drawing anatomy: an artists’ guide to the human figure

DRAWINGANATOMY

DRAWINGANATOMY

BARRINGTONBARBER

CONTENTS

IntroductionTechnicalIntroduction

TheFullFigureTheHeadTheTorso

TheArmsandHandsTheLegsandFeetTheHeadinMovement

TheTorsoinMovementTheArmsandHandsinMovementTheLegsandFeetinMovement

TheMovingBodyLifeDrawingPuttingitAllTogether

Index

INTRODUCTION

Anatomybooksareessentialforfigureartists,butmanyarepublishedfor medical purposes and tend to give too much information – forexample, theinnerorgansof thebodyareinterestingtoknowabout,butnotrelevantfordrawing.Whatisimportantfortheartistorartstudentistolearnthestructure

ofthehumanform,basedontheskeletonandthemusculature.Therehavebeenanumberofgoodandusefulbooksonthissubject.Somearealittleoutofdate,notsomuchintheinformationthattheygivebut often in the way it has been presented. Other well-producedcontemporarybooksaremainlyphotographic.My taskhasbeen toproduceacomprehensiveanatomybook that

has all the information necessary for an artist, using drawings anddiagramspresentedinaneasy-to-followformat;andIalsowantedtoput into it everything that I have found useful in my own drawingpractices.Inthefirstpartofthisbook,Idealwiththefullfigure,followedby

achapterontheanatomyofeachmajorpartofthebody.Eachsectionshowstheskeletonfromdifferentviewpoints;thenthemusclesontopofthebonestructure;andfinally,thesurfaceformofthehumanbody.Of course, not all human bodies are perfectly formed and

proportions do differ fromperson to person.Throughout the book Ihave usedwell-proportioned, fairly athletic figures. Thismeans thatyoubecomeacquaintedwith the shapesof themusclesat theirbest,althoughyouwillprobablydrawmanypeoplewhodonothavewell-tonedbodieslikethese.Inthesecondpartofthebook,Iexamineeachpartofthebodyin

more detail, concentrating in particular onmusculature and how the

body moves. Each area of detailed analysis will sometimes repeatwhat has been shown in the previous chapters: this is necessarybecause some muscles overlie others, which to a certain extentchangestheirshapeonthesurface.Sodonotbesurprisedtoseethesamenamescroppingupfromtimetotime;itdoesmakethemeasiertoremember,too.Inthetechnicalintroductionimmediatelyafterthis,youwillfindan

explanationofdescriptive termsasused inmedicalcircles, followedbyadetailedlistofLatinterminology.Thisisworthreading,becauseunderstanding anatomical terms will help you to follow theannotationsinthebook.Itmaytakealittletimetomemorizeall thenamesyouneed,butafterregularuseofthesetermsyouwillprobablyrememberenoughtodescribewhatyouarelookingat.Ihaveomittedanydescriptionof thebrain,heart, lungsandother

viscerabecausetheseitemsarehousedwithinthecranium,theribcageand thepelvis,and it is thebonyparts thatdictate thesurfaceshapefor figure-drawing purposes. I have also left out details of themalegenitalia,becausethedifferencesinsizeandshapearetoovariable.Throughout history, artists have looked at our bodies and shown

their beauty, power and distortions. I have used the best possiblereferences todrawthesepictures, includingmyownlifestudies,buthavenotdrawnfromdissectedcorpsesasMichelangeloandLeonardodaVincidid.Artistshavecontributedmuchtothestudyofanatomy,bothforartisticandmedicalpurposes.Indrawing,thepractisingartistwantstocapturetheformofthiscomplexbodilymachinery,butfirstheorsheneedstoknowhowitworks.

TECHNICALINTRODUCTION

This section is intended to give you some initial detail about thehuman anatomy before starting to draw. I have described thepropertiesofbones,muscles,tendons,cartilage,skin,fatandjoints,aswellasshowingdiagramsofthedifferenttypesofjointsandmuscles.Thereisalsoanintroductiontoanatomicalterminology:youwillfindthisusefulascertaintermsareusedthroughoutthebook.

BONESThe skeleton is the solid framework of the body, partly supporting and partlyprotective.Theshapeoftheskeletoncanvarywidely.Itwillaffectthebuildofapersonanddeterminewhethertheyhavemassesofmuscleandfatornot.Bones are living tissue supplied by blood and nerves. They can become

weaker and thinnerwith lack of use andmalnutrition, or heavier and strongerwhenhaving tosupportmoreweight.Theyaresoftandpliable in theembryo,andonlybecomewhatwewouldconsiderhardandbone-likebythetwenty-fifthyearoflife.Humanshave206bones,butafewfusetogetherwithageanditispossibleto

be bornwith somebonesmissing or even having extra ones.We each have askull, ribcage, pelvis andvertebral column, aswell as arm,hand, leg and footbones. Most bones are symmetrical. The bones of the limbs are cylindrical,thickening towards the ends. The projecting part of a bone is referred to as aprocessoraneminence.Highlymobileareasofthebody,suchasthewrists,consistofnumeroussmall

bones.Otherbones,likethescapula(shoulderblade)canmoveinalldirections,controlledbythemusclesaroundit.The bones of the cranium (skull) differ from all others. They grow from

separateplatesintoonefusedvaulttohousethebrain.Themandible(jawbone)istheonlymovableboneinthehead.Thelongbonesofthearmsandlegsactlikelevers,whiletheflatbonesofthe

skull,thecage-likebonesoftheribsandthebasinshapeofthepelvisprotectthemorevulnerableorganssuchasthebrain,heart, lungs,liverandtheabdominalviscera.

MUSCLESThe combination of bones, muscles and tendons allows both strong, broadmovements and delicate, precise ones. Muscles perform our actions bycontracting or relaxing. There are long muscles on the limbs and broadermuscleson the trunk.Themore fixed endof themuscle is called thehead ororigin,andtheotherend–usuallyfarthestfromthespine–istheinsertion.Thethick muscles are powerful, like the biceps; and the ring-shaped muscles(sphincters)surroundtheopeningsofthebody,suchastheeye,mouthandanus.Certainmusclesgrowtogetherandhavetwo,threeorfourheadsandinsertions.Combinedmusclesalsohavepartsoriginatingindifferentplaces.Thefleshypartofamuscleiscalledthemeat,andthefibrouspartthetendon

oraponeurosis(seebelow).Striated (voluntary) muscles operate under our conscious control. The 640

voluntarymusclesaccountforupto50percentofthebody’sweightandformtheredflesh.Organizedingroupsandarrangedinseverallayers,thesemusclesgive the body its familiar form. The following drawings show the variousdifferent types of striated muscles, with the tendons at each end. Note thedistinctiveshapeofthesphinctermuscleonthefarright.

Smooth (involuntary) muscles are confined to the walls of hollow organs,such as intestines and blood vessels. They function beyond our consciouscontrol.Cardiac(heart)musclesarebothstriatedandinvoluntary,withacellstructure

thatensuressynchroniccontraction.

TENDONSThe tendons are fibrous structures that attach the ends of the muscles to thebonesatprotrudingpointscalled tubercles and tuberosities.Somemusclesaredivided by intervening tendons (see illustration above, second from right).Tendonsmayberoundandcord-like,orflatandband-like,consistingofstrongtensile fibresarranged lengthwise.Theyare inextensible, allowing themusclestopullhardagainstthem.Manyarelongerthanthemusclesthattheyserve,suchasintheforearm.APONEUROSESThese are broad, flat, sheet-like tendons, a continuation of broad, flatmusclesthateitherattachtotheboneorcontinueintothefascia.TENDINOUSARCHESFibrousbandsconnectedwiththefasciaeofmuscles.

FASCIAEFibrous laminae of various thicknesses, occurring in all parts of the body,enveloping allmuscles, blood vessels, nerves, joints, organs and glands. Theypreventfrictionbetweenmovingmuscles.

LIGAMENTSFibrous, elastic bands situated at joints where articulated bones connect, orstretchedbetweentwoimmobilebones.

CARTILAGECartilageisconnectivetissuecomposedofcollagen(aprotein).Fibrouscartilageforms the symphysispubis (the jointbetween thepubicbones)and invertebraldiscs.Elasticcartilagegivesshapetotheouterflapoftheear.Hyalinecartilage–themostcommonform–coversthearticularsurfaceofbones(theendsnearthejoints);formstheringsofthetrachea(windpipe),alsothebronchi(airways)ofthelungs;andgivesshapetothelowerribcageandnose.

SKINA tough, self-replenishing membrane about 2 mm thick, which defines theboundary between the internal and the external environments. Human skin isthickestontheupperback,solesofthefeetandpalmsofthehand;itisthinnestontheeyelids.Notonlythebody’slargestsenseorgan,theskinalsoprotectsthebodyfromabrasions,fluidlossandthepenetrationofharmfulsubstances.Andit

regulates body temperature, through perspiration and the cooling effect ofsurfaceveins.EPIDERMISTheskin’stoplayerwiththedermisbeneath,athickerlayeroflooseconnectivetissue.Beneaththisisthehyperdermis,whichisafinelayerofwhiteconnectivefattytissue,alsocalledthesuperficialfascia.

FATFat is thebody’s energy reserve. Its layers soften the contoursof the skeletal-muscularframe.Itisprimarilystoredaroundthebuttocks,navel,hips,innerandouter thighs, front and back of knees, beneath the nipples, on the back of thearms,inthecheeksandbelowthejaw.

JOINTSJointsformtheconnectionsbetweenbones.Infibrousjoints,suchassuturesintheskull, there isnoappreciablemovement.There is limitedmovement in thecartilaginous joints.Themostmobileare thesynovial jointssuchas theknees,wherethebonesarenotfixed.Theprincipalmovementsofthejointsareflexion,whichmeansbendingtoa

more acute angle; extension, straightening; adduction, which means movingtowards the body’s midline; abduction, moving away from the midline; andmedialandlateralrotation(turningtowardsandawayfromthemidline).

1.PLANEJOINTFormedbyflatorslightlycurvedsurfaces,withlittlemovement,suchasthe

instep.2.BALLANDSOCKETJOINT

The spherical edgeofonebonemoves ina spherical excavationof another,likethehipjoint.3.SADDLEORBIAXIALJOINTAllowslimitedmovementintwodirectionsatrightanglestoeachother,like

thethumb.4.HINGEJOINTBendingandstraighteningmovementispossibleononeplaneonly,suchasin

theknee,theelbowandthefinger.5.PIVOTJOINTOnebonemovesaroundanotheron itsownaxis, suchas the radiusand the

ulna.

UNDERSTANDINGANATOMICALTERMINOLOGYTothosewhohavenoknowledgeofLatin,theLatinnamesofthemusclesandbones may be rather off-putting and hard to grasp. However, once youunderstandthat,forexample,anextensorisamuscleinvolvedintheprocessofextension,thatbrevisisLatinfor‘short’andthatpollicismeans‘ofthethumb’,the position, attachment and function of the extensor pollicis brevis musclebecomemucheasiertoremember.ButevenEnglishanatomicalvocabularymaynotbefamiliartoeveryonewho

setsouttodrawthehumanbody.Forthisreason,themaintechnicaltermsusedinthisbook,bothEnglishandLatin,areexplainedhere.

SometechnicaltermsinEnglishDEEP farfromthebodysurface

SUPERFICIAL neartothebodysurfaceINFERIOR lower

SUPERIOR upperANTERIOR relatingtothefrontsurfaceorpart

POSTERIOR relatingtothebacksurfaceorpartLATERAL fartherfromtheinnerlineofthebody

MEDIAL oforclosertothemedianlinedownthecentreofthebodyDISTAL fartherfromthepointofattachmenttothetrunk

PROXIMAL nearertothepointofattachmenttothetrunkPRONE (ofthearmorhand)withthepalmfacingdown

(ofthearmorhand)withthepalmfacingup

SUPINE (ofthearmorhand)withthepalmfacingup

RADIAL onthethumbsideofthearmorhandULNAR onthelittlefingersideofthearmorhand

FIBULAR onthelittletoesideoflegorfootTIBIAL onthebigtoesideoflegorfoot

ALVEOLAR ofthegumsortoothridgeCOSTAL oftheribs

DORSAL oftheback;ofthebackofthehandortopofthefootFRONTAL oftheforehead

HYPOTHENAR ofthemoundofmuscleonthelittle-fingersideofthepalmLUMBAR oftheloins

MENTAL ofthechin

NUCHAL ofthenapeoftheneckOCCIPITAL ofthebackofthehead

ORBITAL oftheareaaroundtheeyePALATINE oftheroofofthemouth

PALMAR ofthepalmofthehandPLANTAR ofthesoleofthefoot

SUPRAORBITAL oftheareaabovetheeyeTEMPORAL ofthetemple

THENAR oftheballofthethumbTHORACIC ofthechest

BONESCALCANEUS theheelbone

CARPUS thewristCLAVICLE thecollarbone

COCCYX thefourfusedvertebraebelowthesacrumCONDYLE aknobattheendofabone

COSTAE theribsEPICONDYLE aknobonoraboveacondyle

thethighbone

FEMUR thethighbone

FIBULA oneofthelowerlegbonesHUMERUS theupperarmbone

ILIUM oneofthehipbonesISCHIUM oneofthehipbones

MALLEOLUS ahammer-shapedprominenceofabone(e.g.intheankle)MANDIBLE thelowerjawbone

MAXILLA theupperjawboneMETACARPUS thebonesofthepalmofthehand

METATARSUS thebonesofthefrontpartofthefoot,exceptthetoesOLECRANON theelbowbone

PATELLA thekneecap

PHALANGES thefingerandtoebonesPROCESS aprojectingpart(alsoEMINENCE)

PUBIS thepubicbone,partofthehipboneRADIUS oneofthearmbones

SACRUM fivefusedvertebraeneartheendofthespineSCAPULA theshoulderblade

STERNUM thebreastboneTARSUS theankle,instepandheelbones

TIBIA oneofthelowerlegbonesULNA oneofthearmbones

VERTEBRA oneofthebonesofthespine

ZYGOMATICBONEthecheekbone

Many bones are named from their shapes: PISIFORM (pea-shaped),CUNEIFORM(wedge-shaped),SCAPHOID(boat-shaped),etc.MUSCLESAs outlined on pages 10–11, among the movements of the joints are flexion(bendingtoanarrowerangle),extension(straightening),abduction(movementaway from the midline of the body) and adduction (movement towards themidline). The muscles involved in such movements are FLEXORS,

EXTENSORS,ABDUCTORSandADDUCTORS.TherearealsoROTATORS.Other muscles named from their functions are LEVATORS and

DEPRESSORS,which respectively raise and lower some part of the body. ATENSOR tightens a part of the body and a DILATOR dilates it. TheCORRUGATORisthemusclethatwrinklestheforeheadabovethenose(thinkof‘corrugatediron’!).Muscles come in various sizes and the relative size is often indicated by a

Latinadjective:

LONGUS long

BREVIS shortMAGNUS large

MAJOR largerMAXIMUS largest

MEDIUS middleMINOR smaller

MINIMUS smallest

Similarlywithregardtoposition:INTEROSSEI betweenbones

LATERALIS lateral,ofortowardsthesideMEDIALIS medial,ofortowardsthemiddle

ORBICULARIS roundanopening

PROFUNDUS deep(oppositetoSUPERFICIALIS)(ForANTERIOR,POSTERIOR,INFERIORandSUPERIOR,seetheEnglishtermsopposite.)

LATINFORMSTHATINDICATE‘OFTHE…’ABDOMINIS oftheabdomen

ANGULIORIS ofthecornerofthemouth

AURICULARIS oftheearBRACHII ofthearm(alsoBRACHIALIS)

ofthehead

CAPITIS ofthehead

CARPI ofthewristCERVICIS oftheneck

DIGITI ofafingerortoe(DIGITIMINIMIofthelittlefingerortoe;

DIGITORUMofthefingersortoes)DORSI oftheback

FASCIAE ofafascia(seebelow)FEMORIS ofthefemur

FRONTALIS oftheforeheadHALLUCIS ofthebigtoe

INDICIS oftheforefinger

LABII ofthelipLUMBORUM oftheloins

MENTALIS ofthechinNARIS ofthenostril

NASALIS ofthenose(alsoNASI)NUCHAE ofthenapeoftheneck

OCULI oftheeyeORIS ofthemouth

PALMARIS ofthepalmPATELLAE ofthekneecap

PLANTAE ofthesoleofthefoot

PECTORALIS ofthechestorbreastPOLLICIS ofthethumb

RADIALIS oftheradiusSCAPULAE oftheshoulderblade

THORACIS ofthechestTIBIALIS ofthetibia

ULNARIS oftheulna

OTHERPARTSOFTHEBODYFASCIA asheetofconnectivetissue(plFASCIAE)

FOSSA apitorhollow(plFOSSAE)

THEFULLFIGURE

In thisfirstsectionwelookat thebodyasawhole, introducingfirsttheskeletalstructureandthemajormuscles,thentheproportionsandthedifferencesbetweenmaleandfemalefigures.Thebonyskeletonisratherlikeinteriorscaffolding,aroundwhich

thesofterpartsofthebodyarebuilt.Ofcourse,fleshandbonearenotseparate since they develop in the womb together, but the skeletonprovides the rigid framework that supports themassofmuscles andviscera. In a newborn, the bone structure is not able to support thebody because the muscles have not developed sufficiently. As thechildgrows,itgainsbothmuscularstrengthandanunderstandingofhowtocontrolitsmovements.Itisimportantfortheartisttoknowwhichbitsoftheskeletonshow

on the surfaceof thebodybecause,whendrawing, ithelps to relatethe fixed points of the figure to the appearance of the more fleshyparts. Understanding the structure of the skeleton is the basicrequirementforaccuratefiguredrawing.Whenyoudrawthehumanbody,youcannotseeexactlywherethe

muscles start and end. However, if you know something about theconfiguration, you will find it makes it easier to indicate the mainshapeofanymusclemoreaccuratelyinyourdrawing.It is a good idea to get some knowledge of the larger, more

superficialmuscles,becausethenyoucanrefertotheminalifeclasstoclarifywhichpartofthebodyyouaretackling.Ifyouhaveagoodteacher,heorshewillknowmostofthelargermusclenames.Onethingthatyouhavetobearinmindwhenyoucometodrawthe

humanfigurefromlifeisthefactthatthemusclesofeveryindividualwillhavedevelopedindifferentways.Apersonwhoisanathletewill

haveamusclestructurethatismucheasiertoseeonthesurfacethansomeonewhohasledamoresedentarylife.Ingeneral,womenhaveathickerlayeroffattytissuethanmen,andsometimesamusclethatisobviousonamanwillbemoresubtleandsofter-lookingonawoman.Then, of course, both men and women may have a more fattydevelopmentoftheirsurfaceareaoverall,whichwillmakeithardertoseehowthemusclesoverlaponeanother.While we usually see just the surface of the human body,

knowledge of what lies beneath the skin helps to produce moresignificant and convincing drawings. At the end of the section weshallseehowmasterartistsoverthecenturies,trainedintheclassicaltradition, have portrayed the human figure in all its wonderfulcomplexity.

Hereweshowthreesimpleviewsoftheskeleton,thefront,thebackandthesideview(alsocalledtheanterior,theposteriorandthelateralviews).Ihavekeptthenumberofbonesnamedheretoaminimum,sincewewillbegoingintogreaterdetailwhenlookingatthepartsofthebodyinclose-up.

Weshowherethemusculatureofthewholebody,soastogivesomeideaofthecomplexityofthesheathsofmusclesoverthebonestructure.Laterinthebook,weshallalsobelookingatsomeofthedeepermusclesinthebody,buthereonlythemoresuperficialmusclesareonshow.

Thedrawingsthatfollowarebasedonamalebody.Ofcoursethereareslightdifferencesbetweenthemaleandfemalemusculature,butnotmuchintheunderlyingstructure.Themaindifferencesareinthechestareaandthepubicarea.Therearealsoslightproportionaldifferencesandwewilllookattheselaterinthechapter.Butthiscompletefigureofthemusclesofahumanbeingwillgiveyouagoodideaastohowthemusclesareplacedoverthebody.

Whenyoucometoexaminethesurfaceofthehumanbody,allthebonesandmuscleswehavelookedatareratherdisguisedbythelayersoffatandskinthat

coverthem.Fortheartistthisbecomesasortofdetectivestory,throughtheprocessofworkingoutwhichbulgesandhollowsrepresentwhichfeaturesunderneaththeskin.Tomakethiseasier,Ihaveshowndrawingsofthebodyfromthefront,back

andside,whichareinawayasdiagrammaticastheskeletonandthemuscularfiguresinthepreviouspages.Because,onthesurface,themaleandfemaleshapesbecomemoredifferentiated,Ihavedrawnbothsexes.Ihavealsoincludeddiagramsoftheproportionsoffigures(seepages28–31)tomakeiteasierforyoutodrawthefigurecorrectly.Icannotstressenoughthattodrawthehumanfigureeffectively,youwill

eventuallyneedtoattendalifeclassatalocalartsfacility.Drawingfromothers’drawingsanddiagramsisuseful,asisdrawingfromphotographs,butyouwillnevermakeentirelyconvincingdrawingsofpeopleunlessyoualsodrawfromlife.

Inthisview,Ihaveagainhighlightedthemostprominentmusclesandpartsofthebonestructurevisibleonthesurfaceofthebody.Thedifferencebetweenthemaleandfemaleshapesisclear,inthatthemaleshouldersarewiderthananyotherpartofthebody,whilethefemalehipsandshouldersareofasimilar

width.Allthesebodyshapesarebasedonanathleticform,becausethisshowsmore

clearlythemainfeaturesofmuscleandbone.

Inthesediagrams,thebasicunitofmeasurementisthelengthofthehead,fromthehighestpointonthetopoftheskulltothebottomofthechin.Thelengthofthebody–fromthetopoftheheadtothesolesofthefeet–issubdividedbythe

lengthofthehead.Totheleftofthemalefigureisthescaleofclassicalproportion,whichmakes

theheadgointothelengthofthebodyeighttimes.Thisisn’tquiteaccurate,althoughtheremaybesometallpeoplewithsmallheadsthatcouldfitthescale.Itwasconsideredidealatonetimebecause,drawnlikethat,thefigurehadacertaingrandeuraboutit,andsowasusedfortheproportionsofheroicandgodlikefigures.

Infact,mosthumanbeingsareclosertooneheadgoingsevenandahalftimesintothebodylength.Thisisthescaleshowntotherightofthemalefigureandonthefemalefigure.Eventhisisanapproximation,becausenoteveryonefitstheproportionquitesoneatly.However,itcanbeappliedtomostfigures.Whatthisproportionshowsisthattwounitsdownfromthetopofthehead

marksthepositionofthenipplesonthechest.Threeunitsdownfromthetopmarksthepositionofthenavel.Fourunitsdownmarksthepointwherethelegsdivide.Bycomparingthesetwodifferentsystemsofmeasurement,youcanseethat

theproportionofonetoeightcouldbemadetowork,buttheproportionofonetosevenandahalfisclosertoreality.

Thesedrawingsshowthechangesinproportionofthehumanbody(male)atdifferentages.Atoneyearold,onlyfourheadlengthsfitintothefullheightofthebody,whereasat25yearsold,theheadwillgointothelengthofthebodyaboutsevenandahalftimes.

Therearedifferencesinstructurebetweenthemaleandfemaleskeletonandbetweensomeofthesurfacemuscles.Overthenextfewpages,Ihaveillustratedthosedifferencesthatcanbeidentifiedfairlyeasilywhendrawingafigure.Ofcourse,bearinmindthatbodyshapevarieswidely.Somefemalefiguresarenearertothemasculineshapeandviceversa.Generallyspeaking,thebonesofafemaleskeletonaresmallerandmore

slenderthanthoseofamaleskeleton.Alsothesurfaceoftheboneisusuallyrougherinthemaleandsmootherinthefemale.Then,takingtheothermoreobviousdifferences,thefemaleribcageismore

conicalinshapeandthebreastboneisshorterthanthemale;thisgivesanappearancetofemaleshouldersofslopingmorethanthemale.Inthemaleskeleton,thethoraxislongerandlarger,andthebreastbonelonger;thismakes

skeleton,thethoraxislongerandlarger,andthebreastbonelonger;thismakestheshoulderslookmoresquareandtheneckshorter.

Anothercleardifferencebetweenthetwosexesisinthedispositionofthepelvis.Inthefemaleitisbroaderandshallowerthaninthemalestructure.Thepubicarchiswiderandthesacrumthrustsbackwardswhiletheupperpartofthepelvisistiltedforwardstoaccommodatepregnancyandprovidethebirthcanal.Inconjunctionwiththis,thefemalethighbone(thefemur)isgenerallyshorterandinclinedmoretowardsthemidlineatkneelevelthanthemalethigh.Theeffectofthisistomakethehipsofthefemalelookwiderinrelationtotheirheight.Otherdifferencesarethatthepatella,orkneebone,isnarrowerinthefemale,

andthefeetshorter.Thisisallinproportiontotheheightofthefullfigure.Justasthelegisslightlyshorterinthefemaleskeleton,soalsoisthearminrelationtotherestoftheskeleton.Thisallbecomesmoreobviouswhenyouseetheskeletoncoveredwithmusclesandfatandskin,whileintheskeletonitselfitisnotquitesonoticeable.Insomecasesitcanbequitedifficulttotellthedifferencebetweenamaleandafemaleskeleton.

INFANTSKULL

Themaindifferencebetweentheinfantskullandtheadultoneisthesmallersizeofthefacecomparedwiththecranium.

ofthefacecomparedwiththecranium.

Theupperandlowerjawsaremuchsmallerduetonothavinganyteeth.Asteethappear,thejawgrows.

Usually,thesurfacelayeroffatismorepronouncedinthefemalethanthemale.

Theskinsurfacetensionsarethecleavagelinesofthehumanskin,orthedirectioninwhichtheskinwillcrease.Musclefibrestensealongbandedpatterns,inordertoaccommodatebodilymovement.Anincisionalongtheselineswillhealwell,becausetheskin’stensionpullsthecuttogether.Acutacrossthemwillpuckerandscar.

Theproportionsyoulearntonpages28–31willnotofcourseapplywhenyoulookatthefigurefromdifferentangles,sincewhatisnearesttoyouappearstobeproportionatelylargerthanwhatisfurtheraway.Youcanseethisclearlyfromthetwodrawingsonthispage.Withforeshortening,theactualrelativesizesofpartsofthebodyaremeaningless.

Inthisviewthelegsandfeetaremuchlargerthanthechestandheadwhich,bycomparison,arealmostcompressedandappeartobeshrinking.

Lookingatthesamefigurefromtheheadend,thelegsbecomeverysmallincomparisonwiththehead,shouldersandchest.

Learningtodrawthehumanfigurefromallanglesistime-consuming;don’texpecttoseeadramaticimprovementinyourskillunlessyoupractiseatleastonceaweek.However,ifyoudoperseverewithsuchregularityyouwillsoonseeyourdiligencerewardedandthisshouldspuryouontomakegreaterefforts.

InthisdrawingafterMichelangelo,youcanseetheextremeforeshorteningof

partofthefigure’srightarm.Whiletheupperarmisheldstraightdown,supportingtheweightoftheupperbody,scarcelyanyoftheforearmcanbeseenasitisdirectedtowardstheviewerandmaskedbythehand.Astheforemostpartofthelimb,thehandlooksproportionatelylargerinrelationtotheupperarm.Whiledrawingthebodyinperspectivemayseemtrickyatfirst,itisonlyamatterofdrawingwhatyoucansee–youreyewillhaveinstinctivelyunderstoodwhatthisdrawingistellingyouaboutthepose.

Renaissanceartiststookagreatdealoftroubletofindbeautifulmodelstoworkfrom.Onceyoulearnthegraceofproportionbytracingorcopyinggreatmasterpiecesyouwillseetheinherentbeautyinallfigures.Obviously,theproportionsinsomefiguresfallalongwayshortoftheclassicalidealdemandedbyRenaissancemasters.Nevertheless,thereisalwayssomecombinationofshapesinthehumanfiguretodelighttheeye.HereIshowdrawingsaftertwoofthegreatmastersofthehumanform,MichelangeloBuonarrotiandJean-AugusteDominiqueIngres.Theseartistsmademanystudiesofthehumanbody,bothadoptingverydifferentapproaches.Michelangelodrewalmosteverymusclethatcouldbeshowninhisdrawings.

Aswellasbeinganartist,hewasalsoagreatsculptor,fascinatedbythewaytheshapeofthefigurewasbuiltup,withmuscleformsclearlyshownonthesurfaceofthebody.Hisapproachwasinfluencedbytherelativelynewscienceof

ofthebody.Hisapproachwasinfluencedbytherelativelynewscienceofdissection,whichtheRenaissanceartistswerebeginningtoexplore.Bythetimewegettothe19thcentury,however,theFrenchmasterIngreswas

endeavouringtoshowhowsubtledepictionsofthehumanformcouldbe,withallthemusculatureverysoftlyindicatedandtonesgraduatedfromoneplacetothenextontheform.Thisslightlymorecosmeticapproachwas,inaway,amoveawayfromtheovertlydramaticmethodsofshowingthehumanformaftertheageofMichelangelo.Nowadays,wetendtousebothapproachestoouradvantage.

Corot’sdrawingisinterestingtothestudentofanatomy,becausealthoughheprimarilyshowssmooth,flowingforms,itisstillpossibletoseethemainshapesofthemusclesandbonestructureunderneath.

Inthis18th-centuryGermandrawingthemusculatureismademoreobviousbythestrong,obliquelightingthatthrowsintorelieftheedgesofthemusclesand

bonesonthesurface.

Signorelli’sfiguredrawingalwaysshowsthelargemusclesveryclearly.Thisstudyofthebackviewofamalefigureshowshowwellheunderstoodthe

muscularityofthehumanform.

Noel-NicholasCoypel’sstudyofthebackofanymphunderastrong,obliquelightmakeseachcurveofthebodystandoutclearly.Noteparticularlythedetailsoftheupperback.

Iwouldnowliketoshowyousomeofthefineststudiesevermadeofthehumanfigureandtheyareallononeparticulartheme.SincetheRenaissance,the

femalenudehasbeenafavouritesubjectforartistsandhereisaselectionforcomparison.

ThefirstisSleepingVenus(c.1508)aftertheVenetianGiorgione(1477–1510)andshowsthegoddessofloveastheidealsleepingbeauty.Giorgionemakesheramostpeaceful,elegantfigure.

ThesecondpictureisafterGiorgione’sfamouspupilandcollaborator,Titian(1488–1576),anothergreatVenetianpainter.TitianpaystributetohismasterintheVenusofUrbino(c.1538).HecloselyfollowsGiorgione’spose,butonthisoccasionthebeautyiswideawakeandlookingdirectlyatus.Forthetimethiswasveryunusualbecausethefemalenudenormallyposedmodestlywithdowncasteyes.ButTitianwasnoordinarypainterandhedrawsusintothepicturewithastrongelementofseductionintheportrayalofhisVenus.

ThethirdoftheserecliningnudesisOlympia(1863),theportraitofaParisiancourtesanpaintedbyEdouardManet(1832–83).ThispayshomagetoTitian’sVenusofUrbinobutManetplacestheyoungwomaninamorechallengingpose.Manetwasthesubjectofmuchcriticismwhenheexhibitedthispicturebecausehedidn’ttrytoconcealthegirl’slifestyleundertheguiseofagoddessornymph.ThismeantthathewaschallengingtheParisianartcriticstorecognizethatreallifewasasmuchthestuffofartasanymythologicalsubjectmatter.Theinterestingthingaboutallthepictureshereisthatalthougheachonemay

beastraightforwardnude,inrealityitrepresentsawholenewwayoflookingatlifeandart.

Thelaststudy,TheNakedMaja(1799–1800)aftertheSpanishmasterFranciscoGoya(1746–1828),isintheeighteenth-centurytraditionofthebacchanteornymph,gazingoutofthepictureatus,relaxedandateaseonhercouch,demandingthatweappreciatehercharms.Butthereisanindicationthatthesubjectofthispictureisnotquiteasdecorousassheshouldbe.Thisisdefinitelyachallengingportrait,andonethatwaspaintedforanotoriouslibertineattheSpanishcourt,ManuelGodoy.Don’tworrythatanyposeyoumightchoosehasbeenattemptedbefore:itis

whatyoudowiththestandardhumanfigureinaparticularsituationthatwillmakeyourdrawingsignificantornot.

Nowthatyouhavelookedatsomepossibilitieswiththehumanfigureinavarietyofpositions,trydrawingfromafamousclassicalfigurepainting,theRokebyVenusbyVelasquez,usingtonetoincreasethethree-dimensionalqualitiesofyourdrawing.Payattentiontothedirectionofthelightsource,asthiswilltellyouwhatis

happeningtotheshapeofthebody.Keepeverythingverysimpletostartwithanddonotconcernyourselfwithproducinga‘beautiful’drawing.Reallybeautifuldrawingsarethosethatexpressthetruthofwhatyousee.1.Sketchinthemainoutline,ensuringthattheproportionsarecorrect.Notethelinesofthebackbone,shouldersandhips.Checkthebodywidthinrelationtothelengthandthesizeoftheheadinrelationtothebodylength.Payspecial

thelengthandthesizeoftheheadinrelationtothebodylength.Payspecialattentionalsotothethicknessoftheneck,wrists,anklesandknees.Allofthemshouldbenarrowerthanthepartseithersideofthem.2.Finalizetheshapeofthelimbs,torsoandhead.Thendrawintheshapesofmusclesandidentifythemainareasoftoneorshadow.3.Carefullymodelindarkerandlightertonestoshowtheform.Someareasareverydark,usuallythoseofdeepestrecession.Thehighlightsorverylightareasarethesurfacesfacingdirectlytowardsthesourceoflight,whichshouldlookextremelybrightincontrasttoanyotherarea.

Whenyouhavefinishedapplyingtone,giveyourfigureaplacetoexistinbyaddingtonestothebackground.Thesewillenhanceyourdrawingbythrowingthestronglydefinedareasoflightforwards,therebyincreasingthethree-dimensionaleffect.

THEHEAD

In the following sectionswe shall explore each part of the body ingreater detail, starting with the head and neck. As in the openingchapter,webeginbylookingatthebonestructureandthengoontostudythemusculature.Theskull,orcranium,ismadeupofseveralbones,althoughbythe

timeanindividualreachespubertymanyofthemhavefusedtogetherinaprocesscalledossification;indoingsotheyprovideasolidcasefor the delicate organs inside. The joins of these bones are calledsutures.Atbirth,theboneshavenotyetknittedtogetherbecausetheymust be flexible during the birth process; and since the brain willgrowquiteabitbeforeadulthood,thesuturesinachild’sskulldonotfusecompletelyforanumberofyears.Themandible(jawbone)growsdramaticallyasthechildmatures,andanadultjawisnoticeablylargerinproportiontotherestoftheskullthanthatofasmallchild.Althoughthemusclesoftheheadarenotverylargeincomparison

withtherestofthebody,theyaresignificantbecausesomanyofthemworktochangeourfacialexpressions.Thefaceisthepartofthebodythatwerespondtomostand,asartists,thechieffeaturebywhichwecapturethelikenessofaperson.Thetopoftheheadisgenerallycoveredinhairandtheartistneeds

todeterminetheproportionof thispartof theheadinrelationto theface,soitisbesttoestablishthehairlinestraightawaybysketchingitin across the forehead and down as far as the ears. The shape andlocationof theeyesarevery important; and the lengthandshapeofthe nose and the disposition of the mouth give us the rest of theexpressiveface.At the end of this section we shall look at the head and face as

depictedbyvariousartists, and there is anexampleofhow tomakeyour own straightforward drawing.We shall investigate the featuresandfacialexpressionsindetaillater,onpages146–161.

Theupperpartoftheskullcontainsthebrainandtheorgansofsightandhearing.Thefrontandrearpartsconsistofthethickestbone,whereimpactsaremostlikely;thesidesoftheheadaremuchthinner.Therearevariousopeningsinthecaseoftheskullsuchasthenoseandearholesandtheeyesockets,whichencompasssmalleraperturesforthepassageoftheopticnervestothebrain.Underneathwefindthenasalcavitiesandtheforamenmagnum,throughwhichthespinalcolumnpassesandconnectionsaremaintainedbetweenthebrainandtherestofthebody.Thelowerpartoftheskullisthemandible,whichhousesthelowerteethand

ishingedatthesidesoftheupperskulljustbelowtheears.Thefirst(milk)teethfalloutduringchildhoodandarereplacedbymuchlargeradultteeth,whichfilloutthegrowingjaw.

Thesearethemusclesthatenableustoeatanddrink,andofcoursetheysurroundourorgansofsight,sound,smellandtaste.Althoughtheydon’thavethephysicalpowerofthelargermusclesofthelimbsandtrunk,theydoplayanimportantpartinourlives.

Ihaveincludedthemusclesoftheneckwiththeheadbecause,inmostrespects,theireffectcanbecloselyalignedwiththeheadstructure.

Thisdrawing,madefromaveryclearanddetailedphotograph,showsthemusclesthatcanbeseenonthesurfaceofamatureman’sface.Thetemporallineshowsclearlyatthetempleoftheforehead,andthe

temporalisandfrontalismuscles,althoughthesedon’tstandoutstrongly,arebeingpulledtightlyacrossthebonestructureoftheskull.Aroundtheeye,theorbicularisoculiandtheprocerusmusclesarevisible.

orbicularisoculiandtheprocerusmusclesarevisible.Aroundthemouthandnosecanbediscernedthelevatorlabiisuperioris

alaequenasi,thecompressornarisandthedilatornaris(bothpartofthenasalis),thedepressorlabiiinferioris,thelevatoranguliorisandthedepressorangulioris.Furtherbackneartheearistheedgeofthezygomaticbonecalledthe

zygomaticarch,withthezygomaticusmajor,whichisthemusclethatstretchesacrossfromthearchtothecornerofthemouth.Alsoonthejawcanbeseenthebulgeofthemassetermuscle.Ontheneck,thetrapezius,thesternocleidomastoidandthesternothyroidcan

beseen.

Herethesamemusclescanbeseenasinthepreviousportrait,alongwithothersincludingthecorrugator,thementalisandthebuccinator.

ThesamegroupsofmusclescanbeseenonthedrawingsbyMichelangeloandPeterPaulRubens.Itisinterestingtonotethatassoonasyoustarttolookforthesemusclesoftheface,theybecomecleareranditiseasiertodrawthemcorrectly.

Inourlastdrawing,Self-portraitfrom1913aftertheIrishartistWilliamOrpen,weseethemainmusclesofthehumanheadagainquiteclearly.Itisprobablyeasiertoseethemonamorematurefaceandonethatdoesnothavetoomuchfleshonit,becauseyoungerormoreroundedfacesdon’tshowthemusclessoclearly.

Nowhaveagoatdrawingaportrait,rememberingthemuscleandbonestructureyouhavelearntabout;achild’ssoftlyroundedfacemakesforaneasystart.Thepositionoftheheadgivessomeideaofthekindofpersonyouaredrawing.Gentleorintrovertedpeopletendtolookdown,whileaggressivepeoplelookuporstraightahead,chinraised,sodrawingthemlookingstraightattheviewerwouldcapturethispartoftheirpersonality.Somepeoplesmileeasily,otherslookdarkerorcooler.Aprofileisoftentheansweriftheexpressionislessconfident.

1.Beforeyoustart,lookattheshapeoftheheadasawholetomakesureyougetthisright.Nowdrawanoutline,markingtheareaofhairandthepositionofthe

thisright.Nowdrawanoutline,markingtheareaofhairandthepositionoftheeyes,noseandmouth.

2.Builduptheshapesoftheears,eyes,nose,mouthandafewmoredetailssuchasthehairandneck.

3.Tofinishthedrawing,spendtimeputtingintheareasoftoneorshadow,thequalityofhairandfabricandthetonalvariationsoftheshadingaroundtheeyes,

qualityofhairandfabricandthetonalvariationsoftheshadingaroundtheeyes,noseandmouthinordertodefinethefeatures.You’llnoticethatthelinesoftonegoinvariousdirections.Thereisnosingle,‘right’wayofdoingthis.Inyourowndrawingsyoucantryoutsingledirectiontoning,multi-directiontoning,shadingaroundandinlinewiththecontoursand,whereappropriate,smudgingorsofteningtheshadinguntilitbecomesasoftgreytoneinsteadoflines.Whatyoudo–andwhatyouthinkworks–issimplyamatterofwhateffectyouwishtoachieve.Softer,smoothertonesgiveaphotographiceffect,whilemorevigorouslinesinjectliveliness.Heretheslightroughnessofshadingemphasizesaboyishunconcernwithappearances.

THETORSO

Thissectionofthebodyisthemostcomplicatedanddifficultfortheartist to comprehend because it performs so many functions andinvolves bones of several different types. The torso is capable ofbending, stretching and twisting in all directions, thanks to themarvellous design and co-ordination of the spinal vertebrae, ribcageandpelvis.Although they are flexible, these structures are also very stable,

owing to the fact that they have to contain and protectmost of themajororgansofthebody.Forinstance,theribsenclosetheupperpartof the torso and house within them the heart and lungs, while thepelvis supports 7.6 m (25 ft) of small and large intestine and thereproductiveorgans.The26spinalvertebraerunfromthebaseoftheskull through the cervical, thoracic and lumbar regions down to thepelviswhere they are immobile in the sacral area between the hips,andendinthecoccyx(fusedtailbone).Thevertebralcolumnencasesthe spinal cord and connects the rest of the body to the brain andnervoussystem.The torso also contains most of the body’s largest broad or flat

muscles,whichhelp tocoverandsupport the ribcage,vertebraeandpelvis.Atthefront,thepectoralsandtherectusabdominiscovermostof the surface area and are easily recognizable in an athletic figure.The shoulder and upper backmuscles are verymuch involvedwiththemovementof thearmsand so it is sometimesdifficult todecidewhere the torso muscles finish and those of the arm begin. This isequally trueof themusculaturesurroundingthepelvisandtheupperlegs.Thelongvalleyofthevertebralcolumn,downthecentreoftheback,isformedbythenumberoflargemusclesfanningoutfromthe

vertebrae and allows us to feel the bony structure underneath thesurfaceoftheskin.

Thethoraxistheareaofthetrunkbetweentheneckandtheabdomen,includingthesternumorbreastbone,the12ribsorcostaeandthe12thoracicvertebrae.Thesemakeupthethoraciccage(theribcage)whichprotectstheheart,lungsandviscera.Belowthethorax,theabdomenismadeupofthelumbarvertebraeorcolumn

andthepelvicbones.

Weexaminethevertebralcolumnbyitselfhere,becauseitissuchanimportantpartofthewholeskeletonthatitneedstobeseenseparately,withoutthedistractionsoftheribsandthepelvis.Notethecurvedform,andthewaythe

partsarelargeratthelowerendandsmalleratthehigherend–abrilliantpieceofnaturalarchitecture.

Themusclesofthetrunkareinthemainquitelargeandfairlyflatinshape.Theyarelayeredovertheribcageandpelvisandcoverthebigjointsofthehipsandshoulders.Therearedeeperlayersofmuscleinthebackthatsometimeshelpto

shapethemoresuperficialmuscles(seepages74–75).

HereIshowthedeepermusclesfirst,andthenthemid-depthones,withthebonestructureofthespinalcolumnontheleft-handside.

Thesurfaceviewofthetorsoisdeceptive,becauseonlythelargemusclesareimmediatelyobvious.Thisisparticularlytrueofthefrontviewsincetheinnerorgansarecoveredbylargeflatareasoftherectusabdominis.Thislayerisinturncoveredbysmoothaponeurosesandfasciae.Onethingthatisclearlyvisible

isthecentrallineofthelineaalbarunningdownthefrontandthespinalgrooveonthebackview.Thesebothservetohighlightthebalancedsymmetryofthetorso.

Noticethedifferencebetweentheratioofthewidthoftheshoulderstothehipsinthemaleandfemaletorso.

Inthisstrong-lookingfigurewithratherwildhair,Tiepolohasdrawnthemusclesofthebackonatintedpaperindarkchalkorcharcoalandhighlightedtheminwhitechalk.Thegroovedownthecentreofthebackisinterruptedbybonybumps,indicatingthespinalvertebrae,andthelowerpartofthescapulaishighlightedontheleftshoulder.Theotherlargemusclesofthebackarefairlyeasytosee,becauseofthemusculardevelopmentofthemodel.Forexample,youcanseethebulgeofthelatissimusdorsithrownintoreliefbythelowermusclesunderneath,theserratusanterior.

Inthisdrawingofawell-roundedwomanfrombehind,quiteafewofthemusclesofthebackarehiddenunderalayeroffat.Whatisclearisthedeltoidmuscleoftheshoulder,thelineofthespinalvertebraeandthegluteusmaximus.Becausethefigureisslightlyturned,thetrapeziusandthelatissimusdorsicanbeseenmoreclearly;thereisalsoaslightindicationoftheedgeofthescapula.Theothertwonamedmusclesareinferredratherthanclearlyseen.

Incharacteristicfashion,Michelangelodrawsthetorsoofamalefigurewithallthemusclesclearlyshownthroughhispenstrokes.Hisfirstlovewassculpture,andhisdrawingsalwayshaveasenseofgrowingoutfromthepaper,likeathree-dimensional,carvedform.Hereyoucanseequiteafewofthebonyprotuberancesoftheskeleton,aswellastheclearlydefinedmusclesofthefrontofthetorso.Michelangelodoesnotleaveoutanythingthatmighthelptoinformtheviewerabouttheshapeandthree-dimensionaleffectsofthebody.

BronzinowasheavilyinfluencedbyMichelangelo,asweremostoftheartistsofthistime,buthealsorespondedtothemuchsmootherdrawingofRaphael,whowasassuccessfulasMichelangelobuthadamuchshorterlife.ThecarefullymodulatedformsinthisdrawingofagoddesshavenoneoftheruggednessofMichelangelo’spendrawing.AspainterattheMedicicourtinFlorence,Bronzinoknewhowtomakehismodelspleasingtotheeye,withaseductivemodellingstyle.However,themainmusclesoftheBronzinotorsoarenotas

obviousasinMichelangelo’sdramaticdrawings,andthegoddessbeingnicelyfleshedout,thedivisionsbetweenthemusclesaremuchlessclearlydefined.

THEARMSANDHANDS

Theupper limbsof the body are structuredon the basis of the longbones of the humerus, the ulna and the radius, with the additionalsmall bones of the wrist and hand. The design of the arm is verysubtle and the hand so flexible and adaptable that almost anymovementinanydirectionispossible.Thesearethelimbsthatallowhumanbeingstohandletools,operatemachinesanddothethingsthatmostotheranimalscannotmanage.Theway that the armswork from the shoulders is quite complex

and so too is themusculatureof thehand;don’tbe surprised if youfind itdifficult to retainall theanatomical information.However,asan artist, your main goal is to gain familiarity with the generalstructureofthearmsandhands,sothatwhenyoucometodrawthem,theywillbeconvincingenoughtogiveyourdrawingsomecredibility.As inprevious sectionsof thisbook, I first giveanoutlineof the

skeleton,thenthemusclesthatsurroundthebonestructure,followedbythesurfaceviewofthelimb.Afterthatcomevariousdrawingsofsimilarviewsofthelimbbymasterartists,andfinallyanexerciseforyou to try – drawing your own hand. At this stage, I will not beshowinganyparticularmovementsofthearmsandhands,norwhichmusclesgovernthem;thesewillappearinalatersection(pages204–233).

Thebonestructureofthearmappearsquitestraightforwardatfirstglance.However,theareasoftheshoulderandthewristarequitecomplexandhelptoallowthemanymovementsofthelimb.

Noticethecomplexityoftheinterleavingmusclesaroundtheshoulderandelbow,andthelongstrandsoftendonspassingthroughthewrist.Thebonestructureonlyappearsatthepointoftheshoulder,theelbowandthewrist,butofcourseonthehand,thebonesofthefingersaremoreobvious.

Whenthearmisstretchedouthorizontally,wecanseetheshapesofthelargermusclesatthesurfaceofthelimb.Herewelookattheoutstretchedarmfromtwoangles:withthepalmfacingup(supineview)andwiththepalmfacingdown(proneview).

BoththesestudiesofmasculinearmsshowtheinterestthattheRenaissanceartistshadinthecarefuldepictionofthebody.Thesedrawingsaretheequivalentofthebestmodernphotographicwork.

Here,ontheotherhand,theartistshaveshownthedifferenteffectofthemoregentleshapesofthefemalearm.Allthetonalareasgivetheeffectofasoftundulationofthemusclesundertheskin.

Aswellascombineddrawingsofthearmandhand,Iamalsodealingwiththehandseparatelybecauseitissuchanintricatepartoftheupperlimb.Thesediagramsofthebonesofthehandseenfromfourdifferentanglesarewellworthstudying,soyouwillbeabletorecognizethemthroughthecoveringofmuscleandskin.

Notethatthethumb(likethebigtoe)ismadeupofjusttwophalanges–proximalanddistal.Unlikethefourfingers,ithasnomiddlephalange.

Thehand,beingthepartofthebodythatsetshumanskillsapartfromthoseofalltheotheranimals,isaverycomplexstructureofoverlappingmusclesandtendons.Theseallowthefingersandthumbtoperformverycomplicatedandsubtlemotions,enablinghumanstoconstructandhandleanenormousnumberoftools(includingthepencil,ofcourse),extendingtheirrangeofactivitiesfarbeyondotherspecies.

Themaindifficultyindrawingthemusclesofthehandisthatthemostsignificantonesaresituatedinthearmandareconnectedtothehandbylongtendons.Therearesomemusclesinthehanditself,buttheytendtobehiddenunderthesurfacepadsofthepalmandsoarenotveryevident.Themostclearlyseenmusclesarearoundthebaseofthethumbandontheoppositeedgeofthepalm.

Thefemalehandisusuallysofter-lookingandwithmoretaperedfingersthanthemale.Theknucklesofthemalehandtendtolookmoreprominentandthefingersaresquarerinshape.Butdon’ttakethisforgrantedinyourdrawing:sometimesthistypicalshapecanbereversed.

Thefollowingdrawingsaftermasterartistsshowthehandfromvariousdifferentangles.Theygiveagoodideaofthecomplexityofthissmallbutvitallyimportantpartofthehumanbody.

Thisexercisestartswiththesimpletaskofdrawingaroundtheoutlineofyourownhand.Justplaceyourhandflatonthepaperandthencarefullydrawallaroundtheshape,makingsurethatthepencilpointdoesnotgettoofarawayfrom,ortoomuchunder,theedgeofyourhand.

Liftyourhandcarefullyoffthepaper,keepingitflatandinthesamepositionasbefore,thendrawinallthewrinkles,bumpsandhollowsthatyoucanseeinthesimplestwaypossible,andofcoursethefingernailstoo.Youwillhaveafairlygoodrepresentationofyourownhand,matchingitforsizeandshape.Nowhaveagoatdrawingitinthesamepositionbutwithouttracingaroundtheedgeofit.Doestheseconddrawinglookasgoodasthefirstone?

Thenextstepistoholdyourhandinadifferentshape,forexampleshowingthepalminsteadoftheback,orwithapointingfinger,aclenchedfistoranyothershapeyouwishtotryout.Takeyourtimedoingthis,becausetheeffortyouputintotryingtobefaithfultotheshapesthatyouseeisthemostvaluablepartofthisexerciseindrawing.

Drawinghandscanbetrickyatfirst,butasyouarefamiliarwiththelookofyourown,thisisaneasyintroduction.Donotworryifyourearlyattemptsarealittleroughintechnique–thisisnormalifyouareabeginner.Yourskillwilldevelopfromrepeatingexercisessuchastheseasmanytimesasyoucan.

THELEGSANDFEET

Thissectionisquiteextensive,startingwiththelegsandgoingontodealwith the feet.Not only dowe show the lower limbs from fourdifferentanglesbutalso thedifferencebetweenthemaleandfemaleversions.Sincetheysupporttheentireweightofthebody,ourlegsandfeet

needtobestrongerandlargerthantheupperlimbs,whichiswhytheycompriseabouthalftheoverallheightoftheaverageperson.The knee and ankle joints are just as complex as the elbows and

wrists, but because of their weight-bearing facility they areconstructedmoresturdily.Anklesstillhavetobequiteflexiblebutthebonesofthefeet,unlikethehands,formarathermoresolidplatform.Thelowerlimbsmustcombineextremeflexibilitywithpowerand

theirmusclesareusuallywelldeveloped.Thepointatwhichthelegsjointhetorsoisimmenselyimportantwhenitcomestothemobilityofthebody.Thismeansthatalthoughthegroinandhipareaisstronglybuiltandheavilymuscled,itisalsoamazinglysupple,ascanbeseenin the movements of dancers and gymnasts.We will explore theseactionsingreaterdetailinalaterchapter(pages234–269).

Theskeletonofthelowerlimbiscomposedofnoticeablylonger,strongerbonesthantheupperlimb.Thefemuristhelongestandlargestboneinthehumanbodyandisintheclassicshapethatwethinkofwhenwevisualizeabone,comprisingapowerfulstraightshaftandbulbousendswhichhelpjoinittothebonestructuresofthehipandknee.

Liketheupperlimbs,thelegsarewrappedinlong,layeredmusclesthathelptogiveflexibility.However,becauseoftheincreasedstrengthneededtosupporttherestofthebody’sweight,thelegmusclestendtobelongerandbigger.Ihaveincludedthebandoffasciarunningdownthesideofthelegoverthe

muscles(thefascialataandtheiliotibialband)andthebandofRicherwhichholdsthemusclesinatthefrontofthethigh.

Thegroupoftendonsthatrundownthebackofthelegtothekneearecollectivelyknownasthehamstrings.Thesearethetendonsofthebicepsfemoris,thesemitendinosusandthesemimembranosus.

Seeingthelegfromthesurfacegivesnorealhintofitscomplexityunderneaththeskin.Onthewhole,thelargermusclesaretheonlyoneseasilyseenandtheonlybonestructurevisibleisatthekneeandtheankles.Howeverthetibia(shinbone)createsalong,smoothsurfaceatthefrontofthelowerlegthatisclearlynoticeable.

Sixdrawingsoflegsareshowninthissection,threemaleandthreefemale.ThemalelegsarefromstudiesbyRaphaelandMichelangeloandarealldrawnin

ink.Theinkgivesacertainsharpnesstothedefinitionofforms,whilethefemaleversions–byIngres,vonCarolsfeldandRubens–aredrawninpencilandchalk,whichgiveasofter,rathermoresubtleeffect.

Aswiththehandinthepreviouschapter,Iwilldealwiththefootseparatelyfromtheleg,asitisquiteacomplexfeature.Itisnotsuchafamiliarpartofthebodyeither,aspeopletendtokeeptheirshoesonwhenwalkingaboutinpublic.

onwhenwalkingaboutinpublic.

Themusclesofthefoothaveseveralcomplexlayersthatarenoteasilyseenonthesurface,nordowehavemuchopportunitytoexaminethesoleofthefoot,soitisnotsofamiliartous.

Examplesofthefootdrawnbywell-knownartistshaveprovedmoredifficulttofindthanotherpartsofthebody,becausedetailedfeettendnottofeaturevery

stronglyinpictures,andthenumberofspecificfeetdrawingsisratherlimited.So,asIhavefoundexamplesfrommoremodernsources,youmaynotbefamiliarwithsomeoftheseartists.However,theyarecertainlygoodartistswhohavedrawnthefootveryaccurately.

THEHEADINMOVEMENT

Inthissectionwereturntothehead,toseehowitmaybedrawnfromour anatomical knowledge. We look at it, quite literally, fromdifferent angles and relate various expressions to particular facialmuscles.Themainthingis tostartwithitsoverallshape.Weareallusedtoconcentratingonthefeaturesoftheface–particularlytheeyesandmouth – because this is wherewe read people’smoods. But itmeanswe tend todisregard the restof thehead, itsoverall structureandaspect.Inordertodrawitproperlyweshouldstartwiththebasicshapeandignoreanydistractions.Then, having worked at the shape of the head, the next thing to

considerismovementofthefacialfeatures.Thejawishighlymobile,givingexpressiontotheentireface.Buteventheslightestmovementsofthelipsandeyesplaytheirpartinconferringexpressions.Weshallbelookingindetailatthemusclesinvolvedinexpressing

a whole range of emotions, from anger to contentment. Familiaritywith the muscle structure underlying the face is very useful forcapturing the character of a human subject accurately. So, carefulinvestigationofwhatexactlyhappenstoallthesefeaturesisimportanttoourstudies.

Theheadisoftenobservedturningfromfullfacetowardsaprofileview.Lookingatthefullface(1),botheyesarethesameshape,themouthisfullydisplayed,andthenoseisindicatedchieflybythenostrils.Asshowninourdiagram,whentheheadturns,thefeaturesremainthesamedistanceapartandstayinthesamerelationshiphorizontally.However,astheheadrotatesawaytoathree-quarterview(2),webegintosee

theshapeofthenosebecomingmoreevident,whilethefarsideofthemouthcompressesintoashorterline,andtheeyefarthestfromourviewappearssmallerthanthenearerone.Continuingtowardstheprofileorsideview(3),thenosebecomesmoreand

moreprominent,whileoneeyedisappearscompletely.Onlyhalfofthemouthcannowbeseenand–giventheperspective–thisisquiteshortinlength.Noticehowtheshapeoftheheadalsochangesfromarathernarrowshape–longerthanitisbroad–toquiteasquareone,wherewidthandlengtharealmostthesame.Wecanalsoseetheshapeoftheear,whichatfullfacewashardlynoticeable.

Next,weshalllookattheheadinanothersequencethatopenswiththefullface,butthistimetheheadwillbeliftedbackwardswiththechintiltingup,untilverylittleofthefaceisseenfrombelow.Noteatthebeginningthatthefrontviewgoesfromthetopoftheheadtothe

tipofthechin,andthefacialfeaturesareallclearlyvisible.

Now,aswetilttheheadbackwards,weseelessoftheforeheadandstarttorevealtheundersideofthejawandthenose.Theendofthenosenowseemstobeabouthalfwaydowntheheadinsteadofthree-quarters,asitwasinthefirstdiagram.Theeyesappearnarrowerandthetopoftheheadisinvisible.

Onemoretiltoftheheadshowsanevenlargerareaunderneaththejaw,andthemouthseemstocurvedownwards.Theundersideofthenose,withbothnostrilsveryclearlyvisible,startstolookasthoughitispositionedbetweentheeyes,whichareevenmorenarrowednow.Theforeheadisreducedtoasmallcrescentshapeandthecheekbonesstandoutmoresharply.Theears,meanwhile,aredescendingtoapositionlevelwiththechin,andtheneckisveryprominent.

Onefurthertiltliftsthechinsohighthatwecannowseeitscompleteshape;andthenose,mouthandeyebrowsareallsoclosetogetherthattheycanhardlybeseen.Thisangleoftheheadisunfamiliartous,andisonlyusuallyseenwhensomeoneislyingdownandwearelookinguptowardstheirhead.Notehowtheheadlooksvastlydifferentfromthisangle,appearingasamuch

shorter,compactedshape.

Theseexamplesshowvariationsonviewingtheheadfromslightlyunusualangles,andyoucanseehowtheyallsuggestdifferentexpressionsofthebody’smovement.Althoughthemodelsforthesedrawingswerenottryingtoexpressanyparticularfeelings,theveryfactofthemovementoftheheadlendsacertainelementofdramatothedrawings.Thisisbecausewedon’tusuallymoveourheadswithoutmeaningsomething,andtheinclinationoftheheadonewayoranotherlooksasthoughsomethingismeantbytheaction.

Leaningbackseenfrombelow

Leaningforwardseenfromabove

Leaningbackseenfrombelow

Chintiltedupseeninprofile

Three-quarterview,headtiltedtowardsviewer

Three-quarterviewseenfrombelow

Three-quarterviewseenfromsamelevel

Three-quarterviewfromthefront,seenfromalmostthesamelevel

Three-quarterviewseentiltedforwardfromabove

Frontviewseenfromabove

Profileseenfromaslightlyrearview

Profileturningtowardthree-quarterview

Slightlyangled,seenfrombelow

Tiltedback,seenfrombelow

Herewehaveafewexamplesafterarangeofartistsoftheheadseenfromdifferentangles.Anumberofthedrawingsthatfollowareafteramodernartist,LouiseGordon,whospecializesinanatomicaldrawingsandhasproducedseveralanatomybooksherself.Herdrawingsareparticularlyaccurate,andIhaveendeavouredtoreproducethemascloselyaspossible.

ThefirstisaremarkableportraitbyanunknownartistofMarkGertler(1891–1939),himselfanartistwhobecamewellknownintheperiodbetweenthetwoWorldWars.Thedrawingshowsthemostpopularposeforaportraithead,thethree-quarterview.Thisisaverycarefuldrawingoftheface,clearlyshowingthemainsetsofmusclesonayoungmalehead.

ThesecondportraitisafterLouiseGordon,ofanelderlyman.Oncemore,itisathree-quarterview,butthistimeseenfromslightlyabove.Themusclesarewelldefinedandcanbeeasilyidentified,ifyouhavedoneyourhomework.

ThethirdexampleisbythegreatmasterPeterPaulRubens.Itshowsayoungwoman,three-quarterviewagain,butwithherheadinclinedforward.Onetouchingdetailisthewaythefullcheeksofthegirlrespondtothepullofgravityassheleansforward.

NowwehaveanotherstudybyLouiseGordon,andthefirstoftheseisofagirlwithherheadtiltedbackandalittletooneside.Notehowthenoseoverlapsthefareye.Themouthiscurved,andbecauseoftheanglethehalffurthestfromusisshorterandpartlyhidden.Ifyoulookclosely,youcanevenseehowthecurveofthelensontheirisoftheeyeactuallyshowsagainsttheuppereyelid.

AfterLouiseGordonYounggirllookingupseenfrombelow

ThelastofLouiseGordon’sdrawingsshowsthebackofthemodel’shead;theanglegivesaclearviewoftherearoftheneck.Ithasagreatdealincommonwiththenextdrawing,byMichelangelo,ofaheadseenfromthebackbutwiththenecktwisted,sothatweglimpseabitofthefacialform.Thesedrawings,fromtheirvariousangles,servetoshowwhythewholeshape

oftheheadhastobetakenintoaccountwhendrawingpeople’sfaces.

AfterLouiseGordon

AfterMichelangelo

Nowwemoveontotheothergreatchallengeofdrawingthehead:capturingexpression.Hereareaseriesofexpressionsshowingthedominantmuscles.Checkthemandthenpersuadeyourfriendsorfamilytomakesimilarfaces,andseeifyoucanidentifythemusclesresponsible.

Thenextsixdrawingsareinthenatureofaquiz,totryoutyournew-found

expertiseinidentifyingmusclesofthehead.1.Hereisamanwitheyeswideopenandmouthopenaswell.Whichmusclesaredoingthis?

2.Thismanhashisforeheadwrinkled,eyesnarrowedandmouthpursedintoan‘O’shape.Whichmusclesareinoperationhere?

3.Nextaretwofacesofmenlaughingorgrinning.Whichmusclesareoperatinghere?

4.Nowwehavetwowomen,bothsmiling,butonemoreopenlythantheother.Aretheyusingthesamemusclesorisonewomanbringingdifferentmusclesintoplayfromtheother?

Thesearetheanswerstothequestionsonthepreviouspages.First,trythemoutwithoutlooking,toseehowyourmemoryisworking.

Hereweshowtheindividualfeaturesoftheface:theeye,themouth,thenoseandtheear,givingsomeinformationaboutthenormalformationofthesefeatures.Whatwewillshowisthebasicstructureofthesefeaturesandtheirmostobviousshape,butbearinmindthatthefeaturesofindividualsdovary

quitedramaticallysometimes.

Firstnotethatthenormalpositionoftheeye,whenopenandlookingstraightahead,haspartoftheirishiddenundertheuppereyelid,andtheloweredgeoftheirisjusttouchingthelowerlid.

Notethetendencyoftheeye’sinnercorner(medialcanthus)tobeslightlylowerthantheoutercorner(lateralcanthus),tohelpteardrainage.

Aspreviouslystated,thereareenormousvariationsintheshapesofthesefeatures,andthesepicturesshowonlyafew.However,theirbasicstructureisthesameandtheartistneedstograspthisgeneralizedinformationbeforeexploringthedetaileddifferences.

Becausetheyaresointimatelyconnected,itisdifficulttomaketheheadlook

naturalwithoutdrawingthenecktoo.OnthefollowingpagesIshowthebonesoftheneckaswellasthe

musculatureinordertomakethestructureasclearaspossible.

THETORSOINMOVEMENT

The torso and head are two sections of the human body that mostartistsareinterestedindrawing,chieflybecauseoftheirsubtletyandthechallengeofrenderingthemconvincingly.Ofthetwo,thetorsoislessfamiliar,becausewedonotusuallyseeittotallyunclothed.Themainskeletonisinthreeparts:thespinalvertebrae;theribcage

withtheshouldergirdle,fromwhichthearmsdepend;andthepelvisfromwhichthe legsdepend.Thenumerousmusclesstretchedacrossthe skeleton are extremely difficult to draw, owing to the way thatlayersofmuscleandfatoverlieoneanotheranddisguiseagooddealofthebonestructure.Thischapterwillfeaturediagramsofthedeepermuscles,butonlytoshowhowtheyaffecttheappearanceofthemoresuperficialones.Thesignificantthingaboutthetorsofromanartist’spointofview

isthatalthoughitlookslikeaprettysolidpieceofwork,itisactuallyhighly mobile. It can bend forwards, backwards and sideways, andstretch out and contract to some extent. It can also twist around,enabling the shoulders to face sideways from the hips. Because thelargemusclesinthebackandthefrontofthetorsoaresoprominent,itisusuallyeasytoseethemworking.Howevertherearenotsomanyseen on the surface and some of these are affected by musclesunderneaththem.Look out for the differences between themale and female torso:

whereasthemusclesareverypronouncedonanathleticmalefigure,the female shape is smoother and large muscles like the pectoralismajorarenotsovisibleunderthemammaryglands.

Becausesomuchoftheskeletonishidden,itmaybedifficulttodifferentiatebetweenmuscleandbone.However,listedbelowarethebonesthatarevisibleonmostbodiesofaveragebuild.Theremaybesomepeoplewithmoredevelopedareasoffattydepositthatdisguisethelessobviousones,butusuallythefollowingbonescanbeseen:•Clavicle•Sternum•Partsofthescapula•Sevencervicalvertebrae•Firstandtwelfththoracicvertebrae,incertainpositions•Firstandtwelfthribs•Pubis•Iliaccrest•Iliactuberosity•AnteriorsuperioriliacspineForanartist,recognizingthesebonypointsonthesurfaceofthebodyisveryuseful,sincetheymakegoodmeasuringpoints.Unlikethemusclesandfattyparts,theydonotmove.Lookouttooforthesuprasternalnotch:thisisthespacebetweenthetwo

clavicleswheretheymeetthemanubriumortheupperpartofthesternum(breastbone).Itisausefulmarkerformeasuringtheheadandshouldersbecauseitremainsatafixedpointatthebaseoftheneck.Thenotchisvisibleonthevastmajorityofhumans.

ABDOMINALMUSCLESflextorsoforwardsintocurledposition,straighteningarchoflumbarvertebrae.Compressvisceratoforceexpiration,orstraininchildbirthanddefecation.Thethreelayerscreatestrongwallsoneithersideoftheabdomen.

DELTOIDcontractionofentiremusclewillraisearmtohorizontalplane.Partialcontractionwillresultinpullingthearmbackwardorforward.

ERECTORSPINAEGROUPmadeupoftheLONGISSIMUS,theSPINALISandtheILIO-COSTALIS.Lifttorsowhenrisingfromstoopedposition.Straightenspine,extendspinebackwardsortoeitherside.Drawpelvisbackwardsandupwards.Helpsupporttheweightofthehead.SometimesreferredtoastheSacrospinalis.

INFRASPINATUSrotatesarmoutwardsandbackwards.INTERNALandEXTERNALOBLIQUEflextrunk.Isolatedactionofone

INTERNALandEXTERNALOBLIQUEflextrunk.Isolatedactionofonesideturnsanteriorsurfaceoftrunktothatside.Bendsspinalcolumnlaterally.Co-operateswiththeotherabdominalmuscles.Simultaneouscontractionofmusclesofbothsides,resultsinforwardbendingoftrunk.Ifchestisfixed,pelvisisbroughtintoflexion.Constrictsabdominalcavity,ribsarecompressedandpulleddownwards.

LATISSIMUSDORSIthrowsbackshoulders.Drawsarmbackwardsandtowardsthecentreline.Rotatesitinwardsandlowersit.Ifshouldersarefixed,itraisestrunkandsuspendsit.

LEVATORSCAPULAEsteadiesscapuladuringmovementsofthearms.PECTORALISMAJORdrawsarmforward,rotatesitinwardsandlowersarm.

QUADRATUSLUMBORUMholdsfirmthetwelfthribandpullslumbarregionofthespinetoitsownsideandhelpsstraightenorraisepelvis.

RECTUSABDOMINISflexestrunk.RHOMBOIDSMAJORandMINORelevate,rotatescapula.Drawittowardsthemedianline.

SEMISPINALISCAPITIStwodeepneckmusclesbeneathtrapezius,wheretheyhelptodrawheadbackwardsorrotateittoeitherside.

SERRATUSANTERIORdrawsscapulaforwardsandlaterally.Helpstrapeziusinraisingthearmabovethehorizontalplane.

SERRATUSPOSTERIORMUSCLESsteadytheerectorspinaegroup.Superiorpairelevateupperribs,helpingustobreathein.Inferiorpairareexpiratory,depressinglowerribsaswebreatheout.

SPLENIUSCAPITISpullsheadbackwardsandsideways,rotateshead.SPLENIUSCERVICISpullsneckbackwardsandsideways,rotatesatlas(topvertebra)alongwithhead.

SUBCLAVIUSfixesandpullsclavicledownwardsandforwards.SUBSCAPULARIS(beneathscapula)rotatesarminward.SUPRASPINATUSraisesandrotatesarmoutwards.TERESMAJORraisesarmforwardsorsidewaysfromtrunk.Rotatesarminwards.

TERESMINORrotatesarmoutwards.TRAPEZIUSextendshead,inclinesittoonesideandturnsheadinoppositedirection.Middlepartliftsscapula.Inferiorpartlowersscapula.

Therearemorethanahundredmusclesinthetorso,andtheytendtobepaired

oneithersideofthebody’smedialline,andlayeredingroups.Aseriesofdividedmusclessupportandarticulatethespine.Therearebroad,thinsheetsofmuscleenfoldingtheabdomenandthepelvis.Thick,heavymusclesgivestrengthtotheshouldersandhips.Thediagonallyarrangedmusclesoftheribcagehelpwithbreathingandtheflexibilityoftheuppertorso.Ontheoppositepage,Ihavedetailedthemajormusclesofthetorsoandsome

ofthemovementstheyproducebycontractingorflexing.Tryperformingsomeofthesemovementsandfeelingyourownmusclesatwork.

InthisdrawingafterLouiseGordonyoucanseethetorsobendingtotherightandextendingontheleftofthebody.Notehowthenormallyhorizontallinesoftheshoulders,thewaistandthehipsarenowtiltedinoppositedirections.

Thisdiagramhelpstoclarifythemusclesalongthespinalvertebrae,showninthreecolumnsoverlayingeachother.Thethreemusclesoftheerectorspinaegroupareshownontheright.

Bodybendingtotheleft:spinalmusclescontractingoneside

Bodybendingback:spinalmusclescontractingonbothsides

SIDEVIEW:THETORSOCURLED

Thisinterestingviewofthebackandshouldergivessomeideaofthecomplexityofthemuscles,particularlynoticeablearoundthemovingpartsofthejoints.Thetriangleofauscultationbehindthescapulaisusedbydoctorsforlisteningtothe

triangleofauscultationbehindthescapulaisusedbydoctorsforlisteningtothelungsusingastethoscope.

Thestatuesquequalityofthetorso,seenfromtheback,givesanimpressionofstrengthandsimplicity.However,beneaththeskin,aswehaveseen,itiscomplex,althoughthelargemuscleshelptokeeptheoverallformsimple.

Drawingthetorsoofahumanbeingwithoutshowingalltheotherlimbsisalmostlikedrawingalandscape.Lightthrowstheundulatingshapesintorelief,likerollinghills.Thesetwoviewsshowthetorsowiththeshoulderstwistedonewayandthe

hipstheother.

Thisselectionofmasterdrawingsshowshowwelltheseartistsknewtheiranatomydespitethelackofmedicalknowledgeatthetime.Thedefinitionofthemusclesandbonestructureundertheskinisbeautifullyindicatedintheseworks,andtheyareworthstudyinginordertoseehowcarefullytheshapesundertheskinwerereproduced.Aperiodofintenselifedrawing,withthehelpofan

anatomybooklikethis,soonmakesyouawareofthemultiplicityofsubtleshapesthatshowthemselvesonthesurfaceofthehumanbody.

AfterMichelangeloThisisadrawingfora‘Deposition’,showingthedeadbodyofChristbeingloweredfromthecross.

AfterRaphaelThisdrawingshowsthemaletorsotwisting,sothatpelvisandshouldersarenotinline.

Thefrontviewofthetorsoalsohasastatuesquequality,partlyduetotheeffectofthemusculature.

AfterSebastianodelPiombo(1483–1547)

Thefollowingthreedrawingsofthemaletorsodemonstratetheflexibilityandstrengthofthesectionbetweentheribcageandthepelvis.

OverthenextpagesIhaveshownmoretorsoshapesaftermasterartists,givingdynamiceffectsthroughthetwistingandturningoftheshouldersandhips.

THEARMSANDHANDSINMOVEMENT

The diagrams and drawings of arms and hands in this chapter willgiveyousomeideaoftheextraordinary,subtlemovementsthat theycan achieve.Most of our work and skill in handling all manner ofthings are thanks to the flexibility and strengthof these parts of thebody.Ihaverotateddiagramsoftheunderlyingmuscleandbonestructure

with drawings of the samemovements as seen from the surface. Inmany cases you can actually observe themusclesmovingunder theskin,providedthearmisnottooheavilycoveredinflesh.Students of anatomy can help their understanding by flexing and

relaxingthemusclesintheirownarms.Observationthroughtouchingand feeling is often as useful as the visual kind. In this book, I canonlybegintoshowtherangeofmovementspossibleinthearmsandhands.Itisworthrememberingthatthemusclesoftheupperarmaffectthe

lowerarmandeventhefingers.Aswithotherpartsof thebody, theconnections are complex and it is difficult to isolate even simplemovementstoonlyonesetofmuscles.Studyof thesecomplicatedmuscle systems isnoteasy,butworth

theeffortbecauseoftheextrainsightitgivesusintotheworkingsofthebody.

Becauseofthecomplexattachmentofthearmtothetorsoviatheshoulder,wenowexamineitinsomedepth.Thesediagramsshowhowthemusclesarelinkedtothebonestructureandhowtheyallshowonthesurfaceofthearm.

BICEPSBRACHIIflexeselbowjointandsupinatesforearm.BRACHIALISflexesforearm.CORACOBRACHIALISflexesandadductsshoulder.DELTOIDpullslimbforwardwhenarmraisedlevelwithshoulder.Raisesandholdsarmhorizontal,anddrawslimbbackwardswhenhorizontal.

INFRASPINATUSandTERESMINORhelptorotatearmbackwards.LATISSIMUSDORSIpowerfullydrawsthearmbackwards.PECTORALISMAJORextendsarmanddrawsitacrossthefrontofthetorso.

PECTORALISMINORholdsscapulaagainstribcageandraisesribsduringforcedbreathing.Italsopullsshoulderdownandforwards.

RHOMBOIDSMAJORANDMINOR(beneathtrapezius)drawscapulatowardsthemedianline.

SERRATUSANTERIORpullsshoulderforwardandgivesforcetopunch.Preventsshoulderbladefromswingingtoside.

SUBCLAVIUSfixesandpullsclavicledownwardsandforwards.SUBSCAPULARIS(beneathscapula)rotatesarminward.SUPRASPINATUSraisesandrotatesarmoutwards.TERESMAJORwithLATISSIMUSDORSIextends,adductsandrotatesarminwards.

TENDONANDAPONEUROSISOFTRICEPSflattenbackofarmaboveelbow.

TRAPEZIUSraisesandlowersshouldersanddrawsheadtoeitherside.TRICEPSBRACHIIextendslimb.

Notehowthesemusclesfitunderandovereachother,formingastrongmassthatenablesthearmtomoveeasilyinanydirectionwithoutdamage.Allthemusclesaffecteachotherwhenflexingorcontracting,whichtranslatesasa

‘rippling’effectonthesurfaceofthearm.Thisisparticularlyvisibleinathletesandweightlifters.

THEMUSCLESOFTHELOWERARMANDHOWTHEYWORK

ABDUCTORPOLLICISLONGUSextendsandabductsthethumb.ANCONEUSextendsforearm.BRACHIORADIALISflexeselbowjoint.

BRACHIORADIALISflexeselbowjoint.LONGEXTENSORMUSCLESonposteriorforearmpassintothebackofhand.

EXTENSORDIGITORUMextendsfingers(notthumb);EXTENSORDIGITIMINIMIextendslittlefinger.EXTENSORCARPIULNARISextendswrist,adductshand.EXTENSORPOLLICISBREVISextendsproximalphalanxofthumb.EXTENSORINDICISextendsforefinger.EXTENSORCARPIRADIALISBREVISextendsthehandatthewrist.EXTENSORCARPIRADIALISLONGUSextendswristonsideofradius.EXTENSORPOLLICISLONGUSextendsthethumb.FLEXORCARPIRADIALISflexesandrotateshandinwards.FLEXORCARPIULNARISflexeswristonsideofulna.FLEXORDIGITIMINIMIBREVISflexeslittlefinger.FLEXORDIGITORUMPROFUNDUSflexesmiddleanddistalphalangesoffingers(notthumb).

FLEXORDIGITORUMSUPERFICIALISflexesmiddleanddistalphalangesoffingers(notthumb)andwrist.

FLEXORPOLLICISLONGUSflexesdistalphalanx.PALMARISLONGUStheweakest,leastsignificantmuscle,sometimesmissinginoneforearm,flexeshand.

PRONATORQUADRATUScausespronationofradius.PRONATORTEREScausespronationofforearm,helpsinflexionofforearm.

SUPINATORtheshortestextensor,rotatesradiusoutwardsonitsownaxis.

THEMUSCLESOFTHEHANDANDHOWTHEYWORK

Notethattherearenomusclesinthefingers,onlybonesandtendons,tiedbyfibrousbands.Thesmallfattypadsontheendoffingerscarrybloodandnervesandcushionflexortendons.

ABDUCTORDIGITIMINIMImoveslittlefingeroutwards.ABDUCTORPOLLICISBREVISdrawsthumbforwardatarightangletopalm.

ADDUCTORPOLLICISdrawsthumbtowardspalm.DORSALINTEROSSEIabductfingersfrommidlineofhand.

FLEXORandEXTENSORRETINACULAenabletendonsofhandtochangedirectionatwrist.

FLEXORPOLLICISBREVISflexesproximalphalanxofthumb.LUMBRICALESflextheproximalandextendthemiddleanddistalphalanges.

OPPONENSDIGITIMINIMIdrawsfifthmetacarpalforwardsandinwards,tohollowthepalm.

OPPONENSPOLLICISallowsoppositionofthumb.PALMARMUSCLESliebeneathpalmaraponeurosis(thickenedfascia)holdingskintomusclesandbonesbelow.

PALMARINTEROSSEImovefingersinwardtomidlineofhand.

Herearefourviewsofthelowerarm,palmup,showingthelayersofmusclefromdeepest(1)tomostsuperficial(4).

EXTENSION

FLEXION

Adductorpollicisacting

Thetwoopponensmusclesacting

Itiswellworthstudyingthemovementsofthehandindetail,astheycanbeveryexpressiveandcapturingthemaccuratelywilladdalottoyourdrawing.Themovementsofthehandaremainlyproducedbythemuscleshigherupthe

arm.Whenyoumoveyourownhand,noticethethemusclesofyourforearmorupperarmwheretheactionoriginates.Lookoutfordetailslikethepadsonthepalmofthehandandthefrontofthe

fingerswhichpushoutwhenthehandisclosedintoafist.

MOREPRECISEHANDMOVEMENTSHoldingapencil

Holdingasmallobject

Pointing

Whatisclearishowflexibleandsensitivethehandsare,beingabletomakelarge,strongmovementsanddetailed,preciseones.Thefollowingrangeofmovementsarejustafewofthehundredsofactionsthehandcanperform.

Pushing

Holding

Holding

Clenching

Clutching

Grasping

HoldingandarranginghairOverthefollowingpagesIhavedrawnseveralimagesofthearmandhandaftermasterartists.Notethedifferenceinmuscularitybetweenportrayalsofthemaleandfemalearm.

Herearesomemoreexamplesofveryclearlydrawnmusculature,whichIhavenotannotated.Seeifyoucanidentifythevariousmusclesshown.Refertothedetaileddiagramsofmusclesandthedrawingsonthepreviouspagestocheck

yourresults.Pencilinyourideasbeforecheckingandseehowmanyyougetcorrect.Thisexerciseiswellworthdoing.

AfterRubens

AfterFrançoisBoucher(1703–1770)

AfterEugèneDelacroix(1798–1863)

THELEGSANDFEETINMOVEMENT

Our lower limbs are probably themost powerful parts of the body,having the largest bones and the strongest muscles. This is nosurprise,sincethelegsnotonlysupportthetotalbodyweightbutalsohavetopropelitalongintheworld.Thehingeingofthelegsontothetorsoisverystronglysupported,

bothintheshapeandconstructionoftheskeletalstructureandinthecompleteness of the muscle system that holds it all together andallowsittomove.Legsandfeetarelessdelicateintheirmovementsthanourarmsandhands,butcommensurablystrongerandharder todamage.Thismeansthatthelowerlimbsarelesspliableandsensitiveintheirmovementsthantheupperlimbs,sacrificingflexibilityinthecauseofgreaterstrength.Despitethelowerandupperlimbsbeingbasicallysimilarinform,

thefeetaremoresolidandtheirmovementslesssubtlethanthehands,which have to perform somanymore complex tasks. Nor does thekneejointhavequitethesamerangeastheelbow,ortheankleasthewrist. The toes are clearly less dexterous than the fingers, despitebeing constructed along similar lines, but they are also considerablystronger.So what is most evident in the lower limbs is the power and

strength, and the ability to support the whole body mass. Allmovementsofthelegsandfeetaresimple,butstronganddistinctive.

Thethighextendsdownonelong,strongbone(thefemur)fromthepelvis–wheretheballandsocketjointofthehipconnectswiththetorso–tothekneejoint,wherethetwolowerbonesofthelegmeetit.Themusclesystemsarecloselyboundaroundthesejointsandaregenerallylargemusclesthatcoverthelongbonestructureentirely.Thepelvis,whichwehavealreadystudied(seepage70),hasanicely

hollowedshapeoneachside,intowhichtheroundedtopofeachfemurfits.Italsocontainsthetwiniliaccrests,towhichareattachedthepowerfulmusclesconnectingthelegstothetorso.

ADDUCTORMAGNUS,ADDUCTORBREVISandADDUCTORLONGUS:simultaneouscontractionofthesemusclesresultsinmovingthightowardscentreline.

BICEPSFEMORISflexesandthenrotateslegtowardscentreline.GEMELLUSSUPERIORandGEMELLUSINFERIORrotatethighoutwards.

outwards.GLUTEUSMAXIMUSextendsfromthighontofixedtrunk.Whenlegisfixed,trunkisbentbackwardsbyitscontraction.Itextendshipjointwhensubjectclimbsstairsorrisestoerectpostureafterstooping.

GLUTEUSMEDIUSrotatesthighinwardsandoutwards.GLUTEUSMINIMUSrotatesthighinwardsandoutwards.GRACILISflexesandrotateslegtowardscentreline.ILIOPSOASwhentrunkisfixed,flexesandrotatesfemurinwards;whenlegisfixed,flexestrunk.

PECTINEUSmovesthightowardscentrelineandflexesit.QUADRATUSFEMORISrotatesthighoutwards.QUADRICEPSMUSCLESthesearetheVASTUSINTERMEDIUS/LATERALIS/MEDIALISandtheRECTUSFEMORIS;theyextendandflextheknee.

TENSORFASCIAELATAEstretchesfascia,elevatesandmovesthighoutwards.

RECTUSFEMORIS(seequadriceps)extendskneejoint.SARTORIUSmovesthighawayfrombodyandrotatesitsideways,andflexeslegatkneejoint.

SEMIMEMBRANOSUSflexesandthenrotateslegtowardscentreline.SEMITENDINOSUSflexesandthenrotateslegtowardscentreline.VASTUSMUSCLES(seequadriceps)extendandflextheknee.

MUSCLESOFTHELOWERLEGANDHOWTHEYWORK

EXTENSORDIGITORUMLONGUSstraightensfourlessertoes.EXTENSORHALLUCISLONGUSstraightensgreattoe.EXTENSORRETINACULUM,SUPERIORANDINFERIORenabletendonsofthefoottochangedirectionattheankle.

tendonsofthefoottochangedirectionattheankle.FLEXORDIGITORUMLONGUSbendssecondtofifthtoes,helpsinbendingfoot.

FLEXORHALLUCISLONGUSbendsbigtoe(hallux)andthroughthisthefoot.Takespartinrotationoffoot.

GASTROCNEMIUSextendsfootdownwards.PERONEUSBREVISraisesoutsideedgeoffoot.PERONEUSLONGUSbendsandturnsfootoutwards,supportslateralsideofarch,steadieslegonthefoot,especiallywhenstandingononeleg.

PERONEUSTERTIUSraisesthefootupwardsandoutwards.PLANTARISweaklyflexesankleandkneejoint.POPLITEUSbendsandthen,rotateslegtowardscentreline.SOLEUSextendsfootdownwards.TIBIALISLONGUS(ANTERIOR)straightensfoot,raisesfootarch.TIBIALISPOSTERIORstraightensfoot,turnsfootinwards,supportsfootarch.

Likethehand,thefootisacomplexstructureofoverlappingbone,muscleandtendons.Thefootislessflexiblethanthehandbutstronger,andtheareaaroundtheankleandheelhasmuchlargerbonesthanthewrist.Mostofthemusclesarefoundunderneaththebonesofthefoot,andthetoesaremainlyboneandfatty

pads.

MUSCLESOFTHEFOOTANDHOWTHEYWORK

ABDUCTORHALLUCISmovesbigtoeoutwards.ABDUCTORDIGITIMINIMImoveslittletoeoutwards.ADDUCTORHALLUCISmovesbigtoeinwards.EXTENSORDIGITORUMBREVISstraightenstoes.EXTENSORRETINACULUM,SUPERIORANDINFERIORenabletendonsofthefoottochangedirectionattheankle.

DORSALINTEROSSEIDeep-seatedmusclesthatmovethetoesapart.FLEXORDIGITIMINIMIBREVISflexeslittletoe.FLEXORDIGITORUMBREVISflexessecondtofifthtoes.FLEXORDIGITORUMLONGUSflexessecondtofifthtoes.FLEXORHALLUCISBREVISflexesbigtoe.FLEXORHALLUCISLONGUSflexesbigtoe.LUMBRICALESflexproximalphalanges.Invisiblefromsurface.OPPONENSDIGITIMINIMIpullsfifthmetatarsalbonetowardssole.PLANTARINTEROSSEIaredeepmusclesthatmovethird,fourthandfifthtoestowardssecondtoe,andflexproximalphalanges.

QUADRATUSPLANTAE(FLEXORDIGITORUMACCESSORIUS)helpsinflexingtoes.

Theleginmovementisquiteflexiblebutwithoutthemoredetailedmovementsofthearm.Theemphasisisonstrengthandpowerfulmovementsthatcarrythe

wholebody.Overthefollowingpagesarevariousviewsoflegsperformingsimplemovements:notethesmootherappearanceofthefemalelimbandtheclearermusculatureofthemale.

Inthesedrawingsaftermasterartists,Ihaveonlygiventhenamesofsomeofthevisiblemusclesandbonestructure.Itwouldbeagoodexercisetoseewhat

othersyoucanidentify,usingthediagrammaticinformationinthepreviouspages.Thiswillhelpyoutomemorizetheterms.

THEMOVINGBODY

InthissectionIpresentthewholebodyengagedinaction,particularlyin sporting activities. The figure drawings are taken from severalsources,anumberofwhicharephotographicbecause,ofcourse,thisistheonlywaytofreezethemovementinmid-actioninordertoseewhathappens.Someofthefiguresarenude,butgenerallyspeakingitispossibletoseetheshapeofthebodywellenoughunderclothing.Unlike in themainpart of thebook, I havenot labelledprecisely

themusclesinplay.However,Ihavegiventhenamesofthepartsthatare obviously being used and you will know where to look up therelevantinformation.Onthewhole,welearnquickerwhenwemakethe effort to look up the names for ourselves, rather than alwaysfindingthemattachedtothedrawings.I have chosen the type of sports that clearly show themuscles in

action, such as running, jumping, climbing, wrestling andweightlifting.Itisveryinterestingforanartisttowatchsportspeopleand observe what happens to the musculature as they move. Thisinformationisdoublyvaluablewhenyoulaterstudyaphotographofthe action, becauseyourdirect experiencedoes change thewayyoulook at the still image. Your memory can help to give greaterverisimilitude to a drawing that is done from a photographicreference,soifyouhavetousestill images,donotneglect towatchtherealthingfromtimetotimeinordertoimproveyourdrawing.

Thefollowinggroupoffiguresdemonstrateshowtoobservethehumanformandsimultaneouslytoanalysewhatishappeningtotheplacingofthebodyasyoudrawit.

Startoffbyvisualizingalinefromthetopoftheheadtothepointbetweenthefeetwheretheweightofthebodyisresting–thisisitscentreofgravity.Oursystemlabelsthisline(fromheadtoground)aslineA.Next,takethelinesacrossthebodythatdenotetheshoulders,hips,kneesand

feet.Thewaythattheselineslendbalancetotheformtellsyoualotabouthowtocomposethefigure.Thesystemlabelstheseasfollows:theshoulders,lineB;hips,lineC;knees,lineD;feet,lineE.Then,notetherelationshipbetweentheelbowsandthehands,althoughthese

arenotalwayssoeasytosee.Thesystemhereis:theelbows,lineF;hands,lineG.Sonow,asyouglancedownthelengthofthefigure,youreyeautomatically

notesthedistributionofthesepointsofbalance.Concentratingyourobservationsinthisway,youwillfinditmucheasiertorenderthefigurerealistically.Thefirstfigureisstandingandthedistributionofthevariouslevelsofbalance

canbeseenquiteclearly.Theonlyonethatisabitdifficulttorelateto,islineF,linkingthetwoelbows.Thesecondfigureisalsostanding,althoughtheshouldersandhipsaredifferentfromthefirst.Nevertheless,itisstillfairlyeasytoseehowthepointsrelatetooneanother.

Thethirdfigure,stillstandingbutsideways-onthistime,makessomeofthebalancingpointslesssignificant.Thehips,forexample,areonebehindtheothersotheydon’tregistermuch.Thehandsaretogether,sothatsimplifiesthataspect.Buttheremainingpointsareimportanttoobserve,inordertogivetherightkindofbalancetothefigure.

Thelaststandingfigureusesallofthepoints,exceptforthehandsandtheknees,whichareonebehindtheotherinbothcases.

Now,wehaveasittingfigureinwhichthemainlineAisshortenedtocovertheupperpartofthebodyonly,becausethisiswherethebalancinglinestops.However,therestareobviousenough,althoughthelinesconnectinghandsandelbowsactuallycutacrosseachotherinthispose.

Intherecliningpose,themainbalanceliesbetweenthelinethatgoesasfarasthehip,andalinefromshouldertoelbow.Ihavenotindicatedthelatterinordertoavoidoverloadingthediagram.

Thecrouchinggirlisrathercomplexbecausethelinepassingthroughthebodyisnotthemainbalancingpoint;inthiscase,itrunsstraightdownfromthehead,pastthekneestothefeetandhands.Thebackfootisalsohelpingtokeepthebalance,bypushingthelowerpartofthebodyupwards.

Thisbendingfigureillustratestheprincipleofthecantilever,wherethefeetplantedapartandthepositionofthearmontheknee,supportingtheback,

combinetokeepthefigureuprightdespitethehorizontalangleoftheupperbody.Buttodrawtheposeconvincingly,itisstillimportanttoregisterthebalancingpointsandthepositioningoftheotherpairsoflimbs.

Thekneelingmanholdsasimilarposition,inwhichthearmconnectingwiththefloorandthebackfootarebothpartofthebalancingsystem.

Nowwewilllookatsomemoredynamicposes.First,thebodyleapingthroughtheair,anactionwhichinvolvesallthelimbsandtheheadaswellasthetorso.Everythingisadjustedtokeepthebalanceandmakesurethatwhenthebodylandsbackonthegrounditwillnotdamageitself.Thisgirlisleapinginaforwardspringandhasthegraceofadancer;manyof

thesefigureshavebeendrawnfromphotographsspeciallytakentohelpartistsandillustratorstorenderbodiesinmotion.Themusclesmostclearlyseeninthisdrawingarethoseintheupperlegsandacrossthechestandribcage.

Theleapingmanisobviouslyonhiswaydownfromahigherleveloraveryhighjump.Notehowheisconcentratingonhislandingplace.Themusclesmostnoticeableherearethoseinthelowerlegsandalongthefrontandsideofthetorso.

Thenextdrawingsshowmodelsbendingandstretching,which,althoughnotaveryenergeticmovement,doesbringmanyofthemusclesintoplay.Thegirlbendingsidewaysisstretchingherthighmusclesaswellasallthemusclesdownonesideofhertorso.

Thegirlbendingovertotouchtheflooratherfeetisbothstretchingherlegmusclesandthoseofherback.

Thestandingmodelisstretchinghertorsodownonesideandhasplacedherfeet

insuchawayastomakeherlegspointindifferentdirections.Notethedifferentmusclesbeingusedinthearms.

Themodelsittingcross-leggedandstretchingherarmsaboveherheadisshowingveryclearlythebonyribcageandherkneejoints.

Thenextthreeposesmakeitlookasifthemodelsaredancing,usingtheirbodiesinawaythatmakesthemostoftheoppositionofthearmsandlegs.Theirtorsosarealsoturnedtoshowhowthemusclesarebeingused.Likesport,danceemploysexaggeratedmovement.Normallythebodywouldnotbeworkedasthoroughlyasthis.

Nowwecometoclimbing,oneofthemoreextremesports,whichreliesontremendousmuscleco-ordination.Itisalsothesportwhichcallsmostuponyour

senseofbalanceandtheabilitytogripwellwithyourhandsandfeet.Observethegreattensionshowninthebodywhenitisclingingtoadifficultrock-face;noticethemusclesinthearmsandback.

Threemoreclimberswiththeirlegsstretchingouttoencompassthespacebetweenfootholds.Inthefirstfemaleclimber,itispossibletoseehowthelegs,armsandbackmusclesarebeingworked.

Thepopularsportoffootballprovidesuswithmanyexamplesofenergeticmovement,althoughtheplayers’sportingstriponlyrevealsthemusclesinthe

legsandarms.Thefirsttwoplayers,onetacklingtheother,demonstratejusthowpowerfultheactioncanbeincompetitivesports.

Thenextthreefootballersshowthemovementsinvolvedinkickingaballwheninplay.Themovementoftheplayeratthebottomrightisverycontrolledandalmostacrobatic.

Thenextfourpicturesshowthebalanceandeffortrequiredwhenmovingfastandtryingtocontrolaballwithyourfeetatthesametime.Noticehow,inevery

case,theplayersareusingtheirlimbstokeepthebodyinmovementandbalancedatthesametime.

Thelastfootballpictureisoftwoplayersfallingafteracollisiononthefield,anditisclearthattheirbalancehasgoneandtheirbodiesaretryingdesperatelytocounterthissomehowwiththemovementsofthelimbs.

Wenowexamineathletesjumpingashigh,asfarandasfastastheycan.Notehowthebodyperformstomatchandcounterbalancetheeffortsofleaping.

Theathletethrowingthediscustwistshisbodyandswingshisarmsinordertogetmaximumpowerintohisthrow.

Thefourrunnersillustratethebody’seffortstogainspeedalongalevelsurface,pumpingthearmsandlegstokeepthemmovingasfastaspossiblewhile

remainingbalancedandcontrolled.Twomorejumpers,withadifference,becauseheretheyarehelpedbyapoletoleapevenhigherthannormal.Themusclesthathelpthehandstogrip,andtherestofthebodytoswingupwards,areshownundergreatstress.

Nextweseeacoupleofwrestlingpairs,strainingtoupsettheiropponentwithoutlosingtheirownbalance.

Theweightliftersinthenextthreepicturesaregoodexamplesofmuscleperformanceunderpressure.Notehowthefacialmusclescomeintoplaytoo.Watchingweightliftingisoneofthebestwaystoseeclearlyhowthemusclesbehavewhenactivatedinextremesituations.

ThispictureofasmithwieldingasledgehammershowsGreiner’sthoroughnessininforminghimselfofthemusclemovementsinthebody.Astudylikethisisveryinformativeandwouldbemostusefulinproducingafinishedpainting.

ThedrawingontheleftistakenfromoneofGreiner’scommissioneddrawingsfromlife.Lookatthedetailinthedepictionofthebackmuscles,andinthebentarmandleg.Thisdisturbingdrawing(below)ofawomanbeingpulledalongbythehair

showsthebodyconvulsedwithpain:herstomachistensedandherarmsare

showsthebodyconvulsedwithpain:herstomachistensedandherarmsareraisedinanefforttofreeherself.

ThefirstdrawingbyIngresisofayoungmanbendingdramaticallydowntogathersomethingup,whilelookingbackwards.Theseconddrawingisofanymphstretchingupwards,showingthetensionin

herbodyasshedoesso.Ingresdoesn’tdefinethemusclesverysharply,preferringasmootheroveralllooktohisfigures.Nevertheless,itisobviousenoughwhichmusclesarebeingindicatedinthesedrawings.

Thenextdrawingshowsamanliftingachairabovehisshoulderashewalksforward.Thearmmusclesareparticularlyobvious.ThefinalIngreslifestudyshowsamanreachingdowntoliftsomethingfrom

theground.Thestretchingofthelegsandarmsbringsintoplayallthemusclesofthelimbs.Ashappensinmanylifedrawingsbyaccomplishedartists,Ingreshasdrawn

extradefinitionsofthefeetinthestandingposeandthestretchedarminthedrawingbelow.Theseworkingshelptoclarifywhatisactuallyhappeninginacomplexpartofthepose.

complexpartofthepose.

LIFEDRAWING

This chapter points out the benefits of practising life drawing forartists,aswellassomeofthethingstoexpectandtolookoutfor.Asapractisingartistmyself formanyyears, Ihave foundfrequentstagesofdrawingfromlifeabsolutelynecessarytokeepimprovingmyownability. It does not seem to matter how often you practise, the factremains that it helps you to improveyourwork, even after years ofstudy.Soalthoughabooklikethiswillgiveyoualotofinformationabout

thehumanbody,itisessentialforreallygoodresultstodrawfromlifeasoftenaspossible,inordertobecomefamiliarwithwhathappenstothemusclesandbonestructureofthebodyindifferentcircumstances.Itusedtobepossibleforartiststoattendmedicaldissectionsofbodiesinordertounderstandtheirinnerworkings,butthatisratherdifficultnow and will not be necessary unless you intend to investigateanatomyinsomedepth.Ifyoujoinalifeclassatyourlocalart instituteoradulteducation

centre,youwillhavethechancetodrawallkindsofmodelsusingavariety of techniques. The tutors in such places are generally wellqualifiedtogiveyouaneffectivecourseindrawingthehumanbody,soyourtimewillnotbewasted.Afterreadingthisbook,youwillbeabletoidentifymanyofthebonypartsandthevisiblemusclesofthebodywhenyouseeitinitsnaturalstate.Ifyoucanvisualizewhereamusclebeginsandends,itismucheasiertodrawwhatyoucanseeofit–andyourknowledgeof thestructureof thebodywillalsomeanthatthetutorwillbeabletodescribeexactlywhereyouneedtolook,becauseyouwillbetalkinginthesameterms.

Thefirsttwoexamplesarebothdoneinafairlyclassicalstyle,butwhereasoneissetinasortoflimbowithnobackgroundaroundit,theotherisplacedinareal-lifesetting,whichisaLondonartstudio.So,inthefirstdrawingtherearenooutermarks,nopointsagainstwhichtomeasurethebodyshape.Inthesecond,therearethechair,theverticallinesandtheshelvesinthebackground,whichallhelptoestablishthepositionofthefigure.Abackgroundisanadvantagebecauseitconvincesusofthespacearoundthe

model,andmakesmoresenseofthedimensionsofthebodyitself.Manystudentsdonotattempttoincludethesurroundingsettingformanyweekswhentheystartlifedrawing,butifyouhavethetimetoputitin,itwillhelptoinformyouastowhetherthedrawingisaccurateornot,andthatisonethingyouneedtoknowifyourworkisgoingtoimprove.Itisbettertomakemistakesandbeawareofthemthantodraw,nomatterhowbeautifully,withoutsomeobjectiveunderstandingofthesetting.Ofcourse,thetutorwillinformyoueventually,butyouwillneedtostartnoticingwhatishappeningyourself.

Whenyoubeginlifeclassesyoumayfinditdifficulttocompleteadrawingquickly,butthetutorwillquiteoftenmakeyoustartwithseveralveryshortposes,takingmaybeonlyaminuteortwo,toaccustomyoutodrawinginstinctively.Thiscansometimesbeabitdamagingtoyourself-confidence,butdonotbedownheartedbecauseeventuallyyouwillbeabletoproduceadecentresultinasurprisinglyshorttime.Itdoestakepractice,andthemoreyoudothe

betteryoubecome.Thesethreeposeshaveallbeencompletedinonetofiveminutes,andyoucan

seehowtheapproachesaredifferentbuteffective.Youwillprobablybeencouragedbyyourtutortousemanydifferentmediums,whichisalltoyoureventualadvantage.Itisindrawingatthisspeedthatyourknowledgeofthehumananatomystartstohelpyougetitright.

Whenbeginnersstartlifedrawing,theyoftentaketheslowandpainstaking

approachofverydetailedworking,whichaprofessionalwouldnotdo.So,onemethodyoumustlearnishowtoblockinlargechunksofthefigure,ignoringthedetail,inordertogetabetterideaofthewholesolidmassmorequickly.Thefirstexamplealsoshowshowyoumayignorethecurvesofthebodyto

producearathersculpturalinterpretationofthemassesofform.Thishelpsyoutoproduceamuchstronger-lookingdrawingandiseasiertomeasurefrompointtopoint.Thesecondexampleisnotsochunkyandsomecurvesarevisible,but

neverthelessthemainpointisthatitproducesanimpressionofthebulkoftheform,usingverylittleinthewayofdetail.

Thenextstudyisquitedifferentintechnique,executedwithagraphicpenfine-liner.Thisisadaringthingtodoifyouareabeginner,becauseeverymarkyoumakeisobvious,anditisnotpossibletoeraseinthenormalway.Butifyouperseverewithyourstudies,itisinfactaverygoodwaytodraw,asitmakesyoumoreawareofyourimperfectionsandalso,asyouimprove,itgivesyoutheconfidencetomakemistakeswithoutcringingwhenothersseethem.Awordofwarning,however:itisextremelytime-consuming,soyouwillneedagoodlongpose.

Whenyoudrawthesamemodelfromdifferentanglesatdifferenttimesyougraduallybecomeaccustomedtotheconstructionofthatparticularbody.Thisisveryuseful,especiallyifyourdrawingsarealldonefairlyclosetogetherintime.Youbegintorecognizetheparticularshapesandproportionsofyourmodel,whichhelpsyoutoidentifythedifferentpartsofthebodymoreeasily.Herearethreestudiesofoneofmyfavouritemodels,aBraziliangirlmuchin

demandforlifeclasses.Theseposesshowherfromthefrontsittinginachair;fromthefootend,reclining;andsittingwithherbacktomebutreflectedinamirror.Thesethreedrawingsandseveralothershaveenabledmetogetaveryclearideaofherbodystructure,andhowthemusclesworkontheskeleton.

Inmydrawingsforthisanatomybook,Ihavechosenfiguresofalmostperfectproportionsintermsofthewaythatthemusculatureisdistributedoverthebonestructure,andalsoofasimilarsizetotheclassicalnorm.Inactualfact,whatthemodelforyourlifeclasswilllooklikeisanybody’s

guess,notleastbecausearttutorsseemtodelightinbookingmodelsofasmanydifferentshapesandsizesaspossible.Aswithourfirstexamplehere,youmightgetayoungmanwhoisskinnyand

angular,sothattheskeletonbeneaththemusclesisverymuchmoreobviousthaninanaveragefigure.Thismeansthatyougetplentyofpracticeindrawingbonestructurebutthemusclesarehardertomakeout.

Inthesecondexample,theyoungwomanhasarotundbuild,whichpresentsyouwithquiteadifferenttaskwhendrawingher.Herethebonestructureisonlynoticeableatthewrists,handsandfeet.Eventhejointsoftheelbowandkneearefairlywellcovered,sotheprincipalproblemistoascertainthemusclesthatlieunderthesmooth,solidforms.Thisvarietyisalltothegoodifyouaregoingtolearntodrawproperly,butit

canbedifficultatfirst.Whateverthemodelislike,thechiefconcernofthelifeartistisusuallytorepresentwhatheorsheseesasaccuratelyaspossible.However,donotforgetthattherearedifferentlevelsofaccuracyindrawing,andthemainthingfromthepointofviewofanatomyistodiscoverhowwellyoucanidentifythestructureundertheskin.

PUTTINGITALLTOGETHER

Valuableandengrossing though it is todrawthenudehumanfigurefrom life, observing all the structures of muscle and bone that youhave learnt throughout this book, in realitymost of the figures youdraw will be clothed. Even so, your knowledge of anatomy willinform the way you describe their bodies and the way the clothesadorn them;everydrawingyoumake,whether itbeasingleportraitor scenes of several figures, will gain in authenticity from theunderlyingexpertiseyoucancontribute.In this final chapter, we shall look at clothing – the textures of

differentfabricsandhowtheydrapeandflowover thehumanform.There followsa simpleportrait inwhichyoucanpractisedrawingaclothed figure before going on to consider how you will set yoursubjects within a format before you embark on making a finishedpicture.Next, you will be ready to start working on an extended portrait

project, from initial rough sketches and studies of your model’sindividual features to a fully realized drawing, showing the humanfigure in convincingly three-dimensional form – the kind of projectthat will teach you how to make portraits that sum up not just thesitter’sphysicalcharacteristicsbuttheirpersonalitiestoo.Finally, we shall address the tricky feat of making successful

compositions using groups of figures, both formal and informal andinteracting in various ways, from ball games to affectionate familygatherings.

Thehandlingofdraperyandclothingisnotparticularlydifficult,butitdoesrequiresomestudyinordertobeclearabouthowmaterialsbehaveandwhathappenswhentheyarecoveringthebody.Theresultsfromyourstudycan,ofcourse,beusedasabackgroundforstilllife,butthemainpurposeoftheseexercisesistoteachyouhowfoldswork.Howmaterialsbehavedependslargelyonthetypeoffabric.Withpracticeyouwillcometounderstandthosedifferences.

Ausefulexerciseforlearningaboutthebehaviourofclothingistochooseaniteminasoftfabric–suchaswoolorsilk–anddrapeitoversomethingsothatitfallsintovariousfolds.Nowtrytodrawwhatyousee.

1.Drawthemainlinesofthelargefolds.Whenyouhavegottheseaboutright,putinthesmallerfolds.

2.Inordertocapturethetextureofthematerial,putinthedarkesttonesfirst,andthenthelessdark.Makesurethattheedgesofthesharpestfoldscontrast

andthenthelessdark.Makesurethattheedgesofthesharpestfoldscontrastmarkedlyintoneattheedges.Inthesofterfoldsthetoneshouldgraduallylightenintonothing.

Trydrawinganarminasleeveoralegintrousersandcarefullynotethemainfoldsandhowthebendinthearmorlegaffectsthem.Insleeves,thewrinklescantakeonanalmostpatternedlook,liketrianglesanddiamondshapes

alternating.1.Startbyverysimplyputtinginthemainlinesofthecreases.Notehowonthejacketthefoldsandcreasesappearshorterandsharperacrossthesleeve,whereasonthetracksuittheyappearlongerandsofterdownthelengthoftheleg.

2.Shadeinwherenecessarytogivethedrawingsubstance.

3.Thepatternsonthesesleeveslookalmoststylized,partlybecausethematerialisabitstiff.

Nextwelookathowthemovementandactionsoftheweareraffecttheappearanceofclothing.Ofcourse,howanitemofclothingbehaveswilldependonthetypeofmaterialofwhichitismade,soyouneedtobeawareofdifferentpropertiesandcharacteristicsandhowtorenderthemrealisticallyinvarioussituations.

Averysimplemovementofagirlpullingonherjacketproducesallsortsofwrinklesandcreasesinaratherstiffmaterial.Thecreasesatthebendofthearmarerelativelysoft,however,whichgenerallyindicatesanexpensivematerial.AstheAmericanRealistpainterBenShahnremarked,‘Thereisabigdifferencebetweenthewrinklesina$200suitanda$1,000suit.’(Thiswassaidinthe1950s,sothepricesarerelative.)Whathewasremarkingonwasthefactthatmoreexpensivematerialsfoldandcreaselessmarkedlyandthecreasesoftenfalloutafterwards,whereasasuitmadeofcheapermaterialshaspapery-lookingcreasesthatremainaftertheclothisstraightened.

Theclothingwornbythisfigure(right)hangssoftlyinfoldsandsuggestsalightweightmaterialsuchascotton.Theshapeoftheupperbodyiseasilyseenbutthetrousersarethickenoughtodisguisetheshapeoftheleg.

Thisdrawing(left)wasmadefromapictureofadancerplayingapart.Thebaggycotton-likematerialhasaslightlybobblytextureanditsloosenessinthesleevesandlegsservestoexaggeratehismovements.Boththeactionandcostumereinforcetheeffectoffloppyhelplessness.

Abitofcleverposingbyafashionphotographerwasresponsiblefortheoriginalfromwhichthedrawingbelowwasmade.Themodelwasactuallyphotographed

lyingonthefloorwiththedressspreadouttomakeitlookasthoughshewasmovinginasmooth-flowingdance.Thephotographwastakeninthe1930s,beforethebenefitsofhigh-speedcamerasandfilm,andrepresentsanimaginativewayroundatechnicalproblem.Itprovesthatyoucancheattheeye.

Thesturdygirldanceraboveisswirlingalengthofthin,lightsilkenmaterial.Themovementofthehairandgarmenttellyouquiteabitabouthermovementsandthematerialityofthehairandcloth.

Drawingasimpleclothedfigurelikethiswillhelpyoutopractisewhatwehavelearntaboutthewaymaterialcoversthebody.Trytokeepyourdrawinglooseandsimpleatfirst.1.Drawthesimplestoutlinepossible.Withthefirststageofyourdrawing,alwayssimplifyruthlessly.

2.Blockineachmainshape,ensuringthatwhatyoudrawisanaccurate

2.Blockineachmainshape,ensuringthatwhatyoudrawisanaccuratedescriptionofwhatyousee.

3.Blockinthetone,thenputindarkerandstrongershadowstoemphasizetheshape.

Thebestwayistodrawfromlife,butifyouseeanattractiveposeandthemodelcannotstayputforlong,workingfromaphotographissomethingtofallbackon.

Whenyouaregoingtodrawaportrait,yourfirstconsiderationistheformatofthepicture.Thisisusuallythenormalportraitshape,tallerthanitswidth,butofcoursethismightnotalwaysbethecase,andyoushouldfollowyourownideas.IntheexamplesIhavechosen,I’vestucktotheuprightformatinordertosimplifytheexplanation.Theideaofthesepicturesistogivesomethoughttothewaythatyouusetheformattodeterminethecomposition.Youmightchoosetodrawtheheadaloneorincludetheentirefigure.

Thefirstexampleshowsthemostconventionaltreatmentofthesitter,occupyingacentralpositioninthepicture,showingthetophalfofthefigurewithasimplebackgroundsuggestingtheroominwhichsheissitting.Thereareprobablymoreportraitsshowingthisproportionofthesitterthananyother.

Inthesecondpicture,Ihavegoneinclosetothefaceofthesitterandthebackgroundisjustadarktone,againstwhichtheheadisseen.ThefeaturesareasbigasIcouldgetthemwithoutlosingthewholehead,andalltheattentionisontheface.

Thenextpictureshowstheotherextreme,thefull-figureportrait.Inthis,thefigureisstanding,withthesurroundingroomshowninsomedetail,althoughthisdoesnotalwayshavetobethecase;itcouldbeanemptyspaceorperhapsanoutdoorscene.Thefull-lengthportraitisoftenatourdeforcefortheartistinvolved.

Hereweseeafigure,notquitecomplete,buttakingonamorehorizontal

Hereweseeafigure,notquitecomplete,buttakingonamorehorizontalposition.Thiscouldbedonejustaswellinalandscape(horizontal)format,butcanbemosteffectiveinthevertical.Inthisexample,thespaceabovethesitterbecomessignificantandoftenfeaturessomedetailtobalancethecomposition,likethepictureshown.

Adoubleportrait–suchasaparentandchild–createsitsowndynamic.Allyouhavetodecideishowmuchofeachfigureyouchoosetoshow,andwhichpersontoputinthecentreofthecomposition.

Thefinalexampleisaportraitofthesitterandhisdog.Puttingpetsintoaportraitisalwaystricky,buttheansweristodrawtheanimalfirstandthentheowner.Beforeyoustartyouneedtodecidewhethertheanimalisamereadjunctorthecentrepiece.Therearemanywaystoapproachthedrawingofaportraitandthisstageof

considerationiscrucialtothefinalresult.

Thisexerciseentailsquiteabitofdrawingandyouwilllearnalotaboutyourmodel’sappearancebyspendingawholesessiondrawingandredrawinghimorherfromasmanydifferentanglesasyouthinkwouldbeuseful.

SKETCHESOFTHEHEADIchoseasmysittermyeldestdaughter,whohassatformeoften,likeallofmy

Ichoseasmysittermyeldestdaughter,whohassatformeoften,likeallofmyfamily.Notonlythat,sheisanaccomplishedartistherself,sosheknowstheproblemsofdrawingfromlife.Thissympathywithyourendeavoursisuseful,asmodelsdogetboredwithsittingstillfortoolong.

Iworkedmywayroundmysitter’sheadbydrawingherfirstfromthesideorprofileview,thenfromamorethree-quartersviewandfinallyfullface.Inowhadagoodideaastothephysiognomyofherface.

NextItookmoreaccountofthelighting,drawingherfull-faceandthree-quarterface,bothwithstronglightcastfromtheleft.

ThenItriedveryevenlightingthatreducedalltheshadowstotheminimum.

Herethelightilluminatesonlyonesideofherface,makingastrongshadowthatdividesthefaceinhalf.

SKETCHINGDIFFERENTPOSESNowyouneedtospendsometimedrawingthesitterfullorthree-quarterlengthinordertodecidehowmuchoftheposeyoumightwanttodraw.

FirstIdrewmydaughterstanding,withherarmdrapedacrossamantelpiece,

FirstIdrewmydaughterstanding,withherarmdrapedacrossamantelpiece,whichgavemeathree-quarterfigure.

NextItriedasideviewofherkneelingontherug,whichmadequiteanicecompactshape.

ThenIaskedhertositinabigeasychairwithherlegscrossed.Noticehowsheislookingoutofthepicture.

Idrewacoupleofposesofhersittingonalargesofa,onemoreorlessstraightontomyangleofviewandonewheresheleansoverontothearmrest.

Therefollowedtwomorestandingposes,onethereverseofthefirstwithherreflectionshowinginthemirror,andtheotherofherjustleaningonthewallwithherhandsinherpockets.

Twomorevariationsonseatedposescamenext.Noticehowallthesedrawingsaremuchlessdetailedthanthefacedrawings,becausehereIwasjustlookingforaposeandIwasnotworriedaboutwhetherthefacewasaccurate;thepositionwaseverything.

DRAWINGTHEFEATURESINDETAILOnceyouhavedecidedupontheposeyouneedtoturnyourattentiontothedetailsofthesitter’sface,takingeachofthefeaturesandmakingdetaileddrawingsofthem.

drawingsofthem.Istartedbydrawingjustoneeye.Thisisadifficultthingtodo,asthemodel

willfindyourconcentratedstarealittledaunting.However,itisalsoveryrevealingastohowcarefullyyouhaveobservedtheeye.Havingdrawnmydaughter’seyedirectlyfacingme,IthendrewitfromaslightanglesothatIgotasideviewofit.Ididthiswithbotheyes,thendrewthemasapairtoseehowtheylookedtogether,aswellasthespacebetweenthem.

NextImovedontothemouthanddrewittwoorthreetimes,exploringthefront,sideandthree-quarterview.

FollowingthatIdrewthenose,firstinprofile,thenfromthefrontandalsowiththeeyesandmouthtogetanideaofhowtheylookedinrelationtoeachother.

Asmymodelhadquitelonghairhidingherears,Ididnotdrawthelatterbutwentstraightontodrawingthehairfromseveralangles,oneofwhichwouldprobablyappearinthefinalportrait.

Inowhaddrawingsofthehead,theposeandallthefeatures,soIwaswellsetuptobeginmyportrait.

CHOOSEYOURCOMPOSITIONWithmydrawingsgatheredtogetherandmymodelrefreshedandreadytositformeagain,IfirsthadtochoosetheposeandthendrawitupinassimpleawayaspossiblebutwithalltheinformationIneededtoproceedtothefinishedportrait.Idecidedtoplaceheronalargesofa,legsstretchedoutandhandsinherlap,withherheadslightlyturnedtolookdirectlyatme.Thelightwasallderivedfromthelargewindowtotheleftandsohalfofherfacewasinsoftshadow.

Ithenspenttimedrawingherinsomedetail,butwithoutanyshading,tocreatemycartoon.ItriedtomakeitascorrectasIcould,butitdidn’tyetmatterifthedrawingwasnotquiteasIwanteditbecausethepurposeofthecartoonwastoinformmeastowhatIneededtodotomakethefinalpieceofworkthebestpossibleportraitthatIcouldmanage.Whenartistsintraditionalatelierswerepaintingalargecommission,theyoftendrewupthewholethingfull-sizeinanoutlinestatefromwhichtoproducetheirfinalpainting.

outlinestatefromwhichtoproducetheirfinalpainting.

1.FirstIdrewupaquicksketchthattoldmewhereeverythingwouldbeplaced.Thisalmostexactlyechoedtheshapeofmycartoon,whichIhadinfrontofme.

2.Then,stillusingmycartoonasaguide,Idrewupacarefuloutlinedrawingofthewholefigureandthebackgroundsettinginsomedetail.ThiswasthelaststageatwhichIcouldintroduceanychangesiftheywerenecessary.

3.NextIbegantoputinthemainareaoftoneevenly,usingthelightesttonethatwouldappearonthefinishedarticle.

4.IcouldnowbuildupallthedifferenttonesuntilIhadproducedaconvincingthree-dimensionalportraitthatlookedlikemysitter.Thismayhavestruckyouasquitealongprocess,butifyoutakeallthistroubletomakeyourownportraitsthechancesarethatnotonlywillthesitterbepleasedwiththeresult,sowillyou.

Drawingafigurecompositionisquiteamajortask,butifyougoaboutitinasystematicwayyouwillnotfindittoodifficult.Thefirstthingistodetermineyourformat–Idecidedthatminewouldeitherbeashortrectangleorasquareshape.

Asyoucansee,Ihadthreepossiblecompositionsinmind.Onehadamanlyingonthegrasswithagirlkneelingnexttohimandanothermanrunningtowardsthem.

Thesecondwasoftwomenandagirlinaroomtalkingorarguing.

Finally,Idecidedthatthisideaofsomeyoungpeopleplayingballonthebeachmightbethebestwayofdoingmyfigurecomposition.

IaskedsomepeopletoposeexactlyasIwantedandtookphotographsofthemsothatIcouldusetheirfiguresinmyfinaldrawing.IalsodrewupeachfigureseparatelytoensurethatIhadallthenecessaryinformation.

ThenIroughedoutthecompositionagain,onlythistimewithoneofthemeninaslightlydifferentpose,movingforwardinsteadofstandingwithhislegsanchoredtotheground.Thisoftenhappens–afterconsiderationoftheoverallshapeofthepicture,youfindthatitcouldbeimprovedbysomejudiciousalterations.

1.Withreferencetoallmyextrainformation,InowbeganamorecarefuldrawingofthebackgroundandtheoutlinesofthefiguresintheposesIhadchosen,correctinganymistakesatthisstage.

2.OncethepicturewasclearlydrawnupIbegantoputintonetoshowwherethesungaveshadowstothefigures.IkeptthetoneaslightaspossibleasIdidnotwanttoputinheavytonesuntilIwassurethatthelighttoneworkedasawhole.

3.Nowthedarkertonescouldgoin,butsparingly,otherwisethewholedrawingwouldgetabitheavyanddark.Toavoidoverdoingthem,Ikeptsteppingbackfromthedrawingtoseehowthetonalvaluesworked.Thelongcastshadowsonthesandhelptoanchorthefigurestothegroundandsuggestthatthesunissettingandthetimeislateafternoon.

Compositionally,Renoir’sBoatingPartyisamasterlygroupingoffiguresinasmallspace.Thescenelookssonaturalthattheeyeisalmostdeceivedintobelievingthatthewaythefiguresaregroupedisaccidental.Infact,itisaverytightlyorganizedpieceofwork.Noticehowthegroupsarelinkedwithinthecarefullydefinedsetting–bytheawning,thetableoffood,thebalcony–andhowonefigureineachgrouplinkswithanother,throughproximity,gestureorattitude.Let’slookatthevariousgroupsindetail.

GroupA:Intheleftforegroundisamanstanding,leaningagainstthebalconyrail.Sittingbyhimisagirltalkingtoherdogandinfrontofherisatableofbottles,plates,fruitandglasses.Itisobviouslytheendoflunchandpeoplearejustsittingaround,talking.

GroupB:Justbehindthesetwogroupingsareagirl,leaningonthebalcony,andamanandwoman,bothseated.

GroupC:Intherightforegroundisathreesomeofagirl,amansittingandamanstandingwhoisleaningoverthegirl,engagingherinconversation.

GroupD:Inthebackground,twomenaretalkingearnestly,andtotherightofthemcanbeseentheheadsandshouldersoftwomenandayoungwomaninconversation.

Inthecontextofportraits,‘group’meansanythingotherthanoneperson,andthegroupyouwillmostoftenbeaskedtodrawisjusttwopeople,usuallywithacloserelationshipwitheachother.

ThefirstexampleIshowhereisamotherwithherlittlegirlonherlap,whichcreatesanicetightcomposition,andaslongasthechildwillstaystillforlongenoughthere’snorealproblemwithsuchadrawing.Obviously,onceyou’vesketchedinthemainshapesofthetwofiguresyoucanthendrawthechildfirstasquicklyaspossible,andwhenheorshewantstomoveyoucanthenconcentrateonthemother.Theotherthingaboutthiscombinationoffiguresisthatyouonlyreallyhavetosatisfythemother;thechildusuallyispleasedwithanyrepresentationthatisevenslightlyhuman!

anyrepresentationthatisevenslightlyhuman!

Thesecondtypeofgroup,probablyloversoramarriedcouple,isabitmoretrickybecauseyouwillwantacloseconnectionbetweenthetwopeople,buttheymayfinditdifficulttositsocloseasinmyexampleforanylengthoftime.Entwiningfigurescanmakeagoodcomposition,butdependingonyourspeedofexecution,youmayfindthattheyfinddifficultyinholdingtheintimatepose.

Thenextgrouphasprogressedtothreepeople.Thefirsttrioistheobviousoneofacoupleandtheirchild.Thetwoadultssitnexttoeachotherandthechildisinthecentreofthecomposition,linkingthetwolargerfigures.

Thesecondtrio(above)istwobrothersandtheirsister,arrangedinamuchlessformalcompositionthanthoseshownsofar.Thisisnotusuallydifficultwithsiblingsunderacertainagebecauseofthesortofrelationshiptheytendtohavewitheachother.Theyprobablywillnotmindalessconventionalposebecausetheywilltreatitasasortofgame.

Thelastofthesegroups(left)isofthreefemalefriends,whoaredrawnasthoughinterruptedoutonajaunt.Posedagainstabackdropoftrees,theymighthavebeencaughtoncameraastheywereonadayoutinthecountry.Quiteoftenaphotographofthecompositionisagoodidea,supplementedwithcarefuldrawingsofeachpersonwhichyoucandoindividuallylateron.

HavingdecidedthatIwoulddrawmyyoungestdaughterandherfamilyinagroupcomposition,Ifirstmadeaquicksketchoftheminposition.Ialsotookphotographs,asthelittleboyandthebabyobviouslywerenotgoingtoposeforlong.Thisisabasicoutlineofshapesandproportions.

1.NextIdrewamorecarefullinedrawingusingmysketchesandphotographstogettheshapesandfeaturescorrect.Atthisstage,anyalterationscanstillbeeasilymade,butyouaretryingtoendupwithadefinitivedrawing.

2.Next,Iputinallthetoneandtexture.Thetextureoftheflowerysofathattheyaresittingonisimportantaswellasthemaintoneoftheclothingandfeatures.

3.Then,withmostofthedrawinginplace,itistimetobuildupthetoneandtextureanddefineeverythingforthefinalwork.Asyoucansee,therewasnostronglyangledlight,everythingbeingquitewell-litfrominfront.Thepatternonthesofaisimportantasitisanattractivesettingforthefiguresandhelpstoholdthecompositiontogether.Mostofthestrongertonesarebasedonthelocalcolouroftheclothesastherearenoverystrongshadows.Thefaceswerealldrawnseparately,whenthemodelscouldstaystillforawhile.

InthisinformalfamilygroupafterDameLauraKnight(1877–1970),theartistLamornaBirchstandsholdingontoatreetohelpsupportoneofhisyoungdaughters,tuckedunderhisarm.Hisotherdaughtersitsastrideanotherbranchofatreeoverintheright-handsideofthecomposition.Behindisariverandmoretrees.Itmusthavebeenquitedifficulttokeeptheseposesforlong,anditmaybethatDameLaurareliedonphotographicreference.

HereisaverycomplexfigurecompositionafterHenrideToulouse-Lautrec(1864–1901)thatincludesmanyofthehabituésoftheMoulinRougeinParisin1892.Thelargebalconyedgewhichcutsacrossthelowerleft-handcornergivesamovementthroughthepicture.Thenyouseeagroupofpeoplearoundwhatisprobablyasmalltable,whichisnotvisible.Intheforegroundisayoungwomanlitfrombelow,whileinthebackgroundvariouspeoplestandaroundinthelargerspace.

Index

anatomicalterminology11-13arms

female93lower214-17masterartists94-5,226-31movement210-13,218-19muscles88-91,206-9,214-17skeleton86-7,206-9upper206-11

back184-91Barocci,Federico94bending278-81bodyseefullfigurebodysurface22-7bones8,12seealsoskeletonBoucher,François231Boulogne,Louisde264Bronzino,Agnolo83Carolsfeld,JuliusSchnorrvon124Carracci,Annibale261cartilage10children30-1,34climbing284-7clothing320-3Corot,Camille42Coypel,Noel-Nicholas45dancing282-3Delacroix,Eugène231Domenichino269ears161eyes158-9,334face

facedetails158-61expressions146-57

fasciae10fat10,36feet

female131,132male130,133masterartists134-5,260-9muscles128-9,250-2skeleton126-7surfaceviews253

femalearms93bodysurface23,25,27fatdistribution36feet131,132hands93,104-5legs118,120-1,254-5pelvis35proportions29skeleton33skull34torso78-9,179-81,188,190-1

framing326-7Freud,Lucian59,106,107fullfigure

balanceandpose272-5bendingandstretching278-81bodysurface22-7climbing284-7dancingandposing282-3leaping276-7masterartists40-7,302-5muscles19-21perspective38-9practicedrawing48-9proportions28-9

skeleton16-18sports288-301

Giorgione46glutealmuscles240-1Gordon,Louise143,144-5,171,186-7Gossaert,Jan197Goya,Francisco47Greiner,Otto302-3groupportraits344-51hair335hands

female93,104-5male92,102-3masterartists106-7movement221-5muscles88-91,100-1,214-17,220practicedrawing108-9skeleton86-7,96-9,220

headdifferentangles138-42masterartists59-61,143-5muscles56-8practicedrawing62-3skull34,52-4,66-8

hips237-9Ingres,JeanAuguste41,106,124,304-5Jacobs,TedSeth95,135joints10-11,244-5knee-joints244-5Knight,DameLaura350leaping276-7legs

female118,120-1,254-5glutealmuscles240-1lower246-9male119,120-1,256-9masterartists122-5,260-7

muscles114-17,237,246-9skeleton112-13,236-7upper236-7

LeonardodaVinci232lifedrawing306-17ligaments10male

arms92bodysurface22,24,26feet130,133hands92,102-3legs119,120-1,256-9pelvis35proportions28skeleton32skull34torso76-7,178,180,189

Manet,Edouard47Michelangelo39,40,60,82,122,192,198,227,262,266,268Mignard,Pierre199Mola,PierFrancesco226mouth160,334musclesarms88-91,206-9,214-17

back184-5feet128-9,250-2fullfigure19-21gluteal240-1hands88-91,100-1,214-17,220head56-8hips238-9legs114-17,237,246-9neck57,71-5,163-5propertiesof9terminologyfor13thighs238-9,242-3torso71-5,170-1trunk71-5

Natoire,Charles-Joseph228,260neck

muscles57,71-5,163-5skeleton162

nose161,335Orpen,William61Passarotti,Bartolommeo200pelvis35,70perspective38-9Peters,JohannAntonde202Piombo,Sebastianodel194Pontormo,Jacopoda267portraits

composition336-43framing326-7group344-51posing331-3sketchesfor328-30stepsin324-5

posing282-3,331-3proportions28-31Prud’hon,PierrePaul196,226Raphael95,122,193,195,229rectusabdominis172-3Renoir,Pierre-Auguste344-5ribcage174-5Rubens,PeterPaul60,125,143,203,230,233,263,269Salgado,Antonio226Sanzio,Raphael94Sheppard,Joseph134shoulders186-7,206-9Sickert,Walter81Signorelli,Luca44skeleton

arms86-7,206-9feet126-7female33

fullfigure16-18hands86-7,96-9,220legs112-13,236-7male32neck162torso66-70,168-9

skin10,37skull34,52-4,66-8sports288-301stretching278-81Stuck,Franzvon201tendons9-10thighs238-9,242-3Tiepolo,GiovanniBattista80Titian46,107torso

female78-9,179,181,188,190-1male76-7,178,180,189masterartists80-3,192-203moving176-81muscles71-5,170-1rectusabdominis172-3ribcage174skeleton66-70,168-9

Toulouse-Lautrec,Henride351trunk71-5,80-3Velasquez,Diego48-9vertebralcolumn69seealsospineVolterra,DanieleRicciarellida229Watteau,Jean-Antoine228

Thiseditionpublishedin2011byArcturusPublishingLimited26/27BickelsYard,151–153BermondseyStreet,LondonSE13HACopyright©2011ArcturusPublishingLimited/BarringtonBarberAllrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutwrittenpermissioninaccordancewiththeprovisionsoftheCopyrightAct1956(asamended).Anypersonorpersonswhodoanyunauthorisedactinrelationtothispublicationmaybeliabletocriminalprosecutionandcivilclaimsfordamages.

MobiISBN:978-1-78828-322-9AD001884EN

Specialthankstothelivingartistswhoseworkisreproducedinthisbook:LouiseGordon,LucianFreud,TedSethJacobsandJosephSheppard.