cultural activism: the final legacy of h. n. werkman

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KentL.BoyerTheComfortoftheHasidicLegends:TheFinalLegacyofH.N.WerkmanHUHI6335 ItisdifficulttoknowhowtobeginwritingabouttheillustratedportfoliosofBuber’s

ChassidischeLegendenproducedbyDutchprinterH.N.Werkmanintheearly1940s.The

difficultyliesinthematteroflocatingtheemphaticentrypointintotheartwork:whichof

thefollowingquestionsismostlikelytoleadustotheheartofthestory?

• Isthisworkprimarilytheculminationofacareerofinnovationinthevisual

arts–particularlyinprintmaking?

• IstheworkprimarilyimportanttoJudaica–bothliteratureandart–as

examplesofartoftheHolocaust?

• Oristhecentralelementofthestorytheactofanon-Jewreachingouttohis

embattledJewishneighborsonlytolosehisownlife?

Thesearethreeoftheseveralelementsonemustfullyexplorewhenwritingaboutthe

work,whichhasimportanceinseveralcategories–aphenomenalcapstonetoaunique

career,aHolocauststorythatcelebratesthehumanspirit,andatragedyoftheworstkind.

H.N.Werkman’sabsolutelyuniquetechnicalprintmakingprocesswasdevelopedatthe

exacttimeotherEuropeanartists’workalsoshowsasimilarinterestincolor,intheuseof

textinvisualart,andintheabstractionofthehumanform.Thesesimilaritiesare

remarkableinlightofthefactthatWerkmanwasnotatrainedartist–hewasaprinter–an

artisan;additionallyherarelylefthisrelativelyisolatedtownofGroningeninthe

Netherlands,andthereforehadverylimitedandselectiveexposuretomodernistart.Itis

surprising,then,thathisworkmirrorsthatofthetypologyartoftheBauhaus,theMerz

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collagesandotherKurtSchwitterswork,theCubistinterestinaddingtexttopaintingsseen

inBraque,Picasso,andGris,and,intheareaoffigurativeabstraction,bothmirrors

Matisse’searlyfigurativeabstractionsandprefigureshislatercut-outs.Infact,Werkman’s

entireartisticpointofviewisonethatleadsthewayformanylaterartists.However,this

isn’ttheonlyimportantaspectofthework.Theworkiscertainlysignificanttothearchive

ofwhatisknownasHolocaustart–thatis,art(andpoetryandmusic)producedin

responseto(orinspiteof)theatrocitiesofNaziGermanyandSovietRussiainWorldWar

II.ThetextintheWerkmanportfolioscomesMartinBuber’sHasidiclegendsbooks–

storiesthathehadcompiledandtranslatedintoGermansome40yearsearlier-forthis

verypurpose:toenhanceasenseofancestryandcommunity–onemightevensayidentity

–forGermanJews.BycompilingthesefragmentaryYiddishtales,whichhad,untilthe

eighteenthcentury,reliedexclusivelyuponanoral(andaural)tradition,Buber,without

foreknowledge,insuredthatthestorieswouldbeavailabletoHolocaust-eraJewsasa

reminderofthecommonalityandcommunityoftheDiaspora.Finally,inthestoryofthe

creationofWerkman’sportfoliosweencounteranon-Jewreachingouttoadwindling,

hiding,andterrorizedJewishcommunityinNazi-occupiedHollandinanattempttoprovide

somesmallgiftofcomfortandbeautyintheformofculturalartandtext.Thestoryismade

evenmorepiercing,then,thatlessthanthirtydaysbeforetheendoftheNazioccupationof

theNetherlands,WerkmanwasarrestedforsympathizingwithJews,placedina

concentrationcamp,andeventuallymurderedbecauseofthework.Evenmore

unbelievable–onthatday,Werkmanwasmurderedbecauseoneofhisfellowinmates

escapedafiringsquadandhewaschosenasthereplacementprisonertobeexecuted.The

campwasliberatedtwodayslaterbyCanadiantroops.

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Werkman’soeuvreislittleknownintheUnitedStates,dueinlargeparttoscant

scholarshiponhimavailableinanylanguagebutDutch.Intheseventyyearssincehis

death,onlyoncehashisworkhadasoloexhibitiontheUnitedStates–in1951atthe

BrooklynMuseum.1Hiswork,however,isshowninEuropeanmuseumswithsome

regularity,withlargecollectionsinboththeStedelijkMuseuminAmsterdamandthe

GronigerMuseuminGroningen.ThispaperwilllookbrieflyatWerkman’sbiography,the

significanceofBuber’sHasidiclegendsbooksoncontemporaneousEuropeanJewry,and

howWerkmancametocreatethisportfoliooftwentyworksasoneofhislastcreative

efforts.

Werkman’scontemporaryreputationinEuropeisdueprimarilytothelegacyof

friendshipofoneman–thefuturemuseumdirectoroftheStedelijkinAmsterdam,W.J.H.

Sandberg,whodiscoveredWerkman’sprintsinthelate1930sandworkedtopreserve,

catalog,exhibit,andpromotehisworkafterWerkman’sdeath.Welloverhalfoftheartist’s

oeuvrewasdestroyedin1945,aportionbyNazisatthetimeofhisarrest,andmoreby

AlliedbombersastheyliberatedthecityandblewupthebuildingwheretheNaziswere

storingtheir“evidence”againsttheartist.Luckily,SandbergbecametheDirectorofthe

StedelijkMuseumshortlyafterthewar,placinghiminapositiontobecomethekeeperof

theWerkmanartandstory.Intheearly1960s,afoundationwasestablishedtosupport

thecreationofacatalograisonneofWerkman’soeuvreandtorepresenttheartist’swidow

inloanstovariousmuseumsforexhibition.

HendrikNicolaasWerkmanwasborninasmalltownnearGroningen,Holland,in

1882.HisfatherdiedwhenHendrikwasyoung,leavingthefamilypoorandwithvery1Subsequently,in1959,afewpiecesofhisworktraveledtoseveralU.S.museumsinagroupexhibitionfromtheStedelijkMuseuminAmsterdam.

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limitedopportunities.Werkmanwasapprenticedtoaprintmakerasaboyandexceptfora

fewyearsworkingasanewspaperreporter,printingwasbothhislifelongcareerandhis

entryintotheartworld.Werkmanmetwithlifedifficultiesseveraltimes,beginningwith

thedeathofhisfirstwifewhenhisthreechildrenwereveryyoung.Hiswife’sfamilyhad

helpedhimfinanciallytoestablishasuccessfulprintingbusiness,which,earlyinthe

WeimarRepublic,employeduptothirtypeoplewithathrivingbusiness.However,when

heremarried,hisdeceasedwife’sfamilyrecalledtheirfinancialsupport,forcinghimtolay

offallofhisstaffexceptone,andsellmuchofhisequipment.Subsequently,duringthe

Weimardepression,Werkmanlostalltherestofhisequipmentexceptfora125-yearold

Frenchhand-press(Fig.3).Withthisonepresshewasabletoeekoutaliving,butmore

importantly,hedevelopedatechniqueformakingartthatwassolelyhisown.

Despitehismisfortunes,Werkmanappearstohavebeenanoptimisticpersonand

oneofunusuallystrongcharacter.NashwritesinhisbookreviewofMuller’sWerkman

biography:

Writingnearlytwentyyearslaterofthisturning-pointofhislife,Werkmantolda

friend,“lookingatitfromaconventionalpointofview,Ideclinedasrapidlyina

coupleofyearsasIhadprogressedinten.Butlikeawetpoodle,Ishookoff

everythingwhichwashinderingmeandthenstoodforawhilealmostalone.

Frankly,sometimesIdidn’tevenunderstandmyself.ButIalwaysthought,‘What

youlosenowisreallysomethingwon.’Inevermournedseeminglosses.Butthe

situationwasdismalindeed;nowonderthatthefirstprintswhichImadeatthat

timeweredarkandgloomy...“(445)

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Groningen,whereWerkmanlivedasanadult,isanancientcityintheremote

northeastcorneroftheNetherlands.2DuringWerkman’slifetime,itwasmorethanaday’s

travelfromAmsterdamunlessyouhadacar(Simoni70).Werkmanoftenfeltcut-offfrom

otherartistsandinnovatorsbecauseofthisdistance.Inanattempttoreachouttoother

artists,hebegantoproduceaprintednewslettercalledTheNextCallintheearly1920s,in

whichheprintedpoetryandexamplesofmodernisttypologygraphicshewasworkingon.3

HesentcopiesthesesmallrunstofellowEuropeanavant-gardenewsletterpublishers,who

oftenreturnedacopyoftheirpublication.4Nashsays:

Intheautumnof1923hereachedouttootherswiththefirstissueofanoccasional

journal,TheNextCall,containingmanifestos,hisownfreeverse,andproclamations

offreedomforart.Itwasenlivenedfurtherbyhisprintsandwasthemeansof

puttinghimintouchwithlike-mindedfreethinkers...(445)

Inthisway,Werkmangotsomenewsofwhatothermodernartistsweredoing,which

partiallymadeupforhisremotelivingsituation.Isolationisadistinctivepatternin

Werkman’slife,probablycontributingtohisempathicunderstandingoftheisolationfeltby

DutchJewryduringtheNazioccupationandultimatelyledtohimdevotingthelastthree

yearsofhislifetohisChassidischeLegendenproject.

Afterthedownsizingofhisbusiness,Werkman,hisfamily,andhisoneemployee

movedintotheatticofawarehouse,wherehebegantoexperimentwithanewmethodof

producingart.Inatypicalfashion,heconsideredthecollapseofhisbusinessan

opportunitytohavethetimetocreateart.Simonewrites,“Thelesseningofhisbusiness2NashcallsGroningen“theNetherlandishVermontinspirit”(445).3TheNextCallrantonineissuesbetween1923and1927.4ThereisevidencethathecorrespondedwithbothWassilyKandinskyandJeanArpasaresultofthesemailings.Hiscollectionofreturnedavant-gardenewsletterswasmostlydestroyedattheendofhislife.

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activitiesandthestringenciesimposedonhisinhisprivatelifebroughtaboutwhathe

himselfdescribedasaliberationofthespiritandaburstofcreativity”(71,72).

Hecalledtheresultingprints,druksels,whichisaDutchworduntranslatableintoEnglish.

Thedrukselswereprintsproducedbyrepeatedimpressions5–oneforeachcolororobject

–whichWerkmanappliedeitherbymeansofthehandpresswithtype,imageblocks,orby

meansofabrayer–aprintmaker’s“roller”usuallyusedtodistributeprintmaker’sinkonto

typeinpreparationforprinting.6Inadditiontorollinginkontype,Werkmanalsorolled

theinkdirectlyontopaper,usingvariousthicknessesofinktocreatelayeredcolor,and

cardboard“masks”toprintcutoutobjectsortoresisttheink(Fig.16).Healso

experimentedwithutilizingjustthesmallcircularedgeofthebrayertorollonhispaper,

resultinginthickorthinlinesofink.Becauseoftherepetitiveapplicationsofink,each

druksel(althoughnumberedineditionslikeotherprinttechniques)isvirtuallyunique.

Thesetechniques,borneofnecessityforhim,gaveWerkmananabsolutelyuniquemethod

ofcreatingart.

SandbergfirstvisitedWerkmanfromAmsterdamin1938afterseeingsomeofhis

druksels.Simonitellsthestory:

BeforethelastwarabusinessvisitorfromAmsterdamwithouttheuseofacarto

takehimacrosstheAfsluitdijk[a32kilometercausewaycompletedin1933]could

nothopetomakethereturntripinasingleday.Luckilythisprospectdidnotdeter

W.J.H.Sandberg,thenkeeper,laterdirectoroftheMunicipalMuseumof

5Simoniestimatesthemostcomplexdrukselsutilizeperhapsfiftydifferentimpressions–eachseparatelyappliedeitherbyhandorbymeansofhispress,theoil-basedinkthenallowedtodry,followedbyanotherandanothercycle.6Togivethereaderanaccuratepictureofprinter’sink–itisnotthethintranslucentinkweareusedtoseeinginsmallbottles.Rather,printer’sinkisanoil-basedthick,viscous,andopaqueinkabouttheconsistencyofverystiffcakeicingandissoldtoprintersincanslikehousepaint.

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Amsterdam,7fromundertakingthejourneyin1938forthesolepurposeofvisiting

HendrikNicolaasWerkman.Hereturnedfullofadmirationandcarryingwithhim

thefirstofmanyacquisitionswhichweretogivetheStedelijkMuseumits

unequalledWerkmancollection.(70)

Soimpressedwithwhathesawonthatvisit,SandbergheldWerkman’sfirstone-manshow

in1939inAmsterdam.WerkmanundertookthejourneyfromGroningentobethere.He

subsequentlytraveledtwomoretimestoAmsterdam:

foranexhibitionattheStedelijkMuseumcalled“TheIllustratedPage”inwhich

someofhisownworkwasshowninApril1941;andagaininMayofthatyearfora

privatevisittoSandbergwhothentookhimtoCastricum[aDutchtownnorthof

Amsterdam]wherethemuseum’schieftreasuresofmodernarthadbeenstoredfor

safety[fromtheNazis.](Simoni72)

TheonlyothertimeWerkmanlefthishomewasfora1929visittoFrancewithafellow

GroningenartisttoseemodernartinEssen,Cologne,andParis(Simoni72).

Laterinthispaper,Iwillpickupthebiographicalthreadwiththestoryof

Werkman’screationofhismostsignificantworkattheendofhislife.However,nowI’d

liketowriteaboutMartinBuber’sHasidiclegendsbooksanduncoverhowthesebooks

wereviewedandusedbycontemporaryGermanJews.Intheearlyyearsofthetwentieth

century,youngMartinBuberwasheavilyinterestedinthephilosophicalissuesfacing

GermanJewrysomeonehundredyearsaftertheEnlightenment.TheeffortsofJewsto

assimilateandtoachieveaformofcivilequalitywiththeirGermanChristianneighborshad

resultedinaJewrythatwasnotonlyunfulfilledintheirquestforequality,butalsonotvery

7TheMunicipalMuseumofAmsterdamisnowknownastheStedelijkMuseum.

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certainorproudoftheirJewishnesseither.Concerned,Buberbeganapersonal

investigationofhisJewishancestryandhecameuponabodyofliteraturebyandabout

HasidicJewry.Buber,whowouldcometospendagreatamountofhiscareercompiling,

translating,andwritingthesestoriesfirstforGermanJewsandthenforallJews,initially

publishedtwobooksoflegends,TalesofRabbiNahman(1906),andTheLegendoftheBaal

Shem(1907).ThesebookswerefollowedbyTheHiddenLight(1924),muchlaterbyTales

oftheHasidim,Volumes1and2(1947),andposthumously,TalesofHasidism:TheLater

Masters(1970),GogandMagog(1984).DanwritesaboutBuber’searlyinterestin

compilingthetales:

BuberstartedhisliterarycareerwithanadaptationintoGermanofthestoriesof

RabbiNachmanandtheBesht,andlater,theGreatMagid,RabbiDovBerof

Mezeritch.HismostinfluentialworkisOrha'ganuz(TheHiddenLight),acollection

offables,stories,andepigramsdrawnfrommanyHasidicworks.Thisgreat

enterprisewasintegratedwithascholarlythesis,whichinsistedthatthepopular

narrativesandepigramsrepresentedtheessenceofthemessageoftheHasidic

movementandthattheyshouldbereadliketheJapanesekoansofZenBuddhism...

Mostofthe“Hasidic”narrativeliteraturepublishedbeforeWorldWarIwaswritten

notfortheHasidimproperbutforJewswhodistancedthemselvesfromtraditional

societyandbegantobeintegratedinmodernsocietyinthecitiesofCentraland

EasternEurope.Experiencingnostalgiafortheworldinwhichtheygrewup,these

urbanJewsboughtandreadstoriesthatglorifiedtheimageofthegreatHasidic

leadersandtheirwonderfuldeeds.Nostalgia,ratherthanworship,isthemajor

motiveforconsumingthisliterarygenre.Religiousandethicalteachingsholda

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marginalplaceinthesevolumes.Inmanycases,theeditorsincludedtraditional,

pre-HasidicJewishstoriesandfolktales,addinganopeningsentencestatingthat

thisorthatrabbiusedtotellthisstoryontheeveofacertainholiday,thus

transformingitintoa“Hasidic”story.(N.p.)

WhatDandoesn’tmentionisthatBuberwrotethesestories,ratherthanforintellectual

Jews,forthecommonJew.Lutzdescribesthecontemporaneousculturalimportanceofthe

Tales:

Buber’stwoearlyHasidicbooks,DieGeschichtendesRabbiNachman(1906)

andDieLegendedesBaalschem(1908)areoftenseenasanintegralpartofthespurt

ofcreativeactivityinJewishculturearoundthistime.Theyseemedtobringthe

exoticworldofEastEuropeanJewrydirectlyintocontemporarycurrentsofGerman

culture.(9)

PotokspeakstoBuber’smotivationofauthorshipintheintroductiontoarecentEnglish

versionofTalesoftheHasidim:

Grindingpoverty,endlesssuffering—andlearningastheonlyavenuetoGod.An

idealmixforrevolution.Conjurethebitternessandfrustrationfeltbyordinary

unlearnedJewsinacultureentirelyfocusedonlearning.Iflearningistheexclusive

pathtoGod,howdoesonecometoGodwhenoneisashoemaker,awagondriver,a

watercarrier;whenonemustworkdayandnightandhaslittletimeforstudy?

TheanswercamefromtheBaalShemTov:learningisnottheonlywaytoGod.One

canalsoapproachGodthroughalifeoffervorandexaltation,experienceforthe

sakeofheaven;throughprayerandjoythattranscendeverydayexistenceand

transformhumansufferingbyimbuingalloflifewithhope,purpose,sanctity,and

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therebyraisingearthtoheaven,restoringtheunityofcreation,andredeemingthe

world.(ix,x)

WhenBuberbeganinvestigatingtheHasidictales,whathefoundwasunformedmaterials–

fragmentsoftales,tales,briefnotes,andsometimesthelengthynotesofarabbithatadded

littleornothingtothenarrative.Buberdescribedhisworkprocess(quotedinHaCohen)as

aneffortto:

‘supplythemissinglinksinthenarrative[...]tobeginbygivinguptheavailable

form(orratherformlessness)ofthenoteswiththeirmeagrenessorexcessivedetail,

theirobscuritiesanddigressions,toreconstructtheeventsinquestionwiththe

utmostaccuracy[...],andtorelatethemascoherentlyasIcouldinaformsuitedto

thesubjectmatter.’Buberstressed,however,thathe‘considereditneither

permissiblenordesirabletoexpandthetalesortorenderthemmorecolourful

anddiverse.’(2)

Muchlaterinlife,BuberrespondedtocriticismofhiseffortsbyGershomScholemand

otherHasidicscholarswhofeltthatBuberhadbastardizedHasidisminordertobringitto

theDiasporabycreatinghisownversionofit.Scholem’scriticism,publishedin

Commentarymagazinein1961,8however,startsfirstwithpraise:

...Buber,althoughakeenstudentofHasidicliterature,doesnotwriteasascholar

citingchapterandverseforhiscontentions.Hecombinesfactsandquotationsas

suitshispurpose,whichistopresentHasidismasaspiritualphenomenonandnot

asahistoricalone.

Buberstartedasanenthusiasticadmirerorevenfollowerofmystical

8Sufrin,writingaboutthisarticle,notesthatScholemcallsBuber’swork“neo-Hasidism”(131).

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religion,anditwashisdiscoveryofthemysticalcoreoflivingJudaismintheHasidic

movementthatstruckhimmostforcefullywhenhefirstcameintocontactwithits

literatureandtradition.(N.p.)

Buberagreedthathistranslationprocesswas“toofree”andthathehadfilledinblanksin

thelegendswiththeintentionofedifyingGermanJewryratherthandefiningthenarrow

Hasidicsect.InanattempttoreachthemassesofJewsratherthanscholarsandrabbis,

Bubereffectivelyreducedthetalestoananecdotefollowedbyamorallesson.Beyondthe

factthatBuberhadn’tbeenoverlyacademicinhistranslations,Scholemandothers

objectedintwootherwaystotheBubertranslations:first,thatBubermakesnomentionof

thedistinctionbetweensecularversuspracticingJewsinhisstories,thuseffectively

equatingallJewrywithreligiousJews–fromwhomcametheKaballahists.Second,Buber

wascriticizedthat,bymakingthestoriesavailabletothecommonJew–theunlearned–he

wasunderminingreligiousJewry’shonorandrespectforscholarlyactivity–i.e.the

studyingtheTorah.Despitethecriticism,manyscholars,includingHaCohenbelievemore

goodthanharmwasdonebyBuber’stranslations.HaCohenwrites,“Buberinfact

identifieswiththerabbitotheextentofimitatinghisdeed:heliftsupasparkofliterary

acceptablenarrativefromtheHasidiclegend,thusmakingitaccessibletomodernreaders

inmodernGermanyandbeyond”(11).

LutzgetsclosertohowBuber’sbookswerereceivedbythecommonJewwhenshe

writes:

Buber’sHasidicbooksincorporatetranslations-or,inthiscase,‘retellings’–from

HebrewandYiddishbut,beyondthat,theyalsoappropriatethesourcematerials

andinfusethefinalliteraryproductwithacertainattitudeandspiritwhichis

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strivingfortherenewedlifeoftheJewishpeople.(10)

Indeed,inthe1930s,astheNazi’sintentionsvis-à-vistheJewswereunveiledyearbyyear,

onewondersiftheJewsforwhomthebookswereintendedwere,infact,comfortedor

encouragedbytheretellingofthesestories.Lutz’dissertationinvestigatestheseideasin

lightofBuber’searlyandcontinuinginterestinZionism:

Buber’sretellingsinthesetwoearlybooksrevealastruggleforanewJewishself

understandingwhichisdrivenbyabasicexperienceofalienationandtheyearning

foranauthenticsocialdimension.HisappropriationofHasidismisguidedbyadrive

tomeldanacuteawarenessoftheindividual’spsychicisolationwithanempathic

embraceofthecollectivesufferingofthehistoricexilicsituationoftheJewish

people.ByilluminatingthebooksinlightofBuber’sculturalZionistthought,Iseek

torevealhowhisappropriationofHasidismisguidedbyadespairingandalmost

nihilisticnotionofexilewhichremainsaconstantundercurrentinthisearlyperiod.

(11)

Mendes-FlohralsowritesaboutthewaysJewsreceived,andcontinuedtoreceivethe

legendsinlightoftheHolocaustanditsaftermath,byofferingastoryaboutayoung

novelistNormanMailerreadingtheminthe1950s:

AnimpressivearrayoferstwhileestrangedJewshavediscoveredinBuber'stalesof

theHasidicsagesadimensionofJudaismwithwhichtheycouldproudlyidentify.

TheAmericanwriter,NormanMailernotedthatwhenhereadTheTalesofthe

Hasidim,"itwaslikeanorphandiscoveringthatinfacthehadabeautifulmother."

Mailer'sepiphanyoccurredin1955whilehewasridinginaBrooklynsubway.Close

tofiftyyearsearlierinBerlinWaltherRathenauwassoinspiredbyBuber'sDie

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LegendedesBaalschemthatheresolvedtolearnHebrewinordertobeabletoread

thewisdomofthezaddikimintheoriginal...Mailer'sconfessionismosttellingin

thisregard:TheTalesoftheHasidim,hewrites:“...werethefirstbitsofJewish

devotionalproseIreadwhichwerenotdeadeningforme.Outofthecaveofhistory

cameathinfilamentofthepast,thefirsttowhichIpaidattention.Today[after

havingreadthetales],onedoesnotfeelnecessarilymoreaJew....ButIhaveadebt

toBuber.IhaveafondnessfortheHasidim....TheTalesoftheHasidimdidnotmake

mefeellikeaJew,somuchastheymademerealizewhatkindofJewIwouldor

mighthavebeentwohundredyearsago.Iwouldnever,nonever,havebeena

memberoftheJewishEstablishment.ButsomebrighttroublemakingyoungReb

withawildbeard,anodiumforceremony,anoseforthepsychicepee,anda

determinedtasteforthedramaticinwords,inwritings,inacts,inthelifeof

dialogue-thatwasnotaltogetherimpossible.ForthefirsttimeinyearsIcouldquit

seeingmyselfasaprimecreation,someprizemysterydroppedonearthvoid

ofantecedents...“(113,114)

ThisstoryisapocryphalforunderstandingthewayinwhichWerkmansawBuber’slegends

beingreadbyDutchJewryinthemidstoftheNazioccupation.Hisunderstandingofwhat

thelegendsmeanttoJewsiswhatleadhimtowanttoproducethetwoportfoliosof

illustrationsandtext.EvenScholem,despitecriticizingBuberforthewayhewrotethe

tales,admitsintheCommentaryarticlethat,“themeritsofBuber’spresentationofHasidic

sayingsandlegendsareverygreatindeedandwilltoalargeextentstandthetestoftime”

(N.p.).

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BeforeIfinallywriteaboutWerkman’sLegendsartwork,Iwilllookbrieflyatother

artistswhofoundasimilarlanguagefortheirworkataboutthesametime.Toreview,

Werkman’scontributionsincludedtheuseoffullysaturatedcolor,typeandtextemployed

asvisualiconography,abstractionofthesortthatremovesdetailbutmaintainsvisual

recognitionofobjects,andflatteningofperspectiveinhiswork.Hisdrukselsfeatured

uniquematerialsandtechniquesfortheircreation–uniqueevenamongprintmakers.

ThereisnowaytoknowwhatspecificworksWerkmansawduringhis1929triptoFrance,

duringhisthreetripstoAmsterdam,orintheavant-gardenewslettershecollectedfrom

otherpublishers.Mypurpose,then,formakingthesecomparisonsissimplytonotethat

otherartistshadcometosimilarvocabularicandiconographicconclusionsasWerkman

duringthetimeweknowhewasworkinginrelativeseclusionfromotherartists.

SaturatedcolorandarbitrarycolorwasahallmarkofFauvismandSyntheticCubism

inFranceinthefirst15yearsofthenewcentury.Elsewhere,DieBruckeinDresden,Der

BlaueReiterinMunich,andcertainlyExpressionisminGermanyalsoutilizedthissaturated

palette.It’slikelyWerkmanknewabouttheseschoolsduetotheirubiquityandpopularity.

Further,thereisspeculationthathenamedhissonVincentoutoffondnessforVincentVan

Gogh’scolorfulpaintings.

Theuseoftextasvisualiconography,theartisticuseoftypology,andtheuseoftext

inhighartwasinitsinfancywhenWerkmanwasdevelopinghistechniques.InRussia,

Constructivismhadreacheditsheightandsometimesfeaturedtextinadditiontoshapes.In

Germany,KurtSchwitters,whowasalignedwiththeDadamovement,begantoproducehis

Merzcollagesusingrefusepaperasmaterials.Whilehisobjectivewastoshowthat“art”

couldbemadefromgarbage(atrulyrevolutionaryandprescientidea),Schwitterschoice

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ofmaterialsresultedintypeandtextbecomingacentralpartoftheimage.Adecade

earlier,Picasso,Braque,andGrishadinfusedboththeiranalyticalcubistandtheir

syntheticcubistworkswithpaintedrepresentationsofnewspapersandothertextual

imagery,apracticethatcontinuedforPicassoformanyyears.Theirturnfromanalyticto

syntheticcubismin1912wasalsoaturntowardhighlysaturatedcoloraswell.It’squite

possiblethatWerkmanwasawareofsomeoftheseworks–surelyhewouldhaveseen

cubistworkduringhistriptoParisin1929.PerhapstheclosestanaloguetoWerkman’s

earlydrukselswasthetypographicartcreatedattheBauhausschoolinitsWeimarperiod

byHerbertBayerandothers.ThetoolsthatWerkmanhadavailabletohimresultedinhis

workbeingcharacterizedbyaslightlymorespontaneousandlesspolishedfinalimage

thanthatoftheBauhausartists–however,certainlynolesscolorful,fresh,andwell-

executed.

Finally,itisimpossibletolookatWerkman’ssilhouettedfigurativeprintswithout

seeinganabstractionpracticesimilartoMatisse.Matissehadbeeninvolvedinthepractice

ofabstractingthefigureformostofhiscareer,asevidencedin“TheDance”of1909(Fig.

11).Here,thedancingfiguresarestylizedtobecomelittlemorethanlyricalshapes–still

readingasfigures,butwithouttheirindividualcharacteristicsorcorrectproportions.In

“BlueNude”of1912(Fig.17),thefigurebecomesaflatabstractionusingthewhiteofthe

papertocreateline.Muchlaterinlife,Matisse-bythepost-warperiodincreasinglyinfirm

-unabletostandorpaint,beganapracticeofcuttingpaintedpapersilhouettesandhaving

theshapespinnedtolargesheetsofpaperonthewallbyassistants(Fig.18).Theresulting

artworkismemorable–simple,colorful,fluid,andexpressive.Asimilarmusicalquality

andchromaticityofcolorisseeninWerkman’sprintsoftheHasidiclegends.

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Whatistobemadeofthesecomparisons?Justthis–workinginvirtualisolation

fromotherartists,Werkmandevelopedaprinter’stoolsandskillsintoatypeandstyleof

workthat,whileabsolutelyunique,comestosomeofthesameartisticconclusionsabout

iconographyandvocabularyassomeofthegreatartistsoftheperiod.Notonlydoeshis

workspeaktotheotherartists’work,butalsoitwouldholditsowninexhibitionwith

someofthemostenduringartistsoftheperiod.Werkman’sbodyofwork–eventhe

fractionthatremains,isinaword,staggering.

InMay1940,whenWerkmanwasfifty-eightyearsold,theNetherlandswasinvaded

byNaziGermany.FivedaysaftertheinvasionandthebombingofRotterdam,theDutch

surrendered.TheNetherlandshadhopedtostayneutralinHitler’swarastheyhadduring

theFirstWorldWar–andhadbeenpromisednonaggressionbyHitler.Forthenon-Jewish

population,theNazioccupationcausedhardshipandsuffering,shortagesanda

militarizationoftheirquietlives.QueenWilhelminafledintoexileinBritainandtheDutch

civilianadministrationwassubsumedbyacivilGermanadministration.TheDutchpeople,

however,werelargelyleftalonebytheNazis,atleastatfirst.Wolffexplains:

HitlerandhisassociatesdidnotwanttoalienatetheDutchpeople-apeoplethey

consideredtobeof"superior"Germanicbreeding.AsaresultoftheDutchreligious

stratification,theDutchpeoplecouldbecertifiedasalmost100percentAryan.

Hitler'sultimategoalwastomaketheNetherlandsapartofGermanyfollowingthe

war.ThroughannexationoftheNetherlands,Hitlerhopedtofurtherinfusethenew

ReichwiththeAryanideal.Withthisgoalinmind,thetransitiontoNaziruleinthe

Netherlandswaslessabruptanddramatic.(N.p.)

17

FortheDutchJewishpopulation,Nazipogromsbeganalmostimmediately.There

hadbeenaJewishcommunityinGroningenfortwohundredyears.TheJoodsHistorisch

MuseuminAmsterdamnarrateswhatJewishlifebeforetheNaziinvasionwaslike:

Duringtheinter-warperiodtheJewishcommunityatGroningenblossomed.The

majorityofGroningen'sJewsbythenhadachievedmiddleclassstatusandmany

practicedprofessions.NewJewishorganizationsatthetimeincludedZionistand

anti-Zionistgroups-thesenotalwaysonthebestoffootings-aswellasJewish

scouting,gymnastic,andsportsassociations.AJewishtheatergroupwasalsoactive.

Duringthe1930's,thearrivalof250JewishrefugeesinGroningenservedtobolster

thesizeofthecommunity.9(N.p.)

WolffwritesthattheNetherlandswashometosome140,000Jewsbeforethewar.Thefirst

NazireprisalsagainstJewswerefeltinthefieldofeducation,whereJewishteachersand

universityprofessorswerefired,andJewishstudentswereremoved.Thiswasfollowedby

deportationofJewsto“workcamps.”ThedeportationsbeganinWerkman’sGroningenin

Augustof1942.Wolffcontinuesthenarrative:

Bythetimeofthewar'send,theNazishaddeported107,000JewsoutofHolland.Of

these,only5000survivedtoreturnhomefollowingthewarand30,000managedto

surviveinhidingorbyothermeans.Thus,over75%ofHolland'sJewsperishedat

thehandsoftheNazis.ThisrepresentsthelargestpercentageofJewstodiefroma

particularcountrywiththeexceptionofPoland...Failuretohidealmostassured

deportationtoAuschwitzorthedeathcampofSorbibor.SixtythousandJewswere

deportedtoAuschwitz;onlyninehundredandseventy-twosurvived.Thirty-four

9TheJewishcommunityinthecityGroningenwasestimatedtobeabout2500people.

18

thousandJewsweredeportedtoSorbibor;onlytwo-twooutofthirty-fourthousand

-livedtoreturntotheNetherlands.(N.p.emphasisadded)

Manyofthenon-Jewishcitizensrespondedtotheoccupationinthewaymostpeoplewould

–theykepttheirheadsdownandwentabouttheirbusiness,tryingtoprotecttheirfamily

andtheirbusinesses,tighteningtheirbeltsasthesituationbecamemoreandmoregrim.

SomehidJews,aswasthecaseofAnneFrank’sfamily,riskingtheirlivestohelptheir

Jewishneighborsandfriends.Othersworkedcovertlyinanundergroundresistance–a

largeresistanceeffort,accordingtoWolff:

Undergroundcellswereinvolvedinthemanufactureoffalsepapersoractedas

couriersofsecretdocumentstocountriesoutsideoftheNetherlandstoassistAllied

warefforts.Itisestimatedthatoverfifty-tosixtythousandindividualsweredirectly

involvedinundergroundactivitieswithhundredsofthousandsmoreoffering

assistance.Morethantenthousandlosttheirlivesasadirectresultoftheir

courageousefforts.(N.p)

Werkmanrespondedtotheoccupationbyfoundinganundergroundpublication

withthreefriendsthatwascommittedtopublishingupliftingmaterialstohelppeople

cope.Duringthefive-yearNazioccupation,Werkmanandasmallgroupofcohorts–

AugustHenkels,Dr.AteZuithoff,andMevrouwAdriBuning,aschoolteacher(Purvis23),

eventuallyproducedfortyissuesofthepublicationtheycalled,“DeBlauweSchuit(The

BlueBarge).”Thepublishedessaysandarticlesweremeanttoencouragethespiritofthe

Dutchpeopleduringtheoccupation.Workingtogether,theyproducedeightpublicationsin

1941,fourteenin1942,elevenin1943,andsevenin1944(Purvis23).Theyoften

publishedreligiouswritings,meanttoencouragethereadersofthepublication.The

19

followingexcerptedpublicationlistandprintrunfromSimonirevealsthenatureofsome

ofthearticles:

• 1941MartinLuther,“SendbriefandieChristenimNiederland(Lettertothe

ChristiansintheNetherlands)”-90copies

• 1942MartinLuther,“DasWindliechtGottes(TheWindlightGod)”-100

copies(textcompiledby[Werkman’sfriend]Henkelsfrompassagesofoneof

Luther’ssermons

• 1942PsalmsfromMartinBuber’sGermantranslationofPsalms130,43,94,

and12-75copies

• 1943MartinLuther,“EinGebetwiderdenturken(APrayerAgainstthe

Turks)”(80)

TheChassidischeLegenden:EenSuitevanH.N.Werkmanportfoliosunwittingly

becameaconclusiontothemen’sundergroundprintingactivities.Simonihasresearched

Werkman’slettersofthetimeandwrites:

Fromhisownletters...andfromtheaccountsofhisfriendsonelearnsmuchabout

theebbandflowofWerkman’screativelife.Againandagain,afterperiodsof

darknessduetowinterandbadweatherortothedepressingeventsinprivateand

publicaffairs,hewouldrisetothechallengeandinfusehisworkwithcourageand

humour,deephumansympathy,andanaffirmationoflife.(77)

Purvisnotesthat,“[f]romtheverybeginning,thewarandtheoccupationgreatlyaffected

Werkman,deepeninghisinnatesenseofisolationanddepletingtheoptimismthathadso

longbeenasourceofstrength”(23).HenkelsandWerkmanbecamefriendswhilewriting

thesepublicationsandcollaboratedonwhatbecameWerkman’sfinalpublicationproject-

20

MartinBuber’sChassidischeLegenden.Theportfolioproject,consistingof20large

Werkmandruksels,each51by33cm.,andHenkels’retellingofBuber’stextsetintypeby

WerkmanalongwithalinefromtheBubertext.Sotime-consumingwastheprocessthat

Werkmanusedtoproducethebeautifulprints,ittookthementhreeyearstoproducean

editionofjust20copiesofeachprint.Theportfolioswerereleasedintwoprintings–the

firstteninNovember1942(Legenden,N.p.),andthesecondtenfollowedinDecember

1943.However,evenbeforethepublication,Simoninotesthat“[t]hedesignsforthefirst

suitewereexhibitedbyHenkelsinthehostagesinternmentcampatSt.Michielsgestelin

1942”(80).

TheprintsWerkmancreatedfortheseportfoliosareastunningcapstoneforhis

career.ThecolorsarebrightandhopefulinthemidstofthedarkestdaysinGroningen.

The1982bookquotesaletterexcerptinwhichHenkelswrotetoWerkman,“Imyself

completelylovethedesign,butyoucanyoumakethecolorabitlivelier?Whenthecolors

arewellmatured,theyseemabitgloomy.”Werkmanreplied,“Ihaveusedverylittleink;I

willgivethemallabitmore‘matter.’Theresultisafirmwin.(ChassidischeLegenden

N.p.)”10AlthoughnotJewishhimself,Werkmanconveyedinhisdrukselssuchasenseof

community,ofjoy,ofpride,andofquietreligiousfaiththatWerkman'sbiographer,Hans

vonStratenthoughttheworkitselfhadbecomeareligiousexperienceforhim:

HediedlikeaHasid,hislastdeedwaspassingontheoldmiracletalestohis

cellmates.HisdeathwasadirectconsequenceofhisidentificationwithJews.By

passingonthesestoriesthethoughtwhichlayatthefoundationofWerkman's

creationwaskeptalive...(mama.org)

10Translationmine.

21

SimoniwritesthatDutchJewsconsiderthe“emotionalpower”oftheprintscomparable“to

thatofGoya’s“DesastrosdelaGuerra”orPicasso’s“Guernica”(80).

ThestoryofWerkman’slastmonthsanddaysisgrim.Bythesummerof1944,the

livingsituationinGroningenwasdire.PurviswritesthatthefinaldistributionofDe

BlauweSchuitoccurredinthesummerof1944and“representedanemberofoptimismin

anticipationofanearlyliberationthatdidnotcome(25).”Bytheendoftheyear,

Werkmanhadbeenforcedtostopprintingbecauseelectricitywashardlybeingproduced

andtherewasalsoashortageofheatingfuel.Werkman’sinkshadhardenedandwere

impossibletouseinthecold.SimonidetailsthenarrativeofWerkman’sarrestandfinal

days:

On13March1945,astheideaofaGermandefeatbecameinescapableevento

themselves,thepolicegarrisonofGroningenarrestedalargenumberoflocal

people,amongthemWerkman[andHenkels].On10April1945,threedaysbefore

Canadianliberatorsenteredthejubilantifbatteredcity,tenoftheprisoners,among

themWerkman,weretakentoanear-bycommonatBakkeveenand

unceremoniouslyshot.Therehadnotevenbeenasemblanceofchargesortrial,the

pretenseforhisarresthadbeentheincomprehensible,decadentnature,ashis

captorssawit,ofhisart,hisobviousJewishsympathiesandthesuspected

unauthorizeduseofpaper.(78emphasisadded)

TheSicherheitspolizei(SecurityPolice)hadheldWerkmanandHenkelsinabuildingcalled

theScholtenhuisinGroningen,whichwaslaterinadvertentlydestroyedintheliberation–

unfortunatelydestroyingalargeportionofWerkman’slifeworkthathadbeenheldas

22

“evidence.”PurvisagreeswithSimonithat“itwashisidentificationwithJews”thathadled

tohisarrest(25).Shecontinues:

InearlyApril,anordercamefromtheSDheadquartersatTheHaguetoexecute30

prisonersasareprisalagainsttheDutchundergroundinGroningen.Thefirstgroup

oftenwastakentoAnloandshotbeforeafiringsquadon8April;thefollowing

morningthesecondgroupwasexecuted.However,whenthelastmenwerebeing

driventhatafternoontotheexecutionsite,onemanagedtoescapeandthe

executionwasdelayed.Shortlyafterwards,Werkmanwaschosentoreplacethe

escapeeandalongwiththeotherninewasexecutednearthetownofBakkeveen

twodaysbeforeCanadianforcesenteredGroningen.(25)

Werkman’sfriendandcollaboratorintheChassidischeLegendenportfolioswasfreedbythe

Canadianliberators.

InSeptember1945,Werkman’sfriendSandbergwasmadetheDirectorofthe

StedelijkMuseuminAmsterdam.Oneofthefirstexhibitionshemountedwasa

retrospectiveforhisfriend.HewentontoproducethefirstWerkmancatalogandwasthe

forcebehindtheBrooklynMuseum’s1951Werkmanexhibition.Eventually,hehelped

Werkman’swifeformafoundationtopreserveandcataloghisarchiveandproduceafully

researchedcatalograisonne.Anupdated,beautifullyillustratedandcompletecatalog

raisonnewasproducedinDutchbyDekkers,VanDerSpek,andDeVriesin2008.

In1947,MartinBubervisitedtheNetherlandsandmetAugustHenkels,who

showedhimWerkman’sportfoliosoftheChassidischeLegenden.Sourcesrecallthatwhen

Bubersawthem,“hewasdumbstruck.SoprofoundlyhadWerkmanpenetratedthelegends

inhisimagerythatBuberwascompelledtoask:‘WasheaJew?’(mama.org,Purvis88).”

23

Today,H.N.Werkman’scontributiontomodernity,Judaica,andHolocaustartcan

primarilybeseenattheStedelijkMuseuminAmsterdamandtheGroningerMuseumin

Groningen,althoughmanymuseumsinEuropeholdexamplesofhisprints.In2015,the

GroningerMuseumcommemoratedtheseventiethanniversaryofWerkman’sdeathwitha

largeexhibitionofhisworkandanewpublicationentitled,H.N.Werkman(1882-1945)

Leven&Werk(Life&Work).Theyhavedeclared2015TheWerkmanjaar(TheWerkman

Year)inmemoriamtothememoryoftheartistandhiswork.

24

Figures

Figure1.HendrikNicolaasWerkman

Figure2.AWerkmancalendar

Figure3.H.N.Werkman(2ndR)demonstrateshis1800Frenchhandpress.

25

Figure4.AprintusingtypographyasvisualiconographywithConstructivisticonography

Figure5.AcontemporaryinstallationofWerkmandrukselsshowinghissaturationofcolor

andthelargesizeoftheoriginalprints

26

Figure6.AnexampleofacontemporaneousSchwitterstypographicdesign

Figure7.AnotherSchwittersexampleofaprintincorporatingtype

27

Figure8.HerbertBayer“StaatlichesBauhausWeimar“1923

Figure9.CharlesDemuth,“ISawtheFigure5inGold“(1928)

28

Figure10.Picasso,“TheFruitDish“(1912)

Figure11.Matisse“TheDance”(1909)

29

Figure12.Werkman,“TheChildrenintheForest“fromTheHasidicLegendsportfolio

Figure13.Werkman,“TheSabbathoftheInnocent“fromTheHasidicLegendsportfolio

30

Figure14.Werkman,“TheRoadBack“fromTheHasidicLegendsportfolio

Figure15.Werkman,“TheTavernintheCarpathians“fromTheHasidicLegendsportfolio

31

Figure16.Werkman’suseofcardboardmaskstocreatedruksels

Figure17.Matisse,“BlueNude“(1907)

32

Figure18.Matisse,“MermaidandtheParakeet“(1952)

33

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