vco fundamentals john mcneill worcester polytechnic institute mcneill@ece.wpi.edu

VCO Fundamentals

John McNeill

Worcester Polytechnic Institutemcneill@ece.wpi.edu

2

Overview

• Functional Block Concept• Oscillator Review• Basic Performance Metrics• Methods of Tuning• Advanced Performance Metrics• Conclusion

3

Overview

• Functional Block Concept– Applications– Specifications

• Oscillator Review• Basic Performance Metrics• Methods of Tuning• Advanced Performance Metrics• Conclusion

4

Functional Block Concept

• Input control voltage VTUNE determines frequency of output waveform

5

Applications: RF System

• Downconvert band of interest to IF• VCO: Electrically tunable selection

6

Applications: Digital System

• Clock synthesis (frequency multiplication)

÷ N

J. A. McNeill and D. R. Ricketts, “The Designer’s Guide to Jitter in Ring Oscillators.” Springer, 2009

• from data sheet showing specs

Specifications

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8

Overview

• Functional Block Concept• Oscillator Review– Frequency Control– Amplitude Control– Types of Oscillators

• Basic Performance Metrics• Methods of Tuning• Advanced Performance Metrics• Conclusion

9

Oscillator Review

• Types of Oscillators–Multivibrator– Ring– Resonant– Feedback

• Basic Factors in Oscillator Design– Frequency– Amplitude / Output Power– Startup

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Multivibrator

• Conceptual multivibrator oscillator– Also called astable or relaxation oscillator

• One energy storage element

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Example: Multivibrator

• Frequency: Controlled by charging current IREF , C, VREF thresholds

• Amplitude: Controlled by thresholds, logic swing• Startup: Guaranteed; no stable state

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Ring Oscillator

• Frequency: Controlled by gate delay• Amplitude: Controlled by logic swing• Startup: Guaranteed; no stable state

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Resonant Oscillator

• Concept: Natural oscillation frequency of resonance

• Energy flows back and forth between two storage modes

€

fOSC =1

2π LC

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Resonant Oscillator (Ideal)

• Example: swing (ideal)• Energy storage modes: potential, kinetic• Frequency: Controlled by length of pendulum• Amplitude: Controlled by initial position• Startup: Needs initial condition energy input

15

Resonant Oscillator (Real)

• Problem: Loss of energy due to friction• Turns “organized” energy (potential, kinetic) into

“disorganized” thermal energy (frictional heating)• Amplitude decays toward zero• Requires energy input to maintain amplitude• Amplitude controlled by “supervision”

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LC Resonant Oscillator (Ideal)

• Energy storage modes: Magnetic field (L current), Electric field (C voltage)

• Frequency: Controlled by LC

• Amplitude: Controlled by initial condition

• Startup: Needs initial energy input (initial condition)

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LC Resonant Oscillator (Real)

• Problem: Loss of energy due to nonideal L, C

– Model as resistor RLOSS; Q of resonator

• E, M field energy lost to resistor heating• Amplitude decays toward zero

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LC Resonant Oscillator (Real)

• Problem: Loss of energy due to nonideal L, C• Requires energy input to maintain amplitude• Synthesize “negative resistance”

• Cancel RLOSS with -RNEG

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Negative Resistance

• Use active device to synthesize V-I characteristic that “looks like” –RNEG

• Example: amplifier with positive feedback

• Feeds energy into resonator to counteract losses in RLOSS

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Feedback Oscillator: Wien Bridge

• Forward gain A=3• Feedback network with transfer

function b(f)

• At fOSC, |b|=1/3 and b =0

• Thought experiment: break loop, inject sine wave, look at signal returned around feedback loop

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Ab=1

• “Just right”waveform is self sustaining

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Ab=0.99

• “Not enough”waveform decays to zero

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Ab=1.01

• “Too much”waveform growsexponentialy

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Feedback oscillator

• Stable amplitude condition: Ab=1 EXACTLY• Frequency determined by feedback network Ab=1 condition• Need supervisory circuit to monitor amplitude• Startup: random noise; supervisory circuit begins with Ab>1

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Resonant Oscillator (Real)

• Stable amplitude condition: |RNEG| = RLOSS EXACTLY

• Frequency determined by LC network

• Startup: random noise; begin with |RNEG| > RLOSS

• Amplitude grows; soft clip gives average |RNEG| = RLOSS

|RNEG| < RLOSS |RNEG| = RLOSS |RNEG| > RLOSS

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Clapp oscillator

• L, C1-C2-C3 set oscillation frequency fOSC

€

fOSC =1

2π LCeq

Ceq =1

1

C1

+1

C2

+1

C3

⎛

⎝ ⎜

⎞

⎠ ⎟

Clapp oscillator

• Circuit configuration • Equivalent circuit

MiniCircuits AN95-007, “Understanding Oscillator Concepts”

Clapp oscillator

• Frequency: Determined by L, C1, C2, C3

• Amplitude: Grows until limited by gm soft clipping

• Startup: Choose C1, C2 feedback for | RNEG | > RLOSS

€

Zeq =1

jωC1

+1

jωC2

−gm

ω 2C1C2

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Oscillator Summary

• Typical performance of oscillator architectures:

kHz MHz GHz

FREQUENCY fOSC

BETTERPHASENOISE

RESONANT

RING

MULTIVIBRATOR

FEEDBACK

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Overview

• Functional Block Concept• Oscillator Review• Basic Performance Metrics– Frequency Range– Tuning Range

• Methods of Tuning• Advanced Performance Metrics• Conclusion

• from data sheet showing specs

Basic Performance Metrics

31

32

• from data sheet showing specs

Basic Performance Metrics

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Basic Performance Metrics

• Supply: DC operating power• Output

– Sine: output power dBm into 50Ω– Square: compatible logic

• Frequency Range• Tuning Voltage Range

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Frequency Range

• Output frequency over tuning voltage range• Caution: Temperature sensitivity

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Overview

• Functional Block Concept• Oscillator Review• Basic Performance Metrics• Methods of Tuning• Advanced Performance Metrics• Conclusion

36

VCOs / Methods of Tuning

• Require electrical control of some parameter determining frequency:

• Multivibrator– Charge / discharge

current

• Ring Oscillator– Gate delay

• Resonant– Voltage control of

capacitance in LC (varactor)

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Example: Tuning Multivibrator

• Frequency: Controlled by IREF , C, VREF thresholds

• Use linear transconductanceGM to develop IREF from VTUNE

+ Very linear VTUNE – fOSC characteristic

- But: poor phase noise; fOSC limited to MHz range

€

fOSC =IREF

4CVREF

€

fOSC =GM

4CVREF

⎛

⎝ ⎜

⎞

⎠ ⎟VTUNE€

IREF = GMVTUNE

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Tuning LC Resonator: Varactor

• Q-V characteristic of pn junction• Use reverse bias diode for C in resonator€

C j =C j 0

1+VR

Vbi

⎛

⎝ ⎜

⎞

⎠ ⎟m

€

C j =dQ

dVR

€

Q

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Example: Clapp oscillator

• Tuning range fMIN, fMAX set by CTUNE maximum, minimum

• Want C1, C2 > CTUNE for wider tuning range

€

fOSC =1

2π LCTUNE

1+CTUNE

C1

+CTUNE

C2

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Overview

• Functional Block Concept• Oscillator Review• Basic Performance Metrics• Methods of Tuning• Advanced Performance Metrics– Tuning Sensitivity– Phase Noise– Supply Pushing– Load Pulling

• Conclusion

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Advanced Performance Metrics

• Tuning Sensitivity (V-f linearity)• Phase Noise• Supply/Load Sensitivity

42

• from data sheet showing specs

Tuning Sensitivity

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Frequency Range

• Change in slope [MHz/V] over tuning voltage range

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Tuning Sensitivity

• Why do you care?

–PLL: Tuning sensitivity KO affects control parameters

–Loop bandwidth wL (may not be critical)

–Stability (critical!)

€

Kd θ i −θ o( )

€

1+ sτ Z

sτ I

€

KO

s

€

ωL ≈KdKOτ Z

τ I

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Varactor Tuning

• Disadvantages of abrupt junction C-V characteristic (m=1/2)– Smaller tuning range– Inherently nonlinear VTUNE – fOSC characteristic

€

C j =C j0

1+VTUNE

Vbi

⎛

⎝ ⎜

⎞

⎠ ⎟m

€

fOSC =1

2π LC

€

fOSC ≈1

2π LC j0

VTUNE

Vbi

⎛

⎝ ⎜

⎞

⎠ ⎟m 2

€

m =1 2

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Hyperabrupt Junction Varactor

• Hyperabrupt junction C-V characteristic (m ≈ 2)+ Larger tuning range; more linear VTUNE – fOSC - Disadvantage: Lower Q in resonator

€

C j =C j0

1+VTUNE

Vbi

⎛

⎝ ⎜

⎞

⎠ ⎟m

€

fOSC =1

2π LC

€

fOSC ≈1

2π LC j0

VTUNE

Vbi

⎛

⎝ ⎜

⎞

⎠ ⎟m 2

€

m =1 2

€

m →2

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• from data sheet showing specs

Phase Noise

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Phase Noise

• Power spectrum “close in” to carrier

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Phase Noise: RF System

• Mixers convolve LO spectrum with RF• Phase noise “blurs” IF spectrum

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Phase Noise: Digital System

• Time domain jitter on synthesized output clock• Decreases timing margin for system using clock

÷ N

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Shape of Phase Noise Spectrum

• LC filters noise into narrow band near fundamental• High Q resonator preferred to minimize noise

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Phase Noise: Intuitive view

• Sine wave + white noise; Filter; limit; Result:

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Phase Noise: Intuitive view

• Sine wave + white noise; Filter; limit; Result:

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Phase Noise Description

• Symmetric; look at single sided representation• Normalized to carrier: dBc• At different offset frequencies from carrier• White frequency noise: phase noise with -20dB/decade slope• Other noise processes change slope; 1/f noise gives

-30dB/decade

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Phase Noise Specification

• Symmetric; look at single sided• Normalized to carrier: dBc• At different offset frequencies from carrier

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Sources of Phase Noise

Noise of active devices

Thermal noise: Losses in resonator, series R of varactor

White noise in VTUNE signal path

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Supply / Load Sensitivity

• Ideally tuning voltage is the only way to change output frequency– In reality other factors involved– Mechanism depends on specifics of circuit

• Power supply dependence: Supply Pushing• Impedance mismatch at output: Load Pulling

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Supply Pushing

• Change in fOSC due to change in supply voltage• Clapp oscillator: supply affects transistor bias condition,

internal signal amplitudes

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Load Pulling

• Change in fOSC due to impedance mismatch at output• Clapp oscillator; reflection couples through transistor

parasitic to LC resonator

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Overview

• Functional Block Concept• Oscillator Review• Basic Performance Metrics• Methods of Tuning• Advanced Performance Metrics• Conclusion

61

Summary: VCO Fundamentals

• First order behavior

– Tuning voltage VTUNE controls output frequency

– Specify by min/max range of fOSC, VTUNE

• Performance limitations– Linearity of tuning characteristic– Spectral purity: phase noise, harmonics– Supply, load dependence

• Different VCO architectures trade frequency range, tuning linearity, phase noise performance

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Questions?