como formulamos preguntas (en; laboratorio de la ciencia política - oliver benson)
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7/21/2019 Como Formulamos Preguntas (en; Laboratorio de La Ciencia Política - Oliver Benson)
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CA ANBLRNVLROL
FC IOCMIONTLAÈVOIN
Laovcr Bcmslm Smovcrsofnf
fc Lean`lhn
Nhlrrlrtu cfotlrcs
Bucmls Norcs
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Ilhl jlrhuanr prckumtns
An omvcstoknioùm plaètoin hcfonmtc cmiucstns `n `ci`l ohplrtnmtcs ilmtrobuiolmcs na
hlfcrml cstufol fc an ilmfuitn plaètoin. An hnylr pnrtc fc ans krnmfcs cmiucstns `nm
sofl chprcsns fc cmvcrknfurn, quc rcquorocrlm an illpcrnioùm fc cquopls fc
omvcstoknflrcs y nmnaostns, y an nsokmnioùm fc jlmfls ilmsofcrnbacs. Numquc supcrjoiona,
mucstrn omtrlfuiioùm na inhpl fc ans cmiucstns prcpnrnrî na acitlr pnrn pnrtoiopnr cm um
prlycitl fc trnbngl cm cquopl ilmtnmfl ilm hnylr inufna fc ilmliohocmtls quc um
mcùjotl cm al hntcron5 ac fnrî, nsohoshl, nakumns pnutns quc ac pcrhotorîm forokor umn
pcqucþn cmiucstn prlpon, n hlfl fc cgcrioiol.
:.> An hucstrn
Cm an prcpnrnioùm fc umn cmiucstn, an cxtrniioùm fc an hucstrn cs pnrtc ohplrtnmtc fc anpanmojoinioùm tïimoin. Num cm als prlycitls hîs nhboiolsls y ilstlsls, an nfciunioùm
fc an hucstrn sc vcrtè sochprc aohotnfn plr ilmsofcrniolmcs fc topl prîitoil, pcrl so sc
tlhnm nakumns prcinuiolmcs scrî plsobac cvotnr crrlrcs scrols.
Hucstrn nacntlron sohp ac
Ilhl sc fcstniù cm ca brcvc cstufol .fc als tcsts cstnfèstoils rcnaoznfl cm ca inpètual
nmtcrolr, al ohplrtnmtc ml cs ca tnhnþl cm sè fc an hucstrn, soml an hcfofn cm quc cs
rcnahcmtc rcprcscmtntovn fc an plbanioùm quc supucstnhcmtc rcprcscmtn. An jnhlsn
cmiucstn fca Aotcrnry Fokcso, aacvnfn n inbl cm >?9:, sc bnsù cm umn hucstrn fc
hoaalmcs fc pcrslmns, pcrl juc tnm pnriona quc sc an rciucrfn plr su jankrnmtc
cquovlinioùm rcspcitl fc an hîs nbruhnflrn fojcrcmion fc vltls quc rckostrn an `ostlron
fc ans caciiolmcs prcsofcmionacs. Tlr ca ilmtrnrol, cm an nitunaofnf sc sucac utoaoznr
hucstrns iocmtèjoinhcmtc scaciiolmnfns fc >.344 n 9.444 cmiucstnfls pnrn lbtcmcr
fntls bnstnmtc ilmjonbacs slbrc an tltnaofnf fc an plbanioùm fc Cstnfls Smofls. Fc
niucrfl ilm ca promiopol bîsoil fca hucstrcl iocmtèjoil, an hucstrn fcbc scr cxtrnèfn
rcnahcmtc na nznr7 cs ohprcsiomfobac quc tlfns ans pcrslmns quc omtckrnm an plbanioùm
supucstnhcmtc rcprcscmtnfn plr nqucaan tcmknm an hoshn prlbnboaofnf cstnfèstoin fc
scr omiuaofns.
Ilm jrciucmion, rcsuatn hcmls cilmùhoil cxtrncr umn hucstrn purnhcmtc na nznr fc an
plbanioùm tltna quc ltrn cackofn slbrc an bnsc fc nak÷m promiopol fc scaciioùm rcaniolmnfl
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ilm ca lbgctl fc an cmiucstn. Iunmtl hcmlr scn an subplbanioùm quc sc quocrc cstufonr,
hîs sc pcrfcrî cm umn hucstrn fca tltna. Cm um Trlycitl fc omvcstoknioùm slbrc ans
nitotufcs fc als mucvls cstufonmtcs, ml sc tlhnrèn umn hucstrn na nznr fc um umovcrsl
ilhpucstl plr tlfls als cstufonm nauhmls fc tcrictl l iunrtl nþl, ilm jomcs
ilhpnrntovls. Tlr ¡kunacs hltovls, rcsuatn nmtocilmùhoil cmiucstnr n tlfls als nfuatls
cm cfnf fc vltnr fc umn ilhumofnf so slal mls omtcrcsn ilmlicr ans nitotufcs fc als
njoaonfls n somfointls. Cs ohplsobac, n vcics, ofcmtojoinr prcvonhcmtc an sub-plbanioùm,
plr al quc an hucstrn fcbc tlhnrsc fc um krupl hnylr5 cm umn cmiucstn fcstomnfn n vc-
rojoinr als pumtls fc vostn fc als vltnmtcs cm umn caciioùm humoiopna, plr cgchpal, ml
sucac scr plsobac ofcmtojoinr n als quc ilm hnylr prlbnboaofnf ilmiurrorîm na ilhofl,
numquc cs inso sckurl quc `nbrî hcmls vltnmtcs quc cm umn caciioùm pnrn klbcrmnflr
l prcsofcmtc.
Hucstrn cstrnto j oinf n
Sm ohplrtnmtc irotcrol pnrn fctcrhomnr ca tnhnþl fc an hucstrn cs an `lhlkcmcofnf fc an
plbanioùm ilm rcspcitl na ntrobutl quc sc fcscn vcrojoinr. Yo cm an vltnioùm pnrtoiopn um
slal pnrtofl, l so ca >44 % fc an plbanioùm cs ilmjlrhostn, scrî ilmvcmocmtc trnbngnr ilm
umn hucstrn fca > %. Yo, plr. ca ilmtrnrol, pnrtoiopnm scos inmfofntls cm an caciioùm
prohnron, l so cm um nsumtl fc omtcrïs p÷baoil an lpomoùm cstî fovofofn cmtrc vnrons
natcrmntovns, infn umn fc caans rcspnafnfn ‖l supucstnhcmtc rcspnafnfn‖ plr um
cstrntl sliolcilmùhoil fcjomofl, an hucstrn fcbc scr al bnstnmtc krnmfc ilhl pnrn
omiauor hochbrls fc infn krupl sokmojointovl. An `lhlkcmcofnf njcitn ca crrlr fc
hucstrcl tnmtl cm al quc ntnþc n an inmtofnf fc subkrupls ilhl n an okunafnf fc fovosoùm
cmtrc als subkrupls. Cs bnstnmtc jîioa prcfcior ca rcsuatnfl fc umn caciioùm iunmfl an
fojcrcmion fc vltls cm jnvlr fc um inmfofntl cs krnmfc (l scn, umn hucstrn pcqucþn cs
sujoiocmtc)5 pcrl so ans plsoboaofnfcs slm huy pnrcgns, ilhl cm an aui`n cmtrc Ecmmcfy y
Moxlm cm >?:4, momkumn hucstrn plfrèn ljrcicr umn prcfoiioùm sckurn, numquc ans
cmiucstns prccacitlrnacs rcvcanrènm csinsn fojcrcmion fc vltls. Ca crrlr fc hucstrcl
pucfc rcfuiorsc ofcmtojoinmfl iuofnflsnhcmtc als sub-krupls sokmojointovls, y `niocmfl
auckl ca hucstrcl fc infn uml fc caals slbrc umn bnsc fc scaciioùm na nznr. An
hucstrn cstrntojoinfn, quc sc jumfnhcmtn cm cstn tclrèn, pcrhotc cstohnr ca tltna fc an
plbanioùm hcglr quc umn hucstrn fc okuna tnhnþl cxtrnèfn
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purnhcmtc na nznr. An hcfofn cm quc an cstohnioùm scrî hcglr fcpcmfcrî, umn vcz hîs,
fc an `lhlkcmcofnf fc als subkrupls. Yo infn subkrupl jucsc pcrjcitnhcmtc
`lhlkïmcl ‖cs fcior, so tlfls als `nbotnmtcs fca Mlrtc, tlfns ans hugcrcs, tlfls als
intùaoils, tlfls als rcsofcmtcs urbnmls l tlfls als lbrcrls pcmsnscm cxnitnhcmtc
okuna‖, an vofn fc als cmiucstnflrcs scrèn hîs jîioa.
An hucstrn cstrntojoinfn cxokc quc fctcrhomnfn prlplrioùm fc an hucstrn tltna
pcrtcmczin n infn uml fc als cstrntls. An hucstrn mniolmna chpacnfn plr an jorhn Knaaup
cm >?:6 pnrn hcfor ca nplyl fc quc klznbn Klafwntcr nmtcs fc an ilmvcmioùm fc su
pnrtofl, y cm an quc sc jumfnm als prlbachns panmtcnfls cm als cgcrioiols 3-> (iunfrl
3-C), 3-9(9), 3-9(3) y 3-9(:), utoaozn umn cstrntojoinioùm bnsnfn cm ca tnhnþl fc an
ilhumofnf (; krupls quc nbnrinm fcsfc ioufnfcs icmtrnacs, ilm >.444.444 fc
`nbotnmtcs l hîs, `nstn zlmns rurnacs) y cm rckolmcs kclkrîjoins. Yc cmtrcvostù n um
hèmohl fc >.344 omfovofuls, fostrobuofls cmtrc >34 pumtls fc hucstrcl cackofls na nznr7
Ylal fcmtrl fca pumtl fc Hucstrcl (hnmznmns cm ans ioufnfcs) sc npnrtn an hucstrn fca
promiopol fc prlbnboaofnf na nznr, y num naaè ca cmtrcvostnflr ml pucfc cackor aobrchcmtc n
als cmiucstnfls, soml quc fcbc sckuor um prlicfohocmtl homuiolsnhcmtc foscþnfl. An
lrknmoznioùm Knaaup, plr cgchpal, jogn umn rckan sohpac pcrl ÷toa7 als cmtrcvostnflrcs slal
fcbcm `nicr umn cmtrcvostn plr krupl jnhoaonr, y n okuna inmtofnf fc `lhbrcs y hugcrcs.
Iunfrl :-> Cstrntojoinioùm fc an plbanioùm mlrtcnhcroinmn cm cfnf fc vltnr, fc niucrfl
ilm >> vnronbacs (plricmtngcs)
Tlr rckoùm Mlrfcstc2:,9 Mlrtc Icmtrna20,> Yur2?,9 Lcstc
Tlr rcaokoùm Trltcstnmtcs:; Intùaoils23 Gufèls6 Ltrls
Tlr scxl Znrlmcs6;
Tlr pnrtoiopnioùm cm caciiolmcsZltnrlm (>?:6);4 Ml vltnrlm
Tlr rnzn Banmils?4 Ml banmils>4 (Mckrls)
Tlr prcjcrcmion plaètoinFchùirntns34 Rcpubaoinmls2; Omfcpcmfocmtcs
Tlr cfnf 2>-26? 23-666> 63-:>96 :3 y hîs
Tlr cfuinioùm @nstn 0 nþls2? ?->> nþls>0 >2 nþls99 Hîs fc >2 nþls
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Tlr hcfol cilaùkoil Tlr liupnioùm
Hctrlplaotnml :3 Liupnfls 30 Ml hctrlplaotnml 93 Nitovofnfcs Nkrèilans
6 Nitovofnfcs ml nkrèilansTlr omkrcsls (fùanrcs) Hcmls fc 9,444 >0 Fcsliupnfls 2 9444 - 6??? 24 Ml jlrhn pnrtc fc an jucrzn
3444 - ;6?? 20 fc trnbngl ;344 - ???? >: Krupls liupniolmnacs natcrmntovls, plr rnzn
>4444 y hîs >0 Ml Banmils Banmils Chpacnflsnfhomostrntovls y ltrls trnbngls ml hnmunacs6;,3 >?,3 Vrnbngnflrcs hnmunacs9:,2 64,; Tcrslmna fc scrvoiol>4,; 9>,; Vrnbngnflrcs rurnacs3,: 0,>
Vlana fc omtckrnmtcs fc an jucrzn fc trnbngl, hnylrcs fc >6 nþls, cxiauycmfl fcs-
liupnfls.
Jucmtc7 Cxtrnèfl fc Ytntostoi,f Nbstrnit ljt`c Smotcf Fntcs,' [ns`omktlm7 Burcnu lj !`c
Icmsus,.->?:;, t.7Hoi`-ls 922 y 394. Tlricmtngcs rcflmfcnfls5 sc lhotcm insls slbrc
als quc sc inrcic fc omjlrhnioùm. JNtohniolmcs nprlxohnfns slbrc rcaokoùm y
prcjcrcmion plaètoin sq÷m als fntls fc an lrknmoznioùm Lnaaup.
Tnrn quc an hucstrn rcjacgc an ilhplsoioùm fc an plbanioùm fc um pnès cm cfnf fc vltnr
cm um cstrntl l hîs, pucfc rcsuatnr ÷toa npaoinr ca iunfrl :->, foscþnfl n pnrtor fc an
krnm hucstrn chpacnfn plr Xn Ljoiomn fca Icmsl fc Cstnfls Smofls ilhl bnsc pnrn
mucstrl iunfrl slbrc inmtofnf fc vltnmtcs cm ca inpètual 2, y ilhpactnfl ilm fntls
nprlxohnfls slbrc rcaokoùm y prcjcrcmion plaètoin.
Vnhboïm pucfcm plmfcrnrsc als subkrupls ofcmtojoinfls cm an hucstrn fc niucrfl ilm
als plricmtngcs mniolmnacs ilmliofls, y auckl chpacnr als rcsuatnfls plmfcrnfls pnrnprlycitnr mucstrn hucstrn cm ltrn quc pnrczin hîs rcprcscmtntovn fc tlfn an mnioùm'
(«cstrntojoinioùm auckl fc an scaciioùmµ), Yo mucstrn cmiucstn `n sofl foscþnfn pnrn
vcrojoinr ans nitotufcs fc um krupl rckolmna l alina, pucfcm fcrovnrsc cstrntojoiniolmcs
sohoanrcs fc als fntls hîs fctnaanfls quc bromfnm fls pubaoiniolmcs fc an Ljoiomn fca
Icmsl Ytntostoina Nbstrnit Lj Iotc Smotcf Fntcs (Rcsuhcm cstnfèstoil fc Cstnfls
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Smofls), y Ilumtry nmf Ioty Fntn Blle (Cstnfèstoins plr ilmfnfl y ioufnf). Fls pumtls
rcantovls n umn hucstrn mniolmna cstrntojoinfn hcrcicm quc sc acs prcstc hnylr
ntcmioùm. >) Ml omiauyc umn fosirohomnioùm plr cstnfl, y, pucstl quc als vltls pnrn
ilackols cacitlrnacs cstnfunacs sc iucmtnm ilhl cmtofnfcs scpnrnfns cm als
rcsuatnfls fca ilackol cacitlrna, cm umn caciioùm iuyls rcsuatnfls jucrnm cm npnrocmionpnrcgls an hucstrn fcbcrèn rclrknmoznrsc fc hlfl fc tlhnr cm iucmtn cstc jnitlr5 ml cs
hcmcstcr fosirohomnr als 34 cstnfls, pcrl sè umn fovosoùm rckolmna-nakl hîs fctnaanfn. 2)
Ilm jrciucmion, als krupls quc prcscmtnm umn `lhlkcmcofnf huy krnmfc l um
plricmtngc tltna bngl rcquocrcm trntnhocmtl. An lrknmoznioùm Knaaup, na usnr umn hucstrn
sohoanr pnrn vcrojoinr ca rcspnafl fc quc klznbn Klafwntcr nmtcs fc an ilmvcmioùm,
fcsiubroù umn ilrrcanioùm mckntovn tnm natn cmtrc rnzn y prcjcrcmion quc Ircspo vlavoù n
tnbuanr sus rcsuatnfls cxiauycmfl n als mckrls, plr irccr quc cstn jucrtc nslionioùm
plfrèn liuatnr plsobacs ilrrcaniolmcs cmtrc als cmiucstnfls banmils -p. cg., cmtrc rckoùm y
prcjcrcmion- Cstc rcsuatnfl fchucstrn an fojoiuatnf kcmcrna fc trnbngnr ilm umn hucstrn
tltnahcmtc nacntlron, so na omvcstoknflr ac omtcrcsn nak÷m krupl cm pnrtoiuanr iuyl tnhnþl
ml cs al bnstnmtc krnmfc ilhl pnrn npnrcicr cm nqucaan cm m÷hcrl sokmojointovl. Yo ac
omtcrcsnm als mckrls, ninufnanfls ca omvcstoknflr tcmfrèn quc ilmtnr ilm umn hucstrn
cspciona pnrn alkrnr sus prlpùsotls7 fcbcrèn snaor n businrals. Al hoshl liurrc cm ca
insl fc., hui`ls ltrls krupls quc plfrènm scr sokmojointovls fcsfc ca pumtl fc vostn
plaètoil, pcrl iuyl m÷hcrl cs rcfuiofl ‖p. cg., hochbrls fc als ilhotïs icmtrntcs fc
ilmfnfls, josinacs fc fostrotl surcþls, l intcklrèns prljcsolmnacs omjamycmtcs, tnacs ilhl
nblknfls, hïfoils y iaïrokls.
Tucstl quc ca foscþl fc umn hucstrn fc krnm tnhnþl pnrn rcnaoznr umn cmiucstn
nhpaon ilmstotuyc um prlicfohocmtl fc natl movca tïimoil, quc rcquocrc umn bocm •
lrknmoznfn tnrcn kropna y nfciunfn jomnmionioùm, ml mls liupnrchls fc ïa cm cstc tcxtl.
Ca cstufonmtc omtcrcsnfl pucfc ilmsuatnr ca cxicacmtc hnmuna fc Bniestrlh y @urs`,
Yurvcy Rcscnri`, quc, na hoshl tochpl quc ilmstotuyc umn omtrlfuiioùm ilhpactn na
tchn, sorvc fc kuèn pnrn an ilmsuatn fc bobaolkrnjèn tïimoin hîs nvnmznfn.
:.2 Ca iucstolmnrol
An ilmjciioùm fc um bucm iucstolmnrol cxokc cxpcrocmion. Cm ca prohcr blrrnflr sc
fcsaoznrîm hui`ls crrlrcs, num iunmfl scn prcpnrnfl plr cspcionaostns cm an
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hntcron. Tlr cstc hltovl, sochprc cs mcicsnrol slhctcr na iucstolmnrol n umn prucbn
prcvon, pnrn fcsiubror an hnylr inmtofnf plsobac fc crrlrcs7 prckumtns
omvlaumtnronhcmtc cmknþlsns, jrnscs «inrknfnsµ som qucrcr ilm nakumn pnrionaofnf
subgctovn, pnanbrns quc ca omvcstoknflr ilmlic huy bocm pcrl quc pucfcm rcsuatnr
rnrns n hui`ls cmiucstnfls, y prckumtns quc pnrcicm bnstnmtc ianrns pcrl iuyl
sokmojoinfl cs, cm fcjomotovn, omilhpactl l nhbokul.
Na prcpnrnr um iucstolmnrol fcbc tcmcrsc ianrn ¡fcn fca lbgctovl fc an cmiucstn. Cs
ilmvcmocmtc prcpnrnrsc hcfonmtc an aciturn fc omjlrhcs rcantovls n cstufols sohoanrcs,
tlhnmfl mltn fc tlfns ans jnictns quc ca tchn pucfn tcmcr. Ans prckumtns cm sè
pucfcm scr fc vnrols topls. Vcmocmfl sochprc prcscmtc ca tchn fc an cmiucstn, nsè
ilhl ca inhpl hîs nhpaol na quc pcrtcmcic, sukcrohls na acitlr jlrhuanr, n hlfl fccmsnyl, prckumtns quc ilrrcsplmfnm n ans fovcrsns intcklrèns hcmiolmnfns hîs
nfcanmtc.
Trckum tns pnrn Ofcmto j oinr na cmtrcvostnf l
Yo sc rcpnsn al cstufonfl cm als inpètuals > y 2 slbrc als fostomtls topls fc vnronbac y
iùhl sc chpacnm pnrn uboinr na cmiucstnfl cm ca cspniol fc prlpocfnfcs, vnrols slm
als rubrls fc ofcmtojoinioùm fca cmtrcvostnfl quc omtcrcsnrî nianrnr. Ofcmtojoinioùm
tîitoin sohpac7 Cstns prckumtns suhomostrnrîm 'fntls «icmsnacsµ bîsoils‖ilhl
cfnf, scxl, rnzn, movca fc omkrcsls, liupnioùm, auknr fc rcsofcm7 ion, sotunioùm ilhl
vltnmtc, cti.‖, y ml lplmfrîm cm kcmcrna fojoiuatnf-nakumn, snavl quc sc trntc fc
intcklrèns fcaoinfns l quc sc rcaniolmcm ilm ca prcstokol fca cmtrcvostnfl.-Cs lbvol
quc fcbcm cvotnrsc tïrhomls y cxprcsolmcs tnacs ilhl «lbrcrlµ, «ljoiomostnµ,
«trnbngnflr hnmunaµ l «trnbngnflr inrcmtc fc ljoiolµ, plrquc pucfcm inrcicr fc
sokmojoinfl pnrn ca cmiucstnfl l fcshcrcicr su stntus.
Ofcmto j oinioùm fc an Omjlrh nioùm quc brom fn ca cmtrcvostnfl . Ca lbgctovl fc cstns
prckumtns cs fcsiubror quï snbc ca cmtrcvostnfl nicrin fca tchn fc an cmiucstn. Yo
mumin `n lèfl `nbanr fc ïa, cs om÷toa pcforac su lpomoùm. Tlr ltrn pnrtc, umns plins
prckumtns fc «joatrlµ pucfcm `nicrac rcilrfnr ilsns quc fc ltrn hnmcrn
pcrhnmcicrènm lavofnfns.
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Ofcmtojoinioùm fca rla fca cmtrcvostnfl. Cstns prckumtns tocmcm plr jom uboinr na7
cmtrcvostnfl cm su ilmtcxtl sliona y plaètoil. ¼Cs aèfcr, l ml fcsnrrlaan nitovofnf plaètoin
nakumn< ¼Yucac `nbanr fc plaètoin ilm sus nhokls< ¼^uï jucmtcs plaètoins omjauycm cm
ïa, y quï •omjaucmions, cgcric ïa hoshl< Fctcrhomnr so cs hochbrl fc um iaub, l so
ilmiurrc n scrvoiols rcaokolsls l omiausl, n quï topl fc pcrslmns vosotn ilm hîs
jrciucmion, nyufn n sotunral fcmtrl fca p÷baoil plaètoinhcmtc omtcrnitunmtc. An
lbscrvnioùm forcitn ljrcic n hcmufl na omvcstoknflr nacrtn omfoiols ÷toacs slbrc ca rla
Trckum tns fc fciosoùm
Cstls slm als rubrls jumfnhcmtnacs rcantovls na ilmtcmofl hcfuanr fc ans iunacs sc
slaoiotn na cmtrcvostnfl rcnaoznr nak÷m topl numquc an aèmcn fovoslron cmtrc nhbns ml cs
pcrjcitnhcmtc ianrn7 ans quc rcquocrcm lpiolmcs ilmirctns y ans fcstomnfns n fcsiubror,hltovniolmcs omilmsiocmtcs.
Lpiolmcs ilmirctns. Yc ac prckumtn na cmtrcvostnfl, plr cgchpal, so cm umn prùxohn
caciioùm pocmsn vltnr plr ca inmfofntl N l ca inmfofntl B, so cstî fc niucrfl l ml ilm
an prùxohn chosoùm fc tètuals, so pocmsn quc nakl cs bucml l hnal, l so su nitotuf cs fc
jucrtc nplyl, nplyl, mcutrnaofnf, lplsoioùm l jucrtc lplsoioùm.
Hltovnioùm. Cm kcmcrna, na omvcstoknflr ml slal ac omtcrcsnm ans lpiolmcs ilmirctns fca
cmiucstnfl soml tnhboïm ans rnzlmcs cm quc sc jumfnhcmtnm. ¼Tlr quï nplyn na
inmfofntl N< ¼Tlr quï ilmiucrfn l fosircpn tnmtl ilm an plaètoin fca klbocrml cm
Zoctmnh< ¼Tlr quï cstî n jnvlr l cm ilmtrn fc an ml fosirohomnioùm rniona cm an
vovocmfn, an omtckrnioùm csilanr, an jomnmionioùm jcfcrna fc an cfuinioùm, als panmcs fc
nsostcmion hïfoin omtckrna5 an rcfostrobuioùm fc bnmins ackosantovns, l an ohpanmtnioùm fc
lrniolmcs rcaokolsns cm ans csiucans< Ans prckumtns iuyl prlpùsotl cs fcsiubror als
jnitlrcs omilmsiocmtcs quc omjauycm cm an tlhn fc fciosolmcs slm ans hîs fojèioacs fc
prcpnrnr. Tnrn rcnaoznr ca nmîaosos ilhpactl fc an hltovnioùm cs hcmcstcr rciurror n umn
`îboa cmtrcvostn cm prljumfofnf. An omjlrhnioùm hltovniolmna susicptobac fc lbtcmcrsc
hcfonmtc prckumtns cstnmfnroznfns rcsuatn pnrtoiuanrhcmtc vnaolsn, som chbnrkl,
pucs n hcmufl nyufn n ofcmtojoinr intcklrèns fc lpomoùm nhpaons y cstnbacs, iuyn,
sokmojoinioùm supcrn an nhpaotuf fc an hucstrn cm tïrhomls fc pcrslmns cmtrcvostnfns,
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tchns cspcièjoils nbnrinfls y ïplin cm quc sc cjcituù an cmiucstn.. Cm um prctcst
bocm panmojoinfl pucfcm surkor omfoiols sckurls pnrn jlrhuanr prckumtns
hltovniolmnacs. Ans tïimoins quc hîs sc usnm slm fls 7 .prckumtns «nbocrtnsµ y aostns
cstnmfnroznfns fc «rnzlmcsµ natcrmntovns. Tlr cgchpal, cm umn prckumtn nbocrtn scpofc na cmtrcvostnfl quc fokn, ilm sus prlpons pnanbrns, plr quï ircc quc ca inmfofntl
N cs hcglr quc ca B, l quï nspcitl fca sostchn fc ntcmioùm hïfoin omtckrna ac rcsuatn
pnrtoiuanrhcmtc omtcrcsnmtc u lbgctnbac. An prckumtn nbocrtn prcstn na iucstolmnrol
cstnmfnroznfl um cachcmtl fc cmtrcvostn cm prljumfofnf, pcrl tocmc an fcsvcmtngn fc
omsuhor hui`l tochpl y scr fojèioa fc ilfojoinr. An aostn cstnmfnroznfn fc natcrmntovns,
cm inhbol, ml.cs îmîs ilhpacgn quc iunaquocr prckumtn fc caciioùm h÷atopac. Ylal sc
ac pofc na 'cmtrcvostnfl quc hnrquc tomn fc vnrons «rnzlmcsµ. Tlr cgchpal, so `n
omfoinfl quc prcjocrc quc Glmcs, y ml Yhot`, scn cacitl pnrn ca inrkl fc klbcrmnflr, ca
prùxohl rubrl plfrèn scr7
Yo tuvocrn quc lptnr plr umn fc ans sokuocmtcs rnzlmcs pnrn nplynr n cstc inmfofntl,
¼iuîa cackorèn<
Yochprc vltï plr ca" prlkrnhn fca pnrtofl.
Vocmc cxpcrocmion cm an jumioùm p÷baoin.
Cs um `lhbrc `lmcstl. Vlfls als fonrols quc acl al nplynm.
Momkumn fc ans rnzlmcs prcicfcmtcs.
Smn bucmn slauioùm fc ilhprlhosl cmtrc an prckumtn nbocrtn y an aostn cstnmfnroznfn cs
omiauor nakumns prckumtns nbocrtns cm ca prctcst, y trntnr auckl fc rcfnitnr ans rcspucstns
Hîs jrciucmtcs cm vcrsolmcs cstohuanr, ca hlfl quc scn plsobac utoaoznrans cm an
cmiucstn rcna.
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:.9 Cstruiturn fc ans prckumtns
Ans prckumtns cstruiturnfns nflptnm, yn an jlrhn foiltùhoin (sè-ml, vcrfnfcrl-jnasl,
bucml-hnal, n jnvlr-cm ilmtrn), yn an fc caciioùm h÷atopac, pcrl sc `nm fcsnrrlaanfl
vnrons tïimoins pnrn uboinr ans rcspucstns cm umn csinan fc intcklrèns hîs sokmojointovns
quc ans quc pcrhotc iunaquocrn fc cstls fls topls.
>. Sm hïtlfl ilmsostc cm nsokmnr um vnalr muhïroil (fcsilmliofl plr ca cmiuistnfl) n
infn umn fc ans rcspucstns fnfns n um aostnfl fc caciioùm h÷atopac7
¼Ircc quc ïa vongc fca prcsofcmtc na Acgnml Lrocmtc cs ohplrtnmtc pnrn mucstrn
-plaètoin cxtcrolr< Al ilmsofcrn7
Znalr
> \\\\\\\\\\\ Huy ohplrtnmtc (0)
2 \\\\\\\\\\\ Ohplrtnmtc (;) 9 \\\\\\\\\\\ Yom ohplrtnmion (9)
6 \\\\\\\\\\\ Yom an hcmlr ohplrtnmion (2)
2. Ltrl hïtlfl, nfnptnfl fc um jlrhuanrol chpacnfl plr Lskllf, ca mlhbrc fc
«fojcrcmiona schîmtoilµ. Ilmsostc cm uboinr um pnr fc rcspucstns cm als cxtrchls
lpucstls fc um rcmkaùm, pofocmfl na cmtrcvostnfl quc hnrquc slbrc cstc ca pumtl quc
hîs sc nprlxohc n su rcspucstn. Ca rcmkaùm p¡ cfc fovoforsc cm pnrtcs (plraq ilh÷m,
soctc), pnrn lbaoknr na cmiucstnfl n fci aorsc plr um vnalr l plmfcrnioùm cspcièjoin, l
scr ilmtomul, plmfcrîmflsc auckl an rcspucstn hcfonmtc an supcrplsoioùm fc umn
csinan trnznfn cm pnpca trnspnrcmtc. Cm momkuml fc als fls insls npnrcic an csinan fc
vnalrnioùm cm ca iucstolmnrol ohprcsl.
¼Ircc ustcf quc an MNVL cs ohplrtnmtc pnrn mucstrn plaètoin cxtcrolr< Hnrquc cm ca
rcmkaùm ca auknr quc hîs sc nprlxohc n su lpomoùm.
Ohplrtnmtc ------------------------- Yom ohplrtnmion
Yom ohplrtnmion --------------- Yom ohplrtnmion
9. cgchpal quc sokuc hucstrn iùhl sc ilhbomnm ans tïimoins fc fojcrcmiona schîmtoil
y fc rcspucstns cm csinan, al iuna rcsuatn fc cspciona utoaofnf pnrn fcsiubror jnitlrcs
hltovniolmnacs7
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¼Ilmiucrfn ustcf l fosircpn ilm ans sokuocmtcs njorhniolmcs slbrc an LMS< '
Ilmiucrfn Fosircpn
Cm kcmcrna, an LMS cs um lrknmoshl plsotovl y fcbc jlrtnacicrsc `nstn
ilmvcrtorsc cm um
klbocrml humfona. \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\
An LMS fcbcrèn tcmcr umn jucrzn hoaotnr
pcrhnmcmtc al bnstnmtc jucrtc ilhl pnrn
ohplmcr an pnz. \\\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\
Cm sus prlkrnhns fc plaètoin cxtcrolr,
Cstnfls Smofls fcbcrèn illpcrnr ilm an LMS. \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\
Cstnfls Smofls fcbc pcrhnmcicr cm an LMS,
num iunmfl n hcmufl cstn scn omcjoinz. \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\
Ml fcbc caohomnrsc an LMS, num iunmfl
cstn scn hîs bocm omlpcrnmtc. \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\
Yo als cmumionfls ilmstotuycm cm rcnaofnf umn csinan quc vn fc al hîs jucrtc n O hîs
fïboa, an inmtofnf fc rcspucstns njorhntovns uboin fc omhcfontl na cmtrcvostnfl cm ca
rnmkl quc ac ilrrcsplmfc. Cm tclrèn, ca cmtrcvostnfl quc ilmiucrfc ilm ca prohcr
cmumionfl fc an aostn fcbcrèn ilmilrfnr ilm tlfls als fchîs. Tlr ltrl anfl, ca sugctlpucfc ilmilrfnr ilm ca ÷atohl cmumionfl y fosircpnr ilm als iuntrl nmtcrolrcs. Ilhl
rcsuatnfl, als cmtrcvostnfls sc intcklroznrîm cm scos krupls, iuyls plmtngcs scrîm7 3, 6,
9, 2, > y L. Cm ca inpètual ; vcrchls cm .hnylr fctnaac an fovosoùm fc krupls hcfonmtc
csinans, y n ïa rchotohls na acitlr quc fcscc utoaoznr cstc hïtlfl cm su trnbngl.
:. Hïtlf ls fc i ansoj oinioùm fc ru brl s p lr rnmkls. Cspcionahcmtc÷toa cm cmiucstns
slbrc caciiolmcs prohnrons cs an tïimoin fc pcfor na cmtrcvostnfl quc iansojoquc plr
rnmkls umn aostn fc rubrls (cm cstc insl, inmfofntls), fc niucrfl ilm sus prcjcrcmios,
cm vcz fc aohotnrsc n cackor n su jnvlrotl. Ca hïtlfl pucfc nfnptnrsc tnhboïm pnrn
lrfcmnr cm rnmkls n krupls l jumiolmnrols, sck÷m an
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Iunmfl ca m÷hcrl fc rubrls n lrfcmnr cm rnmkls cs krnmfc, rcsuatn ilmvcmocmtc
subfovoforals cm vnrons aostns brcvcs fc hnmcgl hîs jîioa. Ans iansojoiniolmcs plr pnrcs fc
rnmkls sucacm chpacnrsc cm cmsnyls caohomntlrols pnrn «fctcrhomnr iùhl sc inaojoinrènm
vn`ns ilhbomniolmcs fc inmfofntls cm umn caciioùm rcna7
Yo als fls pnrtofls prlianhnscm pnrn prcsofcmtc n ans sokuocmtcs pcrslmns, ¼plr iuîa
vltnrèn ustcf<7
Zltnrèn plr Zltnrèn plr.
Gl`mslm l Klafwntcr
Ecmmcfv l Rlhmcy
Gl`mslm l @ntaocaf
Ca chpacl fc iansojoiniolmcs plr pnrcs fc rnmkls pocrfc su vnalr prîitoil iunmfl sc
trntn fc aostns anrkns, fcbofl na cacvnfl m÷hcrl fc pcrhutniolmcs plsobacs. Yc
mcicsotnm scos pnrcs pnrn iansojoinr iuntrl rubrls. Tlr cgchpal7.
•
N su guoiol,- ¼iuîa fc ans sokuocmtcs 'lrknmozniolmcs tcmfrèn hîs omjaucmion cm an
plaètoin cstnfuna ilhpnrîmflan plr pnrcs<
Vocmcm hîs omjaucmion
\\\\\\\\\\\ Yomfointls
\\\\\\\\\\\ Aokn fc Hugcrcs Zltnmtcs
\\\\\\\\\\\ Yomfointls
\\\\\\\\\\\ Iîhnrn fc Ilhcriol
\\\\\\\\\\\ Ilhosolmnfls fc Ilmfnfl
\\\\\\\\\\\ Aokn fc Hugcrcs Zltnmtcs
l Ilhosolmnfls fc ilmfnfl\
l Aokn fc Hugcrcs Zltnmtcs \
l Ilhosolmnfls fc ilmfnfl
l Yomfointls
l Iîhnrn fc Ilhcriol
:.6 ¼Cstruiturnr l ml cstruiturnr<
Num iunmfl ca omstruhcmtl fc an cmiucstn ilmsostn cm um iucstolmnrol quc fc- bcrî
aacmnr ca cmtrcvostnfl, rcsuatn prlvci`lsl ilmsofcrnr infn prckumtn ilhl so sc tuvocsc
an omtcmioùm fc chpacnran cm umn cmtrcvostn lrna. ¼Cm quï hcfofn cstî cstruiturnfn-an
Vocmcm hîs omjaucmion
l Iîhnrn fc Ilhcriol
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prckumtn< ¼@nstn quï pumtl rcstromkc u lrocmtn ca pcmsnhocmtl fca cmtrcvostnfl, l an
jlrhn cm quc cstc jlrhuan su rcspucstn< Ca omvcstoknflr fcbc nainmznr um cquoaobrol
nprlponfl cmtrc fls cxtrchls7 ans prckumtns slbrccstruiturnfns, quc pucfcm om`obor
na cmiucstnfl l forokor sus rcspucstns, y ans prckumtns fchnsonfl nbocrtns, quc tocmcm
an vortuf fc ml omjauor cm ans rcspucstns, pcrl tnhboïm ljrcicm an fcsvcmtngn fc trnshotortnm plin omjlrhnioùm quc ml susiotnm rcspucstn nakumn. Npnrtc fc ans fojoiuatnfcs fc
ilfojoinioùm, an prckumtn huy plil cstruiturnfn pucfc aacknr n ilmjumfor na
cmtrcvostnfl, `nstn ca pumtl fc quc su rcspucstn sc npnrtc fca tchn. Ca cmiucstnflr
cxpcrtl snbrî fcsiubror cstns ilhpaoiniolmcs cm umn cmtrcvostn lrna, pcrl cm um
iucstolmnrol csirotl caans fcbcm cvotnrsc plr nmtoiopnfl.
An Rcspucstn quc lbaokn na omvcstoknflr n tcmcr sochprc cm iucmtn an plsobac
nhpaotuf fc rcniiolmcs fca cmtrcvostnfl nmtc an prckumtn jlrhuanfn. Toïmscc qucinfn prckumtn tocmc fls jumiolmcs7 >) ljrcicr um cstohual nprlponfl na cmiucstnfl, y
2) susiotnr umn rcspucstn ÷toa n als jomcs fc an cmiucstn. Iunaquocrn fc cstns fls
jumiolmcs pucfc scr cstruiturnfn l aobrc. Vcmchls, pucs, umn iuîfrupac toplalkèn fc
prckumtns7
Cstèhual Rcspucstn Aobrc
Cstruiturnfn
Aobrc CA-RA CA-RC
Cstruiturnfl CC-RA CC-RC
Cgchpals fc infn topl7
Cstèhual aobrc
Rcspucstn aobrc7
Yo sc pusocrn n rcjacxolmnr n`lrn slbrc an
plaètoin cxtcrolr mlrtcnhcroinmn, ¼tcmfrèn
ustcf nakumn lpomoùm pnrtoiuanr quc quosocrn
cxprcsnr<
Cstèhual cstruiturnfl,
Rcspuctn aobrc7
¼Iuîa cs su rcniioùm nmtc ca blhbnrfcl fc
lbgctovls cm Zoctmnh fca Mlrtc<
Cstèhual aobrc Rcspucstn
cstruiturnfn
@nic plil sc fojumfocrlm hui`ns mltoions
nicrin fc an plsoboaofnf fc
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ilmvcrsniolmcs tcmfocmtcs n cstnbacicr an
pnz cm Zoctmnh. ¼Ircc ustcf quc nakl fc
al liurrofl `nic7 >) plssobac, 2) ohplsobac
umn slauioùm<
Cstèhual cstruiturnfl
Rcspucstn cstruiturnfn
Ilm rcspcitl n als blhbnrfcls fc
lbgctovls cm Zoctmnh fca Mlrtc, ¼ircc ustcf
quc Cstnfls Smofls fcbcrèn7 >)
suspcmfcrals<, 2) hnmtcmcrals, 9)
nuhcmtnrals.
:.3 Trckumtns omilrrcitns
Bniestrlh y @urs` scþnanm hui`ls fc als crrlrcs cm als quc pucfc omiurror, plromcxpcrocmion, an pcrslmn quc fcbc rcfnitnr ans prckumtns. Cstls nutlrcs omfoinm ans
intcklrèns fctnaanfns an ilmtomunioùm, gumtl ilm nakumls cgchpals tlhnfls fc
`ci`ls rciocmtcs.
Crrlrcs fc nhbok ñcfnf.
An prckumtn pucfc scr7
>. Omilhpactn. «¼Zltù ustcf cm ans ÷atohns caciiolmcs<µ.
(@nbotunahcmtc, ca cmtrcvostnfl sùal rciucrfn an ÷atohn caciioùm cm quc ïa prcsocmtc
Gl`mslm cs ckliïmtroil. ¼Cstî ustcf fc niucrfl l ml ilm caal<
2. Fchnsonfl tïimoin5 "Cstî ustcf n jnvlr fca ilmtrla gufoiona fc an ilmstotuiolmnaofnf fc
ans acycs"
9. Omfcjomofn cm iunmtl na tochpl. «Ca prlycitl fc Ioufnfcs Toaltl prcvcmtovn
crlknioùm juturn fc >44.444 hoaalmcs fc fùanrcs, nprlxohnfnhcmtc. ¼Cstî'7 ustcf n
jnvlr l cm ilmtrn fc cstc prlkrnhn<µ.
(¼Fcmtrl fc iuîmtls .nþls< ¼Cm quï ilmsostorî an crlknioùm, y iuîmfl rcnaoznrî<)
Omfcjomofn cm iunmtl n ilhpnrniolmcs. «¼Ircc ustcf quc Lean`lhn
knstn"
.fchnsonfl cm bocmcstnr sliona<µ.
An prckumtn pucfc7
>. Trcscmtnr natcrmntovns omgustns. «Ca prlycitl fc Ioufnfcs Toaltl prlvlinrî um
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nuhcmtl fc an fcufn omtcrmn supcrolr n >44.444 hoaalmcs fc fùanrcs, y cs prlbnbac quc
mnfn sc alkrc ilm caal. ¼Yc mcknrèn ustcf n jorhnr umn pctoioùm ilmtrn an hcfofn
rcfnitnfn cm csls tïrhomls<µ.
2. Inauhmonr n an lplsoioùm. «Als quc sc lplmcm na prlycitl fc Ioufnfcs Toaltl
cstîm prcliupnfls plrquc ca scirctnrol [invcr, um mckrl", cstnrî n inrkl fca
prlkrnhn. ¼Ml ircc ustcf quc cstc pumtl fc vostn cs prcguoionfl<µ.
9. Ilmfcmnr ilm umn tobon nanbnmzn. «Yc foic quc ca prlycitl fc Ioufnfcs Toaltl ml
`nrî prîitoinhcmtc mnfn pnrn rcslavcr als prlbachns fc ans krnmfcs ioufnfcs. Ltrls
ilmsofcrnm quc pucfc `nicr nak÷m bocm. ¼Ircc ustcf quc fcbchls nflptnral<µ.
• Lhotor natcrmntovns. «Als cxpcrtls quc `nm cstufonfl als prlbachns fc ans
krnmfcs ioufnfcs `nm canblrnfl um prlkrnhn pnrn rcslavcr nakumls fc caals.
¼Ircc-ustcf quc fcbchls chbnrinrmls cm um prlkrnhn fc cstc topl<µ. 3. Ssnr um acmkungc inrknfl fc chlioùm. «Als ilhumostns `nm foi`l sochprc quc
mucstrl sostchn mlrtcnhcroinml fc aobrc klbocrml y aobrc chprcsn scrî aacvnfl n an
bnminrrltn y fcstruofl plr als cmlrhcs knstls quc cstnrmls `niocmfl. Ca prlycitl fc
Ioufnfcs Toaltl nuhcmtnrî mucstrn, fcufn cm >44.444 . hoaalmcs fc fùanrcs. ¼Ml cstî
ustcf cm ilmtrn fc cstl<µ.
:. Ssnr mlhbrcs y pnanbrns prcstokolsls. «Ca prcsofcmtc, ca voicprcsofcmtc, tlfls, als
hochbrls fca knbomctc, als omtcmfcmtcs fc Mucvn _lre, I`oinkl y inso tlfns ans fchîs
krnmfcs ioufnfcs, nsè ilrml an hnylrèn fc als omtckrnmtcs fc-nhbns iîhnrns fca
Ilmkrcsl, cstîm n jnvlr fc cstc prlkrnhn pnrn hcglrnr mucstrns ioufnfcs. ¼Ilmiucrfn
ustcf ilm caals<µ.
Crrlrcs vnrols
An prckumtn pucfc scr7
>. Fchnsonfl ilrtn (csinsn omjlrhnioùm mcicsnron) *¼Ircc ustcf quc als
Niucrfls
fc Komcbrn fc >?36 slm umn bnsc rnzlmnbac pnrn tcrhomnr an kucrrn toi Zoctmnh<µ.
• Fchnsonfl anrkn (cxicsovn omjlrhnioùm supcrjaun). «Sm prlycitl ilmsofcrnfl
nitunahcmtc plr ca Ilmkrcsl ltlrknrèn jlmfls jcfcrnacs pnrn aacvnr n inbl nakumls
prlkrnhns cxostcmtcs -an hnylrèn fc caals rcaniolmnfls ilm ioufnfcs‖, omiauycmfl
prlycitls fc crrnfoinioùm fc bnrrols bngls, prlycitls fc hcglrns cm ans hctrùplaos,
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panmojoinioùm urbnmn y rckolmna, prlkrnhns fc rcurbnmoznioùm y ltrls sohoanrcs. Vnhboïm
ilmtocmc fosplsoiolmcs slbrc jomnmionioùm n bngl omtcrïs fc vovocmfns pnrn jnhoaons fc
omkrcsls rcfuiofls, nhpaonioùm fca sckurl fc `opltcins fc an Nfhomostrnioùm Jcfcrna fc
an Zovocmfn (NJZ) n ans ioufnfcs tltnahcmtc mucvns, nutlroznioùm pnrn quc als sckurls
fc `opltcin fc an NJZ omiauynm an cfojoinioùm fc ilmsuatlrols hïfoils ilacitovls, sub-
vcmiolmcs n klbocrmls humoiopnacs pnrn prcscrvnr cfojoiols `ostùroils y nyufnr n quc ans
jnhoaons quc vovcm cm ca inhpl ilhprcm mucvns insns plr hcfol fc prïstnhls pnrn
vovocmfns rurnacs. Nsokmn, furnmtc ca prohcr nþl, 26 hoaalmcs fc fùanrcs pnrn
panmojoinioùm, 234 hoaalmcs pnrn prlycitls fc rcurbnmoznioùm furnmtc um pcrèlfl fc 2
nþls n pnrtor fca >l fc guaol fc >?:;, y ?44 hoaalmcs cstc prlycitl<µ.
9. Tlaïhoin (tnhboïm, plr al ilh÷m, fchnsonfl anrkn). Tucstl, quc mucstrns krnmfcs
ioufnfcs ilmicmtrnm hîs fc an hotnf fc an plbanioùm y- ilmtrobuycm ilm inso ca ;3 ?: fcals ohpucstls, y `nm tcmofl prlbachns tnm scrols ilhl als tuhuatls cm Als Nmkcacs y
tlfl csc topl fc hnmojcstniolmcs, sc `n prlpucstl plmcr cm hnri`n um prlkrnhn jcfcrna
quc omiauorèn um prlycitl fc cstufol furnmtc ca nþl prùxohl, y auckl, an npaoinioùm fca,
panm fc crrnfoinioùm fc als bnrrols bngls, an nsokmnioùm fc hnylrcs jlmfls pnrn ltlrknr
prïstnhls fcstomnfls n an ilmstruiioùm fc vovocmfns y ltrls prlycitls. Furnmtc um
pcrèlfl fc >4 nþls, ca ilstl tltna fc tlfls cstls prlycitls sùal nsicmfcrèn, nprlxohn-
fnhcmtc, na >,3 ?: fca omkrcsl mniolmna. ¼Cstî ustcf n jnvlr l cm ilmtrn fc-cstc
prlycitl<µ.
6. Ohplsobac fc rcsplmfcr plrquc ilmstn fc fls pnrtcs, «¼Cstî ustcf n jnvlr fca
prlycitl fc Ioufnfcs Toaltl, l fcbcrènhls nhpaonr an Acy Jcfcrna fc an Zovocmfn< >) Yè.
2) Mlµ.
3. Fchnsonfl omjlrhna. «¼Ml ac pnrcic quc yn cs `lrn fc nrrckan5 cs tc aèl fc ans krnmfcs
ioufnfcs y nprlbnr ca prlycitl<µ.
:. Ilmjusn plr an utoaoznioùm fc mckniolmcs flbacs. «¼Forèn ustcf (¡lc ml cstî cm ilmtrn
fc cstc prlycitl<µ.
;. Fchnsonfl, natoslmnmtc. «Hui`ns nutlrofnfcs chomcmtcs ilmsofcrnm quc an iuaturn
urbnmn ilmtchplrîmcn prcscmtn muhcrlsls prlbachns fc fcslrknmoznioùm sliona y
naocmnioùm omfovofuna quc rcvostcm cxtrchn krnvcfnf, al quc rcquocrc quc ca scitlr
p÷baoil fc mucstrn sliocfnf tlhc hcfofns nprlponfns. ¼Ircc ustcf quc tna nitovofnf
ilrrcitovn cs7 >) ilrrcitn, l 2) omilrrcitn<µ,
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:.: Iùhl panmojoinr an prlpon cmiucstn7
Smn nvcmturn fc fcsiubrohocmtl
Iunmfl ca acitlr sc prlplmkn canblrnr umn cmiucstn prlpon, fcsiubrorî inso fc
omhcfontl quc fcbc `nicr inso tlfl plr sè hoshl7
2
cackor ca tchn fc an cmiucs tn,prcpnrnr ca omstruhcmtna nprlponfl ilm als hcfols fc quc fosplmc y rctomnral hcricf n
umn prucbn prcvon. Ylal plfchls ljrcicrac pnutns kcmcrnacs.
Caciioùm fca tchn
Ca tchn quc caogn ca acitlr fcbcrî pcrtcmcicr n um inhpl fc an plaotoilalkèn quc ac rcsuatc
fc pnrtoiuanr omtcrïs y ilm rcspcitl na iuna yn tcmkn nak÷m ilmliohocmtl cm al quc ntnþc n
als nmtcicfcmtcs jumfnhcmtnacs c omvcstokniolmcs rciocmtcs. Fc cstn hnmcrn, cs hîs
prlbnbac quc ca trnbngl cstï bocm panmojoin-
2 Furnmtc an npaoinioùm cxpcrohcmtna fc cstc tcxtl cm ans ianscs foitnfns plr ca nutlr,
infn cstufonmtc prcpnrù umn cmiucstn, an nfhomostrù c omjlrhù slbrc caan, ilhl, trnbngl
prîitoil promiopna fca schcstrc. Tufl fctcrhomnrsc quc cstn tnrcn pcrhotoù nfquoror 4>>9
vnaolsn cxpcrocmion ilm rcspcitl n nakumls hïtlfls iunmtotntovls5 pcrl an prcpnrnioùm
cspcièjoin sc ilhpachcmtù ilm an aciturn fc als sokuocmtcs aobrls7 @crbcrt @yhnm,
Yurvcy Fcsokm nmf Nmnaysos, -Mucvn _lre7 Jrcc Trcss, >?335 I`nracs >>. Bniestrlh y
Kcrnaf F. Oaurs`, Yurvcy Rcsinrib, Cvnmstlm7 Mlrt`wcstcrm Smovcrsoty Trcss, >?:9, yFcabcl I. Hoaacr, @nmfblle lj Rcscnri` Fcsokm nmf Yliona Hinsurchcmt, Mucvn _lre7
Fnvof `aiEny Il., >?:6.
Smn vcz quc `n scaciiolmnfl su tcrmn, fcbc ilhcmznr plr cstufonr an bobaolkrnjèn, tnmtl
cm busin fc sukcrcmions ilrml fc omjlrhnioùm fctnaanfn slbrc al quc ltrls `nm `ci`l,
suhcrkoïmflsc cm ca lbgctl fc cstufol y nprcmfocmfl inbnahcmtc iunacs ca «cstnfl
nituna fca nrtcµ cm iucstoùm. Auckl jlrhuanrî cm jlrhn cspcièjoin nakumns fc ans
`opùtcsos rcumofns cm sus aciturns, slhctoïm]flans na guoiol fc sus prljcslrcs y
ilhpnþcrls. Yc ljrcicm n ilmtomunioùm naku]mns sukcrcmions rcantovns n vnrols inhpls,
ans iunacs cstîm acgls fc scr ilhpactns y slal tocmcm plr jom lrocmtnr na acitlr cm su prlpon
b÷squcfn. Als trnbngls hcmiolmnfls, nsè ilhl ltrns jucmtcs fc ¡fcns fc tchns fc
omvcstoknioùm, sc iotnm cm umn sciioùm cspciona fc an aostn bobaolkrîjoin ljrciofn na jomna fc
cstc inpotual.
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Ylionaoznioùm plaètoin, Yo na acitlr ac omtcrcsnm als prlicsls hcfonmtc als iunacs um
omfovoful sc ilmvocrtc cm «`lhbrc plaètoilµ, y ans omjaucmions quc fctcrh`mnm ca topl fc
`lhbrc, plaètoil cm quc sc trnsjlrhn, fcbc cxnhomnr trnbngls iaîsoils, ilhl als
cstufols slbrc an «pcrslmnaofnf nutlrotnronµ, @c nquè .nakumns fc ans `opùtcsos, quc n`èpucfc cmilmtrnr7
o
Ans cxpcrocmions omjnmtoacs cgcricm umn jucrtc omjaucmion cm ca juturl ilhplrtnhocmtl
plaètoil fca omfovoful.
ans pnutns fc nutlrofnf jnhoaonr sc rcjacgnm cm ans pnutns fc nutlrofnf fca sostchn
plaètoil.
Als omfovofuls iuyls pnfrcs ml tuvocrlm umn prcjcrcmion il`crctmc plr um pnrtofl
plaètoil hnmojcstnrîm prcjcrcmions pnrtofnrons hcmls omtcmsns quc nqucaals ltrls iuyls
pnfrcs jucrlm il`crcmtcs na rcspcitl.
Lpomoùm Tlaètoin y krupls fc rcjcrcmion7 An tclrèn fc als krupls plaètoils, ohplrtnmtc cm an
plaotlalkèn n pnrtor fc Bcmtacy, y huy pcrjciiolmnfn plr FNvof Vruhnm, sc `n bcmcjoionfl
ilm ca cstufol sliolaùkoil fc als krupls fc rcjcrcmion, cs fcior, nqucaals ilm als quc ca
omfovoful sc ofcmtojoin `nstn ca pumtl fc cxtrncr fc caals sus prlpols vnalrcs. Tlsobacs `opùtcsos pnrn omfnknr7
An pcrtcmcmion n krupls quc sustcmtnm vnalrcs ilmjaoitovls sc nslion ilm um nplyl hîs
fïboa n ans iucstolmcs plaètoins ilmcxns, hocmtrns quc an pcrtcmcmion n krupls ilm
vnalrcs ilhpnrtofls tocmfc n rcjlrznr ca nplyl n ans iucstolmcs plaètoins ilmcxns.
Ca cjcitl cgcriofl plr um krupl fc rcjcrcmion slbrc ca ilhplrtnhocmtl plaètoil fc uml fc
sus hochbrls sc rcaniolmn ilm an lpomoùm fc cstc ÷atohl slbrc an ohplrtnmion fca. krupl
cm iunmtl n sus omtcrcscs ml plaètoils.
An pcrsunsovofnf plaètoin fc al quc sc ilhumoin n um omfovoful pcrtcmciocmtc n um krupl
fc rcjcrcmion vnrèn ilm' an prlhomcmion fca krupl ilm rcspcitl n csc omfovoful,
pnrionahcmtc fctcrhomnfn plr ca ilmtcmofl fc an ilhumoinioùm y ca inmna n trnvïs fca
iuna cstn sc trnmshotc.
Sm promiopol hlrna l ïtoil `naanrî hnylr nplyl, so cm vcz fc cxprcsnral ilhl mlrhn
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fc niioùm, sc al cxprcsn ilhl ofcna.
Ca nplyl n um promiopol trnfoiolmna fca sostchn fc irccmions fc fctcrhomnfl krupl
tocmc umn jucrtc ilrrcanioùm ilm ca movca fc cfuinioùm fc als cmtrcvostnfls.
Ca rcilmliohocmtl fc an nslionioùm l il`crcmion aùkoin fc fls l hîs promiopols
ilhbomnfls cm um sostchn trnfoiolmna fc irccmions ("Yo irccs cstl, irccrîs cstl
ltrl") ml cs umojlrhc cm ca krnm p÷baoil.
Smn cfuinioùm jlrhna aohotnfn ilmtrobuyc n ljrcicr slauiolmcs sohpacs cm nsumtls fc
plaètoin cxtcrolr.
Ca nplyl n omstotuiolmcs omtcrmniolmnacs ‖ilhl an LMS‖ cs hnylr cm ca panml
nbstrnitl quc cm sotuniolmcs fc niioùm ilmirctn.
An knhn fc natcrmntovns quc klznm fca nplyl ilmirctl fca p÷baoil foshomuyc hui`l cm sotuniolmcs fc krnm tcmsoùm, iunmfl sc ans ilhpnrn ilm ltrns fc mls tcmsoùm.
'Yo ca acitlr sc omtcrcsn plr ca ilhplrtnhocmtl gurèfoil, plfrèn nmnaoznr ans `opùtcsos fc
quc fctcrhomnfn flitromn gurèfoin fc nvnmznfn rciobc hîs nplyl so sc -ofcmtojoin ilm an
nutlrofnf fc an Yuprchn Ilrtc fc Cstnfls Smofls quc so an mlrhn sc fcsirobc
hcrnhcmtc ilhl um promiopol. Cm ca inhpl fca ilhplrtnhocmtl ackosantovl, ca trnbngl
fc [n`oec y Cuanu rcsuatn 'pnrtoiuanrhcmtc ÷toa ilhl jucmtc fc ¡fcns. Als-iunfrls :-C y
:-C, omiauofls cm als cgcrioiols fc cstc inpètual, sc bnsnm cm umn fc sus cmiucstns5 sc
pucfc omvcrtor ca cmjlquc y trntnr fc vcr so ans lpomolmcs fca p÷baoil slbrc ca rla prlpol fc
um ackosanflr vnrènm fc okuna jlrhn quc ans fc als ackosanflrcs hoshls.
Yo bocm omilhpactn, cstn scaciioùm omfoin an vnrocfnf y nainmic fc ans jucmtcs cxostcmtcs
pnrn scaciiolmnr tchns cac omvcstoknioùm. Na acitlr sc ac liurrorîm ltrns ¡fcns slbrc an
bnsc fc als rcs÷hcmcs fc cmiucstns quc nilhpnþnm als cgcrioiols fc cstc inpètual, fc
als fchîs iunfrls omiauofls cm als cgcrioiols y als ilhcmtnrols bobaolkrîjoils quc sc
fnm hîs nfcanmtc. Cm pnrtoiuanr, nilmscgn-umls cxnhomnr ans
pubaoiniolmcs
cspcionaoznfns cm plaètoin, som lavofnr ca Tubaoi Lpomoùm ^unrtcray.
Ofcmtojoinioùm fc ans vnronbacs
Smn vcz quc sc `n fctcrhomnfl prlvosolmnahcmtc iuîa scrî ca tchn kcmcrna fc an
cmiucstn, cs hcmcstcr prcvcr als iunfrls quc sc `nbrîm fc prcscmtnr cm ca omjlrhc
csirotl jomna. N hcfofn quc sc vnm jlrhuanmfl ans `opùtcsos prlvosolmnacs, `ny quc
blsqucgnr umn scroc fc jlrhntls fc iunfrls, ilm sus tètuals rcspcitovls. Yc ilhocmzn
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plr nakumls jlrhntls bofoohcmsolmnacs sohpacs, panmojoinmfl infn uml ilm ca jom fc
cxnhomnr an nslionioùm cmtrc umn vnronbac fc ilhplrtnhocmtl l nitotuf y umn vnronbac
cxpaointovn l inusna. Cstc prlicsl lbaoknrî na acitlr n pumtunaoznr y nianrnr sus panmcs
ilhl pnsl prcvol pnrn jlrhuanr ans prckumtns cspcièjoins quc uboinrîm ilm prciosoùm n
infn cmtrcvostnfl cm ca «cspniol fc prlpocfnfcsµ fcjomofl plr ans vnronbacs.
Znronbacs cxpaointovns. Cm an hnylrèn fc als prlycitls, ans vnronbacs omfcpcmfocmtcs (y
fc ilmtrla) scrîm ans intcklrèns fc ofcmtojoinioùm fc als cmtrcvostnfls. Cs hcmcstcr
rcilrfnr als trcs topls fc prckumtns fc ofcmtojoinioùm hcmiolmnfls cm an sciioùm :.27
ofcmtojoinioùm Vîitoin ofcmtojoinioùm fc an omjlru nioùm nplrtnfn plr ca cmtrcvostnfl c
ofcmtojoinioùm fca rla fca cmtrcvostnfl. Smn omtcrcsnmtc tnbuanioùm iruznfn pubaoinfn cm
an cmiucstn fc V`c Iovoi Iuaturc cxnhomnbn an nslionioùm cmtrc an fosplsoioùm fc als
cmtrcvostnfls n hnmojcstnr lpomolmcs y su movca fc omjlrhnioùm plaètoin. Ca cstufol
fc HiIOlsey slbrc «forokcmtcs y pnrtofnrolsµ, rcsuhofl cm als cgcrioiols fc cstc
inpètual, cs um cgchpal cxicacmtc fc iùhl utoaoznr ans vnronbacs fc rla.
Znronbacs fc nito tuf . Ans lpomolmcs l nitotufcs plaètoins quc sc quocrcm cxpaoinr
-vnronbacs fcpcmfocmtcs- omiauorîm rubrls cspcièjoils fc caciioùm y \hltovnioùm5 an
jlrhuanioùm fc cstls ÷atohls rcquocrc hnylr iuofnfl y rcjacxoùm. Ca promioponmtc fcbc
cvotnr intcklrèns fc hltovnioùm huy ilhpacgns, pcrl cs umn bucmn cxpcrocmion omiauor
plr al hcmls umn fc cstns vnronbacs ilm ca jom fc omfovofunaoznr quc rnzlmcs `nm
fctcrhomnfl an caciioùm fca cmtrcvostnfl. Cs plsobac quc als rcsuatnfls ml scnm
sntosjnitlrols, pcrl vnac an pcmn `nicr ca csjucrzl fc cxpaoinr nakumls fc cstls
jnitlrcs plaètoils, hîs jumfnhcmtnacs y pcrhnmcmtcs.
Rcfniioùm fc ans prckum tns
Yo sc prcstn ntcmioùm n an aostn fc vnronbacs quc sc quocrc ofcmtojoinr, plfrî lbtcmcrsc
umn kuèn ÷toa pnrn cstnbacicr ca topl fc prckumtns quc fcbcm jlrhuanrsc. @ny quc trntnr
fc prcvcr quc intcklrèns rcsuatnrîm ÷toacs, rcilrfnmfl quc, umn vcz jomnaoznfn an
cmiucstn, scrî fchnsonfl tnrfc pnrn lbtcmcr omjlrhnioùm nfoiolmna. Cs hui`l hcglr
rcumor fntls quc n an anrkn ml `nbrîm fc chpacnrsc quc lhotor um rubrl mcicsnrol tna
vcz pnrn rcnaoznr umn tnbuanioùm iruznfn l ilmtrla fciosovl. Yom chbnrkl, scrî
mcicsnrol pcrhnmcicr nacrtn ilmtrn als rocskls quc sokmojoin chpacnr iucstolmnrols
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huy anrvns. Smn scroc fchnsonfl anrkn fc prckumtns `nic pcrfcr
tochpl na cmtrcvostnfl y fostrnc su ntcmioùm.
An omiausoùm fc vnrons prlplsoiolmcs fojcrcmtcs pnrn als rubrls hîs ohplrtnmtcs fc
nitotuf‖
cs fcior, prckumtnr al hoshl cm fostomtns jlrhns- ilmstotuyc umn prîitoinbcmcjoiolsn, quc prcvocmc ilmtrn ca scskl l an nhbokñcfnf omvlaumtnrols. Tlr supucstl,
ans fostomtns vcrsolmcs fcbcm fostrobuorsc n al anrkl fc iucstolmnrol, cm vcz fc nkrupnrans
cm um slal auknr. Na businr plr ilhpnrnioùm an il`crcmion cmtrc ans fostomtrcspucstns, sc
`naanrî an vcrsoùm hîs sntosjnitlron pnrn ans tnbuaniolmcs fcjomotovns. . Iunmfl prcpnrn
an aostn prcaohomnr, ca cmiucstnflr ml fcbc fufnr cm omiauor iunaquocr prckumtn quc sc ac
liurrn, panmojoinmfl ans ilsns fc hlfl fc fcscnrrnr rubrls hîs nfcanmtc y ml fc
nhpaonrals. Yo na tcrhomnr fc prcpnrnr ca iucstolmnrol fcjomotovl ml. sc `n fcsinrtnfl um
bucm m÷hcrl fc rubrls, cs prlbnbac quc nquca ilmtcmkn nakumns prckumtns
omilrrcitns.
@ny quc trntnr fc jlrhuanr uml l hîs krupls fc prckumtns iansojoinfns cm csinans, l um
nkrupnhocmtl na quc pucfn nsokmnrsc um vnalr èmfoic. An cxpcrocmion cs vnaolsn num so
als rcsuatnfls ml pucfcm n an plstrc scr lrfcmnfls cm umn csinan. Ca èmfoic cachcmtna
fc 9 pumtls chpacnfl cm an cmiucstn fc HiIOlsey quc sc fcsirobc cm als cgcrioiols
rcquocrc rcantovnhcmtc plils iîaiuals cspcionacs, y ilm trobuyc n nianrnr ans
prcscmtniolmcs tnbuanrcs.
An cmiucstn fcbc slhctcrsc n um prctcst
Als hîs cxpcrohcmtnfls cspcionaostns cm omvcstoknioùm plr cmiucstn mumin ilmjènm
fchnsonfl cm sus prlpons prckumtns ‖y ca acitlr fc cstn lbrn tnhplil fcbc
`nicral‖. Ca -prlicfohocmtl fc prctcst tocmc cm sè tnmtn ohplrtnmion pnrn an
prcpnrnioùm fc um omstruhcmtl sntosjnitlrol ilhl an ilmjciioùm lro-
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Fcbc scr nfhomostrnfl fc okuna hnmcrn y plr als hoshls cmiucstnflrcs. Cs
prlbnbac quc cm cstc prlycitl ca acitlr hoshl scn ca cmiucstnflr, al iuna ilmstotuyc
cm rcnaofnf umn vcmtngn, pucs ïa cs an pcrslmn quc hîs ilmlic sus prckumtns y
pucfc guzknr ilm hnylr prciosoùm so als omtcrrlknfls cm ca prcscst ac cstîm fnmfl l
ml rcspucstns ÷toacs.
Ilm als rcsuatnfls fca prcscst n an vostn, sc cjcitunrîm iîaiuals prcaohomnrcs pnrn
nakumls fc als iunfrls quc sc pocmsn omiauor cm ca omjlrhc fcjomotovl l tlfls caals.
^uozî sc fcsiubrnm rubrls om÷toacs, intcklrèns quc tna vcz qucfcm cm banmil y
nkrupnhocmtls fc ofcmtojoinioùm ilmjusn, nsè ilhl rubrls lhotofls
omvlaumtnronhcmtc pcrl quc slm omfospcmsnbacs pnrn nakumn fc ans tnbuaniolmcs quc
sc tcmèn omtcmioùm fc prcpnrnr plr ca nutlr ‖. An cxpcrocmion pucfc scr sntosjnitlron
(iunmfl sc cstî cm al iocrtl) l hlacstn (iunmfl sc ilhctoù um. crrlr), pcrl cm nhblsinsls cs omcstohnbac pnrn panmojoinr ca prlpol trnbngl, ljrciocmfl na acitlr umn sucrtc
fc prucbn fciosovn slbrc su inpniofnf fc accr y nmnaoznr um iunfrl Rcacvnmion. N
hcfofn quc sc fcsnrrlaan ca prlycitl fc cmiucstn, `ny, quc tcmcr sochprc prcscmtc
ca promiopol fc an rcacvnmion7 an rcanioùm cmtrc an tclrèn y als `ci`ls. Of ilmliohocmtl
nuhcmtn hcricf n an omtcrniioùm fc ans ¡fcns y an omvcstoknioùm chpèroin, fc an
ilmicptunaoznioùm y an uatcrolr vcrojoinioùm fc als ilmicptls. Cstl rcsuatn
pnrtoiuanrhcmtc ianrl cm ans ilmtrobuiolmcs fc an omvcstoknioùm plr cmiucstns n. an plao
t oilalkèn. Yo ca acitlr pucfc fcsnrrlaanr su prlµ vcitl ilhl um csanbùm cmtrc ans
prlplsoiolmcs plaètoins tcùroins y als fcsiubrohocmtls ilmirctls slbrc an rcnaofnf
plaètoin, `nbrî nvnmznfl hui`l `nion ca lbgctovl fc ilmvcrtorsc cm um omvcstoknflr
ilhpctcmtc.
Aciturns rcilhcmfnfns
An sckumfn pnrtc fc cstn aostn bobaolkrîjoin sc nkrckn ilrml jucmtc fc `opùtcsos
plaètoins pnrn quocmcs busqucm ¡fcns utoaoznbacs cm an rcnaoznioùm fc sus prlpons
cmiucstns. Fostn, plr supucstl, fc scr ilhpactn, y plfrèn nhpaonrsc inso
omfcjomofnhcmtc. Nfchîs fc als aobrls iotnfls, cmtrc als quc sc omiauycm tnmtl omjlrhcs
slbrc cmiucstns ilrml cstufols tcùroils, ca acitlr pucfc rciurror n als muhcrlsls
nrtèiuals npnrciofls cm rcvostns cspcionaoznfns quc omjlrhnm slbrc omvcstokniolmcs
plr cmiucstns. Cm an bobaolkrnjèn fca inpètual >4 pucfc ilm slatnrsc umn aostn fc ans
7/21/2019 Como Formulamos Preguntas (en; Laboratorio de La Ciencia Política - Oliver Benson)
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/como-formulamos-preguntas-en-laboratorio-de-la-ciencia-politica-oliver 25/26
promiopnacs pubaoiniolmcs flmfc sucacm npnrcicr csls nrtèiuals.
TSBAOINIOLMCY FCA YCHOMNROL FC FCRCI@L TLAÈVOIL
FC AN SMOZCRYOFNF FC @NRICALMN, BNGL AN FORCIIOÙM FCA
Trlj. H. Gohïmcz fc Tnrkn
VÈVSALY TSBAOINFLY7
>. Kclrkis Burfcnu
AN FCHLIRNION Cmsnyl somtïtoil
2. [natcr V`cohcr
@OYVLRON FC ANY OFCNY TLAÈVOINY
9. Hnuroic Fuvcrkir
HÏVLFLY FC ANY IOCMIONY YLIONACY
6. Enra Hnrx-Jrocfroi` Cmkcas
RCZLASIOÙM CM CYTNÞN
3. [oaaonh Cbcmstcom
ALY OYHLY TLAÈVOILY ILMVCHTLRÎMCLY
(Ilhumoshl, Jnsioshl, Inpotnaoshl, Ylionaoshl)
:. Hnuroic Fuvcrkcr
OMYVOVSIOLMCY TLAÈVOINY _' FCRCI@L ILMYVOVSIOLMNA
;. Gl`m Ecmmct` Knabrnot`
AN CILMLHÈN _ CA NRVC FC AN ILMVRLZCRYON
0. @uk` V`lhns
CA YOYVCHN CYVNBACIOFL ("V`c Cstnbaos`hcmt")7
?. @cmry I. [naaoi`
7/21/2019 Como Formulamos Preguntas (en; Laboratorio de La Ciencia Política - Oliver Benson)
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/como-formulamos-preguntas-en-laboratorio-de-la-ciencia-politica-oliver 26/26
CA ILYVC FC AN AOBCRVNF
>4. Jrnmilos Tcrrlux
CILMLHON5_ YLIOCFNF
>>.@. G. Cysimie
TYOILALKÈN FC AN FCIOYOÙM TLAÈVOIN
>2. Gcnm Hcymnuf
TRLBACHNY OFCLAÙKOILY FCA YOKAL PP (Ca fcstoml
fc ans ofclalkèns y Vcimlirnion Tlaètoin
>9. Kclrkcs Acjrnmi
@OYVLRON FC ANY FLIVROMNY YLIONACY CM AN CSRLTN
ILMVCHTLRÎMCN.
>6. Gniqucs Anhbcrt
NHÏROIN ANVOMN
(Cstruiturns slionacs c omstotuiolmcs plaètoins)
>3.Hnuroic Fuvcrkcr
OMVRLFSIIOÙM N AN TLAÈVOIN
>:. Enra Alcwcmstcom
VCLRÈN FC AN ILMYVOVSIOÙM
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