measurement data collection
Post on 18-Jul-2015
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Prepared byHoda Fawzy
Manal Gharib
A beer Mohamed
Naglaa Hamid
Naglaa fouzy
Under SupervisionProf. Dr./sohair mekhaemarProf. Dr./ shadia hamido
Out line Introduction measurement principles Levels of measurement Converted data to a lower level of measurement Determining The appropriate level of measurement Data-collection process Data-collection methods Data-collection instrument Criteria for selection of data – collection instrument validity of instrument Categories of validity 1- Face validity – 2- Content validity 3-Criterion validity 4- Construct validity
• Relation ship between reliability and validity
-Sources of error in data collection
Preparing data for analysis
Use of statistical consultant
Critiquing the data-collection procedures
Guidelines for critiquing
the data-collection procedures
Data collection method :-
1- Questionnaire.
2- Interviews.
3- Observation methods.
4- Physical measures.
5- Attitude scale.
6- Psychological tests.
7- Q sorts.
8- Delphi technique.
9- Visual analogue scale.
10- Preexisting data
summary
introductionMany researchers get excited when they talk about the data collection phase of their studies. this when the real detective work begins
An understanding of measurement principles and the data collection process is important for the nurse researcher
measurement principles
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to variables it include counting ,ranking, and comparing objects or events
Some qualitative studies gather data in narrative form and numbers are not associated with these data so these data not included in the concept of measurement
classification by name
Numbers are obtained for this type of data through counting the frequency or percentages of objects or events in each of the categories .e.g. ( gender, religious affiliation, marital status, and political party membership )
The nominal level of measurement is considered the lowest level of the measurement levels
Numbers are obtained form this measurement process indicate the order rather than the exact quantity of variable
For example, anxiety levels of people in a therapy group might be categorized as mild, moderate, and severe.
Data not only can be placed in categories and ranked but also the distance between the ranks can be specified
The categories in Interval data are the actual numbers on the scale (such as on a thermometer)
Data collected at the ratio level of measurement are considered the 'highest' level of data. Ratio level of measurement includes data that can be categorized and ranked; in addition, the distance between ranks can be specified, and a 'true' or natural zero point can be identified.
Data can always be converted from one level to a lower level of measurement, but not to a higher level.
Interval and ratio data can be converted to ordinal or nominal data, and ordinal data can be converted to nominal data.
If the researcher is very concerned about the precision of the data, the interval or ratio level of measurement should be selected when possible.
If ranked or categorized data will be sufficient to answer the research questions or test the research hypotheses, ordinal data may be used. Finally, if categories of data are all that is called for, nominal data will be appropriate.
There are five important questions to ask when the researcher is in the process of collecting data:
What? How? Who? Where? When?
, the type of data needed to answer the research questions or to test the research hypothesis should be the main consideration in data collection
Some type of research instrument will be needed to gather the data.
This can vary from a self-report questionnaire to the most sophisticated of physiological instruments.
By researchers themselves or as in scientific investigations frequently
involve a team of researchers.
Other people outside the research team may also be used in the data-collection phase, sometimes data collections are paid for their services.
Any time more than one person is involved, assurances must be made that the data are being gathered in the same manner.
Training will be needed for the data collectors, and checks should be made on the reliability of the collected data
If questionnaires are being used, a researcher might ask respondents to complete the questionnaires while the researcher remains in the same immediate or general area. This procedure will help ensure return of the questionnaires.
• The determination will need to be made about the month, day, and some times even the hour, for data collection.
• Also, how long will data collection take?
questionnaires will be used, they should be pretested with people similar to the potential research subjects, to determine the length of time for completion of instrument.
Unfortunately, data collection usually takes longer than you envisioned.
Data collection method
Data collection methods are governed by several factors including:
The research question or hypothesis
The design of study
The amount of knowledge available about the variable of interest
Many studies use more than one method as questionnaires ,interview ,physiological measures, attitude scales , observational methods,……
When several types of methods produce similar results ,greater confidence in the study findings will occur
Data collection instruments
Instruments or tools are the devices used to collect data which facilitates the observation and measurement of the variables ,that determined by the data collection methods selected
Great care should be taken to select the most appropriate instruments
Use of existing instrument
While conducting a review of literature a
researcher may discover that an
instrument is already available to measure
the research variables ,use of the already
tested instrument helps connect the
present study with the existing body of
knowledge on the variables
Con…There are many sources of available instruments to use in nursing research:
Mental Measurement Year books
Instrument for clinical health care research
Measurement of nursing outcomes
The health and psychosocial instrument
Developing an instrument
If no instrument can be discovered the researcher is faced with devolving a new instrument , it may be possible to revise an existing instrument. If any items are altered or deleted or added to an existing instrument , the validity and real ability of the tool may be altered
Pilot study A pilot study is a small scale trial run of the actual
research projectA group of people similar to the study subject should be tested in condition similar to those that will be used in the actual study
The role of a pilot study: Pre test the newly designed instrument Test a long and a short version of the instrument Try multiple instrument that are purported to
measure the same factor or construct Test various approaches for administrating the tools
or instruments
Criteria for selection of data – collection instrument
1. Practicality of the instrument
2. Reliability of the instrument
3. Stability of the instrument
4. Equivalence reliability
5. - Internal consistency reliability
1- Practicality of the instrument
Before the researcher examines the Reliability of the instrument question should be asked
How much will the instrument cost ?
How long will it take to administer the instrument?
Will the population have the physical and mental stamina to complete the instrument
Dose the researcher require special training to administer or score the instrument ?
If so is this training available?
Example
If psychological instrument such as the Minnesota multiphase personality inventory(MMPI)will be used is money available and is someone available who is qualified to analyze the data?
2-Reliability of the instrument
Reliability needs to be determined whether the instrument is a mechanical device a written questionnaire or human observer
Ex If you are using a thermometer to measure body
temperature you would expect it to provide the same reading each time was placed in a constant temperature
Water bath
The degree of reliability is usually determined by correlation coefficients
correlation coefficients can range between -1.00 and +1.00
The reliability of the instrument are expected to be positive correlations
It frequently used when are used in a study the percentage or agreement
Reliability must continually be assessed the instrument is used with different subjects and under different environ mental condition
Example
An instrument to measure patient autonomy might be highly reliable when administered to patient while in their hospital rooms but it may be very unreliable when administered to these same patient while they are lying on a stretcher out side the operating room before surgery
3- Stability of the instrument
A - Stability Reliability of an instrument refers to over time
EX
If a thermometer was to be used in a study it would need to be checked for reliability before the study began and probably again during the study ( test – retest Reliability )
B- Equivalence Reliability
When two forms of attest are used both forms should contain the same number of items have the same level of difficulty and the other form is administered either at the same time or shortly to these same people
C- Internal consistency reliability
This type of reliability is appropriate only when the instrument is examining one concept
EX
If an instrument is supposed to measure depression all of the items on the instrument must consistently measure depression if some items measure guilt the instrument is not an Internally consistent
Several procedure can be used to
measure the Internal consistency one
procedure is (the split –half method )
A common type of Internal consistency
procedure is the coefficient alpha (α )
The definition of instrument validity
is the extent to which an instrument
measures what it is supposed to. Validity
is established by correlating the scores
with a similar instrument. Also, expert
review establishes validity
Validity maybe established through
Use of a panel of experts.
An examination of the existing literature on the
topic
Statistical procedures.
Categories of validity
:1- Face validity -
It appears to be an adequate means of obtaining the data needed for the research project.
When cursory examination shows that it is measuring what it is supposed to measure.
Ex : For face validity.
- The nurse knowledge of heart failure education principles tool was used to describe nurses knowledge of heart failure.
2- Content validity
Concerned with the scope of range of items used
to measure the variable in other word are the
number and type of items adequate to measure the
concept
there are several methods of evaluating the
content
First method :
Is a accomplished by comparing the contentof the instrument with the available literatureon the topic.
Second method :
use of a panel of experts these experts are givencopies of the instrument and the purpose andobjectives of the study
Third method :
Used when knowledge tests are beingdeveloped
3- Criterion validity :
Is concerned with the extent to which an
instrument corresponds to or correlated
with some criterion measure of the variable
of interest.
types of criterion validity
- Concurrent validity :
Compares instrument’s ability to obtain ameasurement of subjects behavior that iscomparable to some other criterion of thatbehavior.
* Predictive validity of an instrument :
It can be used with confidence to discriminatebetween people.
4- Construct validity :
Is the most difficult to measure.
Is the concerned with the degree to which an
instrument measures the construct it is
supposed to measure.
Involves the measurement of a variable that is
not directly observable but rather is a construct
or abstraction derived from observable
behavior.
Relation ship between reliability and validity :
Reliability and validity are closely associated
both of these qualities are considered when
selecting are search instrument.
Reliability is usually considered first because it
is a necessary condition for validity.
Reliability was considered first in the discussion
of reliability and validity.
Instrument can be reliableant not valid.
Validity is often considered first in the
construction of an instrument.
Reliability of an instrument tells nothing about
the degree of validity.
Sources of error in data collection :
Instrument in a adequacies such as a questionnaire.
Instrument administration biases is the instrumentadministration in the same fashion to all subject.
Environmental conditions during data collectionprocess , such as temperature, noise levels andlighting.
Temporary subject characteristics during the datacollection process as anxiety levels , hungertiredness influencing responses this calledtransitory personal factors.
Preparing data for analysis
Data analysis by computer
Put Data in a form that facilitates entry into computer:
1-Quantitative data
such as age weight entered directly into computer
2-Qualitative data
such as information obtained from open end questions will need to be transferred into symbols that computer can under stand
Use of statistical consultant
Researchers can use computer in data analysis but the use of statistical consultant is still a much needed part of many research projects .
to Use of statistical consultant
include statistical consultation costs in the budget.
the time to seek help is in the early planning stages of study.
Critiquing the data-collection procedures
Aim of Critique
to researcher determine if the measurement &collection of data has been conducted appropriately.
Guidelines for critiquing the data-collection procedures
1-did the research report provideinformation on
• What data were collected?
• How the data were collected?
• Who collected the data?
• Where the data were collected?
• When the data were collected?
2-Was the appropriate level of measurement used to measure the research variables?
3-Was there a section in the research report Where the data – collected instruments were described
4-Was the description of the instruments thorough?
5-Has the instruments been used previously?
6-Has the instruments been tested reliability?
7-If so, what type of reliability was assessed and was the reliability sufficiently high to warrant the use of the instruments?
8- Had the instruments been tested for validity?
9- If so, what type of validity was assessed , and was there sufficient evidence to indicate that the instruments were valid?
10-Was a pilot study conducted using the instruments?
1- Questionnaire:-
Definition:-Is a paper-and-pencil self-report instrument, it contains questions
that respondents are asked to answer in writing.
Important of questionnaires:-
1-Used to measure knowledge level, opinion, attitudes,
beliefs, ideas, feelings and perceptions.
2-To gather factual information about the respondents.
3-Provide accurate information.
4-Obtaining data on certain human responses.
5-Important in nursing research.
Data collection method
Data collection method :-1- Questionnaire.
2- Interviews.
3- Observation methods.
4- Physical measures.
5- Attitude scale.
6- Psychological tests.
7- Q sorts.
8- Delphi technique.
9- Visual analogue scale.
10- Preexisting data.
Questionnaire cont,:-
Wording of questions:-The most difficult aspect of questionnaire constructed
is the actual wording of individual question.
Here some general guidelines:-
1-Avoid double negative question.
2-Avoid ambiguous question.
3-Question should contain neutral wording.
4-Avoid double-barreled question.
Questionnaire cont,:-
1- Demographic questionnaire:-
Gather data on the characteristics of the sample. Demographic can be variables or attribute variables such as age, educational background and religion.
2- Open-Ended questionnaire:-
The researcher asks respondents to complete questions in their own words in open-ended questionnaire.
3- Closed-Ended questionnaire:-
The most structured questions, in which the respondents are asked to choose from given alternatives, may be only two as
true or false or may be many as chick list type, multiple choice and matching questions.
Questionnaire cont,:-
4- Contingency questionnaire:-
Questionnaire items that is relevant for some respondents and not for other. The determination
of whether respondents should
Answer certain question is dependent, or contingent on their answer to other questions.
5- fiuer questions:-
fiuer questions are items in which the researcher has no direct interest but included on agues tinnier to reduce the emphasis on the specific purpose of
the other questions .
Questionnaire cont,:-
Factors influencing response rate:-
1- Mailing at a time other than holiday sea popular vocation times.
2- Hand – addressed outer envelopes.
3- Personal signature of the researcher on the cover letter.
4- Information in the cover letter that motivates respondent.
5- An incentive, such as a small cash pay meant or sample of instant to drink while completing the questionnaire.
6- Neatness and clarity of the instrument.
7- Ease of completion of the instrument.
8- Time to complete the instrument does not exceed from 10 to15 minutes.
9- Guarantee or anonymity.
10- Inclusion of preaddressed, stamped envelop.
Questionnaire cont,:-
Advantages of questionnaires:-1- Quick and inexpensive means of obtaining data from
large number of respondents.
2- One of the easiest research instruments to test for reliability.
3- Less time consuming than interview or observation.
4- Data can be obtained from respondents in wide spread in graphical areas.
5- Respondents can remain anonymous.
6- If anonymity is assured, respondents are more likely to provide honest answers.
Questionnaire cont,:-
Disadvantages of questionnaires:-Mailing of questionnaires may be costly. 1-
2- Response rate may be low.
3- Respondents may provide socially acceptable answers.
4- Respondents may fail to answer some of the items.
5- There is no opportunity to clarify items that may be misunderstood by respondents.
6- Respondents must be literate.
7- Respondents must have no physical disability that would prevent them from completing questioning.
8- Respondents may not be representative of the population
2-Interviews:-
Definition:-A meeting of person's face to face encounter or
through telephone call.
Types of interviews:-Unstructured:-1-
Are conducted more like a normal conversation, it appropriate for qualitative research studies .depending on how the persons respond to the opening question.
2- Structured:-The interviewer uses a structured interview schedule in
this type to asking the structured question, the main purposes of this type to produce data that can be compared between respondents.
Interviews cont,:-
3- Semi structured:-Contains the both closed – ended and open –ended questions. In this
type of interview data are gathered that can be compared between all respondents in addition, individualized.
Interview instrument:1- Schedule:-
Contains asset questions.
Advantage:-
Simpler recording process.
Disadvantage:-
The writing recording reduces the amount of eye contact.
2- Audiotapes:-
Advantage:-
- Total interview process can be captured.
- The interviewer free to observe the respondents.
Disadvantage:-
Length of time needed in data analysis phase.
Interviews c0nt,:-
3- Video taping :-Become an important means of collecting research data.
4- Telephone:-
Collection of data through phone call.
Advantage:-
- Quick and inexpensive.
- The respondent's anonymity can be protected.
Disadvantage:-
- Can’t observe non verbal responses.
- Not answer the phone if don’t recognize the caller’s.
Interview questions:-The questions would be much simpler, clear, unambiguous and
short.
There are two basic categories of question:-Open –Ended and Closed-Ended question.
Interviews c0nt,:-
Interviewer training:-Should be carried out in groups, so that all interviewers
receive the same instruction, during the training the researcher should be described:-
- Study purpose.
- Interview schedule in detail.
-The purpose of each question.
Timing and setting for interview:-- Choosing the most appropriate time for interview.
- If home interview should be determine optimum time for interview and respondent.
- If hospitalized interview determine the most optimum time for interview according to hospital routine and patient care activities.
- The interview should be privacy and without interruptions.
Interviews cont,:-
Interviewer guidelines:-The guidelines will be presented in three phases.
Before interview:-
The interviewer should be explain the purpose of the study ,how they were chosen ,how long the interview and how the information will be used to the potential respondent.
During interview:-
The interviewer should ensure a comfortable atmosphere and position ,talk with conversational tone, Cleary and understood language, avoid any pressure applied for answered left sensitive question until interview end when rapport may be fully.
After interview:-
Respondent should be asked if have any question, thanked for their respondent and indicate how respondent may obtain the result of the study.
Questionnaire cont,:-
Types of questionnaires:-
Demographic Open-Ended Closed-Ended Contingency fiuer
Interviews cont,:-
Influence of interviewer on the respondent:-1-In face to face interview:-
Characteristics of the interviewer such as ethnic background, age, gender, manner of speech and clothing influence the answers provided by respondent.2-Intelephon interview:-
The interviewer verbal mannerisms such as tone of voice and dialect may have appositive or negative factor in cooperation from respondent.
Interviews cont,:-
Advantage of the interviews:-1-Responses can be obtained from wide range of subjects. 2-Response rate is high. 3-It is useful for collecting in depth information.
4-Most of the data obtained are usable.
5-Questions can be explained.
6-Verbal and non verbal behavior can be observed.
Interviews cont,:-
Disadvantage of the interviews:-1-Training programs are needed for interview.
2-Interviews are time consuming and expensive.
3-Arrangements for interviews may be difficult to make.
4-Subjects may anxious because answers are being recording.
5-Subjects may be influenced by interviewers characteristics.
6-Interviewers may misinterpret nonverbal behavior.
7-The quality of data depend on quality of interviewer and interaction.
3- Observation method
Definition
Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting or the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation as a method includes both 'seeing' and 'hearing.' It is accompanied by perceiving as well.
Observation method cont,:-
Importance of the observation method:-
1-Observation also plays a major role in formulating and testing hypothesis in social sciences.
2-Behavioral scientists observe interactions in small groups
3-Observe the behavior of political leaders and political institutions.
. Advantages of observation method:-
• Firsthand information.• Simple to use.• Verifies data from other sources.• Useful for manual and psycho-motor tasks.
Observation method cont,:-
. Disadvantages of observation method:-• Time consuming.• May bias worker performance. • Small sample size. • Requires skilled observer. • Validity & reliability may be problematic.• Not useful for jobs consisting of mostly mental tasks•
What are the types of Observation?1. Casual and Scientific observation
– An observation can be sometimes casual in nature or sometimes it may act scientifically. An observation with a casual approach involves observing the right thing at the right place and also at the right time by a matter of chance or by luck whereas a scientific observation involves the use of the tools of the measurement, but a very important point to be kept in mind here is that all the observations are not scientific in nature.
Observation method cont,:-2. Natural Observation
– Natural observation involves observing the behavior in a normal setting and in this type of observation; no efforts are made to bring any type of change in the behavior of the observed. Improvement in the collection of the information and improvement in the environment of making an observation can be done with the help of natural observations.
3. Subjective and Objective observation
– All the observations consist of the two main components, the subject and the object. The subject refers to the observer whereas the object refers to the activity or any type of operation that is being observed. Subjective observation involves the observation of the one’s own immediate experience whereas the observations involving observer as an entity apart from the thing being observed, are referred to as the objective observation. Objective observation is also called as the retrospection.
Observation method cont,:-
4. Direct and Indirect observation
– With the help of the direct method of observation, one comes to know how the observer is physically present in which type of situation is he present and then this type of observation monitors what takes place. Indirect method of observation involves studies of mechanical recording or the recording by some of the other means like photographic or electronic. Direct observation is relatively more straight forward as compared to the indirect observation.
5. Participant and Non Participant observation
Participation by the observers with the various types of operations of the group under study refers to the participant type of observation. In participant observation, the degree of the participation is largely affected by the nature of the study and it also depends on the type of the situation and also on its demands. But in the non participant type of observation, no participation of the observer in the activities of the group takes place and also there occurs no relationship between the researcher and the group.
Observation method cont,:-6. Structured and Unstructured observation
– Structured observation works according to a plan and involves specific information of the units that are to be observed and also about the information that is to be recorded. The operations that are to be observed and the various features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance. Such observations involve the use of especial instruments for the purpose of data collection that are also structured in nature. But in the case of the unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically against the structured observation. In such observation, observer has the freedom to note down what he or she feels is correct and relevant to the point of study and also this approach of observation is very suitable in the case of exploratory research.
7. Controlled and Non Controlled observation:•Controlled observations are the observations made under the influence of
some of the external forces and such observations rarely lead to improvement in the precision of the research results. But these observations can be very effective in the working if these are made to work in the coordination with mechanical synchronizing devices, film recording etc. Non controlled observations are made in the natural environment and reverse to the controlled observation these observations involve no influence or guidance of any type of external force.
Observation method cont,:-
Guideline for effective observation:-
1- Observation should be systematic.
2- Observers should be knowledgeable.
3- The observers influence should be
minimized.
4- Observers should be selected
carefully.
5- Observers must be fully prepared
4- Physiological measures:-
It involve the collection of physical data from subjects, it is more objective and accurate. it is more difficult for subjects to provide biased data on physiological measures intentionally or nationally than on self-report measure.
Advantage:-
It is precision and accuracy.
Disadvantage:-
That special expertise may be necessary to use same of these devices.
5- Attitude scales:-
Are self-report data collection
instruments that ask respondents to
report their attitudes or feeling on a
continuum.
The most commonly used
attitude scales are:-
1-The likert scale.
2-Semantic differential scale.
Attitude scales cont,:-
1-Likert scales:-
Are usually contain five or seven responses for each items, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Although the data from alikert scale are generally at the ordinal level of measurement, some statically tests indicate that arithmetic operations may be performed with this type of data.
2-Semantic differential scale:-
It asks subjects to indicate their position or attitude about some concept along continuum between two phases that are presented in relation to the concept being measured.
Ex. Of phases kind-unkind , friendly-unfriendly , helpful-unhelpful.
6- Physiological tests:-
Researchers have devised many methods to assess the personality characteristics of people.
Personality inventors and projective techniques are two of these methods,
1-Personality inventories:-
Are self-report measures used to assess the differences in personality trios, needs or values of people.
These inventories seek information about a person by asking question or requesting responses to statements that are presented.
2-Projective technique:-
One of the criticisms of self-report psychological measures. Is that they may elicit socially acceptable answers desired by the researcher rather than the true feelings or attitudes of the subjects.
7- Q sort
Also called Q methodology. Is means of obtaining data in which subjects sort statements into categories according to their attitudes toward . or tatting of the statements .
Subjects are presented with Weber of words of statements that are written on cards or pieces of paper .
The number of items to be placed into each category or pile by the subjoins is predator mined by researcher .
This forced – choice arrangement usually calls for piles to be distributed in the form of a bell – shaped curve
Q sort cont,
How to use Q sort ?
If 100 items were being used the distribution might look like this.
1 4 11 21 26 21 11 4 1
The respondents are asked to in front of them according to their attitude or belief about the items .
The first pile should conation the item about which the subject has the most positive altitude or the strongest belief about the importance of the item to the topic interest , and the hast pile on the right should contain the item about which the subject has the most negative attitude or the weakest intensity of attitudes or beliefs .
This type of data – collection prefecture my present difficult task for respondents , and need clear instructions be provided .
8- Delphi technique :-
Delphi technique:-Is used to describe a date – collection terminus that
employs several rounds of questions to seek consensus on a particular topic from a group of experts.
Purpose of Delphi technique :-1- This method of data – collection is to obtain group
consensus from the panel of experts without bringing this group together in a face – to – face meeting .
2- This type of procedure is apron pirate I on of exam in the opinions, beliefs or future predication of knowledgeable people on some special topic of interest .
3- To explain this procedure is to describe a classic study conducted by lindeman ((1975))
9-visual analogue scale ((vas)) :-The visual analogue scale ((vas)) presents subjects with straight line drawn on apiece of paper .
the line is anchored on each end by wards or short phrases that represent the extremes of some phenomenon, such as pain .
subjects are asked to make mark on the line is 100 mm in length, which simulates a o to 100 rating scale .
from their review of the literature, hung ,wilkie, and berry ((1996)) have concluded that the vas is : a simple , reliable , reproducible, valid and sensitive tool."
10-Preexisting Data
Preexisting data involves the use of existing
information that has been collected for
research purposes .
Patient's charts are valuable source of data.
other sources of existing data include records
from agencies and organization such as
hospitals, the us government, local public
health depart mentis
Critiquing data-collection methods:-
1- If a questionnaire was used in a study, sufficing informing if it was appropriate for use in the study .
2- The manner in which questionnaire was developed .
3- The reliability and validity of the instrument .
4- The number of questions. How the instrument was scored and the range of possible scores should be presented.
5- When am interview has used, the reader needs information about how long the interviews took , who conducted the interviews?
6- How the interviewer were trained
Critiquing data-collection methods cont,:-
7- Observation research requires that the reader be able to determine how observation ware made.
8- Who made the observation and how data were recorded.
9- If physiological instruments were used the accuracy of these data - collection measures needs to be addressed .
10- Does it appear that the researcher would have had the expertise to use these instruments?
11- The researcher may have used a psychology cal data-collection method such as am attitude scale or personality test .
12- The reader will need to make the determination of the appropriateness of these instruments and the qualification of the researcher to use then.
summaryData Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.
Summary :-
- Data collection methods are used to gather information in systematic way.
- Data user in q quantitative studies will be of a numeric nature and subject to statistical analysis. Data used in qualitative studies will be a text – based nature and subject to coding.
- Data collection methods are categorized as primary data collection and secondary data collection . primary data collection us when the researcher gathers the information. - Primary data collected for another purpose.
- Collection is the use of data that were collected for another purpose.
- The most common types of primary data collection are physiologic mea- sacrament, psychometric instrumentation, questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, and observation.
Summary cont,:-
-The advantage of using a valid and reliable instrument is that it saves the re- searcher time in the development and validation of a new instrument and allows for the contribution of the study to larger body of knowledge.
- The most common data collection method is the survey. The survey method is an approach in whish a systematic measurement instrument is used to gather information directly form respondents a bout their experiacnes, behaviors, attitudes, or perceptions.
- Interviews and focus groups can help the researcher gather rich data directly from the respondent and allow the researcher to explore topics as they arise. The drawback of these methods is their time – consuming nature and the demands they place on the facilitator's skill level.
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