living fell by about 40% after the fall of

communism because the Bulgarian economy had been closely tied to the Soviet market

(U.S. Department of State, 1999). Under communism everyone was employed and there

were not the class distinctions that exist now. As of March of 2000, 18.5% of the

population that were able to work, were unemployed (Embassy of Bulgaria, U.S., 2000).

HERB USE, PERSONAL AND COMMERCIAL

Under communism people could collect herbs in small quantities for personal use

or to sell in small quantities at the town vegetable markets, but they could not collect

herbs to sell on a large scale. With the privatization of businesses, herb companies began

to open throughout the country. The high unemployment rate led to an increased


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the herb gatherers to pick the entire plant, including the roots, and to pick all of the herbs

in a given area. The workers are usually not from the area where they are collecting, so

they do not feel local responsibility towards the area. As a result, sustainable collecting

methods are not practiced. Of all the European countries, Bulgaria is the largest exporter

of medicinal herbs. It ranks among the largest herb exporting countries in the world.

Each year, Bulgaria exports between ten and fifteen tons of herbs (Aladzhem, 2000).

It is possible that the current commercial production of herbs could alter the

natural ecological dynamics of herbs in Bulgaria and shift the ways Bulgarians view and

use herbs. Certain herbs may be viewed as a possible income source, and they will be

collected and sold to herb companies instead of being used locally. This can result in an

area devoid of economically valuable herbs, possibly affecting the people that live in

nearby communities who traditionally use those herbs.

I felt a study of current home use of herbs would be an important area of study.

The meaning of the word herb, as used in this study, refers to flora that is used by people.

Herbs are usually plants and shrubs but can include trees if the leaves or fruit are used.

How are herbs used in the Bulgarian household and do Bulgarians think herbs are

threatened in their local environment? The study was conducted in many towns

throughout Bulgaria to determine if there are significant regional or local differences in

herb use. The next chapter describes the methods used to conduct the study.


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CHAPTER 3

METHODS

I wanted to create and distribute a survey to a wide range of villages throughout

Bulgaria to learn about the role that herbs play in the Bulgarian household. This broad

goal led to several subsidiary questions. Which herbs are used most often and for what

uses? Are there regional differences in the use of herbs? Is a local Bulgarian’s use of

herbs affected by the privatization of herb companies? Do the local people think the

herbs of Bulgaria are threatened, and if they do, what are those threats?

A survey that covered the different regions, reduced respondent bias, and could be

efficiently administered was needed. I used multiple choice format questionnaires

administered by other Peace Corps Volunteers. This chapter is divided into five sections;

survey design, survey distribution, town descriptions, survey data compilation, and

potential problems.

SURVEY DESIGN

I designed a survey that was applicable to all towns in Bulgaria, by listing herbs

from all the different areas of Bulgaria. The surveys could be distributed to many

different towns in Bulgaria to get a wider-spread response in comparison with developing

a locally targeted survey.


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survey listed the herbs using their common Bulgarian name, their Latin name and the

common English name. The first column is marked if the person surveyed uses the herb.

The following column is to indicate how they are acquired. Are they grown in a garden,

purchased, or gathered from the local environment? The next column asks if the person

surveyed sells the herb. If they do, are they sold at the town bazaar or to an herb

company? The final column is used to indicate what the herb is used for. The

possibilities are medicinal, food, decoration or other.

The last page of the survey consists of short answer questions. These questions

are to determine if certain herbs are becoming increasingly rare or more expensive, and

what percentage of a family’s income is dependent on herbs. The questions focus on

changes in the last decade, since the fall of communism and the privatization of

businesses including herb companies. These questions are:

1. Have some herbs become more expensive in the past 10 years? Which ones?

2.

Have some herbs become more difficult to find in the local environment in the

past 10 years? Which ones?

3. Are there any herbs your family used to use, which you can no longer find to

purchase or gather? Which ones?

4.

What percentage of your family’s income is from selling herbs?

5. Does your family think the abundance of Bulgaria’s herbs is threatened?

These questions were written in English so they could be used as an English assignment


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SURVEY DISTRIBUTION

I distributed sets of surveys, along with additional information teachers could use

to create an informative lesson about herbs, their uses and how they are abused in nature,

to Peace Corps Volunteers in other towns. Most of the volunteers were English teachers

and they gave the surveys to one Bulgarian class, at the high school level, as an English

assignment which was to be completed at home with the students’ families. In this way,

the student becomes the interviewer when he or she brings the survey home and discusses

it with the family (Sutton and Orr, 1991). The volunteers that were not English teachers

distributed them to colleagues, friends, eco-clubs, NGO’s, etc. I supplied these

volunteers with copies of the survey in Bulgarian. In this way I could get a wide

sampling of surveys from various regions in Bulgaria. I gave a set to any volunteer that

was willing to distribute them.

The volunteers that participated were from the following towns: Bansko,

Blagoevgrad, Karjdali, Kyustendil, Lovech, Nova Zagora, Pernik, Plovdiv, Razgrad,

Samokov, Saparevo Banya, Sevlievo, Silistra, Smolyan, Svoge, Tryavna, Velingrad,

Vratsa, and Yambol. The population size, location within Bulgaria, and coordinates of

each town are shown in Table 2.

TOWN DESCRIPTIONS

Fourteen of the towns were grouped into six distinct regions based on geographic


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Table 2: Town Information

TOWN POPULATION* LOCATION IN

BULGARIA

COORDINATES

Bansko 9,292 SW 41°1'N 23°29'E

Blagoevgrad 72,853 SW 42°02’N 23°05’E

Karjdali 46,767 SC 41°39'N 25°22'E

Kyustendil 54,452 SW 42°16'N 22°41'E

Lovech 48,528 NC 43°09'N 24°43'E

Nova Zagora 26,367 SE 42°30'N26°00'E

Pernik 91,075 SW 42°35'N 23°00'E

Plovdiv 345,205 SW 42°08'N 24°45'E

Razgrad 41,658 NE 43°31'N 26°32'E

Samokov 28,702 SW 42°20'N23°35'E

Saparevo Banya 4,583 SW 42°17'N 23°16'E

Sevlievo 25,558 NC 43°01'N 25°05'E

Silistra 48,287 NE 44°07'N 27°16'E

Smolyan 34,627 SW 41°35'N 24°42'E

Svoge 8,288 NW 42°58'N 23°19'E

Tryavna 12,398 NC 42°53'N 25°30'E

Velingrad 25,887 SW 42°02'N 23°59'E

Vratsa 76,947 NW 43°12'N 23°33'E

Yambol 91,119 SE 42°28'N 26°30'E

SW=SouthWest SC=SouthCentral SE=SouthEast NW=NorthWest NC=NorthCentral NE=NorthEast

*Population numbers are based on 1993 data

Population and Coordinate data are taken from The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998.


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of Velingrad, Smolyan and Karjdali; Plains South of the Balkan Mountains, consisting of

Yambol and Nova Zagora; Central Part of the Northern Balkan Mountains, consisting of

Tryavna and Sevlievo; and the Western Part of the Northern Balkan Mountains,

consisting of Lovech, Vratsa and Svoge. Figure 3 illustrates the locations of cities

surveyed and these six regions.

Pirin Mountains Region

Bansko is a town of 9,292 people, located in the southwest quarter of Bulgaria in

the Pirin Mountains (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998). It is an agricultural

town, with tobacco as an important crop (ICN, 1998). The industry of Bansko focuses on

timber products, furniture, producing telephone equipment and woodworking. A wine

factory is located here (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998). Bansko is also well

known to tourists, as an alpine skiing destination.

Blagoevgrad is located in the southwest quarter of Bulgaria in the Pirin

Mountains, with a mild Mediterranean climate (Blagoevgrad Municipality, 2000). The

population is 72,853 (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998). During 1985-87, the

town center was rebuilt in the traditional soviet style, with concrete block buildings and

concrete monuments. It is the administrative center of the Pirin region and hosts a variety

of factories. Blagoevgrad produces most of Bulgaria’s cigarettes at the Pirin Tobacco

Plant. Other important industries are machine building and electronics. It is the regional


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Figure 3: Cities Surveyed and Regional Distribution


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westernized more quickly than other areas. This town is a hub for cultural events, with

annual theater and music festivals. The Pirin Folk Ensemble of Blagoevgrad is the most

well known folk music and dance troupe in Bulgaria.

Rila Mountains Region

Samokov is located in western Bulgaria on the Iskur River in the Rila Mountains

(Bousfield and Richardson, 1999). The population is 28,702. Samokov is 43km

southeast of Sofia. It is an agriculture center, producing rye, oats, potatoes, fruit,

livestock, and dairy farming. Samokov was home to a bomb and missile-making factory

during the cold war and, consequently, this town’s economy was severely damaged with

the fall of communism. The main industry is the lumber trade, with a state-run lumber

business in town. Other industries include textiles and manufacturing electrotechnical

plastics. There are coal and lime mines nearby. Many tourists pass through Samokov on

their way to neighboring ski resorts (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998). It is

well known in Bulgaria for its art school specializing in painting (Webtourist, 1997).

Saparevo Banya is located in the southwest quarter of Bulgaria on the Dzherman

River, in the Rila Mountains. The population is 4,583. It is primarily known as a health

resort and boasts the hottest springs in Bulgaria. Saparevo Banya produces a variety of

fruits and there are many vineyards (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998).


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The population of Velingrad is 25,887 (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998). It

is comprised of three former Pomak villages, Chepino, Luzhene, and Kamenitza that

came together in 1949. It is well known as a health resort, with a wealth of hot mineral

springs (Bousfield and Richardson, 1999). It is also an alpine skiing area (Webtourist,

1997). The main industries of Velingrad are building machine-processing equipment,

manufacturing toys, and cutting marble (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998).

Smolyan, a town of 34,627 people, is located in south central Bulgaria in the

Rhodope Mountains on the Arda River. It is the highest major town in Bulgaria, at

1000m above sea level (Bousfield and Richardson, 1999). Smolyan is the economic and

administrative center of the Rhodope Mountains (Webtourist, 1997). As an agricultural

center, Smolyan specializes in tobacco, potatoes, livestock, and dairy farming. The main

industries are metal and wood processing, construction materials, building furniture, and

producing wine. A famous woodworking school is located here (The Columbia

Gazetteer of the World, 1998).

Karjdali is located in south central Bulgaria on the Arda River, in the Rhodope

Mountains. The population is 46,767. It was one of the last towns in Bulgaria to remain

under the Ottoman rule, to this day it has a high population of Turkish-Bulgarians. The

main industries include tobacco and food processing, lead and zinc smelting, textiles, and

building auto engines. A teachers college is located here (The Columbia Gazetteer of the

World, 1998).


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Plains South of the Balkan Mountains Region

Yambol is located in the southeast quarter of Bulgaria with a population of 91,119

(The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998). During communism, the main industry

was a polyester fiber plant, but Yambol is now reverting back to an agriculture region,

with foreign investments helping establish new vineyards. Grain and livestock are other

important agricultural products. Other industries include chemical production,

machinery, construction materials, and food processing (The Columbia Gazetteer of the

World, 1998).

Nova Zagora is located south of the Balkan Mountains with a population of

26,367. It is an agricultural center, specializing in grain, cotton, livestock and tobacco.

The main industries of Nova Zagora are textiles, canning, and the construction and repair

of agricultural machinery (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998).

Central Part of the Northern Balkan Mountains Region

Tryavna is located in central Bulgaria in the Balkan Mountains, at an altitude of

450m and with a population of 12,398 (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998:

ICN, 1998). It is a town known for its woodworking and icon painting. Tryavna is home

to a famous art school. Agriculture is important to this town, especially fruits, livestock,

and horticulture. There are two former munition factories that have been converted to

lamp and light bulb manufacturing. Other industries include machine fabrication,


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Sevlievo is located in central Bulgaria, in the Balkan Mountains. It is a market

center for fruit, grain and livestock. This town has been labeled by Bulgarians as the

“Hong Kong of Bulgaria”. In 1993, the population was 25,558 but locals say it has

grown to over 30,000 by 1999. The main industries are manufacturing wire, construction

materials, and plumbing fixtures (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998). There

are numerous foreign companies in town such as ABB, a Swedish company that produces

electronics and two U.S. companies, The American Company and Ideal Standard. They

produce ceramic bathroom fixtures such as toilets and showers. The unemployment rate

of Sevlievo is very low.

Western Part of the Northern Balkan Mountains Region

Lovech is located in the north central area of Bulgaria in the foothills of the

Balkan Mountains on the Osum River. It has a population of 48,528 (The Columbia

Gazetteer of the World, 1998). Lovech is a grain and livestock center. The main

industrial firm is Balkan, which manufactures textiles and bicycles. They are downsizing

rapidly and the unemployment rate has reportedly risen to 25% (Lovech, 2000). Other

industries include auto assembly, manufacturing iron parts, electric tools, leather goods,

plastic, and furniture (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998).

The town of Vratsa sits in the foothills of the Balkan Mountains in the northwest

quarter of Bulgaria. It has a population of 76,947. Vratsa is a commercial and crafts


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Svoge is located at the mouth of the Iskrets River, in the foothills of the Balkan

Mountains in the Northwest quarter of Bulgaria. It is 29km north of Sofia. The

population is 8,288. Svoge is a health resort because of their thermal springs. Many

people from Sofia visit because of the proximity of the town. The main industries of the

town are ceramics and chocolate (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998).

Individual Towns, Not Placed in a Region

Kyustendil is located in western Bulgaria, close to the border of Macedonia with

an altitude of 510-530m. 54,452 people live here (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World,

1998). The climate is continental with a Mediterranean influence. The mild weather and

fertile plains are reasons for its successful agriculture (Webtourist, 1997: Bousfield and

Richardson, 1999). Kyustendil is a market center for fruits and other agricultural

products. The industries include sheet iron, wire, shoes, building furniture, and knitting.

Tourists visit Kyustendil for the Turkish steam baths, heated by thermal springs (The

Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998).

Pernik is located in western Bulgaria on the Struma River, about 25-km southwest

from Sofia with a population of 91,075. At the turn of the century, Pernik became

Bulgaria’s largest coal mining center, an industry that employed most of the local men.

During communism these miners received high wages and early retirement. Presently,

the mining industry is failing and there is high rate of unemployment in Pernik. Other


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Plovdiv, located in south central Bulgaria, on the Maritsa River, is the second

largest city in Bulgaria with 345,205 people (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World,

1998). Plovdiv became Bulgaria’s largest marketplace center during the 1870’s when the

railway between Europe and Istanbul was completed. In present times it is a business

center, hosting the International Trade Fairs every May and September. It is also a

transportation hub. Plovdiv has historically been the most liberal town in all of Bulgaria.

A state university and a medical college are located here. Plovdiv is a cultural center,

attracting tourists with its art galleries, museums, craft workshops and Roman ruins

(Bousfield and Richardson, 1999: Hellander and Stanley, 1999). Every July, the

European Month of Culture is celebrated (Bulgarian Travel Guide, 2000). The major

industries of Plovdiv include textiles, making carpets, manufacturing electronic

equipment, leather working, food processing, and making steel products (The Columbia

Gazetteer of the World, 1998).

Razgad is located in northeastern Bulgaria on the Beli Lom River in the

Ludogorie hills, hills that separate the Balkan Mountains from the Danubian Plain. The

population is 41,658 (The Columbia Gazetteer of the World, 1998). The town is

characterized by many Turkish buildings and architecture (ICN, 1998). Razgrad is the

cattle trading and agricultural center of this upland region. Grain, legumes, sunflowers,

and lumber are all exported. The industries are tool and auto parts manufacturing, food

processing, producing pharmaceuticals, glass, and porcelain (The Columbia Gazetteer of


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economy of Silistra is tied to the port on the Danube River. Agricultural products include

fruits, vegetables, livestock, and wine. From time immemorial to the present Silistra has

been a supplier of grain to the southeast. The industries include textiles, furniture

manufacturing, food and wood processing, and paper milling (The Columbia Gazetteer of

the World, 1998).

SURVEY DATA COMPILATION

The surveys were distributed in December of 1998 and were returned by March of

1999. This is the winter season of Bulgaria, not a growing season of herbs. This is

important because it would lessen the influence that currently growing herbs could have

on the results. The people surveyed might be more apt to mark the herbs they are

currently gathering or growing.

As the surveys were returned, I compiled each town’s data, making a master sheet

for each set of surveys. In this way, data from the different towns and regions can be

compared. Two towns, Silistra and Sevlievo, had two sets of surveys each. I combined

these sets. With each master sheet, I calculated the average number of herbs used per

town.

I performed the statistical test “Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation” on the

town’s average herb use and population size (Steele and Torrie, 1960). This was done to

determine, statistically, if the data is consistent with a rank order correlation between


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town. I also calculated the average percentage of each of the four uses of herbs that were

listed on the survey, for each town.

I calculated the fifteen most commonly used herbs, from all surveys. I examined

the average percent of how these herbs are acquired and what they are used for, using

data from all the towns.

I calculated the average number of herbs used per region. To determine if certain

regions used specific herbs significantly more or less than the average of the remaining

towns, I performed chi-square tests of independence on each region with each individual

herb on the survey (Freese, 1984). I also performed the chi-square tests of independence

on each region’s data on how the total herbs used per region are acquired and how they

are used, to determine if it differed statistically from the remaining towns.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS

There are some inherent problems with the previously described method of

designing and distributing the surveys. The primary problem is that I cannot be sure the

information was collected in a consistent manner because 21 different volunteers

administered sets of surveys. Fourteen of the volunteers were English teachers. I do not

know if they gave the lesson on herbs before or after the surveys were completed. I

assume the lesson has no or little impact on the results because the information in the

lesson did not name any specific herbs. It was general information about the different


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programs and did not give a lesson about herbs, and the short answer part of the survey

was completed in Bulgarian instead of English. I assume this had little or no impact on

the survey because of the rigidness of the survey.

This method employs many interviewers. The students can all be considered

interviewers in this case because they brought the surveys home to question their

families. According to Sutton and Orr (1991) multiple interviewers can be beneficial to a

study because it allows for a variety of interviewing techniques and reduces the

possibility that the results are biased by a principle interviewer’s way of questioning.

Also, an interview from a family member can elicit more complete responses compared

to an interview from a stranger (Sutton and Orr, 1991).

I decided to distribute a multiple choice survey with an established list of herbs.

This is a potential problem because the results could have been different if the people

surveyed were asked to list the herbs they use, freehand, without a set list. I determined

this design was necessary because many people would be administering the survey and a

more concrete survey would lead to more consistent results. According to Martin (1995),

dichotomous and multiple choice questions are a way to investigate matters that have

already been identified in non-formal ways, more intensely. A higher number of

responses from this type of study have to be collected to obtain statistically significant

results, compared to open-ended questions (Martin, 1995). I was not biased by listing

specific herbs or only herbs from my region when making the survey. I listed all of the


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CHAPTER 4

GENERAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Herbs are an integral part of the Bulgarian household. They are primarily used

medicinally and in the preparation of food. The responses of the people surveyed

indicate that Bulgarians are knowledgeable on various uses of herbs, traditional and

modern, and that herbs play an important role in their families. Bulgarians are aware of

the increasing economic value of specific herbs and realize this along with problems

associated with industrialization – pollution and deforestation, could threaten the

abundance of herbs in Bulgaria.

In this chapter I will describe the results of the nineteen towns that were surveyed,

the average number of herbs used by to town, along with the population information.

The results of the statistical test, Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation, will be used

to statistically indicate that population size and herb use are correlated. The data of the

breakdown of how the towns acquire and use herbs is also presented in this chapter. I

will also discuss the results from the short answer part of the survey.

Twenty-one sets of surveys were returned from nineteen different towns, for a

total of 278 surveys. The original data for each survey set is shown in Appendix 2. The

average number of herbs marked on each survey, from all towns, is 30.30 herbs. The

number of herbs used varies greatly from town to town. Table 3 shows the towns, in


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population size. Seventy percent of the top ten herb-using towns have a population

below 35,000. Only 22.2% of the remaining towns, that use a lesser amount of herbs,

have a population below 35,000. In Bulgaria, a town with less than 35,000 people is

considered a relatively small town.

Using Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation, the calculated t value is 2.073

and the critical test value of t is 1.734, with eighteen degrees of freedom at the 0.10

confidence level (Steele and Torrie, 1960). Since the calculated t statistic is greater than

the test

value of t , the null hypothesis is rejected and the data are consistent with a rank order

correlation between small town size and the increased use of herbs.

Table 3: Average herb use and population according to town

TOWN SURVEYS AVERAGE NUMBER HERBS USED

POPULATION

Nova Zagora 11 51.45 26,367Velingrad 13 38.54 25,887

Vratsa 18 37.89 76,947Lovech 19 37.79 48,528

Svoge 16 34.75 8,288

Karjdali 3 34.33 46,767Bansko 2 34.0 9,292

Smolyan 24 33.71 34,627

Triyavna 24 32.63 12,398Samokov 11 29.0 28,702Sevlievo 22 27.71 25,558

Saparevo Banya 2 27.0 4,583

Silistra 29 25.92 48,287dil 4 2 4 4 2


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People in all towns acquire their herbs primarily by gathering them from the local

environment - the forests, fields, river valleys, mountain pastures, and mountain fields

surrounding their towns. An average of 72.1% of all herbs indicated on all the surveys,

for all towns, are acquired by gathering. An average of 25.6% of all herbs are grown and

an average of 14.4% of all herbs are bought. Table 4 shows for the breakdown of how

the herbs are acquired by town.

Table 4: Average percentages of how the herbs are acquired for each town

TOWN % GROWN % PURCHASED % GATHERED

Nova Zagora 14.3 15.2 61.5

Velingrad 28.5 14.4 68.7

Vratsa 28.9 14.8 78.9Lovech 22.7 6.4 82.3

Svoge 15.8 11.3 77.9

Karjdali 44.7 18.4 53.4Bansko 32.4 4.4 82.4

Smolyan 14.5 9.3 87.4

Tryavna 28.6 16.1 76.1

Samokov 21.6 11.6 79.6Sevlievo 30.5 8.3 71.5

Saparevo Banya 38.9 0 63.0

Silistra 25.9 22.0 65.6Kyustendil 27.2 4.9 79.6

Pernik 28.0 14.8 72.0

Blagoevgrad 23.4 22.1 77.3Yambol 25.4 30.3 61.0

Plovdiv 12.2 35.3 67.9Razgrad 22.5 13.8 63.0

Average % 25.6 14.4 72.1


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Many families will gather as many herbs as they can, or the amount they think will be

sufficient to last the year. If they use up their supply of herbs, they may need to purchase

additional herbs in the market. In some years a family intends on gathering or growing

the necessary herbs, but due to a poor growing season, they resort to purchasing herbs.

The towns use herbs primarily for medicinal purposes. An average of 55.4% of

all the herbs are used medicinally for every town. This is followed by an average of

35.7% of the herbs being used for the preparation of food for all towns. An average of

17.2% of the herbs are used as decoration and 10.6% are used for other purposes (Table

5).

Table 5: Average percentages of how the herbs are used for each town

TOWN %MEDICINAL % FOOD % DECORATION %OTHER

Nova Zagora 35.2 29.5 11.0 10.1

Velingrad 59.9 30.1 18.0 18.6

Vratsa 69.5 28.4 14.2 12.9

Lovech 61.8 34.4 22.1 8.9Svoge 64.6 27.7 14.4 6.8

Karjdali 63.1 34.0 35.9 3.9

Bansko 66.2 32.4 22.1 1.5Smolyan 61.7 34.9 14.0 12.9

Tryavna 58.7 28.9 17.0 18.0

Samokov 49.8 29.5 18.5 16.3Sevlievo 58.0 35.8 14.1 17.5

Saparevo Banya 48.1 40.7 22.0 0Silistra 59.8 33.1 17.6 8.3Kyustendil 57.3 47.6 9.7 5.8

Pernik 45.5 38.9 13.6 26.1

Blagoevgrad 53.5 44.8 18.3 10.6

Y b l 52 6 35 4 14 0 10 5


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The sum of the percentage for the uses of herbs is not 100% because some herbs

may have more than one use. A common example is for the herb stinging nettle. The

leaves are used for medicinal purposes and as a food source.

The data indicates that the average number of herbs used is unique to each town.

These results, supported with Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation test, imply that

there is a rank order correlation between small town size and increased use of herbs. The

results also show that the individual towns acquire and use herbs differently, compared to

the other towns. In Chapter 6, I will explore the results of the regional information about

how herbs are acquired and used to determine if the individual regions follow similar

patterns of herb use.

SHORT ANSWER

As described in the methods, the students were the interviewers when completing

the survey with their families. Most Bulgarian households consist of an extended family;

it is common for three generations to be living together. Therefore, the responses

represent different views as the older generation lived a traditional life and the students

are living during a time of transition and exposure to a global culture.

Valuable information was gathered from the short answer part of the survey.

Fewer than 30% of the respondents completed all the questions. One of the reasons for

the lack of responses may be the limited English skills of the participants or that the


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the legal implications if they admitted collecting these herbs. Other people may not want

to give away their “secrets” of where the medicinally important herbs are located.

This part of the survey was a valuable tool in gaining local perceptions of herbs

because the answers are qualitative. Rather than trying to fit answers into awkward

categories, the answers themselves provide the key information. Over 80% of the people

surveyed responded to at least one question on the last page. 55% of the total surveys

indicated that they believe the abundance of Bulgaria’s herbs are threatened. If one only

counts the surveys that responded to this question, 89% believe Bulgaria’s herbs are

threatened. Similarly, 44% of the total surveys indicated that herbs have become more

difficult to find. This percentage raises to 78% when only the surveys that indicated a

response are included.

Many of the participants took the time to write lengthy responses to the questions

regarding the threats to the abundance of Bulgaria’s herbs and the role herbs have in the

Bulgarian family, past and present. Throughout the surveys there were various responses

as to what the participants believe are the threats - pollution, industrialization,

deforestation, fires, improper gathering techniques, insufficient protection and gathering

laws, grazing animals, pesticides, too many people gathering, and herb companies. The

most common shared beliefs of existing threats are improper gathering techniques, people

collecting for money, and pollution. The following quotes are representative of the

majority of the responses.


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or meadow with many herbs remains without a stick in

them.” respondent from Svoge

“I think that the threats come from polluted nature [localenvironment] and destroying of forests.” respondent from

Nova Zagora

As for the role herbs play in the Bulgarian family, most participants replied that

herbs are important for medicinal purposes. Using herbs in the preparation of food and in

cosmetics were also mentioned. Many respondents indicated that they preferred herbal

medicine to modern medicine because herbs are safer and cause less harmful side effects.

Other respondents preferred to use modern medicine primarily, and they would use

herbal medicine if the modern medicine did not help. Some respondents wrote that they

use herbs more now, while others wrote that they used herbs more in the past, before

modern medicine was readily available. Although there are differing views of herbal vs.

modern medicine, it appears that Bulgarians have the choice between the two. Some

choose to use the traditional herbal treatments, believing them to be safer, while others

choose modern medicine. Many of the participants indicated that they used a

combination of herbal and modern medicine. As a participant from Silistra wrote, “In the

past my family was cured only with medicinal herbs but presently it [my family] uses

[modern] medicines and treatment with herbs’.


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Conclusions

The results show that herbs are an important part of the Bulgarian household.

They are used primarily for medicinal purposes. Bulgarians are aware of the threats that

face the abundance of herbs, and are concerned about these environmental problems.

The data clearly indicates that there are differences from town to town. Regional

differences will be discussed in Chapter 6. There are, however, some herbs that are

found throughout Bulgaria and are commonly used. The next chapter discusses the

fifteen most commonly used herbs.


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CHAPTER 5

THE FIFTEEN MOST COMMONLY USED HERBS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A wide variety of herbs are used in Bulgaria for medicinal purposes, in the

preparation of food, and for decoration. There are regional and local differences in the

use of certain herbs, but some herbs are commonly used throughout Bulgaria. These

herbs are primarily popular medicinal species or are prevalent in traditional Bulgarian

cuisine. The most commonly used herbs are readily available to most of the population,

and usually have a widespread natural range or can be easily cultivated.

In this chapter I will present the survey results of the fifteen most commonly used

herbs. These herbs were determined by using the results from all the collected surveys

and are representative of the nineteen towns that were surveyed. The average

percentages of the methods of how these herbs are acquired and their uses are also

discussed in this chapter. The chapter concludes with a description of each of the fifteen

herbs.

The fifteen most commonly used herbs used are Utrica dioica, Rosa sp. diversa,

Rubus idaeus, Matricaria chamomilla, Anethum graveloens, Thymus sp. diversa,

Frageria vesca, Hypericum perforatum, Rubus sp diversa, Origanum vulgare, Geranium

macorrhizum, Cotinus coggygria, Vaccinium myrtillus, Primula veris and Achillea


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Table 6: The fifteen most commonly used herbs and the percentage of surveys that

indicated use of them

HERB: LATIN COMMON % OF SURVEYS THAT

INDICATED USE

Utrica dioica Stinging Nettle 94.2

Rosa sp. diversa Rose Hip 94.2

Rubus idaeus Raspberry 93.9

Matricaria chamomilla Chamomile 93.5

Anethum graveolens Dill 93.2Thymus sp. diversa Wild Thyme 93.2

Frageria vesca Wild Strawberry 90.6

Hypericum perforatum St. John's Wort 90.6 Rubus sp. diversa Dewberry 88.8

Origanum vulgare Wild Marjoram 78.8

Geranium macorrhizum Wild Geranium 78.8Cotinus coggygria Smoke Tree 71.2

Vaccinium myrtillus Bilberry 69.8 Primula veris Cowslip 69.4

Achillea millefolium Milfoil 68.7

The responses show that these herbs are mainly gathered, with an average of

61.8% of the total surveys for all towns acquiring them in this method. This is followed

by growing them, with an average of 24.6% of the total surveys for all the towns

indicating this method, and lastly purchasing the herbs, with an average of 15.0% of total

surveys for all towns indicating this. The sum of the percentages for the different

methods of acquiring herbs is not 100% because many of the people surveyed indicated

they used more than one method. Table 7 shows how each of the fifteen herbs are


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Table 7: Average percentages of methods of acquisition for the fifteen most

commonly used herbsHERB % GROWN % PURCHASED % GATHERED

Stinging Nettle 35.6 12.9 78.8

Rose Hip 9.4 20.5 84.9

Raspberry 70.1 13.3 44.6Chamomile 17.3 27.0 76.6

Dill 78.4 20.1 13.3

Wild Thyme 7.2 20.9 81.7

Wild Strawberry 6.8 6.1 86.7St. John's Wort 2.9 15.8 80.9

Dewberry 38.1 10.8 70.9Wild Marjoram 5.4 22.3 58.3

Wild Geranium 60.8 3.2 27.0

Smoke Tree 2.2 22.3 55.0Bilberry 1.1 14.0 63.3

Cowslip 32.7 4.0 43.9

Milfoil 1.4 11.2 60.8

Average % 24.6 15.0 61.8

The fifteen most commonly used herbs are used primarily in medicinal ways and

in the preparation of food. About forty-six percent of all the surveys, from all the towns,

indicate that they use these herbs medicinally, 43.9% of the total surveys use the herbs

for food preparation. About ten percent of the surveys indicate using the herbs as

decoration and 9.1% of the people surveyed indicate using them for other purposes.

These percentages do not total 100% because some people indicated that they use them in

more than one way. Table 8 shows how each of the fifteen herbs are used. Percentages


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Table 8: Average percentages of how each of the fifteen most commonly used herbs

are used

HERB %MEDICINAL % FOOD %DECORATION %OTHER Stinging Nettle 59.0 86.3 1.4 13.7

Rose Hip 72.3 61.9 6.1 15.5

Raspberry 14.4 92.1 3.2 9.0Chamomile 83.1 17.3 8.6 12.2

Dill 18.0 83.1 2.2 10.8

Wild Thyme 77.0 25.9 0.4 13.7Wild Strawberry 15.5 88.1 4.3 5.8

St. John's Wort 82.7 12.6 2.2 9.0Dewberry 13.7 84.2 2.5 6.8Wild Marjoram 53.2 33.1 1.1 11.5

Wild Geranium 25.5 1.4 62.6 10.1

Smoke Tree 66.2 2.5 2.9 4.7

Bilberry 20.5 63.3 2.2 4.7Cowslip 26.6 1.8 51.4 4.3

Milfoil 63.7 4.7 5.4 4.0

Average % 46.1 43.9 10.4 9.1

Of the fifteen most commonly used herbs, seven are used primarily in medicinal

ways, six are used principally in the preparation of food, and two are used mainly for

decorative purposes.

DESCRIPTIONS OF FIFTEEN MOST COMMONLY USED HERBS

Utrica dioica and Rosa sp. diversa are the most commonly used herbs. About

ninety-four percent of all respondents indicated that they used these herbs. Utrica dioica

important use of stinging nettle is medicinal Fifty nine percent of the people surveyed


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important use of stinging nettle is medicinal. Fifty-nine percent of the people surveyed

indicate they use it in this manner. About one percent use it for decoration and 13.7%

use it in other ways. As an herbal supplement, stinging nettle is used as a remedy for

hayfever and other allergies by drinking a tea made from the leaves. It is also rich in iron

and vitamin C and thought to prevent anemia (Langer, 2000: Mindell, 1992).

Rosa sp. diversa is commonly known as rose hip. 84.9% of the participants

indicated that they gather this herb. A little over twenty percent purchase rose hip and

9.4% grow it. Rose hip is used primarily in medicinal ways, 72.3% of people surveyed

use it this way. About sixty-two percent of the respondents specify another significant use

of rose hip is for food preparation purposes. About six percent use it as a decoration and

15.5% have other uses for this herb. As an herbal supplement, rose hips have been used

to boost the immune system to combat colds, and for kidney and bladder problems. Rose

hips provide a naturally high source of vitamin C (Hoffman, 1996).

Rubus idaeus was the third most widely used herb. 93.9% of the people surveyed

use this herb, commonly known as raspberry. About seventy percent grow raspberry,

44.6% gather it, and 13.3% purchase it. Raspberry is commonly used as a food source, as

92.1% of the respondents indicated. 14.4% use it medicinally, 3.2% use it as a

decoration, and 9.0% have other uses for it. As an herbal supplement, raspberry leaf tea

has been used for sore throats, fever blisters, diarrhea and to tone uterine muscles in

preparation for childbirth (Mindell, 1992).

percent use it in food preparation 8 6% use it as decoration and 12 2% have other uses


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percent use it in food preparation, 8.6% use it as decoration, and 12.2% have other uses

for it. As an herbal supplement, chamomile has popularly been used for stress relief and

to calm anxiety. It has been used for muscle pains, stomachaches, insomnia, rheumatism,

and to relieve toothaches (Mindell, 1992).

Anethum graveolens and Thymus sp. diversa are both used by 93.2% of the people

surveyed. Anethum graveolens is commonly known as dill, and is primarily grown as

78.4% of the responses indicate. About twenty percent purchase it and 13.3% gather it.

Dill is primarily used in food preparation, as 83.1% of the respondents indicate. Eighteen

percent use it medicinally, 2.2% use it as decoration, and 10.8% have other purposes for

it. Dill is used as a seasoning in many traditional recipes including snezhanka, a

cucumber yogurt salad and kiselo krastavitsi, pickled cucumbers. As an herbal

supplement, dill has been used as a digestive aid (Mindell, 1992).

About eighty-two percent of the people surveyed gather Thymus sp. diversa,

known as wild thyme. 20.9% purchase it and 7.2% grow it. Seventy-seven percent of the

participants indicated use of wild thyme medicinally. About twenty-six percent use it for

food preparation, 0.4% use it as decoration, and 13.7% have other uses for it. As an

herbal supplement, wild thyme has been used as an expectorant, and as an antifungal

agent useful for treating athlete’s foot (Mindell, 1992).

About ninety-one percent of the people surveyed indicated use of Frageria vesca

and Hypericum perforatum. About eighty-seven percent of the people surveyed gather

strawberries extensively since the late 1940’s because they have a high export value


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strawberries extensively since the late 1940 s because they have a high export value

(Creed, 1998). Wild strawberries are different from the cultivated ones in that they are

smaller and have a tarter taste. Many Bulgarian households will make preserves from the

wild strawberries.

About eighty-one percent of the people surveyed gather Hypericum perforatum,

commonly known as St. John’s wort. 15.8% purchase it and 2.9% grow it. St. John’s

wort is used almost exclusively in medicinal ways, with 82.7% of the respondents

indicating this. 12.6% use it in food preparation, 2.2% use it as a decoration and 9% have

other uses for it. St. John’s wort is popularly used as an herbal supplement to treat

depression, anxiety, and insomnia. It has also been used to treat gastric ulcers and viral

infections (Mindell, 1992). The oil has been used to heal sunburns (Hoffman, 1996).

The ninth most used herb is Rubus sp. diversa, with 88.8% of the people surveyed

showing this. About seventy-one percent of the people surveyed gather Rubus sp

diversa, commonly known as dewberry. About thirty-eight percent grow it and 10.8%

purchase it. About eighty-four percent of the respondents indicated that dewberry is used

in food preparation. About fourteen percent use medicinally, 2.5% use it for decoration,

and 6.8% have other uses for it.

About seventy-nine percent of the people surveyed use Origanum vulgare and

Geranium macorrhizum. About fifty-eight percent of the participants indicated that

Origanum vulgare, commonly known as wild marjoram, is gathered. About twenty-two

supplement, wild marjoram has been used in the treatment of colds and the flu, mouth


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supplement, wild marjoram has been used in the treatment of colds and the flu, mouth

inflammations, headaches and muscle pains (Hoffman, 1996).

About sixty-one percent of the people surveyed grow Geranium macorrhizum,

commonly known as wild geranium. Twenty-seven percent gather it and 3.2% purchase

it. Wild geranium is primarily used as a decoration, as 62.9% of the respondents

indicated. A little over twenty-five percent use it medicinally, 1.4% use it for food

preparation, and 10.1% have other uses for it. The Bulgarian name for this herb is

zdravets, literally translated to mean health. Most Bulgarians have zdravets in their

homes, as a symbol to promote health. Guests will most likely receive a bunch of

zdravets, tied with a red ribbon (another symbol of health) when they visit a home or a

business. On the first day of school, zdravets and water are thrown on the front steps of

the school, as a sign of health and luck for the new year.

About seventy-one percent of the people surveyed use Cotinus coggygria,

commonly known as smoke tree. 55% of the participants indicated that smoke tree is

gathered, 22.3% purchase it and 2.2% grow it. Smoke tree is used primarily for

medicinal purposes, as 66.2% of the participants indicated. 2.9% use it for decoration,

2.5% use it for food preparation, and 4.7% have other uses for smoke tree.

About seventy percent of the people surveyed indicated that they use Vaccinium

myrtillus, commonly known as bilberry. About sixty-three percent gather it, 14%

purchase it and 1.1% grow it. About sixty-three percent of the participants indicated that

About sixty-nine percent of the people surveyed use Primula veris, commonly


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y p p p y , y

know as cowslip. About forty-four percent of the respondents indicated that cowslip is

gathered, 32.7% grow it and 4% purchase it. Cowslip is used primarily as decoration, as

51.4% of the participants indicate. About twenty-seven percent use it medicinally, 1.8%

use it in food preparation and 4.3% have other uses for it.

The fifteenth most used herb is Achillea millefolium, as 68.7% of the people

surveyed indicated. 60.8% of the people surveyed gather Achillea millefolium,

commonly known as milfoil or yarrow. 11.2% purchase it and 1.4% grow it. Milfoil is

primarily used in medicinal ways, as 63.7% of the participants indicated. 5.4% use it as

decoration, 4.7% use it as in food preparation and 4% have other uses for it. As an herbal

supplement milfoil has been used to decrease fevers, lower blood pressure and as an

antiseptic to aid in the healing of wounds (Hoffman, 1996).

Clinical Trials on Herbs

There have been many clinical trials performed that support the idea that some

herbs have medicinal properties. This study will not focus on these studies with scientific

evidence to support that the herbs mentioned have medicinal value. Bulgarians intend to

use them for medicinal purposes, whether scientifically proven or not. Both The Journal

of Alternative and Complementary Medicine and The Journal of Pharmacology and

Experimental Therapeutics are resources that display clinical trials.

strawberry, St. John’s wort, dewberry, wild marjoram, wild geranium, smoke tree,


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y y j g

bilberry, cowslip, and milfoil.

For these herbs the primary method of acquiring them is by gathering them. The

exceptions to this are for raspberry, dill, and wild geranium which are primarily grown.

Raspberry and dill are both used mainly in food preparation, and they are easy to grow.

Wild geranium has a long tradition as a symbol of good health and luck. For these

cultural reasons, Bulgarians will grow it in their homes and gardens.

Seven of the fifteen most commonly used herbs are used primarily for medicinal

purposes; rose hip, chamomile, wild thyme, St. John’s wort, wild marjoram, smoke tree,

and milfoil. Six of the fifteen most commonly used herbs are used principally in the

preparation of food; stinging nettle, raspberry, dill, wild strawberry, dewberry, and

bilberry. The fruits of raspberry, strawberry, dewberry, and bilberry herbs are used as a

food source. The leaves of stinging nettle are commonly used in soups, and dill is a

popular food seasoning in Bulgaria. The other two herbs, wild geranium and cowslip are

used mainly as decoration. As mentioned above, wild geranium is a cultural symbol of

health in Bulgaria and is widely used.

While these fifteen herbs are common throughout Bulgaria, there are important

regional differences. Fourteen of the surveyed towns are grouped into geographic

regions. The regional results are discussed in the following chapter.

CHAPTER 6


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REGIONAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Because there are substantial cultural, economic, and ecological differences

across Bulgaria it is reasonable to hypothesize that there are also differences in herb use

across the country. In this chapter I will present and discuss regional results of herb use,

methods of acquiring herbs and what the herbs are used for. During comparisons of

regional data, a specific region’s data is compared to all the other towns that were

surveyed. This includes all the towns that are not in the specific region being compared,

including individual towns that are not grouped into a region.

I use the chi-square test of independence extensively to statistically indicate a

significant difference of a region’s use of individual herbs, in comparison with the

average of all towns not in that region. The chi-square test of independence is also used

to statistically indicate a significant difference of a region’s specific methods of acquiring

herbs compared to the average of all towns not in that region. This test is also performed

to indicate a significant difference in the way an individual region uses herbs, in

comparison with the average of all towns not in that region.

Fourteen of the towns were grouped into regions. The regions are: Pirin

Mountains, composed of Bansko and Blagoevgrad; Rila Mountains, consisting of

Samokov and Saparevo Banya; Rhodope Mountains, consisting of Velingrad, Smolyan

Vratsa and Svoge. The remaining towns could not be placed into a regional group


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because they were spread out in other areas of Bulgaria, in isolated locations.

As mentioned above, the average number of herb used per survey, taking into

account all surveys, is 30.30 herbs. The average herb use varies for the different regions.

The regions are listed in order of average herb use in Table 9.

Table 9:Average herb use according to region

REGION Average number herbs used

Pirin Mountains 25.96

Rila Mountains 28.69Central Part of the Northern Balkan Mountains 30.28

Plains South of the Balkan Mountains 33.83

Rhodope Mountains 35.33Western Part of the Northern Balkan Mountains 36.91

These results show that the average herb use differs from region to region. This

suggests that some regions use a higher number of herbs than other regions. There are

many possible reasons for this - the length of the growing season, the natural herb

diversity in proximity to the towns, or a more traditional lifestyle that uses more herbs for

medicinal treatment. Regions could be affected by the commercial herb companies

which have gathered too many herbs, not leaving enough for the local population. When

asked if Bulgaria’s herbs are threatened, a participant from Saparevo Banya, in the Rila

i i d d “ l h h b f h [l l

REGIONAL DIFFERENCES OF INDIVIDUAL HERB USE


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Herb use varies according to region. Results of individual herbs that are used

significantly more or significantly less in a specific region, in comparison to all the other

surveyed towns are shown in this section.

Significant differences of individual herb use were determined using the chi-

square test of independence on each region, of each individual herb, compared to the

remaining towns’ data. Tables 10 through 15 show the herbs with significant chi-square

calculated values, regional use percentages, and percentages of use for all other towns.

Significant values are greater than the 0.10 test statistic t of 2.706 (DeGroot, 1975).

The chi-square values of Table 10 indicate that the Pirin Mountain Region

significantly use two herbs more than the remaining towns, and four herbs less than the

average of the other towns.

Table 10

an ethnobothanical study of the use of wild herbs in bulgaria

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