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BED 1ST SEMESTER PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE
UNIT-4
APPROACHES, METHODS AND
TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING PHYSICAL
SCIENCES
Education is an art of all arts and is a developing science. Education all over the world have
propounded and designed different approaches and methods of teaching basing on sound
philosophical background and universally accepted psychological and educational principles.
Teaching is an art and methods of teaching are the ways to understand and practice this art.
Effective teaching and learning situations depending upon child centered procedures and active
participation of children in the Learning process. These procedures of teaching of mathematics
are known as methods of teaching mathematics. Different methods of teaching have been
evolved and suggested by different educational thinkers. It is de able for teacher to urn about all
of them so that he can make a rational choice for himself.
MEANING OF METHODS AND APPROACH
The word. "Method” in Latin means "Mode" or "ways”.
Teaching method is a style of the presentation of content in classroom. M. Verma defined
teaching method as “Method is an abstract as logical entities that we can distinguish between
manner and methods in reality, they form an organic whole and matter determines method
analogously as objective determines means; content and spirit determine style and form of
literature.".
Gage has defined Teaching method as “Teaching methods are patters of teacher behavior that
are recurrent, applicable to verse subject matter, characteristic of more than one teacher and
relevant to Learning”
Broudy £1963) Kas stated that“ Method refers to the formal structure. of the sequence of acts
commonly denoted by instruction. The term method covers both strategies and tactics of
teaching and involves the choice of what is to be taught, and in which order is it to be
presented”.
Importance of Teaching Method and Approaches:
A method or approach’s a tool or an instrument in the hands of the teacher to present the
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content successfully, systematically and satisfactorily.
Good C.V. defines the method / approach as “A standard procedure in the presentation of
instructional material and the content of activities, for example, the Herbartian Method, the
Morrison Method, etc.
A rational ordering and balancing in the light of knowledge and purpose, of the several elements
that enter into the. educational process, the nature of the pupil , the materials of instruction, and
the total learning: situation":
Method or approach is further explained as a procedure for arriving at a destination or goal to
attain desired objectives.
Characteristics of good method includes.
i) Built on the sound philosophical principles.
ii) Psychological in approach,
iii) Organization of content for effective teaching to avoid waste of time.
iv) Orderly procedure in teaching.
Need and Significance;
Knowledge of these methods may help the children in many ways. Need and significance of the
approaches are as follows.
1. Working out a better teaching strategy.
2. Ensure maximum participation of the child
3. Proceeds from concrete to abstract.
4. Provide knowledge at understanding level.
5. *To create interest, attitudes and mathematical spirit.
6. To attain the desired objectives at various stages of education.
7. Methods of teaching to learn the content according to help the needs, aptitudes and abilities
of the individuals.
Need for Instructional strategies in Teaching:
Strategy, is the art of planning the best way to achieve success.
These strategies are important because
1. They make the teaching methods easier
. 2To make the complicated thing easier
3. To reduce the gap between the teacher and the taught
4.To reach the desired goals.
5: Individual differences can be met and satisfied.
6. To achieve the objectives.
Principles of Teaching:
Teaching strategies are dependent on
1. Known to unknown
2. Simple to complex
3. Easy to difficult
4. Concrete to abstract
5. Particular to general
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6. General to particular
Characteristics of a good teaching method:
1. Suitable to the level of students:
The method adopted should be in accordance with the physical, mental and educational levels
of the students.
2. Interaction:
The method should create a good link between the teacher and the student for good teaching
atmosphere
3. Related to Life:
It should be related to the problems of life and should show the ways to solve those problems.
4. Motivation to students:
The method should create interest in the teaching learning process.
5. Opportunities to participate:
A good method should provide opportunity for all the students to participate actively in the class
room activities:
6. Guidance:
Method should fulfill the objectives of cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills and helps the
students to proceed further with their self-help.
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE APPROACHES
INDUCTIVE APPROACH
In the inductive approach the concept/generalization is derived after electing a number of
examples from pupils. It is reasoning from "Particular to general". In the teaching of Physical
Science we start from every day observations, argue from particular cases to general
conclusions, and arrive at laws or principles for theories. This method is known as formula
construction method.,
Principles of Inductive Approach:
1. Examples to Generalization.
2. Known to Un-known."
3. Particular to General.
4. Concrete things to abstract things.
Examples:
1. On heating iron expands.
2. On heating copper expands.
3. On heating Aluminum expands.
On heating Iron, Copper, Aluminum expands. All are metals. So, on heating metals expands.
Generalization of the Principle:
On beating all the metals expand.
Josep lt says that “We make use of the inductive method of teaching, whenever, we place
before children a number of facts, examples or objects, and then Endeavour to lead them to
draw conclusions". For example in science by heating various metals the student may conclude
that metals expand when heated.
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Steps in Inductive approach to problem-solving
The various steps in Inductive-approach are:
1. Sensing the problem: Here the students define the problem.
2. Analyzing the situation: Here a detailed analyses of all the aspects of the situation is done.
3. Collecting the data: The students collect the relevant data from different sources like books
field etc.
4. Organizing the data or information: The students organize the collected information with the
help of teacher.
5. Framing possible solutions: After organizing the data, the students frame possible solutions,
6. Eliminating: Only possible solutions are retained and the rest are eliminated.
7. Verification: The solutions are applied to the problem situations and the results are checked.
The procedure is repeated a number of times.
DEDUCTIVE APPROACH
It is opposite to Inductive approach. Deductive approach is "from general to particular”. It is
sometimes called "going from the known to the unknown”, because it involves making logical
inferences from general statements that have already been accepted. It is a process of
reasoning in which the proposition supplies absolutely conclusive evidences or generalizations.
This method-also called as a method of verification of - formula.
Principles:
1. Generalization/Principles to Examples.
2. Un-known to Known.
3. General to Particular.
4. Abstract things to known things.
Examples: Acids changes blue litmus paper as red and Bases changes red litmus paper as
blue.
Take four test tubes containing different liquids in them red-litmus paper was kept. There is no
change in colour red-litmus paper of first three test tubes. But in the fourth the fest tube red-
litmus changed in blue colour. In last tube he took lemon water, he knows that last one is base.
So, first three were acids and last one is base. So, he got that acids cannot change the red
litmus paper, bases changes it as blue like this he has known by the method of inductive.
Steps in Deductive Approach to problem solving
The various steps in deductive approach are:
1. Understanding the problem: The students understand the problem, define it and formulate it.
2. Collecting Information: The students collect the information from a number of sources like
library, laboratory, field etc.
3. Reviewing Principles, generalizations are reviewed to find facts which may be best applicable
to the problem in question.
4. Drawing inference: The principles, generalization are applied to particular caste and
inferences are drawn that the problem falls under the principle.
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5. Verification: The principle of generalizations is applied to the particular case. Ifit solves the
problem then it is accepted, otherwise the procedure is repeated-till a better solution is found.
Difference Between Inductive & Deductive Approaches:
CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHING METHODS
Generally the methods of teaching Physical science can be classified into two categories, They
are:
1. Teacher-centered Methods:
2. Pupil centered methods
In this method, the teacher plays the central and active role. The concentration will be on
learning by heart, recalling and memorizing. The students are passive listeners just answering
the questions of the teacher. The students ask questions to the teacher rarely. A sort of artificial
atmosphere prevails in the classroom.
In this three kinds of methods are included. They are : Lecture Method.
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b. Lecture-cum-demonstration.
c. Historical Method:
2. Pupil centered methods
In these methods, teaching leashing process takes place keeping in view the needs,
necessities, interests and capacities of the students. There is a natural atmosphere and the
students learn in a free atmosphere. The teaching takes place to develop the skills, capabilities
of the students and also prepares them to solve the problems. There is a cooperative
atmosphere between the teacher and the students. The teacher prepares congenial learning
atmosphere and the student uses it to develop his efficiency. In such atmosphere, there is every
possibility for the student to learn to the maximum possible extent.
In this following kinds of methods are included.
They are :
a. Heuristic Method
b. Project Method.
c. Experimental Method. :
d. Inductive, Deductive Method.
e. Problem Solving Method
TEACHER CENTERED METHODS
LECTURE METHOD
This method has been used in education from ancient days. At present also this method has
occupied on important place in Indian schools. It is also called 'Telling method' why because the
teacher, in it; teaches through felling
For success the lecture method depends .upon two factors: (
a) The selection of the subject matter and
(b) The manner of presenting the subject matter. The mode of presentation depends upon the
personality of the teacher, It is necessary for teacher to have proper preparation and suitable
voice. This method is not opposed to the principles of psychology. There takes some mental
activity in pupils. With full preparation the teacher can present the subject matter in an
interesting way and can ask question to keep them active. If all depends upon the teacher how
he makes use of the method. secure accounts for alertness of auditory faculty. For teaching
social studies this method is highly beneficial to the teacher makes use of storytelling may to
make the lecture interesting.
When to use Lecture Method: The teacher can use lecture narration method, telling method for
the following purposes.
1. To Motivate: Before presenting a lesson or a unit of the subject, the pupils can be
encouraged to study the same, by explaining first, the important points through lecture method.
2.. To Summarize: Some pupils are up-set on seeing the extensiveness of the subject matter.
They find themselves unsuccessful to come out of the cobweb of the subject matter. In such a
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case, they do not agree to study the extensive subject matter. Hence it is necessary that this
extensive subject matter be presented in such a way so that the whole subject matter be
presented in a small form:.
3. To Clarify: It is to be used to explain the events; terms, concepts and principles involved in
the subject. It is necessary to clarify them in simple words.
4. To Save Time: It takes form to read and understand the text book Through lecture, adequate
subject matter can be presented in short time. .
5. To Present Additional Material: At times, the subject matter may be two brief in the book and
may be in sufficient. Looking at the level of the pupils, the teacher can give additional matter.
6. To give Assignment: While giving home work, the teacher should make use of a lecture.
Advantages:
1. - Individualized Instruction: It is based on lecture method. The printed. words in the book
cannot much to the students. Books cannot pay attention to individual differences.
2: Development of Logical Reasoning: This method develops reasoning and expression of
students.
3. Classification of Subject Matter: In this method, the subject matter is made clear to the
maximum many points come up in the subject matter which is tough and complicated
4. It Saves Time Labour: This method will save allot of time and labour:
5. To Make Subject Matter Interesting and Effective By this method, the teacher can make the
subject interesting. In it, the teacher can classify the matter through interpretation and gestures.
6. In improves pronunciation among the pupils.
7. In this method pupils and teacher remain active.
8. This method also psychological in nature.
Limitations:
1. Pupils are passive listeners.
2. Stress on theoretical knowledge
3. It is one sided
4. Unstable knowledge
5. Limited time
6. Lack of real knowledge
7. Lack of deep study
8. Efficient lecturer
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9. Teaching becomes dull
10. Useful for high classes.
LECTURE-CUM-DEMONSTRATION METHOD
This method includes the merits of lecture method and demonstration method. The teacher
performs the experiment in the class and goes on explaining what he does. It takes into account
the active participation of the students and is thus not a loop sided process like the lecture
method. The students see the actual apparatus and operations and help the teacher in
demonstrating, the experiment and thereby they feel interested in learning. It is difficult to talk
about things which the people have to imagine. It is always easy for the students to understand
and remember the concrete things and so this method is also in accordance with the maxim of
teaching "from concrete to Abstract “. The students observe the demonstration critically and try
to draw inferences. Thus, their power of observation and reasoning and also exercised.
Merits:
The lecture-cum demonstration method has the following merits. 1. Psychological Method: It'iša
psychological method as it proceeds from the concrete to the abstract.
2. Economical: It is an economical method. When the apparatus are. not sufficient for the
students to do practical’s individually, the teacher -may perform the experiment for the whole
class. .
3.. Time-Saving It is a time-saving method. Compare to heuristic and project method, it saves
much time.
4. Activity Method: Students are engaged in various activities like observing, taking notes,
answering questions, drawing etc.
5. Useful to all Students: This method is suitable to all types of students i.e. average, below
average and above students.
6. Promotes discussion: This method helps to promote useful and relevant discussion in the
classroom.
7. Safe Method: If the experiments are dangerous, or if the apparatus are costly, this method is
considered as safe.
8. Develop Skills: This method can be used to impart manual and manipulative skills to the
students.
9. Brings together theory and practice: Įt aids in bringing about a relationship between theory
and practical’s.
10. Fosters Thinking: It fosters good thinking in groups and individuals.
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11. Quick Method: Quick revision of some principle or project is possible by this method.
Demerits:
Though very useful at the high school stage the lecture-cum demonstration has the following
limitations:
1. Provides no scope for "learning by doing", which is an important principle of learning and thie
students do not relish the joy of direct personal experiences.
2. Students are not active participants in the process.
3. It ignores the individual differences. Slow learners and the genius are made to sail in the
same boat.
4. It is not suitable to develop scientific attitude.
5. It is not suitable to give training in scientific method.
6. Since the teacher is performing the experiment, the students may fail to comprehend the
concept clearly.
7 It does not give training in laboratory skills to the students.
While using the demonstration method the teacher can
1. Provide significant, rich and worthwhile experiences to the students.
2. Enhance students power of observation.
3. Illustrate abstract ideas in concrete form.
4. Co-ordinate laboratory work with theory.
5. . Provide concrete experiences for the solution of a problem.-
6. Add additional demonstrations after its review, if considered necessary.
7. Do those demonstrations which are dangerous for students to perform themselves.
8. Pose a problem to students, and gather their hypothesis based on their experiences.
Characteristics of a Good Demonstration:
The following points may be considered as criteria for a good demonstration.
: 1. Rehearsal: The demonstration should be tried out in advance so that everything becomes
clear tó the teacher. This will give added confidence to the teacher and the teacher can find out
the difficulties involved in the experiment beforehand.
2. Arrangement of the Apparatus: The apparatus for demonstration should be arranged in order.
It is always better to keep the apparatus to be used on the left hand side and the used ones on
the right hand side.
3. Visibility: The demonstration should be visible to all the students. The demonstration table
should be a little higher than the pupils tables: Arrangement should be made for adequate
lighting.
4. Apparatus: The apparatus should be big enough.
5. : Spare Apparatus: Some spare parts or extra apparatus should be there to fall back in case
the apparatus breaks while doing the experiment.
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6. Purpose: The teacher should be clear of the purpose of demonstration. The teacher, should
know the aims of the demonstration, the generalizations to be made and the attitude to be
developed while demonstrating.
7. Involvement. of Students: The teacher should involve the students in demonstration. The
teacher can take the help of the students in arranging the apparatus, writing summary on the
blackboard, taking readings etc.
8. Simple and speedy: Demonstration should be simple and speedy If the demonstration is
lengthy, the students have to wait for long for the results. They will loose interest in such
demonstrations.
9. Use of teaching aids: Demonstration should be supplemented with other teaching aids like
charts, pictures, models, films etc.
10. According to time and season: Demonstration should be accordance with the time and
season otherwise it will be a failure. This is because the climatic conditions affect some
apparatus and materials. For example demonstrations on static electricity should be avoided
during rainy season while experiments on ice can be done during hot season. The experiments
on heat can be done during winter season.
11. Questions: Judicious amount of questioning must accompany the demonstration. Questions
asked should be reflective to stimulate thinking on the part of the students.
12. Use of Black board: A good use of black-board should be made simultaneously. It can be
used for writing principles, generalizations arrived at and for drawing diagrams etc.
13. Take one idea at a time: Only one major idea should be taken at a time. Too many ideas in
one demonstration may confuse the children specially the young ones.
14. Do demonstration step-by-step: Break-down the demonstration into simple step-by-step
patter. So that it can be easily understood by the class. Ascertain after each step whether the
students have grasped the meaning, contents and explanations. If they have not the relevant
part should be repeated.
15. Recording the Data: The students should record the data, observation etc. For this sufficient
time should be given to the students.
16. Training in Scientific method: Demonstration should create problem for the students and
also make provisions for solving it through their own efforts. In this way, the students will find
chance to exercise their abilities like observing, analyzing, verifying etc. Thus they will get
training in scientific method of solving a problem. :
17. Teacher as "showman: The teacher should know various methods of arresting the attention
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of students and creating interest. At times the teacher has to act as a "Showman". To inspire the
class with a sense of dramatization and to arouse an atmosphere of suspense just before
critical point of an experiment, is an art. on demonstration. This will
18. Evaluate: Give an assignment based help evaluate pupils learning.
Steps in Lecture-cum Demonstration:
Lecture-cum-demonstration method is very suitable at the high school stage. It involves the
follow steps:
1. Planning and preparation: Before the actual conduct of the lecture cum-demonstration lesson
the teacher has to thoroughly prepare and plan for the same.
While preparing the teacher should keep the following points in mind.
a) Subject Matter: The teacher should thoroughly prepare the content by referring the relevant
books.
b) Lesson Planning Preparing a lesson-plan is important as it gives confidence to the teacher.
The lesson-notes should include how to introduce the lesson, how to present it, list of the
principles to be explained, a list of the experiments to be demonstrated, the type of questions to
be posed to the students and how to recapitulate the lesson.
c) Rehearsal of the Experiment: The demonstration should be rehearsed in advance: Rehearsal
will give an idea to the teacher, about the precautions to be taken and the difficulties that are
involved in the demonstration. This will ensure the smooth and systematic conduct of the lesson
2. Collection and arrangement of apparatus: The apparatus and the chemicals should be
properly arranged on the demonstration table. Some spare apparatus and chemicals will be an
added advantage. . Introducing the Lesson: The lesson should be started by motivating the
students. The lesson should be introduced in a problematic way so that students can appreciate
and realize the importance of the topic. It can also be introduced. by
a). Telling a story
b) A familiar anecdote
c. By performing a simple experiment related to the demonstration etc. While introducing the
lesson the teacher has to keep in mind the student's previous knowledge and their personal
experiences also.
3 Presentation of the subject matter: The method of presenting the subject is very important and
hence it should be presented in an interesting way. For this the teacher has
a) To study the subject matter or broad basis taking into consideration the interest and
experiences of the students. The lesson should be correlated vertically as well as horizontally.
The lesson can be made interesting and lively by quoting the interesting facts from the life
history of great-scientists and by quoting the personal experiences of the teacher and the
students etc. The teacher should also try to illustrate the facts and principles.
b) To pose questions to the students. This will help them to understand -the underlying
principles. Questions not only bring for the required answers, but also create a desire in the
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student to know what he does not know.
To deliver the lesson slowly, deliberately and with correct pronunciation. Language should be
clear and simple. The tone of the voice should be modulated according to the nature of the
statement. Lesson should be narrated in an interesting way. Try to avoid ambiguous terms.
Performance of Experiment: The work on the demonstration table should be a model for the
students. Some of the important points to be kept in mind while demonstrating an experiment
are: ,
a) Experiments should be simple and speedy
b): Experiment
c) Keep reserve apparatus near the demonstration table so that much time is not wasted in
collecting the apparatus in case of breakages.
d) Arrange the apparatus in an order in which the experiments are to be shown. should be well
spaced throughout the lesson.
e) Store the demonstration apparatus intact until it is to be used again. It results in much
economy of time.
F The experiments must work and their results should be clear and striking.
g)Involve the students while performing the experiments.
5. Chalk-board Work: It is an important aid in a demonstration lesson. -
It is mainly used for two purposes.
For writing important results and principles in a summarized form.
For drawing necessary sketches and diagrams. :
writing on the black-board should be neat, clean and legible. The diagrams should be labeled
properly. The teacher may involve the students in making black-board summary.
HISTORICAL METHOD
In this method, the topic is developed from its very beginning and carried through various stages
of evolution,
Science has its own history and every invention or discovery has its historical background. The
children feel very much interested and fascinated in listening to the stories and the teacher can
introduce his talk with an interesting story.
For example, the teacher is to teach Principle of Archimedes. He can narrate the whole story of
how a king announced to his subjects that who so ever will find out whether the crown is made
of pure gold or not without breaking it, will be given a big prize. The teacher should then tell that
one day Archimedes was taking bath in a bathing tub and felt that his body was being lifted up
by water. He thought of the reason of this loss of weight in water. He conceived that like his
body, everything loses its weight in water and in this way he can, find out the purity of gold in
the crown. He was so much overjoyed with his finding that he ran naked to the king crying
'Eureka, Eureka! Which means I have found out?
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Similarly, while teaching Newton's laws, Petrol Engine, Steam Engine, Telescope, Radio,
Television and hundreds of modern inventions and discoveries, the teacher can give a historical
sketch of each. This will arouse interest in the students for learning scientists.
This method is particularly suited for teaching to primary classes where the students are much
interested in listening to the stories. It cannot be adopted as a method of teaching but it is
suggested that historical approach should be made wherever it is possible.
STUDENT-CENTERED METHODS
HEURISTIC METHOD
The term "Heuristic' has its origin from the Greek word "Heurisco” which means to find out.
In this method the students learn by exploring. The teachers role is that of the path setter who
rectifies the faults at the proper time.
Definitions:
1. "Children should be told as little as possible and induced to discovered as much as possible”
Herbert Spencer
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2. “Heuristic method is a method of teaching, which involves placing the students as far as
possible in the attitude of discover”. Prof. Armstrong
Procedure:
A problem is assigned to the class and each student is made to feel responsible for finding out
something for himself.
Each student tries to acquire information about the problem for different sources. He is free to
move about and discuss the problem with the class-mates. Each student is given a sheet of
instructions regarding the problem in hand. The student gets a bit of guidance from the teacher.
But some people are of the view that nothing should be told by the teacher and the student
should follow instructions and work everything himself. But this will be too ambitious to expect
so much from the students. The teacher should stand for help wherever the student feels its
need. However the teacher should try to get everything out of the students by inductive method.
- As many questions as possible should be allowed to arise from child's (students) own
observation and at times the teacher should also put questions which well stimulate the pupils to
know more about a particular problem. In this way, they are let to know the reason from
observation.
To devise the experiment.
To interpret the data obtained.
To infer laws and generalizations.
Regarding the selection of the problem thorst a dig a view that the problems must be suggested
by the pupils themselves as far as possible. The students cannot take a lively interest if the
problems are imposed from above. For it is a demand for activity rather than receptivity.
Examples:
1. Finding the purification of water.
2. Finding the atomic structure of Crystals.
Role of the Teacher:
1. The teacher should be well prepared well equipped.
2. The teacher should act as Guide and a Friend.
3. The teacher should encourage students. :
4. Detailed instruction sheet should be given to the students.
5. The teacher should help to develop values.
6. The teacher should keep psychological principles in mind
7 The teacher should provide freedom of thought
8. The teacher should arouse, maintain curiosity of the students,
Advantages:
1) It imparts knowledge in scientific method of thinking and inculcates scientific attitude among
students which can prove to be useful for future life of students.
2). It develops .in students self confidence.
3). It is based upon very important principle of learning that is "learning by doing".
4). The problem of home work is solved.
5) The teacher is not a dictator. He is just a friend and guide of students.
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Disadvantages:'
1) It seems retiles difficult to put the small students in the position of original discoverers. ::
2) Our lengthy syllabus prescribed by universities does not allow except Lecture method..
3) Text books written on this method are not available.
4) This method demands a class of 10-15 students and in poor countries like India we cannot
afford it.
5) It is very costly method because it requires furnished laboratories, libraries and well qualified
teachers.
6). The child possesses a social heritage and has every right to make use of it" It is more
foolishness to make him repeat mistakes and then reach right facts.
7). This method cannot be used in primary classes.
PROJECT METHOD
Based on the philosophy of pragmatism and to lessen the gap between school life and the life in
society, project method was developed by Kilpatrick and it was perfected by Stevenson with the
objective of bringing! Life into school.
According” to Oxford's Advanced learner's Dictionary Project means; a 'Plan of action'.
Definitions:
1. Ballard: "A Project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into : school."
This method consists of building a comprehensive unit around an activity which may be carried
out in the school or outside. The essence of this method is to carry out a useful task in a group
in which all the students? work co-operatively. The curriculum, content and technique of
teaching are considered from child's point of view, and demand that the students: should think
and select their studies for themselves. “Learning by doing and “Learning by living are the
cardinal principles of this method. Steps Involved in the Project Method:
1) A situation to propose a problem: The teacher should provide such situations to the students
which may create some suitable problems: for them in which they are interested. The teacher
can do so through: libraries, laboratories and journals.
2) Choosing and announcing the topic: The students should be allowed> to choose a project.
The teacher should see that the project is well; under stood by pupil and of real need to them. It
should be acceptable to all. In case of wrong selection, the teacher should tactfully guide them
to choose another project. The teacher can also propose a project from syllabus. The students
should be asked to give reasons for the selection of their topic.
3) Planning: For the success of project proper planning is must which : includes finding different
phases of project, amount of work to be done for each phase, materials and equipments
Deeded.
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1) Planning by the students under the guidance of teacher.
ii) Planning by the teacher two or three plans) to give guidance to the students
iii) Discussion among the students.
iv) Selecting the best plan after discussion.
V) Recording the plan by the Students in their note books.
4. Execution: The duties are assigned according to the capabilities and interests of the
students and the teacher act as controller. The students collect information and perform a
variety of activities. It is the longest step and students need patience to complete it.
5. Graduation: The Project is reviewed by the students and teacher from time to time, to
achieve the objectives of the project. Shortcomings should be over ruled,
6. Recording: The students should keep a complete record of work i.e. planning, discussion,
duties, and solution and short comings of the project.
Example for Project Method:
The teacher, wants that there should be flower Garden in the school. Instead of ordering the
students to plant a flower garden, he takes the students to a flower garden. The children are
pleased to see the flowers and wonder why there are no flowers in their school. Their hearts are
full of great desire to plant a flower garden in their school: The students now come back to the
school, plan the project and start the execution. They evaluate their work and record everything
they do. The teacher will teach a number of subjects through this project in a correlated way.
The students will read different books to gather information and then enter into disdyissions.
They also study the names of flowers, write application to the Principal for sanction, learu
Arithmetic and elementary Geometry by preparing different designs of plots and finding out the
cost of seeds etc. They garn Geography and finding out the effect of seasons, raid wind ete, on
the plants. They also do handwork by preparing plants and flowers of paper etc. In this way the
students get a lot of information in different subjects in correlated way. Role of the Teacher:
1.The teacher is role a dictator of commander but a friend, guide and a working partner.
2. He should provide occasions for shy pupils to come forward and contribute something
towards the success of the project. The teacher should provide work to every child.
3. He should help the students in developing the character and personality by allowing them to
accept the responsibilities and discharge them efficiently.
4. He should also aim at inculcating scientific attitude and giving training in scientific method.
5. He should provide democratic atmosphere in the class so the pupils can express themselves
fully without any fear of the teacher.
6. He should be alert and active all the time to see that the project is running in its right lines.
7. He should have a thorough knowledge of individual children so as to allot them work
accordingly.
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8. He should have initiative, tact and zest for learning and should be well experienced.
Advantages: I.
Based on laws: Thišʻmethod is based upon the laws of learning,
i) Law of readiness: The students are made ready to learn by creating interest
ii) Law of Exercise: By doing experiments and various other related activities they gain
experience which are useful in the later stage of their life.
ii) Law of Effect: Once the project is completed successfully, students get satisfaction.
2. Critical thinking: This method helps in developing critical thinking.
3. Correlation: By this method correlation of various subjects is achieved and knowledge is
obtained.
4. Freedom of work: In this method, students can work at their own speed, they plan and
execute the project.
Disadvantages:
1. Teacher: This method has heavy demands on the teacher. The teacher required for this
method should be exceptionally gifted, knowledgeable, alert and hard worker.
2. Time: The method is time consuming. The syllabus Cannot be completed on time by this
method.
3.Text books: Instructional materials and text books written on these lines are not easily
available
4. Superficial knowledge: The method gives a superficial knowledge of the subject. Kinds of
Projects!
According to W.H.Kilpatrick projects are of four types:
1. Producer Types
2. Consumer Types
3. Problem Types
4. Drill Types
1. Producer Type" A producer project is the one in which the students construct something,
object or article like building a garden or even a toy.
2. Consumer Type: A project in which the students enjoy as well as acquire experiences is
known as a consumer type of project. For example enacting a drama. -
3. Problem Type: A project in which solution to a problem is found out is known as a problem
type of project.
4. Drill type: In Drill type of project, no new activity is undertaken. Once acquired activities are
repeated to enhance the skill. For example drill in singing, swimming,
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SCIENTIFIC METHOD OR PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD
The development of scientific attitude and training in scientific method are two cardinal aims for
the teaching of science. The method or the procedure which the scientists use in the pursuit of
science may be termed as scientific method. It is a method for discovery learning. Basically, it is
a problem-solving method/or it is a method of solving a problem scientifically so the students of
science must be trained in the method of attaching a problem, scientifically. Once trained they
will approach all the problem the way in real life situations also.
Definitions:
“Problem solving may be defined as planned attack upon a difficulty or perplexity , for
the purpose of finding a satisfactory solution”.
T.M: Risk
Scientific Method: Problem solving method is of comparatively recent origin. It has also
emerged as a reaction against theoretical and away: from-life type of education.
The aim of education is to prepare the individuals for life or to equips the students in such a way
that they can deal with the life situations effectively, competently and successfully. Problem
solving method: prepares they individuals best for this purpose.
This method not only trains the individuals to solve their day to day! problems; it also provides
them training in original and creative thinking/ *In the problem solving method, only a mental
solution is to be found in the problem, the activity involved leads to a mental solution, ·
"Problem solving is an educational device whereby the teacher, pupils, attempted a conscious,
planned, purposeful efforts to arrive at an explanation are solution to some educationally
significant difficulty. It is a general educational method rather them a specific pedagogical
technique
" Characteristics of Good Problem:
1. The problem must be the product of the student's environment and must challenge the
minds of the students.
2. The problem must be according to the mental level of the students so that may be able
to take interest in them.
3. The problems selected must have educational value and must provides the maximum of
activity and practical knowledge to the pupils
4. A. problem should be accepted and undertaken by the pupils cooperative basis.
Principles of Problems Solving:
1. The pupils must feel the problem as their own; The problem must be challenging to the minds
of the pupils.
2. The problem must be started definitely.
3.The means of solving the problem must be vague to the pupils.
4. Solution must be definite and clear.
Steps of Scientific method:
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Any method of solving a problem scientifically following some sequence may be called as
'scientific method. Steps involved in a scientific method are:
1. Sensing the problem: In order to sense the problem, the teacher has to provide situations to
the students in which they feel the need of asking some questions. The teacher may also pose
such questions which require reflective thinking and reasoning or the part of the students. This
can become a problem for the students to solve.
The setting up of a problem should be the co-operative approach of the teacher and the
students. Preferably, the teacher should accept the problem suggested by the students. The
time, availability of the material relevant to the problem, its practical value, should be considered
before finalizing the problem. The problem should also fit in the curriculum.
2. Defining the problem: The students now have to define their problem in a clear, exact, simple
and unambiguous words. There should be some keywords in the statement of the problem,
which may help in better understanding the problem. The teacher should help the students in
stating the problem. The students have to write down the statement of the problem in the light of
the above criteria. Then it should be discussed in the for suitable criticism and suggestions. The
most appropriate statements should be accepted. It should be well-defined, giving its scope and
limitations.
3. Analysis of the problem: Now the students have to find out the keywords and phrases in the
problem. This will provide them clues for the further study of the problem. The keywords also
helps in finding out the required information. The students should know the meaning of all the
keywords and understand the whole problem. And when the students have gasped the whole
problem, then half of the work is done.
4. Collection of data: After analyzing the problem, the students should collect the relevant data.
The teacher has to suggest references. The students need to plan subsequent activities. They
may discuss, use Audio-visual aids, consult references, do experiments etc. The students
should be given practice in locating information and to devise means to obtain it. A student of
science should be careful about the following types of errors during the process of collection of
data,
Mechanical Errors:
a.It is likely to be caused through the apparatus and instruments used.
b) Personal Errors: It is caused by personal bias and tendency.
5. Interpretation of the data: This step ‘involves reflective thinking This step demands lot of
guidance from the teacher because the students may not be able to interpret data in a correct
way due to lack of experience. The data is organized on the basis of similarity, and differences.
The students can make tables, graphs etc. The superfluous data is discarded.
6. Formulation of Hypothesis: After interpretation of data, the students; are asked to formulate
some tentative hypotheses. A hypothesis is the probable solution for the problem in hand. It
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should be free: from bias and self-inclination.
7. Selection and Testing of most Appropriate hypothesis: The students can select the most
tenable hypothesis by rejecting others through experimentation and discussion. The selected
hypothesis is again tested experimentally to find out its truth.
Drawing conclusions and making Generalization: The tested hypothesis is infect the conclusion
to be reached at Experiments can be repeated to verify the consistency and correctives of the
conclusion drawn at. Generalizations can be made by arranging a set of experiments which also
show the same conclusion already reached at.
9. Application of generalization to new situations: Now the students have to apply the
generalization to the new situations in their daily life This will bridge the gap between the
classroom teaching and real life.
Merits of Scientific Method:
1. Help in developing reflective thinking and hence increases students mental ability.
2. Is based on the principle of learning by doing.
3. Helps in developing scientific attitude..
4. Helps in developing may skills like identifying the problem, conducting the experiment,
recording observation, formulating hypothesis, drawing conclusions and applying these in daily
life.
5. Helps the students to approach future problems with confidence. i
6. Gives training in scientific method.
7. Helps in paying individual attention.
8. Encourages the students for extra-reading.
9. Helps to the children in learning new thing.
10. Helps in discovering new knowledge.
11. Helps in creating new ideas.."
12. Helps the students in satisfying their curiosity.
Demerits:
1. It is not suitable for all students.
2. It requires gifted teachers ‘with well developed research skills.
3. All schools does not have well-equipped laboratories.
4. More emphasis is there on practical work."
5. It is an expensive method.
6. It is time consuming
7. It is difficult to teach all topics by this method.
8. It expects too much from the students.
9. Suitable material is not easily available to solve the problem
LABORATORY METHOD
Laboratory Method is an important method of teaching Science, Laboratory instruction is
considered essential because it provides training in practical skills, helps in developing critical
thinking and creates interest in science. The laboratory method is. pupil-centered method “It is
based on the principles of "Learning by doing
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Laboratory instruction increases students' problem solving ability It provides the students an
hand-on experience by making them participate in various scientific experimentations!
This method is considered as one of the best methods of teaching science as it is used on the
psychological principle of learning by doing. In this method the students perform experiments on
their own. The main difference between demonstration method and laboratory method is that in
demonstration life teacher performs experiments and the students observe the activity. But in
laboratory method the students perform the experiment under the supervision of the teacher. To
learn science is to do science and hence in this method the students will really come to know
what science is.
The-laboratory method is used in different ways. It is mostly planned on an individual basis. But
it can also be carried out in small groups.
According to Jólin Dewey the laboratory method is an excellent vehicle for instruction. He further
said “In the hands of a good teacher, it is in itself an excellent vehicle for instruction. It gives an
insight into authentic science. It is intellectually exacting. It requires careful-attention during
planning, execution and observation. It demands interpretation and abstraction. Most students
‘enjoy it. It couples cognitive activities with hands on, action-oriented, concrete operational
activities. It is a stimulating change from lectures and other forms of instruction”.
The various Objectives of Laboratory method are:
1. To provide first hand experiences.
2. To arouse interest in science.
3. To develop manipulative skills
.4. To develop the skill of careful observation.
5. To develop the skill of recording the data.
6. "To develop the skill of verifying the principles, facts etc. thought in, theory.
7. To train the students in scientific method.
8. - To develop Scientific attitude.
To develop the skill of handling the apparatus.
10. To develop the skill of experimentation.
11. To train the students in the processes of science.
12. "To make the physical, chemical and biological phenomena more real through actual
experience.
Methods of conducting the practical laboratory work:
For making the task of experimentation easy the teacher organizes the students into small
groups. The students can be divided into groups depending upon the type of the experiment
conducted and the strength of the class.
Some common methods of grouping are:
1. Class front Method: This method is followed when the experiment is simple, the required
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materials and apparatus are of low-cost and the students can carry out the experiment
individually
2. Group method or rotation method: In this method the class in divided into small groups to
carry out the experiments. This methods is followed when the apparatus are less in number and
the number of students is more. The students are divided into smaller batches and; the
experiments are performed in rotation by the different batches.
3. Division or the part method: This method is used when the experiment is very length and is
not possible to be conducted at a Stretch. Hence it is divided into small parts and is given to an
individual or a batch of students. After completion of the experiment the data from all the
sources is pooled and a) final recording is done. This data is discussed in the class and a final
conclusion is arrived. Advantages:
The various advantages of laboratory method are:
1. It is based on the psychological principle of learning by doing;
2 It gives training in Scientific method.
3. It inculcates scientific attitude in the students,
4. It is a learner-centered approach
5. It develops manipulative skills.
6. It paves' way for exploration, experimentation and verification of the scientific facts.
7. It provides concrete and direct experiences of the biological, physical phenomena.
8. It gives training in problem-solving.
9. It arouse and maintain interest in science.
10. It provides opportunity for critical thinking.
11. It develops skills in recording observations and results, summarizing data and drawing
conclusions.
12. It develops the spirit of discovery.
13. It inculcates the habit of co-operation, honesty and truthfulness.
14. It develops self-confidence and a sense of achievement in the students .
15. It develops kind of intimate relationship between the teacher and the taught
16. It solves the problem of indiscipline.
Limitations:
It is difficult to identify limitations of the laboratory method because it can be used in a variety of
ways, but skill some of the problems that might be incurred in using these method; addresses
‘its limitations..
1. It is an expensive method
2. It is time-consuming
3. It is not an efficient means of learning new, factual information
. 4. It does not guarantee that. the students will learn to solve problems or think scientifically.
5. It has limited applicability as every information cannot be verified through laboratory work.
6. It is difficult to schedule the school time table as it requires a number of periods.
7. It ‘expects too much from the students as every student is expected to leam by performing
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experiments.
8. The method is strenuous both for the teacher as well as the teamer 9. It demands creative
and intelligent teachers.
MODERN TEACHING TECHNIQUES
BRAIN STORMING
Brain Storming is a form of discussion which enables collective creative thinking. In this
technique the pupil's elicit many idea's and effective learning takes place. It was first tried out to
overcome problems solving, areas, it is a more successful technique than any other one.
In this form of discussion the brains of the participants are stimulated to create a storm of ideas
and give suggestions regarding the topic without any deliberation to find whether or not they are
meaningful and purposeful When the brain is let go thus without social institutions, it would be
able to give expressions to some of the most useful and practical suggestions. For example
"Small saving could do a lot to strengthen the savings movement" is a good subject for brain
storming.
Brain Storming is a democratic system. The teacher writes pupils views on black board. The
brain storming method increase the knowledge of pupils, it also encourages them to think
collectively sitting in a group,
Some of the main rules to be kept in mind during the brain storming sessions are:
Keeping the problem in mind, inviting greater number of ideas as there is a greater chance of
getting a suitable solution:
There should not be any criticism on the wrong idea and a supportive atmosphere must be
created where the participants will feel free to express their ideas.
Gates are open for divergent idea, They may open new ways of thinking and provide beer
solution than the other ideas.
Grouping of ideas to get a better solution to the problem is welcomed. : Ideas from different
members can be combined to form a single, better solution to the problem. .'
With this method, cognitive aspect of the pupil's can be developed very easy and objective
domain can be made stronger.
TEAM TEACHING
Team teaching is one of the important instructional strategies for the improvement of
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instructional program. Team teaching is based on the assumption that no single teacher
possesses/expertise to do full justice to the entire course.
Team Teaching is a method which involves team work between two or more teachers who,
together, make presentations to a group of students. Some of the important aspects iqf Team
Teaching are:
It involves the students in the physical and mental stimulation created by viewing two or more
teachers at work.
It makes effective use of existing human resources.
It has the capacity to revolutionize the instructional activities through process of dialogue
With the effective use of facilities during the team teaching large lecture halls can be brought to
life by an interactive and dynamic sessions.
It provides opportunities for interaction with the students
Thus, Team teaching takes a variety of forms in different contexts . Effective team teaching
takes time to develop to its fullest. It is a platform for many teachers to come out with their
potentialities & capabilities and share it with his co members and students and make the topic or
lesson an interesting one
MODELS OF TEACHING
Introduction:
The focus of education psychology has been on learning' hut now there is a shift from learning
to teaching. The focus of educational psychology is on teaching because learning theories
cannot solve the problems of teaching. Therefore, efforts are being made to develop theories of
teaching but so far no final theory of teaching has been formulated. This stresses the
importance of the need for alternate strategies of teaching. The educationists and psychologists
are making efforts to evolve theories of teaching, as a result of which some teaching models or
paradigons have been developed.
A model for teaching as we use the phrase is a pattern or plan, which can be taken up to shape
a curriculum or course to select instructional material and to guide the teacher's action.
Teaching is an art, science and a skill to be learned. It requires the knowledge of subject matter,
method and techniques of teaching and aids to be used for making teaching interesting and
effective. In a classroom situation, if all students learn or react in a similar manner, every
teacher would select those teaching methods that would fit his personality and use them over
and over again as long as they teach; but students have different learning styles. They have
aspiration on their styles. They have their aspiration on their own and no two-students react to
a learning situation in the same way. This uniqueness and individual difference of the students
require the teacher to use wide varieties of teaching strategies. This in fact is the main objective
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of education. It is to help each learner to grow socially, intellectually, morally and emotionally for
his all-round development of personality; for this purpose the teacher needs a variety of
approaches. There is no one particular method, which can help the people to grow in all
respects. For this several models of teaching have been developed which prescribe different
approaches to instructional process to bring out changes in the behavior of the learner in all
respect.
Teaching model is a tentative theory of teaching. Silverman differentiates between some of the
functions of theories and models. A theory is a system in which the interaction among actual
variables is explained, whereas a model is an analogy and is evaluated by its utility. An analogy
is an abstract entity; therefore, it is risky to over generalize. The best way to proceed in.
formulating a theory of teaching is to begin with what is known about learning in the laboratory
and in the classroom by adopting a model derived from a theory of learning. B.F. Skinner
evolved a teaching model - Behavior modification model based upon his theory of operant
conditioning'
. Meaning and Definition of Teaching Model:
Models of teaching have been developed to help a teacher to · improve his competency to
reach more children and create a richer and more diverse environment for them. Bruce Jayce
and Marsha Weil have tried to define the term 'teaching model in their book "Models of
Teaching" Teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the process of
specifying and producing particular environmental situations that cause the student to interact in
such a way that specific change occurs in his behavior.
In other words, "Model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curriculum, to
design instructional materials and to guide instruction in the classroom or other settings".
Teaching model is an instructional design, which portrays how various teaching and learrting
conditions are interrelated.
When a teacher or an educationist possesses identifiable focus and a frame of reference whích
rationalizes the focus such as teaching activities that can be admitted to the classroom which
allow the teacher and learner work together, then we can say that he has a model for teaching
He can tell us what aspects of students have interest in him, what aspects of the environment
he emphasizes.
Assumptions of Teaching Models:' I
Teaching models have been evolved on the following assumptions:
Teaching is a means for generating an environment of learning. Teaching, environment has
various components that are interdependent,
The content and skill function as an instruction through which student and teacher interact with
one another (social relationship), the type of activities, physical facilities and their use provide
an opportunity to develop physical and social efficiency.
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Characteristics or Qualities of, Model of Teaching:
There are some common identifiable characteristics.pf good models of teaching which are given
below:
i) Scientific Procedure: A model of teaching is based on a systematic procedure to modify the
behavior of the learner. It is not's haphazard combination of facts.
ii) Specification of Learning Outcomes: All models of teaching specify what the students will
perform after completing an instructional sequence:
iii) Specification of Environment: A teaching model specifies in definite terms the environmental
conditions under which a student's • response should be observed:
iv) Specification of criterion of Performance: A model of teaching specifies the criterion of
performance, which is accepted from the students. The behavioral outcomes, which the learner
would demonstrate after completing specific instructional sequences, are delineated in the
teaching models.
V) Specification of Operations: All models of teaching specify the mechanism that provides for
the reaction of students and interaction with the environment.
Functions or Role of Teaching Models:
In general models of teaching provide guidance for teachers and learners, develop suitable
curriculum according to learning needs, specify suitable instructional materials and improve
teaching to reach more number of learners in giver time and in an effective way.
Models of teaching serve the following purposes:
They assess teachers to develop their capacities to create conducive environment for teaching.
They may help in the formation of a theory of teaching.
They help curriculum planners to plan learning activities and curriculum which provide a variety
of educational experiences to the learners.
They assess producers of materials to create more interesting and effective instructional
materials and learning sources.
They stimulate the development of new educational-innovations which may replace the schools
of today.
They help to establish teaching and learning relationship empirically.
Teaching models are useful to develop social efficiency, personal abilities, cognitive abilities
and behavioral aspects of the students,
Activities in Models of Teaching:
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. A teaching model provides a specific outline of teaching activities. T
he following six activities can be witnessed in a teaching mode):
1. Giving practical shape to the learning outcomes and are written in behavioral terms
2. Selecting appropriate stimuli so that the learners emit desired responses.
3. The learning situations are specified for observing the students responses.
4. The criterion behavior is defined for student's performances for a particular learning
environment.
5. The teaching tactics are specified for creating the interaction between students and
environment
6. The learning situations and teaching tactics can be improved and modified for the
desirable change in student's behavior.'
Sources of Models of Teaching
Four important sources from which all the models of teaching have been derived are given
below:
i) The Social Interaction Sources: All models of this teaching of this category emphasize the
importance of social relationship of the person and are based on the assumption that social
relation is the vehicle of education.
ii) The Information Processing Sources: The other source of models of teaching is the
information processing capability of the learner which means the way in which people ‘handle
stimuli, organize data, sense problems and solve them. The models of this category emphasize
the use of specific strategies within academic disciplines which lead to the development of
creativity and general intellectual ability of the learner.
iii) The Personal Sources: Personal and emotional life of the individual and their internal
organization as it affects relationship with his environment are the sources of this category of
models.
iv) Behavior Modification as a ‘Source: The operant conditioning theory built by B.F: Skinner is
the origin of this type of model which is purely a psychological model and is used in most of the
teaching strategies developed in the last two decades.
Fundamental Elements of a Teaching Model:
A teaching model provides valuable guidelines and blueprint for carrying out the task of teaching
for the realization of some specific goals. In order that a teacher takes use of model, he must be
properly acquainted with its theory as well as practice. For this purpose proper knowledge of the
fundamental elements involved in the description of a model is quite essential. Generally, a
teaching model is described in context with some fundamental elements. In the present text, we
would be using the following six elements:
i) Focus
ii) Syntax
iii) Principles of reaction
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iv) The social system
v) The support system and
vi) The application context
Focus: Focus is the central aspect of a teaching model. For what the model stands is the theme
of the focus. All the teaching models are meant for achieving some specific goals or objectives
of teaching in relation to the environment of the learner. Therefore, objectives of teaching and
aspects of the environment generally constitute the focus of the model.
Syntax: The term syntax or phasing of the model refers to the description of the model in
action. Each model consists of several phases and activities which have to be arranged in
specific sequence quite unique to the particular model. The syntax helps a teacher to use the
model. It tells him how he should begin and proceed further.
Principles of Reaction: While using the model how should a teacher regard and respond to the
activities of the student is a concern of this element. These responses should be quite
appropriate and selective. Every model through its principles of reaction provides the teacher
with particular and unique rules of thumb by which to, "tune into the student and selected
appropriate responses to what the student does.
The Social System:
The fourth element refers to a description of the following:
Interactive roles and relationships between the teacher and student
The kinds of norms that are encouraged and student behavior which is rewarded,
. Models differ from each other with regard to the description of the above mentioned aspects. In
some models, the teacher is the centre of activity, or activities are somewhat equally distributed
between teacher and students, while in others the students (a few or the whole group) occupy
the central place. The leadership role of the teacher comprising the location of authority and the
amount ‘of control over that emerging from the process of interaction also varies from model ta
model. Similarly the way in which student behavior is rewarded also differs from model to
model:
The Support System: This element of the model refers to the additional requirements beyond
the usual human skills or capacities from the teachers and the facilities or schedules available in
an ordinary classroom. Such type of additional , support may demand some special skills,
knowledge and capacities from the teacher like special aid material-facilities like films, self
instructional system, visit to some place, a Mixable schedule and a particular organizational
climate suiting to the requirements of a particular model. It is needless to emphasize that the
support system of a model contributes towards the success of a model by generating the
desirable classroom environment.
The Application Context: This last element of a model describes its application aspect. Some
models are meant for short-lessons, some for the large and some for both. They also differ in
terms of the goal achievements-conative, eognitive or affective and subsequently prove suitable
for one or the other type of teaching. Therefore each model through its element of application
context tries to describe the feasibility of its use in varying contexts achieving specific
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educational goals and demanding specific work environment
Importance of Teaching Models:
The teaching models have the following advantages:
1) The different kinds of models may be used to achieve the specific objectives of various
school subjects.
ii) Teaching can be made more effective and purposive.
iii) Teaching models are useful to develop social efficiency, personal abilities, cognitive abilities
and behavioral aspects of the students.
iv) An ‘analogy may be drawn to develop some teaching models, which *may suit to our Indian
situations,
v). It provides a great-scope for research work to study the nature of teaching.
vi). Teaching and learning relationship may be established empirically by the use of these
models.
vii) TIL new models of teaching may be invented to use the psychological forces in teaching
vii) These models are the paradigms of hypotheses of teaching, and may, be helpful in
formulating theories of teaching Categories or Families of Teaching Models:
There exists a huge variety of teaching models arising from a variety. of sources representing
different trainees of reference towards educational goals and methods. Many attempts have
been made to classify them in some specific categories. The latest attempt of Joyce and Weil
needs: I special mention. By exploring many sources, they have grouped the models on the
basis of the specific educational goals and means into the following four families:
A. Information - Processing Models
B. Social - Interaction Models
C. Personal- Development Models
D. Behavior Modification Models
CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL (JEROME BRUNER)
Concept Attainment:
Concept Attainment is an indirect instructional strategy that uses a structured inquiry process. It
is based on the work of Jerome Bruner. In concept attainment, students figure out the attributes
of a group or category that has already been formed by the teacher. To do so, students
compare and contrast examples that contain the attributes of the concept with examples that do
not contain those attributes. They then separate them into two groups. Concept attainment,
then, is the search for and identification of attributes that can be used to distinguish examples of
a given group or category from non-examples?
Purpose:
Concept attainment is designed to clarify ideas and to introduce aspects of content. It engages
students into formulating a concept through the use of illustrations, word cards or sp nens called
'examples. Students who catch on to the idea before others are able to resolve the concept and
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then are invited to suggest their own examples, while other students are still trying to form the
concept. For this reason, concept attainment is well suited to classroom use because all
thinking abilities can be challenged throughout the activity. With experience, children become
skilled at identifying relationships in the word cards or specimens. With carefully chosen
examples, it is possible to use concept attainment to teach almost any concept in all subjects.
Advantages:
1. helps make connections between what students know and what they will be learning
2. learn how to examine a concept from a number of perspectives learn how to sort out
relevant information
3. extends their knowledge of a concept by classifying more than one example of that
concept
4. students go beyond merely associating a key team with a definition concept is learned
more thoroughly and retention is Improved
Steps of Concept Attainment:
1. Select and define a concept
2. Select the attributes
3. Develop positive and negative examples
4. Introduce the process to the students
5. Present the examples and list the attributes :
6. Develop a concept definition
7. Give additional examples
8. Discuss the process with the class
9. Evaluate
INQUIRY TRAINING MODEL (Suchman Inquiry Model)
Background
When children are young the world to them is full of questions to ask. Somewhere along the
way, they get the idea that becoming an adult means leaving the world of questioning to enter
the world of knowing the answers. Schools tend to encourage the movement from questions to
answers since success becomes putting the right answer in the blank or marking the correct
response. Questions in school tend to have one right answer and questions for which there are
no answers are rare.
It has been stated that true wisdom might best be defined as knowing how little one knows in
contrast to how much one knows. Therefore, if knowing how to learn is more important than
knowing all the answers, then one must realize that good questions are more important than
right answers. Teaching students to question and ask quality questions is more important than
the correctness of the answers they can give.
Teaching science through inquiry requires that students ask questions and figure things out for
themselves. It involves the attempt to answer questions and seek information. Inquiry can be
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conducted in a variety of ways: observing nature, predicting outcomes, manipulating variables,
analyzing situations, and verifying assertions. It may involve discussing topics with others,
reading, conducting field studies, surveys, and laboratory investigations, or all of these as one
attempts to discover new knowledge and to figure things out..
The inquiry model, developed by Richard Suchman, is based on the premise that the intellectual
strategies used by scientists to solve problems and inquire into the unknown can be taught to
students, Using the natural curiosity of students, they can be trained and disciplined in the
procedures of inquiry. The model was developed from analyzing the methods used in creative
research personnel. The elements of the inquiry process were identified and these were built
into an instructional model called inquiry training.
Inquiry training is designed to bring students directly into the scientific process through
exercises that compress the scientific process into small periods of time. The training has
resulted in an increased understanding of science, mote creative thinking, and skills for
obtaining and analyzing information as students establish 'facts, build concepts, and then
generate and test explanations or 'theories. The students are active learners involved in
exploration, questioning, problem solving, inductive reasoning, intention, belong, and discovery
The inquiry process will help students:
1. approach future problems with confidence in their abilities to seek out the solution
2. to begin to consider success, and failure as information rather than reward or punishment;
3. practice the process to develop the ability to sense the relevance of variables, make intuitive
leaps, and put problems into forms with which they know how to work; and
4 . improve their memory process because when they integrate material into their own cognitive
structure, thus material is made more readily retrievable
The inquiry training method requires active participation in scientific inquiry and
capitalizes on the student's natural curiosity. The general goals of inquiry training are to:
1.. develop the intellectual discipline and skills necessary to raise questions and search out
answers stemming from their natural curiosity;
2. acquire and process data
3. develop intellectual strategies that they can use to find out why things are as they are.
logically' and
The Inquiry Training Model is based on Suchman's theory that:
1. Students inquire naturally when they are puzzled;
2. They can become conscious of and learn to analyze their thinking strategies;
3. New strategies can be taught directly and added to the students' existing ones; and
4. Cooperative inquiry enriches thinking and helps students to learn about the tentative,
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emergent nature of knowledge and to appreciate alternative explanations.
This model differs from other inquiry models in the way the data are presented. Students gather
data in a simulated process through questioning rather than actual manipulation of data. Thus,
the method is more process oriented as the primary goal is to improve students' ability to relate
data to the inferences they have formed.
Inquiry training has five phases. The first phase is the student's confrontation with the puzzling
situation. Phases two and three are the data gathering operations of verification and
experimentation. In the data gathering phases, the students ask a series of question that the
teacher answers with a yes or no, and they conduct a series of experiments of the problem
situation. In the fourth “phase, the students organize the information obtained during the data-
gathering phases and try to explain the discrepancy. In the last phase, students analyze the
problem-solving strategies they used during the inquiry.
The teacher's role is to construct the problem situation, to referee the inquiry procedures, to
respond to students' inquiry probes with the ‘necessary information, to help students establish a
focus in there, and to facilitate discussion of the problem situation among the students.
Presentation of the model
A. Preparation for the Inquiry:
1. Identify a problem requiring an explanation. In selecting the problem or event, these criteſia
need to be considered:
a. the event, must pose a problem which requires a discoverable explanation, asdpposed to
teaching a fact , concept, or generalization. The problem. must be genuinely interesting and
stimulating to the learner.
b. the level of the problem must be approximately matched with the level of the feamer .
c. the curiosity and motivation of the student are enhanced if the problem is prepared in a way
which makes it appear discrepant.
d. the event focuses the student on a particular problem rather than on a set of problems in
general.
2.In selecting the medium for presenting the problem/event, design experiences which will bring
students into contact with problem evoking situation. Discrepant events, demonstrations, films,
audio tapes, graphs, tables, problems and case studies can be used to start the inquiry process.
It must be a puzzling situation to the students and conflict with the idea of reality
The model can be presented, in a variety of ways. To help the students improve their thinking
skills, have them work’ in groups and follow the for that on the worksheet.
B. Inquiry Training Lesson:
Phase One: Conformation with the Problem
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Present the problem situation
Explain the inquiry procedures to the students.
i. They are to gather data through questions they ask of the teacher/ instructor who will be the
main source of data.
ii. Each question must be asked as tentative hypothesis.
i. The questions should obey two criteria: they must be answerable yes or no. (This places the
responsibility for analyzing the problem on the students. And the results “must be obtainable
through observations rather than requiring an inference. The teacher may decide to add
information or expand on the problem at any time; however, it is important that students
experience some frustration as they question. Instead of asking students, “Is this what you
mean?" it is better to say, “Can you repeat the question?" or "Can you state the question so I
can answer it yes or no?" Avoid answering the questions for them. A teacher might say, "Yes,
that is part of the answer , but why don't you consider this additional piece of information in light
of what you have already discovered."
iv. Once called on, the student may ask as many questions as he/she wishes before yielding the
floor to another student. Students must understand that they may ask question only when called
upon.
v. Students should be encouraged to work together whenever possible. Encourage the students
to call for a caucus when they need to talk to each other, but do not permit them to talk to each
other during the questioning periods..
Phase Two: Data Gathering-Verification
a. · Gather information about the event problem to verify the nature of the objects and
conditions.
b. Confirm the occurrence of the problem situation. The data should be recorded on the board
:or on data sheets kept by each student.
Phase Three: Data Gathering - Experimentation
Isolate relevant variables. Students introduce new elements into the situation to see if the even
happens differently, changing things to see what will happen.
b. Students hypothesize a solution to the problem. When a student poses a theoretical question
that seems to be an answer to the problem, the question is stated as a theory and written on the
board. Now all data gathering is related directly to proving or disproving this theory. Students
may caucus to discuss the information and nature of the problem and frame hypothetical
questions which they will ask of the instructor. Depending on the nature of the problem, the
students could be directed to other sources of information, activities, or to actual
experimentation in the laboratory. They can also use a series of questions of the teacher to test
the hypothesis.
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Hypothesis are confirmed br revised.
If the theory seems verified, then the class accepts the hypothesis as a solution and moves to
the next step.
ii. If the hypothesis is not acceptable and is rejected by the class, then general data gathering
begins again. Other hypothesis may be posed and tested until a hypothesis has been accepted
by the group.
Phase Four: Organizing, Formulating an Explanation
a. Ask the students to explain the hypothesis that has been accepted as a tentative solution to
the problem and organize the data to support the hypothesis. They should determine how the
hypothesis could be tested to see if the date can be generalized to other situations.
b. Have the students state their explanation so that the range of the possibilities are noted.
Phase Five: Analysis of the Inquiry Process
Ask the students to review the process they have just used to arrive at acceptance of the
hypothesis (their pattern of inquiry). Which questions were the most effective? a.
Which direction of questioning was the most productive. Which questions were not helpful?
What type of information was needed and not obtained?
MICRO-TEACHING
Among latest developments in Educational sectors, Micro-teaching is one. This is also called as
Micro Teaching Method. It was designed by Dwight W. Allen of Stanford University in 1960. It
was experimentally used in Teacher training programmes in 1960-67.
Micro, Teaching is a significant effort to make teacher education programme scientific, effective
and meaningful. It is now considered not only a constructive teacher training technique but also
"a versatile research tool which dramatically simplifies the logistics of investigating certain
teaching skills and learning variables.
Micro-teaching is like a stimulated social skill teaching to provide the feed-back to teacher
trainee for the modification of teacher behavior. It is a training concept that can be applied at
various pre-service and in-service stages in the professional development of teachers. It
provides teachers with a practice setting or instruction in which the normal complexities of
classroom are reduced and the teacher gets feedback on his performance. Definitions:
1. According to Dwight W.Allen: "Teaching strategy with reduced class strength/pupils and time
is called Micro-teaching"
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Micro-teaching is a scaled down sample of teaching. The complex art of teaching is broken
down into simple components. Only one particular skill is attempted and developed during
micro-teaching session. The teaching act is scaled down in terms of the content of the lesson,
duration of the lesson, and size of the class. A student teacher teaches a short lesson of five to
eight minutes to a small group of pupils, usually five to eight. The lesson is self-contained. A
single concept is taken up in the lesson. At the end of the lesson, the pupils in the class leave
and the teacher-trainee is given-time to think about this discussion and modify his lesson-plan
accordingly. The student-teacher re-teaches his micro lesson with a different group of students,
under the same conditions and with the same opportunities for feedback in an attempt to
improve his previous lesson: The process can be repeated till desirable skill is developed. The
success of micro-teaching depends on the teach- re teach cycle which can be completed in
about 30 minutes.
The above mentioned definitions suggest the following features of micro-teaching
1. It is a real' teaching but focus on developing teaching skills.
2." It is a scaled down teaching which:
a) Reduces the class size to 5to:10 pupils..
b) Reduces the duration of period-5 to 10 minutes.
c) Reduces the size of the topic
d) Reduces the teaching skill.
3. It is a highly individualized training device.
4. It provides the feedback för trainees performance.
5. It is a training device to prepare effective teachers.
Assumptions of Micro-teaching:
The micro-teaching technique is based on the following assumptions.
1., Teaching is a complex skill-Which can be analyzed into simpler skills.
2. Component teaching skills can be practiced for mastery under simplified teaching situation
one by one. feedback is helpful in skill mastery.
3. . Training with systematic
Once component teaching skills are mastered one by one, they can integrated for real teaching.
5. The skill training can be transferred to actual teaching. Method of Micro Teaching:
Micro-teaching reduces the complexities of class room teaching and gives needed teaching
environment. The time for teaching the content is limited in Micro-teaching, Because of the
limited time, the student teacher can work hard to improve his teaching skills. The student
teacher learns one Micro-teaching skill to teach one concept. He learns the same skill, until he
gains expertise in that skill. Student teaches for 5-10 students, for 5-10 minutes. He gets
immediate feedback.
Objectives of Micro-teaching: in-classroom teaching, to give training
1. To reduce the complexities for teaching in less time..
2. To identify the defects faults in student teacher and give teaching feedback.
3. To bring about behavioral change in teacher.
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4. If the required change is not brought about, re-teaching is done.
. To develop useful teacher education programmes.
6. To identify new teaching skills and encourage research.
7. To improve the efficiency of teaching through supervision.
Nature and Characteristics:
1. Micro-teaching is a new experiment in field of teacher education. ,
2. It is a technical method designed to learn teaching skill for teachers and student teachers,
3. (a) One skill in one context.
(b) Reducing classroom strength 5-10 students.
(c) Reducing teaching time for 5-10 minutes.
(d) Reducing content to one concept
4. It gives opportunity to get the needed feedback of their performance from the teacher after
exhibiting their skill.
5. It is an individualized training method:
It is a training method given to an inexperienced teacher: The complexities in the actual
teaching are reduced to Micro-level - class strength (No of students) teaching time, content one
skill at a time etc.
Basic Principles of Micro Teaching: Following are the basic principles of Micro Teaching:
1. Principle of Enforcement: Feedback and reteaching makes teaching perfect.
2. Principles of practice and Drill: Micro teaching is a complex skill which needs constant drill
and practice.
3. Principle of continuity: Micro teaching is a continuous process, teaching-Feedback-
reteaching-feedback till perfection is attained.
4. Principle of Microscopic Supervision: The supervisor has an observation schedule which he
fills up while supervising and makes assessment on a rating scale. The supervisor see through
the lesson all important points, paying full attention to one point at a time.
Micro-teaching steps:
1. Skills of presentation: Discussing the importance, meaning of the selected teaching skill, its
role in teaching, related teaching behavior i.e., the skin to be learnt is defined.
2. Skill Demonstration: - After discussion, the student teacher gives a demonstrate class or the
use of the skill is explained or (shown) telecasted as Hideo film in the class. .
3. Preparation of Micro-lesson plan: The student teacher selects the content analysis the skill
and prepares the lesson plan for 5-10 minutes. 4. Creating Micro-reaching Environment: Collect
the needed material required for Micro-leaching. Create class-room atmosphere.
5. Learning the teaching skill: The student teacher teaches to 56 students for 5-10 minutes. This
is videotaped or audio taped and checked by teachers or classmates.
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6. Giving feedback: Based on the evaluation made the student teacher video is given the
feedback by the teacher other student teachers or audio tapes.
7. Re-plan/Re-teach/Re-feedback: Based on the feedback the student teacher re-plans, re-
teaches and obtains the re-feedback.
8. Repeating the Micro-teaching cycle: The student teacher repeats the process until he gains
mastery of teaching.
9. Integrating the skills: The student teacher then integrates and transfer the skills learnt to the
actual class-room teaching. Phases of Micro Teaching:
J.C. Cliff groups the elements which go to make the teaching 3 procedure under three phases:
1. The student teaches gets the correct understanding of teaching learning process.
2. The quality in traditional teaching increases.
3. Student teacher learns to use various teaching -- learning materials.
4. Healthy feedback for the defects/fault in teaching skills is obtained.
5. Technical and objective method to assess teaching.
Limitations:
The devices used in Micro-teaching are costly
eg. Audio-Video Tapes etc.
It is artificial to teach using only one skill.
3. It requires more time for Micro-teaching It gives importance only to skills.
Teaching Skills: A teaching skill is defined as a set of teacher behavior which are especially
effective in bringing about desired changes in pupil teachers. There are various skills which can
be developed among pupil teachers. Several people have suggested several skills.
Various Teaching Skills:
1. Stimulus variation
2. Probing questions
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3. Divergent questions
4. Set induction
5. Introduction of a lesson
6. Explanation
7. ' Illustrating and use of example
8. Using blackboard
9. Reinforcement of student participation
10. Lecturing
il. Questioning
12. Silence and non-verbal cues
13. Completeness of communication
14. Recognizing attending behavior
VARIOUS SKILLS OF MICRO TEACHING A. SKILL OF INTRODUCING THE LESSON
I. Meaning of the skill :
The skill of introducing the lesson may be defined as proficiency in the use of verbal and non-
verbal behavior, » teaching aids and appropriate devices for making the pupils realize the need
of studying the lesson by establishing cognitive and affective rapport with them.
I. Components of the skill : This skill involves the following .*. components.
1) Utilization of previous experiences
2) Use of appropriate devices / techniques:
3) Maintenance of continuity
4) Relevancy of verbal or non-verbal behavior
1. Utilization of previous experiences: The new learning is to be based on the previous
learning, knowledge & experiences of the child. An appropriate introduction of a new lesson has
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to be based on the previous knowledge & experiences of pupils for this purpose he has to take
care of the following things :
a) Knowledge of the subject or subjects acquired by the pupils in the previous classes.
b) The general awareness of the pupils with their physical & social environment.
c) Devices & Techniques of exploring the previous knowledge
d) Techniques of establishing link between the previous & new knowledge.
e)ability of creating situations in the class for the utilization of previous experiences.
2. Use of appropriate devices/techniques A teacher should essentially acquire the ability of
using appropriate devices or techniques for introducing a lesson. The various devices used for
this purpose may be listed as below:
a) Questioning
b). Narration, description or lecturing
c) Story telling
d) Using audio-visual aids
e) Demonstration or experimentation
f) Dramatization or role playing
g) Visits or excursion
f) Use of examples, analogies &similarities etc.
3) Maintenance of continuity : Proper introduction requires the continuity in the ideas or
information presented to the pupils . There should be a logical sequence between the main
parts of the introduction. One question statement or an activity on the part of the teacher should
lead to the other related ones in a chain of continuity creating the need of studying the lesson.
What is done at a particular moment should be properly related to pupil's previous response and
it should be properly linked with the preceding activity of the teacher himself. .
4) Relevancy of verbal or non-verbal behavior: A teacher should also try to observe
relevancy in his verbal or non-verbal behavior. What is to be stated asked, demonstrated,
dramatized or illustrated should contribute maximum towards the introduction of the lesson, in
some of the following ways:
a) Testing previous knowledge
b) Utilization of these past experiences
c) Establishing cognitive & affective rapport with the pupils
d). Making the pupils feel the need of studying the lesson Pin-Pointing the aims of the lesson.
MICRO TEACHING LESSON PLAN
Micro Lesson: Skill of introduction (Example)
Name of the student teacher
Subject : Physics
Class VIII
Date
Time duration 6 min
Topic Force
·
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B. SKILL OF EXPLAINING
Meaning of the Skill:
In the classroom setting, sometimes the pupil needs more help than teacher renders in order to
understand a fact, concept or generalization etc. A teacher organizes a number of learning
experiences in the classroom towards this end. He uses a number of interrelated statements
related to the concepts, facts etc. in order to develop understanding among the pupils The set of
interrelated statements, that the teacher made is known explanation. Therefore explanation is
the use of inter related faces concepts with a view to develop understanding among the pupils
towards the content under study
For e.g, how ice is manufactured? The answer which gives different steps and these mutual
relationship is the explanation.
Factors Affecting Explanation:
While giving explanation to pupils, the explainer should keep in mind the age level, their
previous knowledge, experiences, their family background, geographical situations etc. since all
these factors significantly influence the effectiveness of explanation.
Theoretical Rational زHuman beings have been using explanation as an intellectual activity:
Ideas, Phenomenon or concepts are communicated to make them understandable to others by
giving examples, showing relationships etc. Explanation is an activity which shows the
relationships among various concepts, events and ideas. Attempt is made to relate a set of facts
with another set of facts to promote understanding. There are three stages to understand an
event reporting, describing and explaining. Reporting refers to bare factual information and no
attempt is made to seek relationship among the facts . It is merely a chain of statements to
communicate the factual information about the event. Next higher stage is description which
implies adding some flesh to the bone skeleton of facts. In description, not only facts are
communicated in a sequence but an attempt is also ***made to state relationship among facts.
Explanation attempts to establish Hi casual relationship between causes and consequences of
phenomenon, Questions starting with “Why”, “How" etc. generally demand for explanation of a
phenomenon. For example, how hydrogen is manufactured? The answer is explanation
In an explanation of phenomenon relationship are setup Para-wise, and ultimately inferences be
drawn, The aim is to establish relationship between antecedents and consequents. Antecedents
are the causes or the reasons responsible for the occurrence of a phenomenon, events or
conditions etc. which is known as consequent. It is through a series of logical reasoning that
such relationship are established to explain the phenomenon..
Behavior definition:
Explanation is coined as an activity to bring about an understanding in someone amount a
concept, principle or phenomenon. While giving explanation, causes for the phenomenon,
reasons behind the action and various logical steps involved in arriving at influences are given.
A good explanation is one which is understood by the pupils. Therefore, a teacher must try to
explain the concepts, thoughts, ideas etc. in such a way that it is understandable by the pupils
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for whom it is concerned.
Skill of explaining has got the following teacher behavior which can be broadly divided into
1)Desirable Behavior and
2) Undesirable, Behaviors
A) Desirable Teacher Behavior:
a) Use of Introducing Statements: These statements are used the listener alert. The purpose of
these statements is to create mental; readiness in the class and give clue for the explanation. In
lengthy; explanations there may be general sets of introductory statements,
b) Use of Concluding Statements; Some statements are made towards? the end to summaries
or conclude the explanation. The purpose of i these statements is to give the pupil a
consolidated picture of what: he has explained for ready reference. Concluding statement is
also the inference drawn through logical reasoning in an explanation.
Example: We shall study about the flow of heat in solids (Introducing statement). When we heat
one end of the iron rod then its particles transmit their heat to the next particle which they
receive from the source. In this way heat passes gradually from one end to the other This type
of flowing of heat from one particle to the other is technically termed as “Conduction" and this is
the process of flow of heat in "Solids” (Concluding statements).
In the teaching episode there is one "Introducing” and one "Conducting"
statement. The number of these statements increases according to the length of the explanation
or when the ideas are changed.
c) Use of explaining links: These are certain links or phrases which connect the statements.
The purpose of links is to tell the listeners that the explanation is in-progress. The teacher
should use appropriate explaining links to make his; explanation coherent.
Some explaining Links:
Eg: There will be a lot of humidity in the air during the rainy season (That is why) clothes do not
get dry quickly.
d) Use of Visual Techniques. The use of black-boards, charts and other visual materials are
helpful in making explanation clear. As the famous saying goes “One picture is worth thousand
words” These aids help to' understand the phenomenon.
e) Technical words defined: Sometimes when a teacher is explaining a particular
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phenomenon, uses some technical and difficult words, which if not defined would make the
explanation beyond comprehension of a listener.
Ég: When a current passes through the coil, placed in the magnetic field; the flux will change.
Hence flux is the technical word which needs, explanation.
f) Interesting to pupils: For an effective understanding of explanation by the pupils, it is essential
to make it interesting. This can be achieved by taking examples from daily experiences of the
pupil, using simple sentences, establishing premises properly and using * different media of
communication etc.
g) Covering Essential Points: In a concept there may be a number of attributes and non-
attributes and generalizations and a number of inter-related concepts. In a phenomenon there
may be some definite constituent element. The complete explanation should cover all these
concepts. The completeness of explanation is determined by the scope of the concept or
organization as specified in the instructional objectives.
b) Questions to test pupils understanding: The effectiveness of the explanation can be
judged by testing pupils understanding of the phenomenon. Teacher ask questions at the
concluding stage, to get feedback, as to how far he has been able to explain a phenomenon
correctly and to what extent pupils have understood it. Only a few questions play be asked for
the purpose.
B) Undesirable Teacher Behavior:
1) Irrelevant statements
2) Lack of continuity
3) Lack of fluency
4) Vague words or phrases
MICRO TEACHING LESSON PLAN-II
Micro Lesson: Skill of Explanation (Example)
Name of the student teacher
Subject Physics
Class VIII
Date
Time duration 6 mts
Topic Tension
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C: SKILL OF PROBING QUESTIONS
The skill of probing questions revolves around the responses given by the students in relation to
the question put forward by the teacher. Each question is followed by variety of responses given
by different, students. These responses include no response, wrong response, partially correct
response, incomplete response and correct response.
These five types of responses are
1. No response situation: This situation arises due to the in ability of the student to understand
the question properly; did not hear the question properly; lack of knowledge related to the topic.!
2. Wrong response situation : This situation arises due to lack of knowledge of facts, concepts
and generalizations on the part of student.
-3. Partially correct response situation. This situation arises as the student possess partial
knowledge of facts, concepts and generalization of that particular topic. 4. Incomplete response
situation : This type of situation occurs when the student is not having the necessary facts,
concepts or generalization in his memory or it may be due to his inability to understand and
structure a response to the given question.
5. Correct response situation: From this situation, we can infer that the response given by the
students completely satisfy the question put forward by the teacher.
These specific set of behaviors. student response situations are outlined in the
ensuing skill components. The skill of probing questions involves the component behaviors
seeking further information redirecting, refocusing and developing critical awareness.
MICRO TEACHING LESSON PLAN-III
Micro Lesson: Skill of Probing Questions (Example)
Name of the student teachers: :
Subject : Physics
Class : IX
Date
Time duration; : 6 minutes
Topic: Flow of heat through solids
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D. SKILL OF RE-INFORCEMENT
Re-enforcement is a specific type of conditioning of such nature that the reduction of an organic
need or the satisfaction of drive stimulus, which increases probability of the organism producing
a given response of behavior on subsequent occasion. Reinforcement is responses change or
modification guide is based on the feedback principle which means that the reduction or
satisfaction of an organic need or drive stimulus increases the probability of future responses of
the kind that the organism emitted immediately prior to its being satisfied.
Re-inforcers
Re-inforcers may be positive or negative. A positive Re-inforcers is any stimulus whose
presentation increases the probability of the response to recur in future, whereas negative re-in
forces is any stimulus whose withdrawal strengthens that behavior. In both the cases the
behavior is strengthened. A positive re-inforcement consist of presenting something like food
water or teacher's smile etc. to the organism. A negative reinforcement consists of removing
something or teacher's frown, imparting punishment or threat etc.
Word of caution
Negative re-inforcement and punishment are not alike. Re. inforcement involves presentation of
a positive stimulus or removal of negative one, while punishment consists of presentation of a
negative stimulus or removal of positive one. Punishment is not considered as proper procedure
of behavior modification as it hardly provides relatively permanent change in behavior and
temporarily suppresses wrong or undesirable behavior. :
Re-inforcement in classroom :
Skinner noted a number of weaknesses in educational practice. First, behavior is dominated by
aversion stimulation. The child tries to escape or keep away himself from something like
punishment. Second, excessive time is lapsed between. Occurrence of behavior and re-
inforcement. Third there is an absence of a programmer of serial re-inforcement according to
which teaching should move forward step by step by re-inforcing a series of progressive
approximations to the final desired behavior. Lastly there is infrequency of re-inforcement.
In order to plan. a procedure for developing certain desirable behavior in child, the questions
which needed answers are:
What behavior is to be established? What re-inforcers are available? What responses are
available? How can re-inforcement be most efficiently scheduled? Therefore, the first job of the
teacher is to decide what to teach and what behavior objectives are to be achieved? It is also
desired of a i teacher that he must also keep at hand the possible responses that are available
throughout teaching. Lastly, the teacher should make the reinforcement contingent upon desired
behavior so as to result in effective leaning:
Re-inforcement is not only used to promote learning, but also to secure attention, to motivate
pupils. Some of the use of re-inforcement in the classroom are :
1). To increase pupil participation
2) To facilitate learning -
3) To motivate the leaner and to maintain the level of motivation.
4) To modify undesirable behaviors and to develop desirable behavior
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5) And to develop self management of learning experience through self reinforcement.
Meaning of the skill of Re-inforcement:
In classroom, the responding pupil needs social approval of their behaviors. Due to this need
they are always eager to answer the questions set by the teacher. After responding the
question, they are eager to know about the correctness of their response and happiness of their
teacher. In favorable conditions they also feel happy' and are always eager to give the
response. If, contrary to this, their teacher does not show any reaction to their responses, the
eagerness of the pupil will also gradually decrease. Technically, we can say, that the teacher’s
reaction to pupil's response "Reinforces" the pupil. :
"It involves the teacher to use more and more positive reinforces and to decrease negative
reinforces, so that pupils' participation in the class is maximized"
Components of the Skill:
For the effective use of the skill or reinforcement, we must acquaint ourselves with the
behavioral components of the skill which are:
1) Positive Verbal Reinforcement'; It involves giving verbal or linguistic expressions which act
as reinforces e.g. saying “good”, "right", "Correct", "Fine” “Yes”, “well done”, after the pupil has
responded. Sometimes words and phrases like “go on”, “carryon” "go ahead”, “continue", etc.
also act as reinforces. Comments of a personal evaluative and supportive nature and the
knowledge of results are also the examples of verbal positive reinforces. Even when a teacher
uses students idea by elaborating explaining, summarizing or paraphrasing, he is providing re-
inforcement ,
2) Positive Non - Verbal Reinforces: When a teacher uses gestures and per formative behaviour
to reinforce the student's responses it is known as positive non verbal reinforcement. This
component has, four elements:
a) Nods and smiles
b) Moving towards the responding pupil
c) Giving a friendly look, and
d) Writing pupils responses on the B. Bloard
It has been found that thon-verbal re-inforcement is more effective in bringing about behavioral
changes, as repeated use of positive verbal reinforces, reduces their effectiveness and
ultimately become part of teacher's mannerism.
3) Negative Verbal Reinforces: Though the purpose of this type of reinforcement is to
strengthen the occurrence of a particular behaviors, but in practice, the use of certain
undesirable reinforces weaken the described behavior. The other effect of this type of
reinforcement is decrease in the level of motivation and interest. Words like, "wrong":"no",
"incorrect", "not true?, "foolish" ; "nonsense", "shut up", etc. are examples of negative verbal
reinforces and should not be used extensively in order to facilitate learning.
4 Negative Non-Verbal Reinforce : This type of reinforcement can be given to students
conscious of certain undesirable behaviors. : This can be done through such behavior like
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"frowning", "widening of eyes","rodding the head” avoiding the particular pupil and moving away
from him. However, this type of reinforcement should be used with caution as it leads to disrupt
rapport between pupils and the teacher. It may be also hurt their ego and discourage them.
5) Extra Verbal Cues : Sometimes the teacher uses the utterances, "aha", "humm” etc. to
encourage the pupil to continue with his answer. These cues are given when the pupil's
response is lengthy. Preferably, such cues may be given at places where the pupil has uttered
significant words and phrases, However, too frequent use of extra verbal cues tends to lower
their effectiveness as reinforces and become a part of teacher's mannerism.
6) Repeating and Rephrasing Pupil's Response: Teacher repeats ; the correct response of the
pupil or rephrases it for the benefit of other pupils in the class. Such behaviors have reinforcing
effect on the pupils, but the teacher should repeat only those answer by the pupils which are
novel and significant:
e.g : Teacher: What are the factors that contribute to production
Pupil : Water air and light
T: Land, water, ait and light are the natural factors of production
(Repeating and paraphrasing pupils response).
7) Writing pupil's Responses on the Block board: Teacher may at time write correct and original
pupil responses on the Black board to give reinforcement to the pupils. This has an additional
advantage of securing pupil attention.
Some cautions Regarding the use of the skill:
Too frequent use of Reinforcement should be avoided.
2. Only few correct and novel responses should be reinforced.
3. A variety of reinforces should be used to avoid monotony and to increase the effectiveness of
reinforces. Reinforcement like giving medals and prizes, writing comments etc should be. very
rarely used.
4. Reinforcement may be given to the whole class from time to time as well to the individual
pupils.
5. It should be given immediately after pupil responses.
6. However, delayed reinforcement may be given in cases where a long answer was to be given
in parts: by the pupil, but delayed reinforcement should be normally avoided.
7. It may be personalized by calling pupils name to increase its effectiveness.
8. Meaningful reinforces have more effect on pupil Learning. It should be given keeping in view
pupil’s level of maturity and the context of classroom discourse. So that the pupil have an
understanding of the relationship of the reinforcement of their behavior.
MICRO TEACHING LESSON PLAN-IV
Micro Lesson: Skid of Reinforcement
Name of the student teacher:
Subject : Science
Class : VIII
Date
Time duration . 6 minutes
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Topic : Transmission of Heat
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