music mood and marketing

Gordon C. Bruner II

Music, Mood, and MarketingThat music affects human beings in various ways has probably been presumed as long as people haveplayed music. Many marketing practitioners already accept this notion, given that music is increasinglyused as a stimulus in the retail environment as well as in radio and television advertising. Yet, fewerthan 20 published empirical studies in marketing have music as their focus. The author reviews the smallbody of marketing literature, surveys relevant literature outside marketing, and provides research prop-ositions to guide future studies.

MUSIC has long been considered an efflcient andeffective means for triggering moods and com-

municating nonverbally. It is therefore not surprisingthat music has become a major component of con-sumer marketing, both at the point of purchase and inadvertising. There is now even a trade magazine de-voted exclusively to these uses of music (MarketingThrough Music), and at least one ad agency has a vicepresident for music (Garfield 1988). Yet, despite beinga prominent promotional tool, music is not wellunderstood or ccmtrolled by marketers. Consequently,marketers are precariously dependent on musicians fortheir insight into the selection or composition of the"right" music for particular situations.

The purpose of this article is to examine the be-havioral effects of music, with special emphasis onmusic's emotional expressionism and role as a moodinfluencer. The practical implications of what is cur-rently known as well as propositions for future re-search are discussed.'

'No new theory of music's expressiveness or debate about whethersuch expressiveness exists is presented here. Excellent discussions ofsuch issues are given by Hevner (1935b), Meyer (1967), Clynes (1977;Clynes and Nettheim 1982), and Langer (1976). Budd (1985) pro-vides a review. Further, several terms have been used in the literatureto refer to the affective dimension of human behavior, such as "emo-tion" (Holbrook and Batra 1987), "mood" (Gardner 1985), and "sen-tic state" (Clynes 1977). Such terms as these are used here synony-mously.

Gordon C. Bruner II is Associate Professor of Marketing, Southern Illi-nois University. The author acknowledges the helpful comments by theEditor and three anonymous JM reviewers, as well as Clifton Anderson,Paul Hensel, and James Kellaris. A more detailed version of this articleand a bibliography can be obtained from the author.

Music and Mood

That music is an especially powerful stimulus for af-fecting moods is no revelation; it is attested tothroughout history by poets, playwrights, composers,and, in the last two centuries, researchers. Butler (1973)provides a bibliogr^hy of nearly 900 entries in sevenlanguages, all pertaining in some way to the study ofmusic psychology in the nineteenth century. More re-cently, Seidman (1981) reviewed the contributions ofmusic to media productions (movies and educationalfilms), concluding that cognitive and affective com-prehension of stimuli can be influenced. This conclu-sion seems to have been long held by persons in themovie industry, as is evident in the development ofelaborate suggestions for marrying music to video (Zettl1973, ch. 15). Further, the research of Manfred Clynes(1975, 1977, 1980; Clynes and Nettheim 1982), a notedscholar in both music and neurof^ysiology, indicatesthat appropriately structured music acts on the ner-vous system like a key on a lock, activating brain pro-cesses with corresponding emotional reactions.

Music is not simply a generic sonic mass, but rathera complex chemistry of controllable elements. Un-fortunately, no definitive taxonomy of music elementshas been developed. Definitions vary and what is aprimary component in one taxonomy is a subcom-ponent in another. Time- and pitch-related character-istics appear on almost all lists and also have someempirical confirmation (Henkin 1955, 1957; Nielzenand Cesarec 1982). Though less clear, evidence alsohas been found for a third factor, musical texture. Forpurposes of this review and discussion, time, pitch,

94 / Journal of Marksting, October 1990

and texture are the three main structural factors onwhich music is based. (Definitions for each of thesefactors and for relevant "subcomponents" are givenin the Appendix.)

Table 1 is a list of some propositions about theaffective meaning conveyed by certain music char-acteristics. They illustrate the sort of beliefs held bymusicians who compose, perform, and conduct musicthat evokes particular feelings (e.g., Cooke 1962; Zettl1973). Many of these observations have been testedempirically, as summarized in Table 2} Principal re-sults of these studies are discussed next.

Time-Related Findings

Several researchers over the years have studied tempoand arrived at the same general conclusion: all otherthings being equal, fast music is considered to be morehappy and/or pleasant than slow music (Gundlach1935; Rigg 1940a; Scherer and Oshinsky 1977;Swanwick 1973; Watson 1942; Wedin 1972). Morespecifically, Hevner (1937) found that slow tempitended to evoke tranquil, sentimental, and/or solemnsorts of descriptions; fast tempi elicited responses re-lating to exhilarating and/or joyous sorts of feelings.

Though these studies suggest a positive relationbetween affect and musical pace, there is strong evi-

dence that the relationship is not a simple monotonicone. An inverted-U preference function seems to bemore likely, with 70 to 110 BPM (beats per minute)being the range of favored tempo (Dowling andHarwood 1986; Fraisse 1982; Holbrook and Anand1988). This range of preference is likely to vary withthe context (Dowling and Harwood 1986; Hoibrookand Anand 1988; Konecni 1982) and may not be asimportant to determining preferences as musical genre(Cupchik, Rickert, and Mendelson 1982).

The rhythm aspect of the time component also hasbeen examined in several studies. Hevner (1936) ob-served that firm rhythms were judged to be more sa-cred, serious, and/or robust; smooth-flowing riiythmswere felt to be more happy, playful, and/or dreamy.Gimdlach (1935) noted tiiat music with smooth rhytiunwas characterized as brilliant or animated; music withuneven rhythm was perceived to express dignity orexaltation.^

For another aspect of the time factor, Wedin (1972)found that most of the variance in the "activity" di-mension of the music she examined was explained by"phrasing." Specifically, staccato-note-filled musicgave the impression of iiveliness, energy, and/or ag-itation, especially if performed with great intensity

number of studies using music as a stimulus variable is likelyto be in the hundreds. Many fewer have music itself as the focus.This smaller group is discussed here and the most relevant studies arehighlighted in Table 2.

^ough these results are reasonably similar to Hevner's, other studiesof rhythm have produced a confounding airay of both rhythm de-scriptors and emotional expressions that make them unamenable tocomparison. For additional studies, see Gabrielsson (1973), Schererand Oshinsky (1977), and Watson (1942).

TABLE 1Emotional Expressions Ascribed to Various Components of Music*

Time-Related Expressions1. Duple rhythms produce a rigid and controlled expression in comparison with triple rhythm, which is niore

relaxed or abandoned.2. The faster the tempo, the more animation and happiness is expressed.3. Even, rhythmic movement can represent the unimpeded flow of some feeling; dotted, jerky, uneven rhythms

produce more complex expressions.4. Firm rhythms suggjest a serious mood whereas smooth-flowing rhythms are more playful.5. Staccato notes give more emphasis to a passage than legato notes.

Pitch-Related Expressions1. "Up" and "down" in pitch not only correspond to up and down in the physical world, but can also imply

"out-and-in" as well as "away-and-back," respectively.2. Rising and falling pitch can convey a growing or diminishing intensity in a given emotional context.3. Songs in higher keys are generally considered to be happier than songs in lower keys.4. Music in the major mode expresses more animated and positive feelings than music in the minor mode.5. Complex harmonies are more agitated and sad than simple harmonies, which are more serene and happy.

Texture-Related Expressions1. Loudness can suggest animation or proximity whereas low volume implies tranquility or distance.2. Cresendo (soft to loud) expresses an increase in force whereas diminuendo (loud to soft) suggests a

decrease in power.3. The timbre of brass instruments conveys a feeling of cold, hard force whereas reed instruments produce a

lonely, melancholy expression.'Based on information given by Cooke (1962) and Zettl (1973).

MUSK, Mood, and Marketng / 95

TABLE 2Summary of Relevant Research Involving Music

Indapendmrt Variablas*

Author (dMe) Sample and Setting Time Pitxih Texture Ottier

Alpeit and Alpert(1986, 1988)

Gorn (1982)

Holbrook andAnand (1988)

Hunt (1988)

Kellaris and Cox(1987)

MJIIJman (1982)

Milliman (1986)

Park and Young(1986)

Sewall and Sarel(1986)

Simkins and Smith(1974)

Smith and Curnow(1966)

Stewart and Furse(1986)

StudiM48 college students

in classroomexperiment

244 and 122 collegestudents in 2-partclassroomexperiment

44 college studentsin "lab"experiment

78 college studentsin "lab"experiment

302 collegestudents inclassroomexperiment

216 shoppers Insupermarketexperiment

1392 customergroups inrestaurantexperiment

120 women in"iab" experiment

Analysis of 832radio ads usingan average of 200mall shoppers

40 college studentsin "lab"experiment

1100 shoppers insupermarketexperiment

Analysis of 1059 TVads

Tenipo and rhythmvaried

Tempo varied

Tempo similar

Tempo varied

Tempo varied

Harmony varied Dynamics varied

Constant

Modality similar

Constant

instrumentationsimilar

Volume constant

Volume constant

Stout and Leckenby(1988)

Wintle (1978)

Yalch andSpangenberg(1988)

OdMrStudiMClynes and

Nettheim (1982)

Gundlach (1935)

Hevner (1935a)

Hevner (1936)

Hevner (1937)

Heyduk (1975)

Analysis of 50 TV Tempo examinedads using averageof 30 mallshoppers

77, 96, and 120college studentsin 3-experimentclassroom study

86 shoppers indepartment storeexperiment

189 collegestudents and staffin unknownsetting

112 collegestudents inunspecifiedsetting

205 collegestudents inclassroomexperiment

450 collegestudents inclassroomexperiment

142 and 7 collegestudents in 2classroomexperiments

120 collegestudents inunspecifiedexperimentaisetting

Mode anddistinctivenessexamined

Volume varied

Volume examined

Frequencymodulated

Amplitudemodulated

Greeting card"mood"

Appeal varied

Music presenceand programcontentAppeal varied

Presence of musicand involvementvaried

Presence of music

Appeal varied

Presence and formof music's use

Presence and formof music's use

Compatibility ofmusic and adsvaried

Background andforegroundmusic

Tempo and rhythm Pitch and range Volume andexamined examined orchestral range

examined

Intrapair constancy Major vs. minor Intrapair constancymode

Rhythm varied Melodic line and Intrapair constancyharmony varied

Fast vs. slow tempo High vs. low pitch Intrapair constancy

Syncopation varied Number and varietyof chords varied

Mood and purchaseintention

Choice behavior

Perceived activityand appeal

Recall

Choice behavior

Shopping behaviors

In-restaurantbehaviors

Brand attitude

Recall

Audio messageevaluation

Music appeal andshoppingbehaviors

Comprehension,persuasion, andrecall

Cognitive andaffectiveresponses

Affective ratings

Music appeal andshoppingbehaviors

Emotion expressed

Emotion expressed

Emotion expressed

Emotion expressed

Emotion expressed

Preferred andperceivedcomplexity

9 6 / Joumai of Martceting, October 1990

TABLE 2 (continued)Summary of Rei«vant Research inw>lving iMusic

Author litata)

Kinnear (1959; VanStone 1960

Rigg (1940a)

Rigg (1940b)

Scherer andOshinsky (1977)

Smith and Cuddy(1986)

Swanwich (1973)

Watson (1942)

Wedin (1972)

Vinovich (1975)

Sampl* and Satlina

26 college studentsin classroomexperiment

88 college studentsin unspecifiedexperimentalsetting

84 college studentsin unspecifiedexperimental

setting48 college students

in "lab" setting36 college students

in "lab" setting400 students of

various ages inunspecifiedsetting

20 musicians and600 students ofvarious ages inunspecified

settings5 experiments of

varying samplesize

30, 30, and 100college studentsin 3-experimentclassroom study

TInw

Tempo constant

Tempo varied

Intragroupconstancy

Tempo and rhythmvaried

Constant

Tempo varied

Tempo and rhythmexamined

Tempo and rhythm.and phrasingexamined

Tempo and rhythmexamined

bMtopMtdwit VataMw*

ntehMeiody constant

Intragroupconstancy

Pitch varied

Mode and pitchvaried

Melodic complexityvaried

Direction andmeiodic linevaried

Pitch examined

Mode, harmony.and singabilityexamined

Mode, pitch, andharmonyexamined

Tnrtun OtiMr

Orchestration varied

Intragroupconstancy

intragroupconstancy

Harmonics andamplitude varied

' Constant

Volume and overall"sound"examined

Volume examined Type and style ofmusic examined

Volume examined

DspMidvirtVwteMM

Emotion expressed

Emotion expressed

Emotion expressed

Emotion expressed

Pfeasantness

Emotion expressed

Emotion expressed

Emotion expressed

Emotion expressed

'Blank spaces in the chart indicate that variabies were not reported as being controiied, manipulated or examined.

(volume). At the other exd'eme, legato music (partic-ularly with softer performances) was perceived ashaving a more peaceful, gentle, or dreamy character.

Pitch-Related Findings

The effect of pitch has been investigated by Gundlach(1935), Hevner (1937), Rigg (1940b), and Watson(1942). The findings are relatively consistent and sug-gest a strong association between pitch and perceivedhappiness: music with high pitch is more exciting orhappy than low pitched music, which is perceived assad.

At least two studies have been conducted to testconventional thinking among musicians in Westemculture that the major mode makes dynamic and pos-itive expressions whereas tlie minor mode producesthe opposite feelings. The results seem to support theconventional wisdom: the minor mode has plaintive,angry, or mysterious qualities in contrast to the morehappy, bright, or playful expressions of the major mode(Hevner 1935a; Scherer and Oshinsky 1977).

The expressive tendencies of harmony have beenstudied by Hevner (1936), Watson (1942), and Wedin(1972). In general, consoniuit harmonies can be de-scribed as playful, happy, or serene. Dissonant har-monies seem to be perceived as more agitating, om-inous, or sad.

Two other pitch-related characteristics are direc-

tion of melodic line and note range. Hevner (1936)found a tendency for ascending melodic lines to beviewed as more dignified or solemn whereas the de-scending ones were more exhilarating or serene. Thefindings on note range indicate that compositions withthe greatest range (more than an octave) may be per-ceived as more brilliant than those with less than anoctave range of notes, which may be viewed as moremournful (Gundlach 1935).

Texture-Related Findings

Musical texture has been studied less than pitch- andtime-related characteristics. However, an early studyfocusing on orchestration showed that brass itistni-ments carried the melody in songs characterized astriumphant and/or grotesque, woodwinds expressedawkward and/or mournful feelings, melodies on a pianowere perceived as brilliant and/or tranquil, and stringsounds were associated with pieces characterized asglad (Gundlach 1935). Kinnear (1959; Van Stone 1960)reports that woodwind instrumentation was very oftenjudged to be whimsical whereas brass treatments wereconsidered serious and/or majestic regardless of themusic being performed. String versions of songs didnot seem to represent any one particular mood cate-gory, but were equally effective in expressing variousmoods.

Volume is the only other textural element that has

Music, Mood, and Mariteting / 97

been examined. Gundlach (1935) found the loudestpieces in his study were described as triumphant and/or animated, whereas the softest pieces were judgedto be delicate and/or tranquil. Watson (1942) alsostudied volume, finding it to be loudest for songscharacterized as very exciting or very happy and sof-test for pieces perceived as peaceful or serious.

Other Relevant Findings

Considerable though not universal support for an op-timal complexity model as it pertains to music is notedin a literature review by Walker (1981). This modelsuggests that when someone expresses a degree of lik-ing for a range of music compositions, including somemore complex and others less complex than optimal,an inverted-U function tends to be found. Further, thisfunction is likely to shift to the right over time as apiece becomes more familiar. Support for this notioncan be found in the theories of Berlyne (1960, 1971)and Meyer (1967) and empirical support in a musicalcontext is found in a variety of studies (e.g., Holbrookand Anand 1988; Krugman 1943; Smith and Cuddy1986). Apparently, repetition can lead to perceivedchanges in complexity with resulting influences on af-fect when patterns in the music become predictable.

In a series of experiments, Vinovich (1975) in-vestigated the commtinicative relationship between theinformation imparted by the video portion of a tele-vision/cinema "drama" and its musical score. Resultsindicated that different musical moods produced dif-ferent interpretations of the same video stimulus. Theconclusion was that viewers tend to create a predict-able cognitive interpretation of an ambiguous videodrama that logically corresponds to the "feeling" ofthe music in order to justify their affective reactions.

Marketing-Related StudiesLittle music-related research has been performed inmarketing and it has examined issues other than theinfluence of music components on mood. The follow-ing discussion first reviews the few studies on non-behavioral outcomes of music in marketing contexts(e.g., changes in affect, purchase intention, and re-call), then reviews studies examining behavioral is-sues (e.g., sales volume, product selection, shoppingtime).

Nonbehavioral Studies

A series of experiments by Wintle (1978) providedempirical support for conventional thinking that musiccan significantly affect the emotional response to tele-vision commercials. Specifically, Wintle's data indi-cated that music and television commercials share threedimensions of subjective expression: an activity fac-tor, a pleasantness factor, and a potency/personal rel-

evance factor. Further, she demonstrated that sup-p(Mting music seems to intensify whereas counteractingmusic reduces the intensity of the dimension beingcharacterized positively in the ad.

Simpkins and Smith (1974) were concerned withthe effect of background music in commercial mes-sages on the evaluation of a message's source. Theirdata supported the notion feat the compatibility ofbackground music with the preference of the audiencesignificantly affects the evaluation of a message'ssource. Also, persons for whom the music was in-compatible evaluated the credibility of the sponsorsignificantly lower than those who heard the messagewithout music. However, little i^tpeared to be gainedin source evaluation by the use of compatible music.

Another aspect of backgnmnd music was studiedby Park and Young (1986). Their focus was on theimpact of involvement (high cognitive, high affective,or low involvement) and music (presence or absence)on brand attitude formation. Their results indicated thatmusic had a facilitative effect on persons in the lowinvolvement comfition but a distracting effect for thosein the high cognitive involvement condition. The ef-fect on those in the high affective involvement con-dition was unclear.

The effect of music on moods and purchase in-tentions has been studied recently by Alpert and Alpert(1986, 1988). One finding was that happy music pro-duced happier moods in subjects, but sad music pro-duced the highest purchase intentions. The authorsconcluded that structure and expressiveness of back-ground music can evoke different moods and purchaseintentions toward advertised products.

Holbrook and Anand (1988; Anand and Holbrook1985) studied the relationsWp between musical tempoand affect. They observed that as tempo increased, sodid affect up to a point, then it decreased, producingan inverted-U preference function. Because generalarousal was anticipated to vary with the context, thestudy also examined the nMxierating role of situationalarousal on preferred musical pace. The findings weresomewhat mixed, but the authors concluded that theinverted-U preference function shifts to the right un-der conditions of higher arousal.

Several coirtent analyses of commercials have beenconducted to shed light on the role of music in ad-vertising. The largest study of this kind was by Stewartand Furse (1986), who analyzed more than 1000 com-mercials. A music-related factor (auditory memorydevice) was found to have a significant positive re-lationship with recall and comprehension, and the as-sociation was stronger for new than for establishedproducts (p. 76, 82).

More detailed coding of music components wasused in a recent study by Stout and Leckenby (1988).They found that mode had the most impact on re-

9 8 / Joumai of Mariceting, October 1990

sponses of all music components examined. Specifi-cally, respondents appeared to learn more from, in-dicate greater behavioral intent toward, and make moreperscMial connections with ads using the major or mixedmodes. Commercials with music in the minor modewere rated as more irritating and generally scored lessfavorably. Faster tempo was linked with generallypositive comments whereas ads with moderate or slowtempi received less favorable responses.

In a content analysis of radio commercials, thepresence of music was not found to have a particularlysalient impact on recall in comparison with other vari-ables, such as product category and number of brandmentions (Sewall and Sarel 1986). Very different re-sults were observed by Hunt (1988). His findings sup-port the notion that music-based radio commercialstend to achieve higher recall scores than ads using astraight announcement format, regardless of the pro-gramming context.

Behavior-IMatBd StudiesAn early study with behavioral implications for mar-keting was conducted in two grocery stores where mu-sic was either "soft" or "loud" (Smith and Cumow1966). The results indicated that the volume level ofthe music was ccnrelated negatively with shcfvping timebut not associated with average sales per person orcustomers' reported satisfaction with the music. Theimplication was that the sales per minute were sig-nificantly higher under the loud music condition.

In an application of classical conditioning, Gom(1982) examined the influence of music in advertisingon product choice. He found that the simple associ-ation between a picture of a pen (conditioned stimu-lus) and liked music (unconditioned stimulus) couldsignificantly affect a pen selection decision, particu-larly for subjects not aware that they would be askedto make a decision. However, these results have beenquestioned recently on methodological grounds.^

Milliman (1982, 1986) performed two separateexperiments in which music tempo was manipulated,one in a supermaricet and the other in a restaurant. Tlieresults of his first study (1982) indicated that in-storetraffic flow was significantly slower with slow music(72 BPM or less) than with fast music (94 BPM ormore). Similarly, sales volume was significantly higherwith slow music than with fast music. Among the

"Kellaris and Cox (1987), among othcre (Allen and Madden 1985),have pointed out several weaknesses in Gom's study. They replicatedhis study but with a few changes in the music and cover story toovercome the weaknesses. No significant association was found be-tween pen selection and music heard, regardless of the cover storysubjects received. In a further nonexperimental replication of Gom'sstudy, Kellaris and Cox (1988) found a high rate of hypothesis guess-ing, which indicates that an ai^iarent conditioning effect could be pro-duced in the absence of conditioning stimuli.

findings in his second study (1986) was that cus-tomers in the slow-music condition took more time toeat their meals and leave than those in the fast-musictreatment. Likewise, there was a significantly longerwaiting time for tables in the slow-music treatment.Customer bar bills were found to be much greater inthe slow-music condition.

Recently, Yalch and Spangenberg (1988; Yalch1988) conducted research that builds on the Millimanstudies. They compared the effects of foreground mu-sic (Top 40) and background music (instrumental "easylistening") as well as a no-music treatment in a de-partment stCHie setting. One of the only behavior-re-iated differences between the two music treatments wasthat younger shoppers (under 25) thoi^t they had spentmore time shopping in the easy listening conditionwhereas older shoiq)ers perceived they had shoppedlonger when the Top 40 was being played. From thesefindings, the researchers speculated that when shop-pers encounter nontypical environmental factors (e.g.,unfamiliar music), time appears to slow down.

DiscussionOn the basis of the studies in both marketing and otherfields, the following postulates summarize in generalterms what can be safely concluded.

• Human beings nonrandomly assign emotional meaningto music.

• Human beings experience nonrandom affective reac-tions to music.

• Music used in maiketing-ielated contexts is c^>able ofevoking nonrandom affective and behavioral responsesin consumers.

These postulates lead to the conclusion that musicis an important stimulus for marketers to study, un-derstand, and employ—especially when affective re-actions to marketer-controlled stimuli are a chief con-cern. However, if they are to be of great practical value,more specific issues must be addressed in future re-search. The following propositions are suggested bypast studies but warrant further testing, particularly inmarketing contexts.

Pi: The components of music are capable of having mainas well as interaction effects on moods, cognitions,and behaviors of interest in maiketers.

Though attempts have been made over the years tounderstand the main effects of music conqxtnents (e.g.,tempo), the interaction effects have received much lessattention. Some emotions speculated as being ex-pressed through the interaction of several componentsare given in Table 3 and warrant examination in futureresearch.

P2: The stractural nature of music is related to its abilityto achieve various purposes.

MUSK, Mood, and Mwfcvting / 99

Musical Characteristics for Produdng Various Emotional Expnations*

MusicalElwnwit

ModeTempoPitchRhythmt-larmonyVolume

Sariou*

MajorSlowLowFirmConsonantMedium

S K I

MinorSlowLowFirmDissonantSoft

SantimMital

MinorSlowMediumFlowingConsonantSoft

Emotion^ EKpwulon

SwmeMajorSlowMediumFlowingConsonantSoft

Humorous

MajorFastHighFlowingConsonantMedium

Happy

MajorFastHighFlowingConsonantMedium

EwHkig

MajorFastMediumUnevenDissonantLoud

rnniiiiir

MajorMediumMediumFirmDissonantLoud

Fii|plMiing

MinorSlawLowUnsvanDissonantVaried

'Developed primarily from Hevner (1937), Kinnear (1959). and Vinovich (1975) with add'rtional information from Gundlach (19%), Scherer and Oshinsky (1977), Watson (1942),and Wedin (1972).

As discussed by Hecker (1984), music can play manyroles of interest to marketers. However, the music ef-fectively used to serve one purpose may be inappro-priate for another. To explore these various purposes,mariceters might attempt to match die emotion of somemusic to that expressed in the visual and/or verbalportion of an ad (e.g., Vinovich 1975; Wintle 1978);counteract, intensify, or change the prevailing moodof consumers (Parrott 1982; Shatin 1970; Wheeler1985); or stimulate retrieval of mood-congruent cog-nitions (e.g., Gardner 1985).

P3: The emotions perceived to be expressed in musicalstimuli are capable of evoking corresponding affectivereactions in listeners.

There is little debate that music can be perceived asexpressing emotion-like qualities. It is more radical tosuggest that properly structured music can generateparticular emotions. Yet, theory and supporting evi-dence indicate that there are dynamic forms of expres-sion specific to each emotion, and the ability of astimulus to evoke an emotion depends heavily on thepurity of the expression (e.g., Clynes 1977, 1982).

P4: The influence of music on persuasiveness is greatestunder conditions of peripheral route (Hocessing and lowcognitive involvement.

This proposition is suggested by the elaboration like-lihood model (e.g., Cacioppo and Petty 1989; Pettyand Cacioppo 1986) and more specifically by suchstudies as Gom's (1982) and Park and Young's (1986).Though music's role is likely to be greatest under con-ditions of high affective involvement and low cogni-tive involvement, it might also have a role even underconditions of high cognitive involvement. Specifi-cally, the direction and amount of issue-relevantthinking could be influenced if music makes "mood

'The music itself is assumed not to be the product or an integralpart of it (as in records, concerts, and plays). If music is part of theproduct, for many people it would represent high affective involve-ment and central route processing because what they feel about themusic would be one of the main issues being evaluated (Cacioppo andPetty 1989, p. 81, 82).

congruent" thoughts mote accessible in tnenony (e.g.,Gardner 1985).

P5: Several variables nroderate the relationships betweenmusic and consumer responses.

Among the most important moderalors to evaluate arethe familiarity of the music to listeners (e.g., Ftmtaineand Schwalm 1979; HilUard and Tonlin 1979), musicenjoyment (e.g., Gom 1982; Wheete 1985), mi pmxmood (e.g.. Eagle 1971; Goldberg and Gom 1987).

P6: Some responses to music are learned whereas othersare inherent.

Responses to music are not likely to be determinedsolely by the learning envitx>nn»nt or by human na-ture, but rather by some interaction of the two. Forinstance, evidence of cross-cultural similarity in mu-sic expressiveness has been found (e.g., Clynes 1977;Gundlach 1932). The key word, however, is "simi-larity," because wide ranges of perceived expressionsare found even within sam{ries from the same culture.Therefore, greater utiderstanding is tieeded of whichstructural elements we respond to similarly as a resultof our nattire and which ones we respond to differ-ently as a result of learning.

Methodoloffical Recommemlations

With an increasing cotK«m in marketing about affec-tive behavior, music-related research is likely to be-come more common in the future. If so, sevoal chaisesin methodology are reconunended to itnprove the re-liability and validity of the fim&^s.

First, efforts must be made to raise the level ofexperimental scq>histication to account for the com-plex w(»idngs of the musical stimulus. Signi£k:aiit newknowledge will not be acquired until individual com-ponents of music are manipulated, examined, and/orcontrolled. Music has been tre^Ued too generally inmost past mariceting studies, with interest merely inits presence or absence in some treatn^nt. Even instudies in which a stmctural element was manipu-lated, control of other musical components was rarelyadequate.

This observation does tiot mean a cotnponent shtHild

1 0 0 / Journal of Marketing, October 1990

be studied independently of its normal context, butthat greater use should be made of experimental de-signs that can discern the main and interaction effectsof the various structural components of music (Pi).*A simple but variation-prone application of this ap-proach is to make s^)arate recotdings of a song playedrepeatedly on some instrument, manipulating the vari-able of interest from one playing to the next (e.g.,Hevner 1935b; Holbrook md Bertges 1981). Betteryet, music hardware and software (synthesizers, sam-plers, and sequencers) now allow complex orches-trated music to be programmed and numerous "treat-ments" to be produced that vary solely in somepredetermined manner. Further, unlike conventionalrecording techniques, these methods allow the musiccomponents to be manipulated independently (e.g.,increasing the tempo of playback would rtot automat-ically increase the pitch). i\lready some simple usesof this technology have be<5n reported (Holbrook andAnand 1988; Holbrook and Corfman 1985).

Second, future research should control for the ef-fect of music familiarity. If the influence of familiar-ity is of interest, it could be measured and treated asa predictor or moderator variable. If there is no in-terest in familiarity, its potential influence could bereduced by using either original compositions (e.g.,Heyduk 1975; Holbrook et al. 1985) or pieces thatpretesting indicates should be unfamiliar to listeners(e.g., Holbrook and Bertges 1981).

Third, the influence of liking music should be ac-counted for in research designs. One approach is touse a nonrecursive stnictiual model of halo effects(Holbrook 1983). Such a mcxlel is capable of account-ing for the influence of individual musical compo-nents on perceptions and affect while estimating thedistortion due to liking alone. "Affective overtones"may not always be a significant souree of distortion,but such a model should be used to test for such bias.

Fourth, methodology should be robust enough toaccount for nonmonotonic relationships between mu-sic components and affect. Evidence is now sufficientto lead one to expect a priori an inverted-U functionbetween several music variables and affect. Given thisexpectation, the testing of only two levels of a musiccomponent may not adequately capture the true rela-tionship between the variables of interest if it is non-monotonic.

The growing attention to the affective realm ofconsumer behavior brings with it a ccHresponding needfor assessment of and improvement in the quality ofthe measures employed. Some promising develop-

attention to greater methodological sophistication also isneeded for content analyses because a lack of detailed codes for musiccharacteristics can distort statistical relationships and lead to ques-tionable findings (e.g., Haley, Richardson, and Baldwin 1984).

ments have been made in recent studies (Aaker,Stayman, and Hagerfy 1986; Holbrook and Batra 1988;Madden, Allen, and Twible 1988). Yet, some re-searchers argue that these measures are still too ver-bally oriented and are unable to cs^ture adequately thedistinct nature of affective responses (Batra 1986;Stewart and Hecker 1988).

Managerial ImplicationsA primary decision faced by marketing managers iswhether or not to use music in such settings as theretail enviroiinirait and in commercials. Music is likelyto have its greatest effect when consumers have highaffective sad/or low cognitive involvement with theproduct. Product categories fitting this description formost consumers include jewelry, sportswear, cosmet-ics, and beer. Music would tend to have less effectwhen consumers experience high cognitive involve-ment, such as when buying cars, appliances, PCs,cameras, and insurance.

If the decision is made to use music, a choice mustbe made between developing music specifically forthe occasion, using unfamiliar but previously writtenmusic, or enq>loying well-known hits. At least in Iheadvertising context, the choice has increasingly beento use hit songs (Rosenbluth 1988). In many in-stances, using hits is undoubtedly an effective way todraw attention and evoke positive responses. For atleast two reasons, however, caution is justified beforerushing to use well-known music. First, as discussedbefore, research on repetition suggests that what hasbeen considered pleasant at one point in time can be-come much less enjoyable if repetition makes it toofamiliar. Indeed, recent empirical work shows this ef-fect occurs with contemporary pop songs (Russell1987). Second, musicians are increasingly sensitiveand vocal about the perceived misuse of their songsin commercials (Magiera 1988; Stroud 1988).

If the decision is made to use previously writtenthough unfamiliar music, information like that sum-marized in Table 3 can be helpful. Such informationgives the marketer objective criteria that can be usefulin selecting music most likely to express a particularmood. This process has been employed successfullyunder research coodidons (e.g., Alpert and Alpert 1988;Vinovich 1975) and some companies profess to beproviding this service on a commercid basis (e.g..Buddy and McCormick 1987; Rosenfeld 1985).

When developing original music, marketers willdraw upon professional musicians' intuition and train-ing. However, mariceters need not be as dependent onmusicians as they have been in the past. Computeri-zation and synthesizers eventually will enable evennonmusicians to compose "free from the consider-ations of musical notation and yet not without guidingOlder" (Clynes and Nettheim 1982). The work of

Music, Mood, and Marketing / 1 0 1

Clynes and others (e.g., Stipp 1988) indicates that inthe future, distinction between a musician and a non-musician may have more to do with one's professionthan with the ability to make expressive music.

Though it has been long accepted that music af-fects human beings in various ways, only recently haveresearchers attempted to explore the presumed rela-tionships empirically in marketing contexts. At thistime the relevant body of literature is still meager. Be-cause the desire to understand human moods and theirrole in consumer behavior is likely to become evermore important, music, as a powerful emotional stim-ulus, should be studied more thoroughly. This reviewand the suggestions offered are hoped to encourageresearch on this subject.

AppendixMany terms commonly are used to describe music. The fol-lowing definitions are given to aid in understanding whichvariables have been linked with each of three basic factors (time,pitch, and texture).

TimeRhythm is the pattern of accents given to beats or notes in asong. Tempo (plural tempi) is the speed or rate at which aih}rthm progresses. Phrasing is the l^igth of time a note soundsin comparison with the rfiythmic period it occupies. For ex-ample, a staccato note sounds for only a small part of a barwhereas a legato note may be sustained until the next notesounds.

PitchMelody is the succ^sion of notes occurring over time through-out a song. Changes in melody caa be eitha* ascending (up inpitch) or descending (down in pitch). Leaps in pitch ioe pos-sible, as are repetitions of single notes. Melodies can be f^yedin a variety of keys, which are referred to by one of the firstseven letters of Has alphabet plus an indication of sharp or flat.

Mode refers to the series of notes, arranged in a scale ofascending pitch, which provides the tonal substance of a song(Apel 1969, p. 535). In any given key, sevend modes are pos-sible; the two best known in contemporary Western culture arethe major and the minor modes.

If melody is viewed as being "horizontal" because it occursover time, harmony should be viewed as "vertical" because itrefers to notes played simultaneously. Harmonies cmi be con-sonant or dissonant; the former refers to notes or chcMfds pro-ducing an agreeaUe subjective reaction whereas the latter re-fers to sounds evoking an unpleasant reaction.

Texture

Though the time- and pitch-related compmients are likely tobe the most essential features of music, it is texture that [pro-vides the "color" and aesdietic richness. Timbre is part of mu-sic's texture and refers to the disdncdveness in tone that makesone instrument sound different from another even if they bothplay the same melody. Orchestration (or instrumentation) isthe art of weaving together the unique sonic properties of mul-tiple instruments to produce the complex textuiBl fabric of amusical work.

Finally, volume also contributes to tte texture of music. Itcan be used to make one ncMe louder than others around it, tomake a passage of notes louder than other passages (dynam-ics), or to make a whole song lou(ter than others.

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