american indian college success at a mainstream university: facilitators and barriers to academic...

AMERICANINDIANCOLLEGESUCCESSATAMAINSTREAMUNIVERSITY:

FACILITATORSANDBARRIERSTOACADEMICATTAINMENTBy

SCOTTD.FLEMING

Adissertationsubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe

DoctorofPhilosophy

MajorinSociology

SouthDakotaStateUniversity

FACILITATORSANDBARRIERSTOACADEMICATTAINMENT

Thisdissertationisapprovedasacredibleandindependentinvestigationby

acandidatefortheDoctorofPhilosophydegreeandisacceptableformeetingthe

dissertationrequirementsforthisdegree.Acceptanceofthisdissertationdoesnot

implythattheconclusionsreachedbythecandidatearenecessarilytheconclusions

ofthemajordepartment.

____________________________________________________________

TimothyJ.Nichols,Ph.D. Date DissertationAdvisor

____________________________________________________________ DianeKayongo‐Male,Ph.D. Date Head,RuralSociology

Acknowledgements

Therearemanywithoutwhosesupport,encouragement,andassistancethis

dissertationcouldnothavebeenpossible.TothosepeopleIoffermydeepest

gratitudeandeternaldebt.Firstandforemostamongmysupportersaremyfamily,

Ranae,Hannah,andTyler.Withouttheirsacrificeandperseverancethroughoutthe

manylongyearsthatIsoughtmyownacademicattainment,thiswouldnothave

beenpossible.

Tothefaculty,staff,andadministratorsofPSU,whograciouslysharedwith

metheirthoughts,feelingsandopinionsontheNativeAmericancollegeexperience

atthisuniversity,Ioffermanythanks.TheircommitmentanddedicationtoNative

studentsuccesswillserveasmymodelthroughouttheyearstocome.

Finally,andmostimportantly,ImustacknowledgethemanyAmerican

Indianstudentswhoplacedinmethetrustthatallowedthemtosharetheirhopes,

andaspirationsforcollegeandthefrustrationsthatmanyexperiencealongtheway.

Itismysincerehopethatthisdissertationplaysapartingettingtheirvoicesheard

andisofserviceinthefacilitationofacademicattainmentforallNativestudents

interestedinpursuinghighereducation.Toallofthosewhoparticipatedinthis

research,andwhomIconsidermyfriends,Ioffermysincereandheartfeltthanks

andeverlastingappreciation.

Abstract

FACILITATORSANDBARRIERSTOACADEMICATTAINMENT

SCOTTD.FLEMING

Thisstudyisanethnographicexplorationintothebarrierstoacademic

attainmentandthefactorsthatfacilitateretentionandgraduationforAmerican

IndianstudentsatapredominantlyWhiteuniversityintheupperMidwest.

Worksincriticaleducationtheoryandcriticalracetheoryprovidethe

frameworkfortheinvestigation.Referencegrouptheoryprovidesthebasisfor

investigatingtheroleplayedbya‘thirdplace’asasafeenvironmentwhere

AmericanIndiancollegestudentscanaffiliatewithanormativereferencegroupthat

sharescommonculturalcapitalthataidsinnavigationthroughtheuniversity

environment.

Theethnographicresearchmethodsofintensiveinterviews,focusgroups,

andparticipantobservationwithuniversityadministrators,faculty,staff,and

studentsareusedtogatherdata.Quantitativedataonuniversityenrollment,

retention,andgraduationbyrace/ethnicityisalsopresented.

Findingsshowamongthemostsalientfacilitators,supportisthemost

significant,followedbycultureandfinancialresources.Amongthemostpowerful

barriers,themostsalientwasfoundtobeinstitutionalbarriers,followedbyalackof

support,poorhighschoolpreparation,andthelackofopportunitiesforcultural

expressionandparticipation.

Implicationsandrecommendationsforthepragmaticapplicationoffindings

tothefieldofhighereducationforAmericanIndianstudentsarediscussed.

Recommendationsforfurtherstudyareincluded.

TableofContents

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….iv

ListofTables……………………………………………………………………………………………….….....ix

ChapterOne:Introduction…………..………………………………………………………..................1

ChapterTwo:LiteratureReview…………………..……………………………………………...…10

ABriefHistoryofAmericanIndianEducation………………………………………….10

TheCurrentStateofAmericanIndianHigherEducation………………………..…17

StudiesinAmericanIndianHigherEducation…………………………………….....…23

BarrierstoAmericanIndianHigherEducation……………………………………..….24

FactorsLeadingtoAmericanIndianSuccessinHigherEducation……………..28

SpecificStrategiesforSuccessinHigherEducation…………………………………..31

TheRoleofEthnicIdentityandEmpowerment………………………………………...35

TheRoleofaSharedPlaceforAmericanIndianStudents………………………….41

SummaryandConclusiontoLiteratureReview………………………………………...43

ChapterThree:TheoreticalOrientation……………….………………………………………....47

ChapterFour:Methodology……………………..……………………………………………………....61

ResearchQuestions………………………………………………………………………………....62

StudyInstitution……………………………………………………………………………………..63

StudyParticipants…………………………………………………………………………………...63

ResearchDesign……………………………………………………………………………………...66

Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………...……..67

DataCollectionandAnalysis…………………………………………………………………….73

ConsiderationofHumanSubjects……………………………………………………………..80

ChapterFive:Findings:Quantitative…………………..…………………………………….……..84

ChapterSix:Findings:Facilitators…………………..…………………………………….…………89

Facilitator:Support………………………………………………………………………………….91

Facilitator:FinancialResources……………………………………………………………...101

Facilitator:Culture………………………………………………………………………………...104

ChapterSeven:Findings:Barriers………………………….……………………………….……..107

InstitutionalBarriers……………………………………………………………………………..109

PoorHighSchoolPreparation………………………………………………………………...115

PrejudiceorRacism……………………………………………………………………………….121

LackofSupport……………………………………………………………………………………..123

Family…………………………………………………………………………………………………..128

Financial……………………………………………………………………………………………….131

Community……………………………………………………………………………………………135

Culture………………………………………………………………………………………………….137

DominantCultureReferenceGroup………………………………………………………..142

Place……………………………………………………………………………………………………..147

ChapterEight:Discussion……………………………………………………….……………………...152

Facilitators……………………………………………………………………………………………153

Barriers………………………………………………………………………………………………...163

ChapterNine:Summary,Conclusions,RecommendationsandLimitations....201

Summary/Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………..201

Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………………213

Recommendations………………………………………………………………..……………….216

SuggestionsforFurtherResearch……………………………….………………...………..222

References……………………………………………………………………………………………………...224

Appendices

A:InterviewGuideforAdministratorsandFaculty……………………….………...235

B:InterviewGuideforStudents……………………………………………………...………238

C:ParticipantConsentFormforPersonalInterview………………..............……...242

D:ParticipantConsentFormforFocusGroupInterview………………………….245

E:ParticipantConsentFormforPersonalInterview Administrator/Faculty………………………………………..………………………248 F:IntroductiontoFocusGroupandDemographicQuestionnaire…………….251

G:NativeAmericanScholarships…………………………………………….………..........253

ListofTables

Table……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...page

5.1 EthnicOriginSDSUStudentPopulation………………………………………………….…85

5.2 RetentionandGraduationRatesofFull‐Time,First‐TimeBachelor’s

DegreeseekingStudentPopulation(TotalPopulation)…………………………..…88

5.3 RetentionandGraduationRatesofFull‐Time,First‐TimeBachelor’s

DegreeseekingStudentPopulation(NativeAmericanPopulation)………..…..88

6.1 PrimaryFacilitatorsofAmericanIndianEducationalAttainmentSample

Quotations…………………………………………………………………………………........……...90

7.1 PrimaryBarrierstoAmericanIndianEducationalAttainment

SampleQuotations………………………………………………………………………………...108

CHAPTERONE

Introduction

PlainsStateUniversity(PSU)isapredominantlyWhiteinstitutioninastate

withasignificantandgrowingAmericanIndianpopulation.PSUoffersadiversityof

programsaimedathelpingAmericanIndianssucceedincollege.However,the

mechanismsthatimpacttheefficacyoftheseprogramsarenotwellunderstood.

ThisstudyexploresfacilitatorsandbarrierstoeducationalattainmentforAmerican

IndianstudentsatPSU.

Thisstudyseekstodeterminewhatfactorscombinetoenhanceacademic

attainmentinhighereducationamongAmericanIndianstudents;andconversely,

whatfactorsworkasbarrierstoacademicattainment.Thisstudyexploresthe

factorsthatcontributetoeducationalattainmentamongAmericanIndianstudents

atapredominantlyWhiteuniversityinaMidwesternplainsstate.

ThroughoutthehistoryofcontactbetweenEuropeancolonizersandthe

indigenouspeoplesofNorthAmerica,Indianeducationhadasitsprimarygoalthe

reshapingoftheIndianintothemoldoftheEuropeanman(Meriam1928;Collier

1947;Berkhofer1978).

Berry(1969)illustratesthefailureofAmerica’slonghistoryoffailingto

educatetheIndianintotheWhiteman’simage.Berryattributesthisfailuretothe

historyofrelationsbetweenthedominantsocietyandtribalgroupsregarding

academicachievement.Berrypointsoutthatnearlyeveryconceivablebarrierto

educationalsuccesswasatworkregardingtheeducationalexperienceofthe

AmericanIndianstudent.

InthebookNativeAmericanHigherEducationintheUnitedStates,Carney

(1999:147)listsseveralproblemsthataremanifestattheindividuallevelthatactas

obstaclestosuccessinhighereducation.Theseinclude:apersistentlyhighdropout

rateduringorbeforehighschool(Tierney1992);alowproportionofhighschool

graduatesenteringcollege(Belgarde1992);astrongsenseofisolationandof

insurmountableculturalbarriers(RichardsonandSkinner,1991);agenerallackof

academicpreparationandskills,alackofrolemodels,financialproblems,negative

culturalpressure(GuyetteandHeth1983);cultureshock,lackofmotivation,

Englishdeficiency,unrealisticcareergoals,distrustoftheinstitution,andageneral

lackofsupport,socializationandcounseling,(McIntosh1987;WrightandTierney

1991).

AccordingtoHuffman(1999)studentswhoarelessassimilatedtothe

mainstreamculturewillexperiencemorecultureshockuponarrivalatcollegeand

willbemorelikelytodropoutandreturnhomewithoutsomesupportorservices

designedtofacilitatethetransitionfromthefamiliar,moretraditionalenvironment

tothemainstreamcollegeenvironment.Associationwithculturallysimilarpeers

helpssoftentheharsheffectsofcultureshockandsmooththetransition.

Inthebook,TheGreatGoodPlace(1989),Oldenburgmakesastrongcasefor

whatheterms‘thethirdplace’asaplacewhereinformalpublicassociationserves

tofacilitateasenseofcommunitywellbeingandsolidaritybasedonsharedvalues

andcommonlifeexperienceatthelocalcommunitylevel.

GarrodandLarimore(1997)compilednarrativesfromAmericanIndian

studentsatDartmouthandfoundthatthegroupknownas“TheNativeAmericansat

Dartmouth”providedachanceforsupportandsolidarityforNativestudentsinthe

foreignworldofanIvyLeaguecampusintheNortheasternUnitedStates.Many

contributorscitedtheformationofsuchareferencegroupastheprimaryfactorin

theircollegesuccess.TheNativeAmericanHouseatDartmouthprovidedasafe

placefortheformationofthereferencegroup.

GiventhecontinuingdisparitybetweengraduationratesofAmericanIndian

andnon‐Indianstudents(Pavel,Skinner,Farris,Calahan,TippeconnicandStein

1998;DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder2008),thisstudyhaswideranging

implicationsfortheimplementationofculturallyrelevantprograms,policiesand

curriculafocusedonincreasingretentionandgraduationratesforAmericanIndian

studentsinhighereducation.

SeveralstudiesshowadisproportionategraduationratebetweenNative

Americanstudentsandnon‐Indianstudentsatboththesecondaryandpost‐

secondarylevels.NativeAmericanstudentsareconsistentlyshowntobemorelikely

todropoutbeforethecompletionofhighschool.Severalreasonsforthedisparity

includealienation,feelingofpowerlessnessandinferiorityestrangement,

depression,andlackofsupport,sufficienthelptosucceedandlackofsuccess

experiences(Wax1967;Berry1969;FalkandAitken1984;Lin,LaCounteandEder

1988;Gilliland1988).AcademicdifficultiesandnonpersistenceofNativeAmericans

incollegearesimilarlywelldocumented(Steward1993;Pavelet.al.1998;DeVoe,

Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder2008).Atthecollegelevel,despiteevidenceof

academicability,dropoutratesarehigherforNativeAmericansthanforanyother

minority(Reddy1993;DeVoeetal.2008).NativeAmericansarealso

underrepresentedingraduateprograms(LaFromboiseandLow1989;Pavel1998).

NativeAmericansconsistentlyhavelowereducationalattainmentthanotherethnic

minorities(Lin,LaCounteandEder1988;DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder

2008).

WhatfactorsmightaccountforacademicsuccessamongAmericanIndian

studentsatPSU?Existingprogramssuchas2+2+2(NicholsandNichols,1998),Trio,

UpwardBoundandSuccessAcademy(Lee2006)andtheNativeAmericanClubat

PSUarebelievedtofacilitatesuccessfultransitionforstudentsintothemainstream

university.

Thecriticaltheoreticaltraditionprovidestheconceptualframeworkforthe

study.Worksrelatingtocriticaleducationtheoryandcriticalracetheoryare

identifiedasparticularlysalientforthisexaminationofretentionandgraduationof

AmericanIndianstudentsfromPlainsStateUniversity.

Thecriticalschoolofsociologicaltheory,commonlyreferredtoasthe

FrankfurtSchool,developedintheearly1900soutoftheMarxianperspective.Atits

core,criticaltheorydevelopsamodeofinquirythatgoesbeyondsurfaceillusionsto

uncoverrealstructuresinthematerialworld(Neuman2000).Criticaltheoristshold

thatfactscannotbeseparatedfromtheeffectofthedominantvaluesofasociety

(Althusser1969;Bottomore1984;Neuman2000).Criticaltheoryisvalueladenand

emancipatoryinthatitseekstoliberatehumanexistenceandameliorateoppressive

socialconditions.

Gramsci’s(1932)conceptofhegemonyisrelevanttothisstudy.Cultural

hegemonyisasocialconditioninwhichtherulingclassmanipulatescultural

symbolsinsuchawaythatleadsotherclassesorculturalgroupstoeffectively

contributetotheirownsubordination(Gramsci1932).Thisformofdomination

operatesthroughvitalsocialfunctionsinsocialinstitutionssuchaseducation

(Friere1974),andisofparticularinteresttothisstudyofAmericanIndiansand

highereducationatPSU.

Thisstudyemploysaninductiveresearchapproachtoexplorefactors

influencingsecondaryeducationalattainmentofAmericanIndians.Inkeepingwith

thecriticaltheoreticaltradition,themethodsofqualitativeethnographyprovides

thick,richdescriptionfromtheinsider’sperspective.Theconceptof‘praxis’as

introducedbyMarx,isaguidingprincipleinthedesignandimplementationofthis

study.Praxishasasitsgoaltoameliorateoppressivesocialconditionsthroughthe

applicationofpragmaticactionthatisbasedintheoreticallygeneratedideas.This

studyisdirectedatenhancingunderstandingsothatmoreAmericanIndian

studentsareabletoattaintheirhighereducationaspirations.

Datacollectedforthisresearchincludesfocusgroups,intensiveinterviews,

informalinterviews,fieldobservations,participantobservation,anddocumentary

dataanalysisincludingquantitativedataonenrollmentandretentionofNative

Americanstudents.Thisdataprovidesusefulinsightforanenhancedunderstanding

oftheresearchquestionsthatfollow.

Basedinthecriticaltheoreticaltradition,thisprojectinvestigatesthe

followingresearchquestions:

1.WhatfactorsfacilitateeducationalattainmentforAmericanIndian

students?

2.WhatfactorsactasbarrierstoeducationalattainmentforAmerican

Indianstudents?

Basedonareviewoftheliterature,thisresearchincludestheexaminationof

issuesrelatingto:

a. Supportprogramsb. Financialresources c. Campusenvironmentd. Familyrelationse. Pre‐collegeacademicpreparationf. Facultyexpectationsg. Faculty,staffandstudentattitudesh. Curriculumi. Culturallybasedreferencegroupj. Culturalfactorsk. The3rdplacel. Individual(personal)drivetowardacademicattainment

Themeasureofeducationalattainmentisdeterminedthroughcomparative

ratesofretentionandgraduationforAmericanIndianstudentsandallother

studentsatPSU.

Intheinterestofprotectingconfidentialitythenameoftheuniversityhas

beenchangedtoPlainsStateUniversity(PSU).Thestateinwhichitislocatedshall

becalledPrairieStateandthecityinwhichitislocatedshallbeknownasRailtown.

Allothercommunitiesmentionedthroughouthavealsobeenrenamedinorderto

safeguardtheidentityofthosewhospeakofthoseplacesinawaythatlinks

themselvesandtheirhistorytothoseplaces.

Students,administratorsandfacultyatPlainsStateUniversityprovidedthe

multiplevoicesandviewpointscontributingtothisstudy.

InFebruaryof1881theTerritorialLegislaturegranted120,000acresin

PrairieStatefortheestablishmentofan‘AgricultureCollege’.In1889,congress

grantedanadditional40,000acresforthefuturePSU.By1923,instructional

programswereorganizedintofivedivisionsincluding:Agriculture,Engineering,

GeneralScience,HomeEconomics,andPharmacy.ThefuturePSUwasbeginningto

takeshape.

AccordingtothePSUOfficeofInstitutionalResearch,forthefallsemesterof

2009,totalstudentenrollmentwas12,376.Afterexcluding824studentsof

unknownethnicoriginandthoserefusingtoprovideinformation,8.4percentofthe

totalstudentpopulationwaslistedasminoritystudents.AmericanIndianstudents

enrolledatPSUcomprisethesecondlargestofminoritygroupsandwere2.1

percentofallstudentsenrolled.TheonlyminoritygrouplargerisAsian/Pacific

Islandersat3percent,themajorityofwhichareinternationalgraduate

student/researchassistants.Inwhatcanonlybedescribedasanoverwhelmingly

White,mainstreamuniversity,2.1percentisdisproportionatewhentakinginto

accountthetotalNativeAmericanpopulationinPrairieState,whichiscommonly

citedasbetweeneightandninepercent,accordingtotheU.S.CensusBureau.

andnon‐Indianstudents(Paveletal.,1998;DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder

2008),theimplicationsofthisstudymayhavewiderangingapplicationsforthe

implementationofculturallyrelevantprograms,policiesandcurriculafocusedon

increasingretentionandgraduationratesforAmericanIndianstudentsinhigher

education.Towardthisend,IplantoorganizeandexecuteseminarsatPSUforall

stakeholdersinterestedinthefindingsofthisresearchandhowthesefindingscan

beimplementedtoenhancetheunderstandingoffactorsthatcombinetohinderor

facilitateretentionandgraduationofAmericanIndianstudentsatPrairieState’s

largestmainstreamuniversity.Inkeepingwiththecriticalperspectiveofthis

research,itishopedthatincreasedunderstandingofsuchfactorswillleadtopolicy

changesthatgreatlyincreasethechancesforeducationalattainmentforNative

students.

Throughouttheconceptualization,designandimplementationofthis

research,Ihavesoughttoprovideamediumforthedeliveryofthevoicesofall

thoseadministrators,faculty,supportstaffandstudentswhoarethestakeholdersin

academicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Ofprimarysignificance

arethestudentsthemselveswhowereeagertobeheardandwhoremainhopeful

forpositivesocialchangeleadingtoempowermentandacademicsuccess.Ithas

beenmygoaltoprovideadetailedpictureofthecollegeexperienceatPSUthrough

theeyesoftheNativeAmericanstudent.

Therearerealisticlimitationsofsuchanendeavor.Amongthoselimitations,

itmustbenotedthatthisresearchspannedonlyoneyearinthelivesofthosewho

participatedandinthehistoryoftheinstitutionitself.Assuch,itisonlyabrief

snapshotintime.Duringthecourseofthatyear,manypositivechangeshave

alreadycometolife.Mostnotablyamongthosechangesisthecommitmentbythe

universityadministrationforthecreationofanAmericanIndianEducationand

CulturalCenterscheduledtoopenduringthefallsemesterof2010.Alsoof

significanceistheplanninganddevelopmentofanenhancedcurriculumintheform

oftheAmericanIndianStudiesmajortoaccompanythecurrentminorinthatfield

ofstudy.

WhilethelonghistoryofbarrierstoeducationalattainmentforAmerican

IndianstudentsatPSUisformidable,itisofconsiderablesignificanceandcausefor

renewedhopethatPSUismovinginapositivedirection.

Inthechaptersthatfollow,relevantliteratureandtheoreticalperspectives

arepresented.Methodsarediscussedandqualitativeandquantitativefindingsare

presented.Thedissertationconcludeswithadiscussionofthesefindings,

conclusions,andrecommendations.

CHAPTERTWO

LiteratureReview

PlainsStateUniversityisapredominantlyWhiteinstitutioninastatewitha

significantandgrowingAmericanIndianpopulation.PSUoffersadiversityof

programsaimedathelpingAmericanIndianssucceedincollege.However,the

mechanismsthatimpacttheefficacyoftheseprogramsarenotwellunderstood.

Inordertogainanimprovedunderstandingofmechanismsthatimpact

AmericanIndianpostsecondaryeducationalattainment,thisliteraturereviewwill

examineahistoryofAmericanIndianeducationfromitsearliestinceptionuptothe

currentstatusofAmericanIndianhighereducation.Inaddition,commonbarriersto

educationalattainmentforNativeAmericanstudentsandspecificstrategiesthat

haveprovensuccessfulforovercomingthesechallengeswillbeexplored.Previous

researchinvestigatingthelinkbetweenethnicidentity,empowermentand

educationalattainment,alongwiththeroleofasharedspaceforAmericanIndian

studentsinpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsofhighereducationisdiscussed.

ABriefHistoryofAmericanIndianEducation

EarlyAmericanIndianEducation

PriortoEuropeancolonizationoftheAmericas,tribalnationshaddiverse

systemsofeducationthatweredesignedtoteachyouth,accordingtothetribes’

specificcultures,theskillsnecessaryforsurvivalintheirenvironments(Zinn1980).

ThissystemofNativeeducationwasaccomplishedprimarilythroughinformal

observationandinteractionwithparents,relatives,eldersandreligiousandsocial

groups(Pewewardy2002).

ThroughoutthehistoryofcontactbetweenEuropeancolonizersandthe

indigenouspeoplesofNorthAmerica,Indianeducationhadasitsprimarygoalto

reshapetheIndianintothemoldoftheEuropeanman(Meriam1928;Collier1947;

Berkhofer1978).Europeanvaluessuchascompetition,individualachievementand

theaccumulationofwealthwerecommonlyseenasmorecivilizedthanwerethe

valuesofcooperation,communalismandaharmonywiththeEarth,whichwere

morecommontothetraditionalbeliefsofmanyAmericanIndiantribes(Eastman

1902;StandingBear1928;Neihardt1932;Brown1953).ThespirituallifeofNative

AmericanswasseenbymanyEuropeansasheathenandwassupplantedby

Christianityasthepathwaytocivilization(Berkhofer1978;McBeth1983;Oppelt

1990;DeloriaJr.1994;Boyer1997;Calloway1999).Inordertoachievethisgoal,

colonizerssupposedtheidentityoftheAmericanIndianwouldhavetobe

deconstructedandreconstructedintheimageoftheWhiteman(Berkhofer1978;

Bordewich1996;Utter2001).

AccordingtoPewewardy(1998:8),AmericanIndianpopulationswerenot

defeatedbymilitaryforceorpandemicdiseaseintroducedbyEuropeansbutrather

by“politicallystructuringeducationalinstitutionsforAmericanIndian/Alaska

Nativestudentstomoldacolonialethos.”CitingWilliams(2000),Pewewardy

(2002)continues:

SinceitsinvasionofAmerica,WhitesocietyhassoughttojustifythroughlawandlegaldiscourseitsprivilegesofaggressionagainstIndianpeoplebystressingtribalism’sincompatibilitywiththesuperiorvaluesandnormsofWhitecivilization(Williams2000:103).

Oppelt(1990)detailsthehistoryofIndianeducationfromthemissionary

schoolsofthecolonialtimesthroughthefederalgovernment’stenurewith

educationpolicy.Thishistoryincludesthemajormotivationsofthoseproponentsof

Indianeducation.Amongthesemotivesaretheearlyintentions,incolonialtimes,to

civilizetheIndianthroughChristianization.Bythemid‐nineteenthcentury,the

federalgovernment’seducationpolicywastoremodeltheAmericanIndianintothe

Euro‐Americanimage(Hertzberg1971;Berkhofer1978;Utter2001).Richard

HenryPrattimplementedthispolicywhen,in1879,heopenedthefirstfederal

boardingschoolinCarlisle,Pennsylvania.Prattsummarizedhisgoalofcomplete

assimilationinhisoftenquotedmotto;“KilltheIndianandsavetheman”(Utter

2001).ThiswastobeaccomplishedbyteachingtheIndianthevalueofland

ownershipandstewardship.Thegoalwastoeradicatethecultureoftheindigenous

peoplethroughtheprocessofassimilationandacculturation,thusblendingthe

IndianintotheEuro‐centricmainstream.Thiswouldbeaccomplishedbyremoving

childrenfromtheirhomesandplacingtheminboardingschoolsawayfromtheir

parentsandextendedfamily(Hertzberg1971;McBeth1983;Utter2001).Inthis

way,familystructurewoulddisintegrateandNativecultureswouldfadeawayas

Euro‐Americannormsandvaluesandthelearningofavocationaltradereplacedit

(Hertzberg1971:16;McBeth1983;Calloway1999:359).

Oppelt(1990)chronicledthehistoricalantecedentsofcontemporary

AmericanIndianhighereducation.Inparticular,hedescribestwoprominent

periodsinIndianeducation.Oppeltfirstdescribesthe‘MissionaryPeriod’from

approximately1568‐1870,whichwascharacterizedbyearlyEuropeaneffortsto

religiouslyconverttheNativepeopleofNorthAmerica.Thefirstschoolfor

AmericanIndians,foundedin1568bytheJesuits,theeffortsofJohnEliot,knownas

‘ApostletotheIndians’,HarvardUniversity’searlyobjectivetoeducateAmerican

IndiansandEleazarWheelock’sDartmouthSchoolforIndiansareamongthemany

examplesofearlyattemptstoeducatetheIndianinthe‘WhiteMan’sImage’

(Berkhofer1978).Oppeltpointsoutthatresistancebythevarioustribesandtheir

attemptstoestablishtheirownschoolsystemswerenegatedbypoliciesaimedat

makingAmericanIndiansintodocileChristianswhoactedinwayscongruentwith

theWhiteEuropeangoals.

Oppelt’s(1990)secondperiodisthe‘FederalPeriod’,whichwasfrom1870

to1968.Thisperiodwascharacterizedbyoff‐reservationfederalboardingschools

thatwereorganizedaroundtheprimarygoalofassimilatingtheAmericanIndian

intotheEuro‐Americanmainstreamsociety.Curriculaattheseboardingschools

werecenteredaroundmanualartsandvocationaltradeswhileheavyfocuswas

directedateradicatingallaspectsofNativecultureincludinglanguage,ceremonial

ritualandevenfamilyandkinshipties.WiththedistractionsprovidedbyWorld

WarIandWorldWarII,alongwiththecontinuedprotestsoftriballeadersandnon‐

Indians,criticismstartedtomountagainsttheboardingschoolsystem.“Muchofthis

criticismisjustified:theinvoluntaryremovalofchildrenfromtheirparentsandthe

brutaltreatmentofstudentsrightfullyembitteredsomeIndiansagainstalltypesof

‘Whiteman’seducation’”(Oppelt1990:20).

RethinkingtheGoalsandMethodsofAmericanIndianEducation

In1928theU.S.governmentpublishedareportgenerallyknownasthe

MeriamReportnamedforitsleadresearcherandorganizerLewisMeriam.The

report,requestedbytheSecretaryoftheInterior,wastheresultofasurveyofthe

economicandsocialconditionsofAmericanIndiansuptoandduringthe1920s.

Researcherscovered95differentjurisdictions,includingreservations,Indian

agencies,hospitals,schoolsandcommunitieswhereAmericanIndianshadmigrated.

ThereportislargebecauseofthediversityfoundamongAmericanIndiantribes.

Thereportisorganizedintothefollowingsections:1)ageneralpolicyforIndian

Affairs,2)health,3)education,4)generaleconomicconditions,5)familyand

communitylife,includingtheactivitiesofwomen,6)migratedIndians,7)legal

aspectsoftheIndianproblemand8)missionaryactivitiesamongIndians.Relevant

tothisstudyisthesectiononIndianeducation.Meriamresearchersfoundthestate

ofIndianeducationtobeinadequateandineffective.Thehistoryofmissionschools,

federalboardingschoolsandthenlocalreservationdayschoolsallleftmuchtobe

desiredintheeducationofAmericanIndianyouth,accordingMeriam(1928).

ParticularlydetrimentaltotheeducationoftheIndianchildwashisorherremoval

fromthefamily,inordertoeradicatetraditionalcultureandreplaceitwiththatof

thedominantmainstreamsociety.TheMeriamreportquotesDeanJamesE.Russell:

Howeverimportantmaybethecontributionoftheschools…theatmosphereandconditionsofthehomeare,especiallyintheearlydaysofthechild’slife,theprimarydeterminateinthedevelopmentofthechild,and,sinceitistheparentswhodeterminetheseconditionsandcreatethatatmosphere,itistheywhoareofnecessitythemostimportanteducationalfactorsinthelivesoftheirchildren(P.349).

AnotherMeriampassageisparticularlypoignant:

Moreover,itisessentialforthoseinchargeofeducationfortheIndiantorememberthattheIndian’sattitudestowardssocietyhavebeendeterminedlargelybyhisexperiences,andthatthesecan,wherevernecessary,bechangedtodesirablesocialattitudesbyexposingtoacorrespondingsetofrightexperiencesintherelationshipsofhome,familyandcommunitylife.(P.354)

TheMeriamReport(1928)markedthebeginningofthereformulationof

ideasconcerningtheeducationoftheAmericanIndian.Thisapproachwascentered

onavaluationofNativecultureanditsincorporationintoeducation.

TheTribalCollegeMovement

Oppelt(1990)andBoyer(1997)describethedevelopmentoftheTribal

Collegemovementasaneducationalmanifestationofself‐determinationfor

AmericanIndians.TribalcollegeshaveledtothegreatestgainsforAmericanIndian

highereducationtodate(Oppelt1990).

In1968thefirsttribalcollegewasformedbytheNavajonation.Thiswasthe

beginningofthemovementtowardthedevelopmentofanationalnetworkof

triballycontrolledcollegeswherehighereducationwasmadeavailableonamore

localizedbasisthatallowedNativeAmericansaccesstoeducationopportunities

whichwerepreviouslyunattainable.Mostofthefirststudentstotakeadvantageof

theseneweducationalopportunitieswerefemales.Theywere,onaverage,older

thantraditionalcollegeagedstudents.Manyweremotherslookingforapathwayto

abetterlifeforthemselvesandtheirchildren(Oppelt1990).

Oppelt(1990)liststhreemajorfactorsunderlyingthedevelopmentof

tribally‐controlledcollegesinthelate1970s.Theseare:1)Non‐Indianinstitutions

ofhighereducationprovedinadequateinmeetingtheuniqueeducationalneedsof

theculturallydiversegroupsofreservationIndians;2)Theconceptofself‐

determinationencouragedIndianstotakecontrolofthedevelopmentoftheirown

highereducationinstitutions;3)Theneedfortrainingandeducationon

reservationstodevelopnaturalandhumanresourceshadbecomemoreevidentto

AmericanIndianleaders.

Oppeltcloseswithobservationspointingtotheneedforalinkbetween

educationandthehopeforemploymentopportunitiesforAmericanIndians.Among

theseobservationsistheneedforgovernmentfundingfortribalcolleges.

Boyer(1997)alsodescribestheTribalCollegeMovementanditsimpacton

theeducationalandsocialopportunitiesforAmericansIndiansthroughhigher

education.Thecoreconceptuponwhichtribalcollegesarebuiltisthenotionof

providingaculturallyrelevantcurriculumthatismadeaccessibletotribalmembers

whomaynototherwisehaveaccesstohighereducation.Boyerincludesa

descriptionofthestateofbeingofthe27,(atthattime,in2010thereare37)

triballycontrolledcollegesandthechallengesfacedbythem.Themostsignificantof

thesechallengeswere:lackoffunding,thetenuousrelationshipbetweenthefederal

governmentandtribalcolleges,intermsoffinancialandmoregeneralsupportand

thesovereignstatusoftribalgovernmentsinrelationtotribalcolleges(Boyer

1997).

TheCurrentStateofAmericanIndianHigherEducation

DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder(2008)provideacomprehensive

overviewofthestatusofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesinPostsecondary

Educationin,StatusandTrendsintheEducationofAmericanIndiansandAlaska

Natives:2008.Findingsmostrelevanttothisresearcharehighlightedbelow.

DemographicOverview

In2006therewere4.5millionAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesinthe

UnitedStatesrepresenting1.5percentofthetotalU.S.population.In2006almost

half,(49percent)wereresidentsinwesternstates.In2003,thereweremorethan

560federallyrecognizedAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativetribes.Thelargestare

CherokeeandNavajo.Since1990,themedianageofAmericanIndianAlaska

Natives,includingthoseofHispanicethnicity,increasedbyfiveyears,from26to31.

In2006,themedianageforthegeneralpopulationwas36years.In2006,27

percentofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeindividualslivedinpovertycomparedto

13percentofthegeneralpopulation.At36percent,theAmericanIndian/Alaska

Nativepovertyratewashigheramongfamiliesonreservationsthanamongfamilies

inotherAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeareas(DeVoeetal.2008:iii).

PostsecondaryEducation

ThenumberofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudentsenrolledincolleges

anduniversitieshasmorethandoubledinthepast30years(DeVoeetal.2008:v).In

2006,AmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesaccountedfor1percentoftotalenrollment

incollegesanduniversities.OfallAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudentsenrolled

inpublicandprivatedegreegrantinginstitutionsin2006,morethanhalfwere

enrolledin4‐yearinstitutions.Thisisincontrasttotheyearsbetween1976and

1994whenmoreAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativeswereenrolledin2‐year

postsecondaryinstitutionsthanin4‐yearpostsecondaryinstitutions.In2006,a

smallerpercentageofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesbetweentheagesof18and

24wereenrolledincollegesoruniversitieswhencomparedtootherethnicgroups

(p.126).TwentysixpercentofAmericanIndians18‐24yearsoldwereenrolled

comparedto41percentofWhites,33percentofBlacks,27percentofHispanicsand

58percentofAsians(p.127).AmericanIndians/AlaskaNativescomprised1.1

percentofthetotalcollegeanduniversityenrollmentin2006representingan

increasefrom0.7percentin1976(p.126).Between1976and2006,collegeand

universityenrollmentofAmericanIndianandAlaskaNativemalesandfemales

grewatdifferentrates.In1976,38,500AmericanIndianmalesand37,600American

Indian/AlaskaNativefemaleswereenrolledindegreegrantingcollegesand

universities.By1978,thenumberoffemalesexceededthatofmalesenrolled.In

2006,111,000AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativefemales(61percent)and71,200

males(39percent)wereenrolledincollegesanduniversities(p.128).Theonly

racial/ethnicgrouptohaveawiderpercentagespreadbetweenmalesandfemales

enrolledincollegeoruniversityisBlackstudentsforwhomtheratiois65percent

femaleto35percentmaleenrolledstudents(p.128).

In2006,therewere32tribally‐controlledcollegesanduniversities,located

in12statesacrossthewestandMidwestwithonelocatedinAlaska.Tribally‐

controlledcollegesanduniversitiesaredesignedtofosterenvironmentsfocusedon

AmericanIndiancultureinordertopreserve,enhance,andpromoteAmerican

Indianlanguagesandtraditions(DeVoe2008:130).Studentsattheseinstitutions

aregenerallyolderthan24yearsofage(p.130).Totalenrollmentintribally

controlledcollegesanduniversitiesincreasedby23percent,from14,000infall

2001,to17,300infall2006(p.130).AmericanIndians/AlaskaNativestudents

numbered13,600intriballycontrolledcollegesanduniversities,representing79

percentoftotalenrollment,were(DeVoe2008:130).EightpercentofallAmerican

Indianstudentswereenrolledintribalcollegesoruniversities.Between2001and

2006,enrollmentofNativestudentsintribalcollegesoruniversitiesincreasedata

fasterrate(17percent)thandidenrollmentofNativestudentsgenerally(15

percent)(DeVoeetal.2008:130).

Inthe2003‐04schoolyear,82percentofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNative

studentsenrolledfull‐time,full‐yearinundergraduatedegreeprogramsreceived

financialaid(p.132).Duringthistime,theonlygroupwithahigherpercentageof

financialaidrecipientswasBlackstudentsat89percent.ThisiscomparedtoWhite

studentsat74percent,Asian/PacificIslandersat66percent,andHispanicsat81

percent(p.132).

AccordingtoDeVoeetal.(2008:134),between1976‐77and2005‐06,the

numberofdegreesawardedbycollegesanduniversitiestoAmerican

Indians/AlaskaNativesmorethandoubledforeachlevelofdegree(DeVoe

2008:134).In1976‐77,2,500associate’sdegreeswereconferredonAmerican

Indians.Thatnumbersteadilyincreasedto5,600by1995‐96(p.134).Thenumber

ofassociate’sdegreesearnedbyNativestudentsin2005‐06reached8,600.This

representsanincreaseof53percentbetween1995‐96and2005‐06.Thenumberof

associate’sdegreesforallstudentsroseonly28percentbycomparison(p.134).

Thissamepatternwasalsoapparentinthenumberofbachelor’sdegreesearnedby

Nativestudents.In1976‐77around3,300bachelor’sdegreeswereawardedto

AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudents;by1995‐96thatnumberincreasedto

7,000,andto11,000in2005‐06(p.134).Thisrepresentsanincreaseof57percent

comparedto28percentforthetotalpopulationbetween1995‐96and2005‐06

(p.134).Thenumberofpost‐baccalaureatedegreesawardedtoAmerican

Indian/AlaskaNativesalsoincreasedbetween1976‐77and2005‐06from970to

3500formaster’sdegrees,from100to230fordoctoraldegreesandfrom200to

710forfirstprofessionaldegrees(DeVoeetal.2008:134).

WhileagreaterpercentageofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudents

earnedtheirbachelorsdegreesinbusinessthaninotherfieldsinthe2005‐06

schoolyear,thepercentagethatearnedtheirdegreesinbusiness(19percent)was

smallerthanthatofallstudents(21percent).In2005‐06,52percentofmaster’s

degreesawardedtoAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeswereinthefieldsofeducation

andbusiness.Forty‐eightpercentofdoctoraldegreesawardedtoAmerican

Indians/AlaskaNativeswereinthefieldsofeducation,psychologyandsocial

sciencesandhistory.

SocialandEconomicOutcomesofHigherEducation

In2007,44percentofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesage25orolderhad

attendedsomecollegeorcompletedanundergraduateorgraduatedegree.

Approximately36percentofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativeshadcompletedhigh

schoolwithoutcontinuingontoapostsecondaryinstitution,and20percenthadnot

finishedhighschool(p.148).AhigherpercentofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNatives

didnotfinishhighschoolwhencomparedtoWhites(9percent),Asians(12

percent)andNativeHawaiians/PacificIslanders(11percent)onlyHispanicshada

higherpercentagethatdidnotfinishhighschoolat40percent(p.148).

AhigherpercentofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNatives,16andoverwere

unemployedin2007(12percent)comparedtopercentagesofWhites(4percent),

Hispanics(6percent)andAsianPacificslanders(3percent)(DeVoeetal.2008).

But,in2007,theunemploymentrateswerelowerforAmericanIndian/Alaska

Nativeswithhigherlevelsofeducation(p.148).Specifically,only2percentof

AmericanIndianswithabachelor’sdegreeorhigherwereunemployed,compared

to12percentofhighschoolgraduatesand29percentofthosewhodidnot

completehighschool(p.148).In2006,themedianannualincomefor25‐34year

oldsinthegeneralU.S.population,whowereemployedfull‐year,full‐time,was

$35,000.For25‐34yearoldAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesthemedianannual

incomewas$27,000.AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeyoungadultswithabachelor’s

degreeearned29percentmoreannuallythanthosewhoonlycompletedhigh

school.

InsummaryoftheDeVoeetal.(2008)document,dramaticgainsareevident

inAmericanIndianhighereducation.EnrollmentofAmericanIndiansincolleges

anduniversitieshasmorethandoubledoverthirtyyears.Enrollmentintribally‐

controlledcollegestopped17,000in2006;over82percentofAmericanIndianfull

timeundergraduatestudentsreceivedfinancialaid;thenumberofeverylevelof

degreesconferreduponAmericanIndianshasmorethandoubledsince1976.Still,

in2006,AmericanIndianstudentsaccountedforonly1percentoftotalcollegeand

universityenrollment.

Thestatisticsinthisreportshowapatternovertimethatincreasing

numbersofNativeAmericans/AlaskaNativesaregoingtocollegeandthattheir

expectationsofacademicattainmenthavealsoincreased.Employmentandsalary

statisticsdemonstratethepositivevalueandimpactsthatincreasinglevelsofhigher

educationarehavingonAmericanIndiancommunities.Still,despitegainsmade

overthepastthirtyyears,progresshasbeenuneven.Therestillexistsignificant

differencesbetweenAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativecollegeanduniversitystudents

andstudentsofotherethnic/racialgroupsonthekeyindicatorsofeducational

performancereportedbyDeVoeetal.(2008).

CurrentstudiesonthestateofAmericanIndianhighereducationare

discussedbelowincludingbarrierstoeducationalattainmentandstrategiesfor

overcomingthosebarriers.

StudiesonAmericanIndianHigherEducation

Barrierstocollegesuccessareofteninplacelongbeforethestudentgetsto

thecollegeoruniversity.FactorsthathinderacademicsuccessforAmericanIndian

studentsareofteninplacethroughoutthestudents’entireacademiccareer.Several

studiesshowadisproportionategraduationratebetweenNativeAmericanstudents

andnon‐Indianstudentsatboththesecondaryandpost‐secondarylevels(Wax

1967;Jackson,SmithandHill2003).NativeAmericanstudentsareconsistently

showntobemorelikelytodropoutbeforethecompletionofhighschool(Wax

1967;Berry1969;DeVoeetal.2008).Reasonsforthisdisparityincludealienation,

feelingsofpowerlessnessandinferiority,estrangement,depression,andlackof

support,lackofsufficienthelptosucceedandlackofsuccessexperiences(Wax

1967;Berry1969;FalkandAitken1984;Lin,LaCounteandEder1988;Gilliland

1988;Jacksonetal.2003).

AcademicdifficultiesandnonpersistenceofNativeAmericansincollegeare

similarlywelldocumented(Steward,1993;Paveletal.,1998;DeVoeetal.2008).At

thecollegelevel,despiteevidenceofacademicability,dropoutratesarehigherfor

NativeAmericansthanforanyotherminority(Reddy1993;DeVoeetal.2008).

NativeAmericansarealsounderrepresentedingraduateprograms(LaFromboise

andLow1989;Paveletal.1998;DeVoeetal.2008).NativeAmericansconsistently

havelowereducationalattainmentthanotherethnicminorities(Lin,LaCounteand

Eder1988;Paveletal.1998;DeVoe2008).

BarrierstoAmericanIndiansinHigherEducation

Berry(1969)discussesthelonghistoryofAmerica’sfailuretoeducatethe

Indianintothe‘Whiteman’simage’.Berrycoversthereasonsforthisfailure

throughthehistoryofrelationsbetweenthedominantsocietyandtribalgroups.

Amongcurrentproblemsresultingfromthisacademichistoryareage

appropriatenessforgradelevel,andthehighdropoutrateforIndianstudents.

Berry(1969)suggeststherelationsbetweenWhiteteachersandIndianstudents

commonlyresultinaself‐fulfillingprophecywhereteachersdonotexpectstudents

toachieveandthestudentsdonotexpecttoexcel.Berry(1969)pointsoutthat

nearlyeveryconceivablebarriertoeducationalachievementisatworkregarding

theeducationalexperienceoftheAmericanIndianstudent.Inadditiontothose

listedabove,otherroadblockstoeducationalattainmentincludechallengesinthe

formoflanguagebarriers,culturalbarriersandculturaldeprivation,lackofparent

involvement,culturallyinsensitiveteachertrainingandteacherexpectations

regardingAmericanIndianstudents(Berry1969).Manyofthesebarriersare

rootedinthehistoryofforcedassimilationandongoingattemptstodestroy

indigenouscultures(Berry1969).

ManyofthebarrierstocollegesuccessforAmericanIndianstudents

originatelongbeforethestudentarrivesattheuniversity.Thosebarriersbeginin

elementaryschoolandcontinuethroughhighschoolandcarryoverintothecollege

experience.ProblemsidentifiedbyWax,WaxandDumont(1964)involved

perceptionsandmisconceptionsonthepartofnon‐Indianteachersregardingthe

socialdynamicsoftheIndianculture.ManyWhiteteachersdidnotattemptto

understandthevalueoftheNativeculturebut,rather,soughttoteachfromthe

Euro‐centricmainstreamculturalbaseofvaluesandnorms.Theperspectiveofthe

teacherswasthattheabilityoftheIndianstudenttolearnwaslimited.Assuch,the

teachersprovidedinstructionatwhattheythoughtwasanappropriatelevel.Infact,

thisamountedtotrackingbasedoninaccuratepresumptions(Wax,et.al1964).

WrightandTierney(1991)describetheharshrealityofIndianeducation.

Amongtheserealitiesare:mostnativestudentscomefromeconomicallydepressed

remoteareasandonly3outof1009thgraderswilleventuallyreceivea

baccalaureatedegree.Thosefour‐yearinstitutionswiththehighestIndianstudent

populationareineconomicallydepressedstates;and,Tribalcollegesreceive

woefullyinadequatefunding.

Carney(1999)listsseveralproblemsidentifiedbyresearchers,including

Tierney(1992),thatarecommonamongindividualAmericanIndianstudentsand

thatactasobstaclestohighereducationattainment.Theseinclude:apersistently

highdropoutratefromhighschool;alowproportionofAmericanIndianhigh

schoolgraduatescontinuingontocollege;anoverwhelmingsenseofisolationand

alienationresultingfrominsurmountableculturalbarrierswhileatcollege;poor

academicpreparationandskillsbeforeenteringcollege;alackofAmericanIndian

rolemodelsforeducationalsuccess;financialproblems;disharmonybetween

traditionalcultureandthatofthemainstreamcollegeenvironment;cultureshock

uponarrivalatcollege;lackofmotivation;languagebarriers;unrealisticor

unplannedcareergoals;distrustoftheinstitutionasonewhosegoalisassimilation

intomainstreamculture;lackofsupportfromfamily;inappropriatesocialization

intocollegeenvironment;and,lackofcounselingorcounselingfromthedominant

Euro‐centricperspective.

AccordingtoCarney(1999),difficultiesexperiencedbyNativeAmerican

collegestudentscanbetracedtoculturalcausesoftwotypes.Bothcanbeclassified

astypesofculturaldiscontinuity(Wax,WaxandDumont1964;Huffman1999).

FirstisthegenerallyunsupportivesituationinwhichNativestudentsfind

themselvesastheyenteramainstreaminstitutionofhighereducation.Native

Americanstudents,particularlythosefromruralreservationcommunities,may

comefromhighschoolsthatarepoorlyfundedandlackthesupportsystemsneeded

tomakeaneffectivetransitionfromthelocalcommunityhighschooltothecollege

environmentwherethemilieuisbasedontraditionalEuro‐centricnormsand

values.Thesevaluesincludingcompetitionandconcernforselfovergroupwelfare

maybeinconflictwiththecommonvaluesincontemporaryNativefamilies,suchas

primaryconcernforextendedfamilyandcommunityoverindividual

accomplishment,competitionandselfpromotion.Studentsleavinghomeforthe

firsttimefindthemselvesatcollegefeelingisolated,alienatedandwantingtoreturn

hometothefamiliarenvironmentofsupportastraditionallyprovidedbythe

extendedfamilyandlocalcommunity(GarrodandLarimore1997;Carney1999).

Suchcultureshockcanbetraumatic.

Thesecondculturaldiscontinuityconsistsofthefundamentalcultural

differencesinU.S.mainstream‘Euro‐American’andAmericanIndianculture.Native

Americanstudentsmayfindthemselvesinaformaleducationalenvironmentthatis

unfamiliaranduncomfortableforthem.Thisconflictisthedirectresultof

fundamentaldifferencesbetweenWhiteandNativeculture.TheAmericanIndian

studentwhoadherestothetraditionalculturalbeliefsandpracticesseeshimor

herselfasconnectedtoboththenaturalphysicalworldandtoallpeopleand

creaturesinit.Thisholisticframeofreferenceisinoppositiontothefragmented

andcompartmentalizedframeofreferencethatcharacterizesacademicknowledge

asseparateanddistinctdisciplines.Itisalsoincongruentwiththesocialstructureof

theacademicworldthatisshapedbythedominantsocialstructureitselfandis

characterizedbystatusdifferentiationandhierarchicalrelationships(Tierney

1992).ThenecessityfortheAmericanIndianstudenttofunctioninthis

compartmentalizedacademicstylemayleavetheNativeAmericanstudentfeelinga

senseofincompletenessandinadequacy(Carney1999).

Feagin(1996),reportingonthecollegeexperienceofBlackstudentsat

predominantlyWhitecollegecampuses,statesthatprejudicialattitudesaboundon

WhitecampusesamongWhitestudents,facultyandadministrators.Ifracial

insensitivityhas,infact,beeninstitutionalizedonmainstreamcollegecampusesin

theformofaEuro‐centriccurriculum,lackofinterestinBlackstudents,andthe

expectationbyfacultythatindividualBlackstudentsrepresenttheentireBlackrace,

asFeagin(1996)suggests,thesamemayholdtrueforNativeAmericanstudentson

majorityWhite,mainstreamcampuses.

Despitethesehistoricalfailuresandbarrierstosuccessasseeninthe

literature,DeVoeetal.(2008)demonstrate,AmericanIndiansaremakingpositive

gainsalongmanyindicatorsofeducationalattainment.Thescholarlyunderstanding

of‘whatworks’isgrowingandisdiscussedbelow.

FactorsLeadingtoAmericanIndianSuccessinHigherEducation

TherearemanyfactorsleadingtosuccessincollegeforNativeAmerican

students.AccordingtoJackson,SmithandHill(2003)qualitativeinterviewswith15

successfulAmericanIndiancollegestudentswhogrewuponreservationsidentified

thefollowingthemesrelatedtotheirpersistenceincollege:familysupport,

structuredsocialsupport,faculty/staffwarmth,exposuretocollegeandvocations,

developingindependenceandassertiveness,relianceonspiritualresources,and

overcomingracism.Factorscontributingtonon‐persistenceincludedtheculturally

relevantthemeidentifiedasthenonlinearcollegepaththatintervieweesdescribed

asbreaksinattendance,forvariousperiods,beforedegreecompletionorattending

anumberofdifferentschools.Intervieweesalsocited,asabarriertopersistence,

culturaldiscontinuity,intheformofconflictbetweenacademicsuccessasdefined

bythedominantsocietyandmaintainingtraditionalculturaltieswithfamilyand

communitythatmaynotacceptthestudentasacollegegraduate.Theresults

indicatedthatstablementoringrelationshipsandprogrammaticsupportaretwo

factorsthatcanbeimplementedattheinstitutionallevelthatmaybebeneficialin

helpingAmericanIndianstudentsovercomeroadblockstoeducationalattainment

(Jackson,SmithandHill2003).

Inareviewofliteratureregardingwhatworksandwhatdoesnotworkin

educatingAmericanIndians,Demmert(2001:38‐9)listsseveralfactorsidentifiedby

researchersasleadingtosuccessforAmericanIndiansincollegethosefactorsare:

1. FamilySupport:Familysupportandencouragementplayanimportantrole, roleinstudentretentionandacademicsuccessincollege(Wilson1983;Rindone1988;Huffman,SillandBrokenleg1986;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994).Theeducationlevelandoccupationofparentsarefound

andarepredictorsofstudentsuccessincollege(Brown1993).

2. CulturalIdentity:Themaintenanceofculturalidentityandtraditionswas

foundtobeinstrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthe

postsecondarylevel(Huffman,SillandBrokenleg1986).

3.Personaldeterminationandgoalsetting:Personaldeterminationhas

beenshowntobeafactorleadingtocollegesuccessforAmericanIndians

(Kerbo1981;Wilson1983;Rindone1988;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994).

4. Financialsupport:AmericanIndianstudentscommonlyidentified

financialsupportasanimportantfactorinstayingincollege(Wilson

1983).

5. Academicskills:Goodacademicperformancepriortocollegehasbeen

linkedtogoodacademicperformanceincollege(Brown1993).

6. Mentorsandsupportivefaculty:NativestudentsinAlaskareported

accessibility,approachability,genuinenessandcaringbycollegeor

universityfacultyasnecessaryforlearningsuccess(Wilson1997).

7. Biculturalcurriculum:Abiculturalpostsecondarycurriculum

incorporatingbothEuro‐AmericanandtraditionalNativeknowledgewas

linkedtosignificantNativestudentretentionandprogramcompletion,

exertionofleadershipandclosertieswithcommunityand

intergenerationalrelationships(Barnhardt1994;BallandPence2001).

8. Studentsupportservicesrespectfuloftheneedsandinterestsof

culturallydiversestudentsareseenasanimportantfactorsleadingto

success(Barnhardt1994).

Priorresearchindicatesthatacombinationoffactorsworktoward

increasingretentionandsuccessfortheNativecollegestudent.Amongthesefactors,

familysupport,afundamentalfoundationintheeducationbasics,motivation,a

senseofselfbasedonethnicidentity,lackoflanguagebarriers,earlygoalsetting

andsupportivementorshaveallbeenshowntobeinfluentialinwhetheraNative

Americanstudentstaysincollegeandsucceedsacademically(Demmert2001).

SpecificStrategiesforSuccessinHigherEducation

WrightandTierney(1991)makeacaseforthesupportofIndianeducation

bythefederalgovernmentandsocietyingeneral.Thereisgreatneedforculturally

relevantcurriculaandthevaluationofNativecultureasasocialassetratherthana

deficit.Waxetal.(1964)andGarrodandLarimore(1997)suggestthatNative

studentsandtheirfamiliesplacegreatvalueoneducation.Itisthereforeincumbent

upontheinstitutionsofhighereducationtobreakfromthehistoricalEuro‐centered

moldandprovideaneducationalexperiencebasedontheculturalandhistorical

socialcharacteristicsoftheAmericanIndianstudent.

TheTribalcollegemovementanditsimpactontheeducationalandsocial

opportunitiesforAmericansIndiansthroughhighereducationhasbeenwell

documented(Oppelt1990;Stein1992;Boyer1997;Paveletal.,1998;Foxetal.

2005;DeVoeetal.2008).Accordingtotheseauthors,thecoreconceptonwhich

tribalcollegesarebuiltisthenotionofprovidingaculturallyrelevantcurriculum

thatismadeaccessibletotribalmemberswhomaynototherwisehaveaccessto

highereducation.Theseconceptscouldbebeneficiallyappliedtomainstream

collegesasanavenueforincreasedretentionandgraduation.

HeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)describeaprogramdevelopedby

AmericanIndianeducators,socialworkprofessionalsanduniversityadvisorsfrom

fourMontanatribalcollegesincooperationwiththeUniversityofMontanathatthey

havecalled,‘TheFamilyEducationModel’(FEM).FEMwasbasedonthree

assumptionsrelevanttoAmericanIndianstudents.Theseassumptionsare:1)Many

studentsandtheirfamiliesneedcollegetoactastheirliaisonwithexistinghealth

andsocialservicesintimesofcrisis;2)Tribalcollegesmustfacilitatetheabilityof

familymemberstosupporttheirstudent’sefforts;and3)Tribalcollegesneedto

engagefamilymembersinthelifeofthecollegecommunitythroughbuilding

partnershipsandinvolvingtheminsocialandculturalactivities.Thebenefitsofthe

FEMareexplainedbyHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002)associalandcultural

activitiessuchasdances,socials,sportsandoutdooractivitiestowhichfamilies,

spousesandchildrenareregularlyinvitedtojoin.Throughtheirparticipationin

theseactivities,thefamilymembersdevelopasenseofbelongingtothecampus

environmentandarenolongerresentfulofthetimespentoncampusbytheir

studentfamilymember.AccordingtoHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)

“Establishingandmaintainingasenseof‘family’bothathomeandatcollege

fortifiesAmericanIndianstudents’academicpersistence.”

GuilloryandWolverton(2008)appliedtheFamilyEducationModel(FEM)in

astudyofNativeAmericanstudentsatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsin

Washington,IdahoandMontana.AmericanIndianstudentsinthestudyidentified

familyandstudentsocialsupportandthedesiretogivebacktotheircommunityas

importantpersistencefactors.Interestingly,non‐Indianadministratorsatthesame

institutionsidentifiedfinancialassistanceasthemostimportantfactorinfluencing

NativeAmericanstudentpersistence.

Theseresearcherssuggesta“shiftawayfromdealingwithNativeAmerican

studentpersistencethroughpurelymonetarymeansandtowardcreatingwaysin

whichNativeAmericanstudentscanconnectwithboththeuniversityandtheir

homecommunities”(GuilloryandWolverton2008:81).Theysuggestcollaborative

programswithtribes,supportingdaycare,andbringinghighereducationtoNative

Americancommunities(GuilloryandWolverton2008).

Carney(1999:147)suggestssolutionstotheproblemofAmericanIndian

persistenceandpostsecondaryeducationalattainmentasnumerousasthe

problemstheyaddress.AmongthesolutionsCarneysuggestsare:expanded

recruitmentprogramsthatincludestudentsandtheirfamilies,aswellasmorenon‐

traditionalstudentswhohavebeenoutofschoolforafewyears;moreelaborate

socializationandorientationprogramsdesignedtoeasethetransitionofNative

studentsintoamainstreamcampusenvironment;increasedmonitoringofprogress

andongoingsupportforNativestudents;and,thedevelopmentofNativeAmerican

facultyandjobexperiencebyNativestudentsthatwouldpreparethemfor

employmentbeyondthecollegeexperience.Inallcases,thereistheneedfor

increasedfundingtosupportprograms(Carney1999).However,beforefunding

canberealizedastheprimaryconsideration,thereneedstobeanawarenessofthe

needsofNativestudentsandawillingnessbythoseinpositionsofauthoritytotake

actiononbehalfofthosestudents(Boyer1997).

Fox,LoweandMcClellan(2005)compiledalistofrecommendationsfor

collegeadministratorstomeettheneedsofAmericanIndianstudents.These

recommendationsareofparticularvalueastheycomedirectlyfromAmerican

Indianeducators.

Theyinclude:

1. EnhanceknowledgeaboutNativeAmericansandtheircultureamong

highereducationprofessionals.

2. ExpandappreciationofdiversityamongAmericanIndiansatbothmicro

andculturallevels.

3. Improveeducationalprofessionals’understandingoftribalsovereignty.

4. ShifttohighereducationmodelincorporatingNativeAmericanvalues,

worldviewsandexperiences.

5. Buildstrongerrecruitmentandretentionefforts.

6. Improvecommunicationsandimplementbureaucraticproceduresthat

bridgetheculturegapsbetweenIndianstudentsandtheirfamiliesand

mainstreamsocialsystemsthatareintimidatingandinhibitingtoIndian

people.

7. RecruitandretainAmericanIndianfaculty.

8. ExpandresearchinallareasofNativeAmericanhighereducation.

9. InvolveAmericanIndianpeopleinallaspectsofNativeAmericanhigher

education.

FromtheliteraturebyresearchersincludingBerry1964,Waxetal.1967,

Fox,etal.2005,Oppelt1990,Carney1999,Huffman1999,andDemmert2001,we

haveseenthemesrelatingtothesalienceofculturaldimensionsofNativeAmerican

studentsrepeatedlyemerge.Theconceptsofethnicidentityandempowerment

discussedbelowmayalsocontributetoanimprovedunderstandingofwhatcan

helpAmericanIndianstudentssucceedatcollege.

TheRoleofEthnicIdentityandEmpowerment

Field(1994:433)definesethnicidentityas“thedegreetowhichthe

individualsthoughtofthemselves,organizedthemeaningoftheirsocial

relationships,andinterpretedtheirexperiencesintermsoftheirnationality

background.”

Theconceptof“symbolicethnicity”asproposedbyHerbertGans(1979)is

usedasillustrationofthewayinwhichindividualswillpickandchoosefromastore

orcacheofculturalitems.Swidler(1986)referredtothisstoreasatypeof‘toolkit’

ofethnicorculturalitemstobebroughtoutandusedatparticulartimesin

particularsituations.Nagel(1994)seestheconstructionofethnicidentityas

accomplishedbychoosingitemsfroma‘shoppingcart’.Nagelseessocietal

constraintsasdeterminantoftheshapeofthecart,whereasexternalforcesbeyond

anyoneindividual’scontrollimitethnicidentification.Suchlimitationmayapply,

forexample,toAmericanIndiancollegestudentsonpredominantlyWhitecollege

campuses.

Inhisclassic1969work,EthnicGroupsandBoundaries,FredrikBarthposits

theconceptsoftheculturalconstructionistmodelofethnicity.Ethnicgroupsare

situationalandcontextual.Thisistosaythattheyaretheresultofparticular

interactional,historical,economicalandpoliticalfactorsincombinationsthatleadto

theformationofethnicboundaries.Throughoutthelongcolonialhistorysincethe

firstcontactbetweenAmericanIndiansandEuropeansettlerstherehavebeen

historicalattemptsbytheEuro‐dominantculturetoeradicatethecultureand

identityoftheNativeAmericans.Giventhishistory,acomplexsetoffactorsmay

influencehowAmericanIndianstudentsdevelopanethnicidentityandastudent

identitywithinthemainstreamcollegeenvironmentandhowthosetwoaspectsof

selfworkwithandagainsteachother.

InherbookentitledEmpowermentthroughMulticulturalEducation,Sleeter

(1991)explainshowpeopleempoweredbyeducationcanunderstandthe

oppressivenatureofthesocialstructure;actproactivelytowardreachingtheirown

goals;succeedasindividualswithinthedominantsocialstructureofschoolsand

othersocialinstitutions;advocateforthemselvesasindividualswithinthelarger

socialsystem;and,workcollectivelyforsocialjustice.Freire(1970)arguesthatitis

throughtheprocessofconscientizationthatoppressedpeoplerealizethattheir

culturalvaluesarelegitimate.Deyhle’s(1992;1995)researchshowsthatthe

differenceindropoutratesbetweenUtestudentsinabordercommunityand

Navajostudentsfromamoretraditionalreservationcommunityareanchoredinthe

degreeofconnectiontotraditionalNativecultureandthestrengthofIndian

identity.

Researchers(Oyserman,HarrisonandBybee2001;Oysermanetal.2003)

haveexaminedtheeffectsthatastrongracialidentityhasonprovidinga“positive

bufferagainstdecliningacademicefficacy”(2001:384)Thisispredicateduponthe

ideathatbeingamemberofaminoritygroupcanhavea‘deflatingandstigmatizing’

effect.Racialidentity,theresearchersargue,canbeacrucialelementaffectinghow

someadolescentsmakesenseoftheirselves.

Oyserman,GantandAger(1995:1222)describethestrategiesusedbyBlack

andWhiteuniversitystudents“toobtainachievementrelatedpossibleselves.”

Oyserman,BybeeandTerry(2006)explain“achievementrelatedpossibleselves”

and“academicpossibleselves”asdefinitionsofselfthataresupportiveand

consistentwithachievementandacademicsuccess.Oysermanetal.(1995)

recognizedthatsuchsociallyconstructedselvesareheavilydependentuponthe

backingofimportantothersinthesocialenvironment.Theseimportantothersmay

includefamilymembers,teachers,andmembersofthewidersupportnetworkand

referencegroups.Thesocialenvironmentisthearenainwhicheducational,

economicandothertypesofresourcesaregatheredas‘socialcapital’thatallows

youthtobecomeavaluedmemberofhisorhersocialgroup(Oysermanetal.1995).

AtthePlainsStateUniversity20thAnnualConsidertheCenturyConference

heldOctober8th,2008thePresidentofSittingBullCollegeatFortYates,North

Dakotawasasked,‘TowhatdoyouattributethesuccessofSittingBullCollege

studentsasmeasuredbyretentionandgraduationrates?’PresidentLaurel

VermillionrepliedbyexplainingthatSittingBullstudents“Knowwhotheyareand

wheretheycomefrom.”Inshort,somestudentshaveastronganchorintheformof

ethnic(Indian)identitythatmayleadtoempowermentandacademicattainment.

ZitzowandEstes(1980,1983)haveproposedaHeritageConsistent—

HeritageInconsistentContinuumasacounselingapproachwithAmericanIndian

students.Thiscontinuumisusedtoassesstheextenttowhichanindividual’s

lifestylereflectsthemajorelementsofhisorherhistoricaltribalculture.Wherean

individualfallsalongthecontinuumisdeterminedaccordingtothatindividual’s

knowledgeofandparticipationinthematerialandnon‐materialcultureand

customsoftheirtribalgroup.Thispositioningonthecontinuumappearstohavean

impactonself‐concept,acculturation,internalconflict,andidentity.AsHuffman

(1999)reports,theseaspectsofethnicidentitycanhaveadeterminanteffecton

howtheAmericanIndianstudentperceivesthecollegeenvironmentandnavigates

hisorherwaythroughit.

AccordingtoHuffman(1999)studentswhoarelessassimilatedtothe

mainstreamculturewillexperiencemorecultureshockuponarrivalatcollegeand

willbemorelikelytodropoutandreturnhomewithoutsomesupportorservices

designedtofacilitatethetransitionfromthefamiliar,moretraditionalenvironment

tothemainstreamcollegeenvironment.Huffman(1999)hascreatedtaxonomyfor

classifyingNativeAmericanstudentsalongacontinuumofculturaltraditional

lifestylerangingfromAssimilatedatoneendandEstrangedattheotherend.

Huffmanexplainshow,whilefortheAssimilatedstudent,transitiontocollegeand

themainstreamcultureposeslittle,ifany,challengeorthreat;theEstrangedstudent

willbemostlikelytodropoutofcollegequicklybecausethatstudentwillfeel

threatenedbythemainstreamcampusenvironmentandseetheuniversityasan

institutionwhosesolepurposeisoneoftotalassimilationandtheeradicationof

traditionalNativevaluesandlifestyle.BetweentheAssimilatedandEstranged

students,inthistaxonomy,HuffmanclassifiesMarginalstudentsand

Transculturatedstudentsasthosewhoareable,tovaryingdegrees,tobalanceout

thechallengesposedbylivinginboththetraditionalandthemainstreamworlds.

AccordingtoHuffman(1999),theMarginalstudentisonewhoattemptstolive

simultaneouslyintheboththetraditionalNativecultureandthemainstream

culturewhilefittingcomfortablyintoneitherone.Conversely,theTransculturated

studentdrawsstrengthfromhisorherethnicidentity,whichservesasananchor

andstabilizingfactor,providingresilienceandconfidencefornavigationthrough

themainstreamsocialstructure.

Lee(2006:6)describesTinto’smodelofcollegestudentdepartureaswhat

Tintotermed“longitudinalandinteractional”(Tinto1975,1993).Accordingto

Tinto,astudent’sdecisiontoremainincollegeorleaveistheproductofaprocess

thatoccursovertimeandisshapedthroughtheinteractionofcharacteristicsofthe

individualstudentandthoseoftheinstitution.Themodelsuggeststhatthosewho

completecollegedegreesarethosewhowereabletoassimilateandbecomefirmly

integratedintothemainstreamacademicandsocialsystemsoftheuniversity

environment.Thisbecomesproblematicforsomestudentsofcolorbecauseit

requiresthemtoconformtheirethnicidentitiestofitintothepredominantlyWhite

institutionalenvironment(Lee2006).Tintohassincerevisedhismodelsothathe

nowallowsfortheneedforsupportivecampuscommunitiesandinclusive

universityenvironmentsforstudentsofcoloriftheyaretoberetained(Lee2006).

OtherresearchersstillchallengeTinto’smodelasonethatisstillfirmlyembedded

inaframeworkofnecessaryassimilationandacculturationbytheminoritystudent

ifthatstudentistopersistincollege(Ogbu1978;Rendon,JalomoandNora2000;

Tierney1993,2000;Lee2006).

InherworkEthnicityMatters:RethinkingHowBlack,Hispanic&Indian

StudentsPrepareFor&SucceedInCollege,Lee(2006),reviewsfourmodelprograms

designedtohelpethnicminoritystudentsachieveacademicsuccess.Several

commondenominatorsforsuccessinclude:timing,earlyandintensive

interventions(collegepreparatoryprogramsbeginningintheseventhgrade),

persistence,geography,communication,high‐leveladministrativesupportand

collaboration,financialsupport,and,datadrivenapproachesbasedonquantitative

andqualitativeassessments.Leealsocitescriticalmassasacommonfactorin

successfulprograms.Numbers,sheargues,countintheempowermentofethnicand

racialminoritiesandtheirabilitytoparticipateinthedominantsocialstructure.

Numbersofenrolledandgraduatedracialandethnicminorities,Leesuggests,

shouldbeproportionatetothepercentageinthegeneralpopulation.

Lee’s(2006)analysisofprogramssuccessfulinservingtheneedsofethnic

andracialminoritystudentsintheirquestforacademicsuccessshowsthatwhen

peopleworktogethertoaddresstheneedsofminoritystudents,andwhenthey

understandhowethnicitymatters,greatprogresscanbemade.Throughthe

implementationoftheaboveprinciplesdevelopedbythetrailblazersinthefieldof

highereducationforminoritystudents,therecanbedevelopedandimplementeda

newpedagogy,whatFreire(1974)calleda‘pedagogyofhope’inwhicheducation

becomesatwowaystreetbetweenthetreasureofhistoricalculturalknowledgeand

thatofthedominantsocialstructurewhichhasbeeninstitutionalizedintheworld

ofhighereducation.Oneapplicationofthisunderstandingisthedevelopmentofa

sharedspaceforAmericanIndianstudentsonpredominantlyWhitecampuses.

TheRoleofaSharedPlaceforAmericanIndianStudents

Oldenburg(1989)makesastrongcaseforwhatheterms‘thethirdplace’as

aplacewhereinformalpublicassociationservestofacilitateasenseofcommunity

wellbeingandsolidaritybasedonsharedvaluesandcommonlifeexperienceatthe

localcommunitylevel.‘Thethirdplace’,accordingtoOldenburg,isneitherhomenor

work,butonethatoffersthefamiliarcomfortofbothwithouttheirincumbent

responsibilitiesorsocialrestrictions.Inthe‘thirdplace’onefinds,throughinformal

associationwithothers,thesourceofrecreation,recuperationandrejuvenationas

wellasvalidationandsocialsupportforindividualsagainsttheoppressivegrindof

thedailylifeinthedominantsocialstructure.Inaddition,itprovidesasafeand

nurturingenvironmentthroughassociationwithlikemindedindividuals.Justasthe

localpub,thebarbershop,thecaféandtheGermanbeergarden,offerplacesfor

groupaffiliation,theNativeAmericanHouseonthecampusatDartmouth,and

similarsuchfacilitiesatotheruniversitiesacrossthecountrymayofferaplacefor

thedevelopmentofasocialsupportnetwork.

studentsatDartmouth.ContributorscitedtheexistenceoftheNativeAmerican

HousealongwiththeNativeAmericanStudiesprogramandthesupportofNative

Americanfacultyasprimaryfactorsintheircollegesuccess.TheNativeAmerican

HouseatDartmouthprovidedasafeplaceforstudentswhowereexperiencinga

typeofcultureshockarisingfromconflictbetweenacademicandtraditional

AmericanIndianvalues(GarrodandLarimore1997).Thegroupknownas“The

NativeAmericansatDartmouth”providedsupportandsolidarityforNative

studentsintheforeignworldofanIvyLeaguecampusintheNortheasternUnited

States.

TheUniversityofMinnesotarecentlyheldacelebrationinhonorofthefifth

yearofoperationoftheAmericanIndianCulturalHouse(AICH).AICHisa

“UniversityefforttohelpAmericanIndianstudentsadjusttocampuslife”(San

2008:1).AstestimonytotheeffectivenessoftheUniversityofMinnesota’sNative

AmericanCulturalHouse,oneNativeAmericanalumnaestated,“Asafreshman,itis

oftenhardtotransitionintolifeonyourown...TheCulturalHousegavemean

informaleducationabouthowtosurviveandhowtoincorporateNativetraditional

ways.Thehousegavemeahome;acommunityinwhichIbelonged…thebestthing

isthatbeingapartoftheCulturalHousewaslikehavingyourownfamily.Itwasa

goodsteppingstonetothecampusforfirstyearstudents”(San2008:1).

Theimportanceofasharedplacefortheformationofsupportivegroupshas

beenshownatbothDartmouthandtheUniversityofMinnesota.AmericanIndian

studentsprovidetestimonytothevitalroleplayedbythe‘NativeAmericanHouse’,

touseagenericterm,intheirsuccessfultransitionfromthetraditionallysupportive

environmentprovidedbytheextendedfamilyandcommunityfromwhichmany

AmericanIndianstudentscome,totheforeignatmosphereoftheuniversity

environmentthatistheinstitutionalizationoftheEuro‐centriceducationsystem

andthedominantmainstreamsocialstructure.Thereisampleevidencetosuggest

thattheexistenceofsuchahousemaybebeneficialtoAmericanIndianstudentsat

universitieswherenosuch‘third’placecurrentlyexists.

SummaryandConclusiontoLiteratureReview

AreviewoftheliteratureregardingNativeAmericaneducationwithafocus

onhighereducationattainmentshowsthatearlyattemptssoughttore‐educate

NativeAmericansintothemainstreamEuro‐Americanmold(Eastman1902;

Meriam1928;StandingBear1928;Collier1947;Berry1969;Berkhofer1978).This

re‐educationwaslargelybasedintheChristianvaluesandtheindoctrinationof

EuropeannormsandvaluesintotheNativesociety(Berkhofer1978;McBeth1983;

Oppelt1990;DeloriaJr.1994;Boyer1997;Calloway1999).

Historyshowsthesegoalstohavefailed,resultinginagapineducational

attainmentbetweenAmericanIndiansandotherethnicgroupsDeVoeetal.(2008).

Beginninginthelate1960stribalcollegesbegananewmovementinself‐

determinationforAmericanIndianhighereducation(Oppelt1990;Boyer1997).

ThisnewmodelforNativeAmericaneducationisbasedontribalculture.Tribal

collegesandmoreresponsivemainstreaminstitutionshavehelpedAmerican

Indiansachieveanupwardtrendineducationalattainment(Oppelt1990;Boyer

1997;DeVoeetal.2008).In2008,highpercentagesofNativeAmericanstudents

soughtassociate,andbachelor’sdegreesatbothtwoandfour‐yearinstitutionsand

receivedmoregraduatedegreesthaneverbefore(DeVoeetal.2008).

WhilemuchprogresshasbeenmadeinAmericanIndianhighereducation,

barrierstoeducationalsuccessforNativestudentsremain(Waxetal.1964;Wax

1967;Berry1969;Tierney1992;Carney1999).Amongthesebarriersare:lackof

familialandfinancialsupport,lackofculturallyrelevantcurricula,fewNativefaculty

andstafftosupportNativestudents,alackofculturallybasedstudentsupport

services,ageinappropriatenessforeducationallevelandinadequatepreparationfor

college(WrightandTierney1991;Tierney1992;Carney1999).

EducatorsworkinginAmericanIndianhighereducationhaveidentified

factorsleadingtosuccessandstrategiesforeducationalattainment(Waxetal.

1964;WrightandTierney1991;Demmert2001;HeavyRunnerandDeCelles2002;

Jacksonetal.2003Foxetal.2005).Amongthesefactorsare:familysupport,

increasedculturalidentity,personaldeterminationandgoalsetting,financial

support,improvedacademicskillspriortocollege,supportivementorsamong

collegefacultyandstaff,andculturallyappropriatecurricula.

Someresearchershaveidentifiedalinkbetweenethnicidentityand

educationalattainmentforminoritystudents.Forexample,ZitzowandEstes(1980,

1983),Oysermanetal.(1995,2001,2003,2006),andLee(2006)haveallfounda

linkbetweenthedevelopmentofastrongethnicidentityandacademicsuccess.

Oneapproachthatshowspotentialforenhancingeducationalattainmentis

theexistenceofaNativeAmericanhouseasaplacefortheformationofreference

groupsprovidingsupportandtheopportunitytodevelopastrongethicidentitythat

isseenasaculturalassetthatmayimproveretentionamongAmericanIndian

students.Oldenburg(1989)andGarrodandLarimore(1997)illustratethe

importanceofasafegatheringplacewherelike‐mindedpeopleformacommunity

andfindsupportotherthanthatfoundathomeoratwork.TheAmericanIndian

CultureHousehasimprovedthesuccessofAmericanIndianstudentsin

transitioningfromhometothepredominantlyWhite,mainstreamcampusatthe

UniversityofMinnesota(San2008).AsPresidentLaurelVermillionexplainedwhen

askedwhatfactorismostbeneficialtostudentsatSittingBullCollegeinachieving

academicsuccess,‘Theyknowwhotheyareandwheretheycomefrom.’As

HeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002)havefound,familyandthecommunityareof

criticalimportancetoAmericanIndianstudentsintermsoftheirretentionor

persistenceincollege.

Evengiventheprogressmadeinidentifyingbarriersanddeveloping

strategiestoovercomethosebarriers,thereremainstheneedtobetterunderstand

themechanismsthatimpacteducationalattainment,particularlyastheyapplyto

thelivesofAmericanIndianstudentsatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionssuchas

SociologyofEducation,CriticalRaceTheoryandCriticalEducationTheory

alongwiththeoreticalfocusontheformationandfunctionofreferencegroupswill

informthiswork.Theseperspectiveswillbecoveredinthenextchapter.

CHAPTERTHREE

TheoreticalOrientation

Thisstudyexploresthefactorsthatcontributetoeducationalattainment

amongAmericanIndianstudentsatapredominantlyWhiteuniversityinPrairie

State.Thecriticaltheoreticaltraditionprovidestheconceptualframeworkforthe

study.Worksrelatingtocriticaleducationtheoryandcriticalracetheoryare

identifiedasparticularlysalientforthisexaminationofretentionandgraduationof

AmericanIndianstudentsfromPlainsStateUniversity.

Thecriticalschoolofsociologicaltheory,commonlyreferredtoasthe

FrankfurtSchool,developedintheearly1900soutoftheMarxianperspective.

TheoristsmostassociatedwiththecriticalschoolincludeMaxHorkheimer,Theodor

Adorno,ErichFromm,HerbertMarcuseandinmoremoderntimes,Jurgen

Habermas(Bottomore1984).Criticaltheoryaimstouncoveraspectsofthesocial

worldthatmaybetakenforgranted,or,onthesurface,gounnoticedbutthatmay

beoppressiveorrestrictiveofthefreedomsofindividualsorgroups(Neuman

2000).Thebasicmotiveoftheearlycriticaltheoristswastocriticizelifeunder

capitalismandthedominantideologythatexplainedandpromotedit.Critical

thinkersstressedtheimportanceofcultureandwerecriticalofart,aestheticsand

themassmediaasproductsoftheoppressivedominantsocialstructure(Bottomore

1984;Neumann2000).Criticaltheoryisvalueladenandemancipatory,seekingto

liberatehumanexistenceandameliorateoppressivesocialconditionsthatare

dominatedbyvaluesofefficiencyandcontrolthroughtheuseoftechnology

(Bottomore1984;Neumann2000).Thecriticalperspectiveseekstocombinetheory

andactionaspraxis(Bottomore1984;Tierney1992).

Gramsci(1932)discussedtheconceptofhegemony.Culturalhegemonyisa

socialconditioninwhichtherulingclassmanipulatesculturalsymbolsinsucha

waythatleadsotherclassesorculturalgroupstoeffectivelycontributetotheirown

subordination(Gramsci1932).Thisformofdominationoperatesthroughvital

socialfunctionsinsocialinstitutionssuchaseducation(Friere1970),andisof

particularinteresttothisstudyofAmericanIndiansandhighereducation.

Ogbu(1978,1985)arguesthatlackofminoritystudentachievementin

school,andafterwards,istheresultofamacrostructuredesignedspecificallyto

keepthepowerinthehandsoftheWhiteEuro‐Americanmajority.Insupportofthis

position,Ogbu(1985)suggestsataxonomicclassificationsystemofminority

groups.Theseclassificationsrangeinlevelofoppressionfrombarelyseparated

frommainstreamasintheautonomousminoritiessuchasAmish,Jews,Mormons,

andWhiteEuropeanandAsianimmigrants,tothemostopenlyoppressedgroup,

castelikeminorities,includingNativeAmericans,AfricanAmericans,andMexican

Americans(Ogbu1985).

insensitivityhasbeeninstitutionalizedonmainstreamcollegecampusesintheform

ofEuro‐centriccurriculum,lackofinterestinAfricanAmericanstudents,andthe

expectationbyfacultythatindividualBlackstudentsarerepresentativeoftheentire

race,asFeagin(2000)suggests,thesamemayholdtrueforNativeAmerican

studentsonmajorityWhite,mainstreamcampuses.

Tierney(1992)describestherealisticchallengesofthecollegeanduniversity

experienceforAmericanIndianstudentsinEuro‐Americanmainstreamcolleges

anduniversities.ThetitleofTierney’s1992bookisilluminatinginitself:‘Official

Encouragement,InstitutionalDiscouragement’istherealityofcollegeexperiencefor

manyNativeAmericanstudents,heargues.Indeed,manyscholarscontendthat

barriersandobstaclestoacademicattainmentforAmericanIndiansaretheresultof

generationsofblockedopportunitiesformembersofsubordinateminoritygroups

(Waxetal.1964,Berry1969;Hertzburg1971;Oppelt1990;Tierney1992,2000;

Carney1999).

Fordham(1996)exploresstructuralbarrierscreatedbythemainstream

dominantsocietyagainstBlackAmericans(andotherracialsubordinategroups)

regardingachievementintheworkforce,marketplace,andeducationalsystem.

Suchbarriersinclude:prejudicialattitudesamongmainstreamstudents,facultyand

administrators(Feagin1996);fundamentalculturaldifferencesinU.S.mainstream

‘Euro‐American’andAmericanIndianculture(Wax,WaxandDuMont1964,Tierney

1992,2000,Carney1999);inadequatecollegepreparationfrompoorlyfunded

schoolsinminority(includingreservation)communities(Carney1999);

unsupportivemainstreamcampusenvironments(Wax,etal.1964,Tierney1992;

Huffman1999);inadequatefinancialsupportforNativestudents(Guilloryand

Wolverton2008);languagebarriers,lackofparentinvolvement,culturally

insensitiveteachertrainingprogramsandlowteacherexpectationsregarding

AmericanIndianstudents(Berry1969).

Fordham(1988)looksattheconflictbetweenBlackstudentsandtheir

culturalkinshiptiesandthecultureofhighereducationbuiltupontheidealsofthe

dominantmainstreamsocialstructure.Fordhampositsthatstudentsarepulledby

theirdualrelationshipsbetweenthecommunity‐focusedBlacksocialstructureand

theindividualisticemphasisofthedominantsocialstructurethatisthebasisforthe

competitiveideologyofthemainstreameducationsystem.

Forthecastelikesubordinateminority(Ogbu1985),theroadblocksto

academicaswellaslifegoalachievementaresignificant.Asethnic/racialgroup

boundariesaresetandmaintained,thecastelikeminoritymembersadoptnew

culturallyspecificwaysasareactionagainstnorms,valuesandexpectationsofthe

hegemonicmainstream.Someofthesemechanismsareseenasoppositional.For

example,aBlackstudentwillnotpartakeinschoolactivitiesthatwillbeseenby

peersormembersofhisorherin‐groupas‘actingWhite’.Inthisregard,itisseenas

bettertoremainloyaltothegroupthantobeseenasasellouttotheWhitemajority

powerstructure(Ogbu1978,1985;Fordham1988).

Fordham(1988)describestwomethodsadoptedbyracialminoritiesfor

dealingwiththenecessityofcompromisinginordertosucceedinthedominant

culture.‘Sellingout’referstodevelopingastateof‘racelessness’inorderto

downplayracial/ethnicculturewhileadoptingthevaluesofthedominantsociety.

Alternatively,studentsmayclingtothesolidarityofracialidentityanddownplay

thevaluesofthedominantsociety.ThisstrategyiscomparabletoHuffman’s(1999)

‘estranged’studentwhochoosesto‘dropout’ratherthan‘sellout’.

Huffman(1999)interviewedAmericanIndianstudentsathighereducation

institutionsintheupperMidwest,developingatypologytocharacterizetheirlevel

ofacculturation.AccordingtoHuffman(1999)theestrangedAmericanIndian

studentisimmersedinhisorhertraditionaltribalcultureandfeelslikeafishoutof

waterinthecollegeenvironment.FortheestrangedAmericanIndian,the

mainstreamcollegecampusseemsforeign.Theestrangedstudentismostlikelyto

dropoutofcollegeand,amongHuffman’stypes,isthequickesttodoso.Forthis

student,themainstreamEuro‐culturalvaluesofindividualismandcompetitionare

notwelcomingorcomfortable.Thisstudentseesthegoaloftheuniversityasthe

assimilationintothemainstreamculture.Thisthreattothestudent’straditional

valuesservestopushthemawayfromthecampusenvironment;concurrently,many

experiencea“pullback”totheirhometribalcommunity.

Whenthehighereducationsystemfailstorecognizethevalueofminority

students,thesestudentsmayfailtoachieveintheuniversityenvironment.Thisis

notafailureofthestudentorofthestudents’culturalgroups,Huffman(1999)

argues,butrather,thefailureoftheeducationalsystemsbuiltuponmainstream

values.

CriticalRaceTheory(CRT)hasitsontologicalrootsinthelifeexperiencesof

marginalizedpeopleofcolor(Yasso2005).Ithaslongbeenassumedthatifpeople

ofcolordonotadopttheworldviewofthedominantmiddleanduppermiddle

classes,thenthosepeopleofcolorlacktheculturalcapitalrequiredforsocial

mobility(Bourdieu1977;Ogbu1978,1985).Thoseinhegemonicmainstream

powerpositionsviewsuchalackofculturalcapitalfromthedominantclassesasa

deficit(Yasso2005).Thishashistoricallybeenthecaseinthefieldofeducation

regardingethnicandracialminoritystudents(Waxetal.1964,Berry1969;

Hertzburg1971;Oppelt1990;Tierney1992,2000;Carney1999).

CRTchallengestheconstructofracebyexaminingtheideologyofracism.

“CRTfindsthatracismisoftenwelldisguisedintherhetoricofshared‘normative’

valuesand‘neutral’socialscientificprinciplesandpractices”(Yasso2005:74).Itis

thegoalofCRTtochallengeracismbybringingtotheforefrontofconsciousnessthe

uniqueaspectsofaculturethatformthestoreofculturalwealth.Fromthe

recognitionofculturalwealthcomesthebeginningoftheprocessofempowerment

thatstartswiththereplacementoftheculturaldeficitframeworkandinitsplace

theviewthatculturalwealthisanasset.

Fordham(1988)andHuffman(1999)suggestthatremedying

underachievementamongAfricanAmericanandAmericanIndianstudentsrequires

amultilayeredapproach.First,minoritystudentsneedrolemodelsthatshowthat

theycanachieveinschoolandintheworkplacewithoutlosingtheirethnicidentity

ortheirmembershipinakinshipnetworkorextendedtribalfamily.Second,the

structuralandculturalbarriersthathavebeenseentoworkasroadblocksto

successmustbetorndown.

Yasso(2005)expandsonBourdieu’s(1977)workon‘culturalcapital’.

AccordingtoYasso,ratherthandefineminorityculturesasthosesufferingfrom

deficitofculturalpovertyanddisadvantageswhencomparedtothemainstream

Euro‐Americanculture,theycanbeseenasawealthofculturalknowledge,history

andconnection.Theseassetsprovideastrengthandstabilizinganchorforthe

minoritystudentsastheymaketheirwaythroughthesystemofhighereducation

thatisdevised,implementedanddominatedbypredominantlyWhitemembersof

themainstreameducationalhierarchy.Culturalwealthcanbeconceptualizedto

includebothmaterialandnon‐materialculturalitems.AccordingtoYasso(2005),

CriticalRaceTheorydefinesculturalwealthasasetofassetsratherthanaplatform

ofdeprivation.Yossodescribesformsofculturalcapitaltoinclude,“aspirational,

navigational,social,linguistic,familialandresistantcapital”(2005:69).Fromthese,

studentscandrawstrengtheningresourcesbasedontheirlifeexperiences,familial

bonds,andculturaltraditionsthatwillservetheminthecollegeclassroom.

Toovercomeeducationalobstaclesandcreateopportunitiesforminority

studentstoachievewithoutfeelingdisloyaltotheirgroup,educationalprograms

needtoincorporatewaysofinstillingculturalprideandtherecognitionofthe

groups’contributionstosocietyingeneral(Fordham1988;Tierney1992;Carney

1999).Thisrequiresanewwayofthinkingbothonthepartofeducatorsand

students.AsOgbu(1985:868)suggests,“Atthelevelofpractice,teachersand

schoolscandevelopprogramstohelpminoritystudentslearnhownottoequate

masteryofschoolcultureandlanguagewithalossofgroupidentityandsecurity”.

Tierney(2000)arguesthatthosewhoworkwithlow‐incomeorminority

studentsneedtoreorienthowtheythinkaboutandworkwithsuchstudents.

Programsthatenhancethestudents’culturalawarenesscanexpandtheirassets

allowingthemtoenvisionandenactapositiveachievementoutcome.From

Tierney’s(2000)view,studentswhoareencouragedtoembracetheiridentitymay

beempowered.Thisempowermentmayleadtoincreasedefficacyinschool

performanceandretentionforsomeminoritystudents.Tierney’swork(2000)

pointstotheneedformainstreamuniversitiestonurturestudents’ethnicidentity

asastrengthandassetforallmembersofthecampuscommunity.

Bybuildingapositiveracial/ethnicidentity,alongwithskillsin

understandingandnavigatingmainstreaminstitutions,studentefficacyisincreased.

ThishasbeenshowntobeeffectiveintheexampleoftheSouthCentralLosAngeles

interventionknownastheNeighborhoodAcademicInitiative(Lee2006).

Truebastressestheimportanceofcultureasafactorinschoolachievement.

AccordingtoTrueba(1988),cultureisimportantatthecollectivelevel,(i.e.ethnic

groupinamacrostructure),andatthemicro,(contextspecific)levelofthestudent.

Trueba(1988)supportsanemphasisontheuniquerolecultureplaysinthe

entireprocessoflearning.ForTrueba,cultureisparamounttotheacquisitionand

processingofinformation.Whencultureisaccountedforintheschoolexperienceit

allowsstudentstoovercomehegemonicforcesineducationbuiltuponahistoryof

colonialismandimperialism.AccordingtoTrueba,“Thereisagreatneedforthe

developmentofatheoryofacademicachievementthattakesintoconsiderationthe

homecultureofthestudents”(1988:279).

Theinclusionofcultureintotheeducationalprocessisachievedthroughthe

useof‘activitysettings’(Trueba1988)duringthelearningprocess.Whenculturally

appropriateactivitiesareincludedinthecurriculumthestudentisabletointegrate

themainstreamculturethroughtheeducationprocessbylinkingitwithculturally

specificexperiencesasheorshehasbeensocializedwith.Lee’sworkwithethnic

minoritystudentsinChina(2001)andinexaminingmodelprogramsinsupportof

studentsofcolorinpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsintheU.S.(2006)isfurther

evidenceofhowethnicitymattersregardingminoritystudentacademicsuccess.

GuajardoandGuajardo(2002)describetheLlanoGrandeprograminElsa,

Texasasaprojectdesignedtocapitalizeonminoritystudents’culturalassets.The

LlanoGrandeprojectwashighlysuccessfulinhelpingstudentsconceptualize

culturalassetssuchasfamilialbonds,oralhistory,andNativelanguageasabasisfor

culturalprideandempowerment.Bygivingthestudentsavoicetheywereableto

seethewealthoftheirethnichistoryandapplyittopossiblefutureoutcomes

towardpositivechange.(GuajardoandGuajardo2002).Thepositiveimpactsofthe

Llanoprojectincludethirty‐sixstudentsfromthecommunityattendingcollegeat

IvyLeagueschools.Otherstudentsattendlocaluniversities.Thereisatrendtoward

thesestudentsreturningtothecommunityafterreceivingtheiruniversity

educationstogivebacktothecommunity.

GuilloryandWolverton(2008:59)citeseveralstudies(Belgarde1992;

BrownandRobinsonKurpius1997;Carney1999;CibikandChambers1991;Lin,

LaCounteandEder1988;PavelandPadilla1993;Wright1985”),showingthat

“...participationatAmericanIndianstudentcenterscanleadtoacademicand

socialengagementforAmericanIndianstudentsand,subsequently,cancontribute

toretainingthisparticulargroup”.ThesestudiesindicatesuchNativeAmerican

‘Houses’orstudentcentersacrossthecountrymayprovideculturallyappropriate

activitysettingsthatnurturethesalienceofethnicidentityandempowerstudents

forsuccessintheuniversityenvironment.

AccordingtoErickson(1963),thedevelopmentoftheindividual’ssenseof

selfbeginsasachildisabletodifferentiateitselfasanobjectseparatefromfamily.

Thissenseofselfasameaningfulobjectisdevelopedthroughtheprocessoffirst

takingtheroleofafewsignificantothers,mostlikelyparentsandsiblings,andthen

takingtheroleofthegeneralizedother(Mead1934).AccordingtoHewitt

(1994:90),referencegroupsare“socialgroupsthatprovidegeneralizedothersto

whomtheindividualrefers.”Singer(1981)explainsreferencegroupsasthose

groupsthatprovideanorientationforsocialcomparisonofone’sself.Reference

groupsprovideaframeworkfromwhichtheindividualisabletoshapehisorher

evaluations,attitudesandbehavior(Singer1981).

Referencegroupshavebeenconceivedofascomparativeandnormative.

“Theconsequenceofnormativereferenceorientationisconformity”whetheritbe

conformitytoabelief,attitude,avalueorabehavior(Singer1981:69).A

comparativereferencegroupservesasa“standardofcomparisonforanappraisalof

eithertheselforother”(Singer1981:77).Stouffer’s(1949)theoryholdsthat

individualsusemultiplereferencegroupsinordertomakeevaluations.

Thisstudyexamineswhether,andtowhatextent,theformationofculturally

basedreferencegroupshelpAmericanIndianstudentsnavigatetheirwaythrough

predominantlyWhiteinstitutionsthatarebasedinmainstreamnorms,values,and

experiences;thusactingtofacilitatetheireducationalattainment.

Inaclassicstudyofnormativereferencegroupsperformedinthe1930s,

Newcomb(1958)notesageneraltrendofattitudechangefrom“freshman

conservatives”to“seniorneoconservativesamongBenningtoncollegestudents”

Newcomb(1958:275)concludesthatsuchattitudes“arenotacquiredinasocial

vacuum.Theiracquisitionisafunctionofrelatingoneselftosomegrouporgroups

positivelyornegatively.”

Oldenburg(1989)makesastrongcaseforwhatheterms‘thethirdplace’as

aplacewhereinformalpublicassociationservestofacilitateasenseofcommunity

wellbeingandsolidaritybasedonsharedvaluesandcommonlifeexperienceatthe

localcommunitylevel.‘Thethirdplace’,accordingtoOldenburg,isneitherhomenor

work,butoffersthefamiliarcomfortofbothwithouttheirincumbent

responsibilitiesorsocialrestrictions.Inthe‘thirdplace’isfound,throughinformal

associationwithothers,thesourceofrecreation,recuperationandrejuvenationas

wellasvalidationandsocialsupportforindividualsagainsttheoppressivegrindof

thedailylifeinthedominantsocialstructure.Inaddition,itprovidesasafeand

nurturingenvironmentthroughassociationwithlikemindedindividuals.Like

mindedindividuals,sharingcommonvalues,commonlifeexperiencesandcommon

lifegoalswillformreferencegroupsforcomparisontoothers,bothinsideand

outsideoftheirgroupwhilealsoformingnormativereferencegroupsforthe

validationandcontinuationofsharednormsandvalues(Singer1981).American

Indianstudentsonmainstreamcampusesmayseeksuchaspecial‘thirdplace’.

TheMulticulturalStudentAffairsOfficeatPSUmayoffersuchaplaceforthe

developmentofasocialsupportnetworkthatservestoempowerstudentsthrough

thestrengtheningofacommonAmericanIndianidentity.Onepointofexploratory

interestinthisstudyiswhetherPSU’sOfficeofMulticulturalAffairs,whichutilizesa

‘Global’definitionofdiversity,whereinallminoritygroupsonthePSUcampusare

seenasaunified,‘non‐dominant’groupprovidessuchanenvironmentfor

developmentofacademicempowermentthroughaffiliationwithaculturallybased

normativereferencegroup,orwhetherthe‘GlobalDiversity’conceptfailsto

accountforeachminoritygroup’sculturalcapitalasuniquelyempoweringbasedon

eachgroup’sindividualculturalcharacteristicsratherthanbasedonthegroup’s

collectivestatus’asnon‐dominant.

Criticaltheorysuggeststhevaluesandstructuresofthedominant

mainstreamsocietyserveasbarrierstoeducationalattainmentofminoritystudents

intheU.S.(Bottomore1984).Culturalhegemonydescribeshowthoseinpower

manipulateculturalsymbolssothatotherclassesorculturalgroupseffectively

contributetotheirownsubordination(Gramsci1932).Thisformofsocial

dominationisevidentthroughoutthehistoryofAmericanIndianhighereducation

(Meriam1928;Collier1947;Hertzberg1971;Berkhofer1978;McBeth1983;Oppelt

1990;DeloriaJr.1994;Boyer1997;Calloway1999Pewewardy2002).

Ogbu(1978,1985)illustrateshowstructuralbarrierssuchasprejudice,

inadequatefinances,andacademicpreparationarerealitiesforoppressed,

‘castelike’minorities.AccordingtoOgbu,thesestructuralfactorseffectivelylimitthe

opportunitiesforacademicadvancementandlifeingeneral.

Feagin(1996),reportsthatprejudicialattitudesarestillprevalenton

predominantlyWhitecampuses.Suchinstitutionalizeddiscriminationworksatboth

thestructuralandculturallevelstocreatebarrierstoacademicattainmentfor

AmericanIndianstudents.Additionally,Tierney(1992,2000)showsthewaysin

whichpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsofhighereducationarecreated,

implementedandmaintainedaccordingtoEuro‐Americanmainstreamvalues,goals

andperspectives.Thisorientationholdsthattheresponsibilityforacademicsuccess

restsexclusivelyuponthestudentwhoisviewedasdeficient.Conversely,the

criticalperspective(Tierney1992,2000)placesresponsibilityontheinstitutionto

adaptprogramsandapproachesthatbuildonstudents’ethnicidentityandcultural

backgroundasassetsthatcanleadtotheirempowermentandeducational

attainment(Tierney1992;Trueba1988;GuajardoandGuajardo2002;Lee2006).

Newcomb(1958)andSinger(1981)describetheformationofreference

groupsthatservetoprovideindividualswithaframeworkofsocialcomparisonand

fromwhichtogaugeandformulatepersonalnormsandvalues.Oldenburg(1989)

describeshowthe‘thirdplace’servesasagatheringplacewhereindividualsmay

sharecommonsnorms,values,lifecircumstancesandconcerns.

Builtonacriticalconceptualframework,thisstudyexamineswhetherthe

formationofnormativereferencegroupsthroughprograms,supportstructuresand

a‘thirdplace’,suchasa‘NativeAmericanCulturalCenter’mayservetomitigatethe

structuralandculturalbarrierstosuccessthatAmericanIndianstudentsencounter

atpredominantlyWhiteinstitutions.Inaddition,otherfactorsthatcombineto

hinderorfacilitatestudentretentionandgraduationforNativeAmericanstudents

atPSUareexplored.

CHAPTERFOUR

METHODOLOGY

Thisprojectemploysaninductiveresearchapproachtoexplorefactors

influencingsecondaryeducationalattainmentofAmericanIndians.Inkeepingwith

thecriticaltheoreticaltradition,themethodsofqualitativeethnographyprovidethe

frameworkfortheexplorationintotheresearchquestionsthatyieldthick,rich

descriptionfromtheinsider’sperspective.Theconceptof‘praxis’asintroducedby

Marx,remainsaguidingprincipleinthedesignandimplementationofthisstudy.

Praxishasasitsgoaltoameliorateoppressivesocialconditionsthroughthe

applicationofpragmaticactionthatisbasedintheoreticallygeneratedideas.This

studyisdirectedatenhancingunderstandingsothatmoreAmericanIndian

studentsareabletoattaintheirhighereducationaspirations.

Datacollectionincludedfocusgroups,intensiveinterviews,field

observations,anddocumentarydataanalysisincludingquantitativedataon

enrollmentandretentionofNativeAmericanstudents.Analysisofdatawasuseful

ingainingnewinsightandanenhancedunderstandingoftheresearchquestions

thatfollow.

ResearchQuestions

Basedinthecriticaltheoreticaltradition,thisprojectinvestigatesthe

followingresearchquestionstodevelopanenhancedunderstandingofAmerican

IndianeducationalattainmentatPlainsStateUniversity.

1. WhatfactorsfacilitateorenhanceeducationalattainmentforAmerican

Indianstudents?

2. Whatfactorsactasbarrierstoeducationalattainment?

Basedonareviewoftheliterature,thisresearchincludestheexaminationof

issuesrelatingto:

a.Financialresources b.Campusenvironmentc.Familyrelationsd.Pre‐collegeacademicpreparatione.Facultyexpectationsf.Faculty,staffandstudentattitudesg.Curriculumh.Culturaltraditionsi.CulturallybasedReferencegroupsj.Culturalfactorsk.The3rdplacel.Supportprogramsm.Individual(personal)drivetowardacademicattainment

Themajorresearchfocusofthisstudyis:whatfactorscombinetofacilitate

orhindereducationalattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatamajor,

predominantlyWhite,universityinPrairieState?Themeasureofeducational

attainmentisdeterminedthroughcomparativeratesofretentionandgraduationfor

AmericanIndianstudentsandallotherstudentsatPlainsStateUniversity.

Totalstudentenrollmentinthefallof2009,was12,376.Ofthose,8.4percent

werelistedasminoritystudents.AmericanIndianstudentsenrolledatPSU

comprisethesecondlargestofminoritygroupsenrolledat2.1percentofall

studentsenrolled.RecordsavailablethroughtheofficeoftheNativeAmerican

StudentAdvisorshow249studentsidentifiedasAmericanIndiansenrolledatPSU.

ThereisnobreakdownofthenumberofstudentsattendingtheRailtowncampusas

separatefromUniversityCenterorfacilitiesinanyotherpartofthestate.Forty‐four

Nativestudentsarelistedasfreshmen.Thirty‐ninestudentswereassignedrooms

oncampusinresidencehalls.

StudyInstitution

Students,AdministratorsandfacultyatPlainsStateUniversityprovidedthe

multiplevoicesandviewpointscontributingtothisstudy.ThehistoryofPSUhas

unfoldedconcurrentwith,andparalleltothehistoryofAmericanIndiansstateand

nationwide.

StudyParticipants

ThesamplepopulationforthisstudyincludesNativeAmericanstudents

currentlyenrolledatPSU.Inadditiontostudents,facultyandstaffwhoareinvolved

inprograms,servicesorcurriculathataredesignedspecificallyforNativeAmerican

studentsorthatarefrequentedbyNativeAmericanstudentsareincludedin

intensiveinterviewsandfieldobservations.Universityadministratorsare

interviewedinordertogainaninsider’sperspectivefromthemainstream

institutionalpointofviewregardingtheissueofAmericanIndianstudentretention

andgraduation.Methodologicalapproachestoeachofthesegroupsaredescribed

below.

NativeAmericanStudents

PSUhasaNativeAmericanstudentpopulationlargelyfromtheplainsstates

oftheUpperMidwest.Assuch,thetribalaffiliationsofstudentsatPSUaremore

similarthanmaybeseenatsomeuniversitiesinpartsofthecountryfurther

removed,andwithamorediverseNativepopulation.Evengiventhesimilarityof

AmericanIndianstudentsattendingPrairieStateuniversities,thediversityamong

tribalgroupsandindividualstudentsmustbeacknowledged.Forthisreasonthe

term‘AmericanIndianstudent’willbehomogenizedintoamore‘pan‐Indian’

(Hertzburg1971)conceptofIndiannessbasedonsimilaritiessharedasPrairieState

AmericanIndianuniversitystudents.Thisiskeepingwiththeapproachusedby

GuilloryandWolverton(2008).

ThesampleofNativestudentsforthisstudywasdevelopedwiththehelpof

theNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwhoseofficeiscurrentlyhousedwithinPSU’s

MulticulturalAffairsOffice(OMA).HisfamiliaritywiththeAmericanIndianstudents

enrolledatPSUhelpedensureinterviewsandfocusgroupsincludedstudentswitha

diversityofages,genders,familystatus(whetherornotoneisaparent),yearin

college,majors,andfinancialresources.

Giventhesimilaritiesanddifferencesofstudentswhenconceptualizedalong

culturaldimensionsitmuststillberecognizedthatIndiannessaside,therestill

remainindividualdifferencesamongAmericanIndianstudents.Becauseofhis

familiaritywiththeAmericanIndianstudentsandtheirpersonalandlife

circumstances,theNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwasofimmeasurablevaluein

developingthesamplepopulation.

UniversityAdministrators,TeachingandNonteachingFaculty

IndividualinterviewswithtwoUniversityVicePresidents,theDirectorfor

DiversityEnhancement,PSUAdmissionsOfficeMinorityStudentRecruiter,and

threefacultymembers,includingoneNativefacultymember,wereconductedonthe

campusofPSU.UniversityVicePresidentswereinterviewedbecausetheywere

consideredtobethe“voice”oftheinstitution,andthosemostdirectlyholdingthe

powertoshapetheinstitutionalculture(GuilloryandWolverton2008:68).

UniversityVicePresidentsatPSUaretheinstitutionalleadersresponsiblefor

implementingpolicythatdirectlyinfluencestheenvironmentinwhichAmerican

Indianstudentsexist.

TheDirectorforDiversityEnhancementprovidedadetailedhistoryofefforts

madetowardprovidingservicesforthewiderangeofstudentsfromdiverseracial,

ethnic,andculturalbackgrounds,aswellasformembersofPSU’smainstream

populationincludingfaculty,staff,andcommunitymembers.

Thefacultymemberswereinterviewedbecauseoftheirabilitytodirectly

impacttheexperienceofthestudentsthattheyencounterthroughteachingand

advisement,(Astin1982;CibikandChambers1991;Hornett1989Pascarellaand

Terenzini1991).

TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwasinterviewed.Heprovidedan

invaluableinsightintothedailymilieuofthePSUNativestudentpopulation.In

additiontothisinsight,healsoprovedtobeavaluableliaisonbetweenPSU

administration,facultyandstudents.

IndepthinterviewswerealsoconductedwithUniversityStudentSupport

StaffhousedintheGrassrootsCenteronthecampusofPSU.Theseprogram

directorsprovidedadetaileddescriptionofstudentsupportservicesavailableto

Nativestudentsandtheextenttowhichthoseservicesareutilized.

Adigitalaudiorecorderandhandwrittennoteswereusedtorecord

responsesandobservationsineachinterview.Inallcases,interviewswereheldat

theofficesofthepersonsbeinginterviewed.Fieldnotesweretranscribedwithin24

hoursoftheinterviews.Audiorecordingsweretranscribedverbatimwithin1‐2

weeksfollowingtheinterviews.

ResearchDesign

ThisstudyisdesignedasacriticalethnographyfocusingonNativeAmerican

studentsuccessatPlainsStateUniversity(PSU).Organizationalcasestudy(Denzin

andLincoln1994)providesthemethodologicalframeworkforacriticaldetailed

description.Embeddedwithintheorganizationalcasestudyareindividualcase

studiesofstudents,staff,facultyandprograms.Documentarydatarelevanttothe

researchquestionswereinvestigatedtoprovideafuller,richerdescriptionof

comparativecases.

Fortheimplementationofthisstudy,contactwasmadewiththefaculty,

staff,andstudentsatPSUandarrangementsweremadetosecureparticipationin

carryingoutthemethodologicalstrategies.Inkeepingwiththetenetsofthecritical

perspective,thisstudyutilizedqualitativeethnographictechniquesinordertogain

aninsider’sviewthroughtheuseofindepthinterviews,observations,and

participantobservationsofinstitution,students,supportprogramsandgathering

placesonthecampusofPSU(BogdanandBiklen1982).Theultimategoalofthis

criticalqualitativeethnographywasanenhancedunderstandingofvariousfactors

thatworkindependentlyorincombinationtocreateacampusenvironmentand

universityexperiencethateitherfacilitatesorimpedessuccessforNativeAmerican

students,asmeasuredbyretentionandgraduationrates.

Methods

Researcher’sPlaceintheResearch

IamapersonofancestraldescentfromtheMeskwakipeopleofIowaandthe

CherokeepeopletheSoutheasternUnitedStates.IhavebeenaroundNativepeople

andcommunitiesallofmylife.Ihaveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunities

inMinnesotaandWisconsin.IhaveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPow

Wowsacrossthecountry.Ihavelongbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacing

AmericanIndianpeople,particularlyhowtoimprovetheconditionsforeducational

successforAmericanIndianstudents.IhavebeeninvolvedwithPSUfor

approximately12yearsoverwhichtimeIhavebecomeveryfamiliarwiththesocial

realityoflifeonthiscampus.DuringthistimeIhavebeenacasualobserverof

AmericanIndianstudentlifeandofthesocialstructureoncampusandinthe

Railtowncommunity.

FocusGroups

Focusgroupinterviewswereemployedasadatagatheringmethodinorder

tocreateanenvironmentinwhichtheNativestudentparticipantscouldfeel

comfortable.Thesestudentswerefamiliartoeachotherandprovidedmutual

supportinasituationwheretrustwasnotimmediatelyestablishedbetweenthem

asparticipantsandmyselfasresearcher.

Inordertoestablishrapportandbuildtrustearlyinthefocusgroup

interview,IimmediatelyintroducedmyselfinthecontextofmyownNative

AmericanfamilyheritageandmypersonalinvolvementwithAmericanIndian

peopleandcommunitiesthroughoutmylifeexperiences.Towardthisend,I

providedthegroupwithanintroductoryletterattachedtoagroupintroductionand

demographicinformationformthateachparticipantcompletedattheoutset.See

AppendixFforintroductoryletter.

ThreefocusgroupinterviewswereconductedwithNativeAmerican

students.ThefirstfocusgroupwasheldinlateAprilof2009andtookplaceatthe

PSUStudentUnion.Thenumberofintervieweesforthefirstgroupwasnine.The

secondtwofocusgroupswereconductedearlyinthefallsemesterof2009atthe

conferenceroomintheofficeoftheDeanofHonorsCollege/InterimDirectorof

DiversityEnhancement.Thesecondgroupincludedsixinterviewees.Thethird

groupalsoincludedsixinterviewees.Thetotalnumberoffocusgroupparticipants

was21.Threegroupswereconductedinordertoinvolveanumberofparticipants

usefulingainingadetailedpictureoftheNativestudentexperienceatPSU.The

greatestchallengeinconductingthesefocusgroupswasinschedulingtimesthat

wouldworkconsideringthevariousschedulesofstudentparticipants.

Sessionslastedbetween90to180minutes.Oneachoccasion,oneormore

studentsstayedlatertofurtherdiscusstheseissues.Anaudiorecorderand

handwrittennoteswereusedtorecordthestudentresponsesandobservations

duringthefocusgroupinterviews.Inaddition,personalbackgroundinformation

wasobtainedthroughabriefquestionnairedistributedatthebeginningofthefocus

groupsessions.Betweenthethreegroups,anadequatenumberofparticipantswere

includedtoensureasamplerepresentativeofthediversityofAmericanIndians

enrolledatPSU(Berg1984).

Thestudentschosenforthestudywerepurposivelyselectedbasedon

availabilityandexperience.Everyeffortwasmadetoensurethatwithinthe

populationofstudentsavailabletoparticipate,asamplewasobtainedthatreflected

thediversityofAmericanIndianstudentsandtheirexperiences.Towardthisend,a

cross‐sectionrangingfromfreshmentograduatestudents;traditionallyandnon‐

traditionallyagedstudents;genderrepresentationproportionatetotheAmerican

IndianpopulationatPSU;studentshighlyinvolvedintheuniversitymilieu,suchas

NativeAmericanclubpresidents;andstudentcommuterswithlittlecampus

involvementwaspurposivelysought.Studentswereinvitedtoparticipatebya

primarycontactfromthePSUNativeAmericanStudentAdvisor.

Intensiveinterviews

Anin‐depthpersonalinterview(DenzinandLincoln1994)wasconducted

withPSU’sNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorattheOfficeofMulticulturalAffairson

thecampusofPlainsStateUniversity.InterviewswerealsoconductedwithNative

AmericanstudentsandfacultyandadministratorsonthePSUcampus.Among

administratorsinterviewedweretwoUniversityVicePresidents,theDirectorof

DiversityEnhancement,twoDirectorsofStudentSupportServiceprogramsandthe

AdmissionsOfficeMinorityStudentRecruiter.Also,fourindividualNativeAmerican

studentswereinterviewedapartfromthethreefocusgroupsconductedwithNative

students.Theseindividualstudentinterviewsprovidedforanin‐depthexploration

oftheNativestudentexperienceatPSUonamuchmorepersonallevelallowingfor

anevengreateremicperspective.Thesestudentswereextremelyeloquentand

articulateinthedescriptionoftheirhistory,andtheirlifeexperiencesinRailtown

andatPSU.

FacultymembersinterviewedincludeoneNativeAmericanprofessorand

threeprofessorshighlyinvolvedwithNativeAmericanstudents.Thesefour

dedicatedprofessorshavedemonstratedextraordinarycommitmenttoNative

studentsthroughtheircontinueddedicationandserviceatPSU.Eachinterviewwas

conductedindividuallyandprovidesaninsider’sperspectivefromthestandpointof

Nativestudents,PSUfaculty,andstaffand,fromuniversityadministrators,an

institutionalvoice.

Aninterviewprotocol(Berg1989;Babbie2007)wasusedtoguide

questionsregardingactivitiesandservicesprovidedbythestaffoftheorganization.

Thegoaloftheinterviewswastoprovideanenricheddescriptiveexplanationofthe

socialprocessesinherentwithmainstreamuniversitylifethatservetofacilitateor

hindereducationalattainmentofNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU.Theinterview

guideusedwasmodeledafterthatusedbyGuilloryandWolverton(2008)with

permissiongrantedbyDr.RaphaelGuilloryofEasternWashingtonUniversity.The

interviewprotocolfocusedonthesensitizingconceptspreviouslydiscussedas

derivedfromareviewofrelevantliteratureandwasdesignedtogainanemic

understandingfromstudents,facultyandadministratorsoffactorsfacilitatingor

hinderingeducationalattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Avigilant

eyewaskeptfortheemergenceofnewmeanings,concepts,andthemesthroughout

theinterviewprocess.Follow‐upinterviewsand/oradditionalinterviewswere

conductedwithkeyinformantstoclarifyinformationandgainadeeper

understandingofmeaningfromtheinsider’sperspective.

Observation

Fieldobservations(Berg1989;DenzinandLincoln1994;Babbie2007)were

conductedasanongoingprocessthroughoutthespringandfallsemestersof2009

PSU.Observationsfocusedonmanyareasoforganizationalstructureandsocial

interactionsuchasthephysicalenvironmentofthecampus,theeconomic,social,

andculturalenvironment,thesemanticenvironment,andthehumanenvironment

ofteachers,students,andstaff.

ParticipantObservation

Myinvolvementwiththestudents,officers,andactivitiesoftheNative

AmericanClubwasinvaluableingainingthehighestpossibledegreeofemic

understanding.ClosecontactandcooperationwiththeNativeAmericanStudent

Advisormadeitpossibleformetobewelcomedandacceptedbytheclubmembers.

Whileitisalwaysaconcernforthesocialresearchertomaintaintheappropriate

distancefromtheresearchsubject,IbelieveIhaveaccomplishedthiswhilealso

developingmanyfriendshipsbasedonagenuinefondnessofandcommitmentto

thepeoplewhoarethefocusofthisstudy.

DocumentaryDataAnalysis

Qualitativedescriptionandinductiveexplorationalsoguidedtheanalysisof

multipledocumentarydatasources(MilesandHuberman1984;Berg1989;Denzin

andLincoln1994;)providedbyeachuniversityentitydealingwithNativeAmerican

students.ThesesourcesincludecurriculumofAmericanIndianStudiesprograms

listedinthePSUcoursecatalog,literatureforincomingstudents,NativeAmerican

webpagesonuniversitysites,calendarsofAmericanIndianculturalevents,

testimonialsfromcurrentandformerstudents,andothersourcesthatwere

discoveredthroughouttheresearchprocess.Thiswidearrayofdocumentary

materialsservedasbackgroundtoprovideanenhancedcontextualunderstanding

ofwhatPSUcurrentlyoffersitsNativeAmericanstudentpopulation.University

recordsofretentionandgraduationratesforNativeAmericanstudentswerealso

collected.

DataCollectionandAnalysis

Fromthebeginningofthisproject,theprocessofdatacollectionwas

continuouslyintertwinedwiththeprocessofdataanalysis.

DataCollection

Duringeachinterview,handwrittenfieldnotesweremadeontheinterview

guideandconsistedofthecondensedaccountasdescribedbySpradley(1980).

Immediatelyaftereachinterview,thesecondensednotesweretransferredintoa

moredetailedfieldjournal(Spradley,1980).Thisjournalcontainsdetailed

descriptionsofthetoneoftheinterview,includingmyimpressionofthe

interviewee’slevelofinterestin,andcommitmenttotheinterview,aswellasmy

ownreflexiveinterpretationoftheexperience.Inallcases,fieldnotes,including

condensednotesandfieldjournalwereattendedtoandcompletedinasmuchdetail

aspossiblewithin24hoursoftheinterview.

Fullfieldnotesconsistedofverbatimtranscriptsofexactcommentsmadeby

eachinterviewee.Thesetranscriptswereaccomplishedthroughtheuseoftwo

redundantsystemsofdigitalrecording.

EachinterviewsessionwasinitiallyrecordedusingtwoOlympusDigital

VoiceRecordersmodelVN‐3100PC.Theserecorderswereplacedinabalanced

positionrelativetoallspeakersinvolvedintheinterviewinordertoensurethebest

possiblesoundquality.Anotherreasonforusingtworecorderswasasaredundant

systemincaseoneoftherecordersmalfunctioned.Freshbatterieswereinstalledin

eachrecorderpriortoeachinterview.

Immediatelyaftereachinterview,Itransferredthedigitalaudiofilesonto

GatewayPClaptopcomputerusingsoftwareprovidedwiththedigitalrecorders.

Eachfilewaslabeledusingindicatorsfordate,time,interviewsubjectorfocus

groupidentifiers.Oncethedigitalaudiofilesweretransferredtothelaptop

computerandwereverifiedtobesound,theoriginalrecordingsweredeletedfrom

theOlympusdigitalrecorders.Thiswasdoneinordertoensurethesafeguardingof

participantconfidentialityasthedigitalrecorderscouldhavebeenmisplaced.The

digitalaudiofilesstoredonthelaptopremainedsecurelylockedinmyoffice.

In‐processmemosreflectedthecontinuallydevelopinginterpretationof

qualitativedataaswellastheunfoldingofmyownreflexiveprocessasthe

collectionandinterpretationdataprogressedthroughoutthetranscriptionprocess

andsubsequentinterviewsessions.Thesememosarecontainedwithinthe

interviewtranscripts,as((parentheticalComments)).Theyarealsocontained

withinfieldworkjournalentriesandcondensedfieldnotesontheinterviewguides.

DataAnalysis

Theprocessfortranscribingeachinterviewsessionwasconcurrentwiththe

processofdataanalysisthroughtheformationofcategoriesrelevanttotheresearch

question.Foreachseparateinterview,thatprocessstartedasIlistenedtothe

interviewinitsentirety.Duringthisaudioreview,Imadefurtherdetailednoteson

theinterviewguide.Thesenoteswerefocusedonrelevantpointsandthe

connectionbetweensuchpointsandthosemadebyotherinformantsorinother

interviews.Thesenoteswereaccompaniedbytimemarkerstakenfromthecounter

providedbythedigitalaudiosoftwarethatwasalwaysvisibleonthePClaptop

display.Inthisway,Iwasabletoreferdirectlytoanygivenstatementmade

throughouttheinterviewandquicklyretrieveitifnecessary.Thisinitialaudio

reviewwasveryvaluableinallowingmetobecomeincreasinglyfamiliarwiththe

contentoftheinterviewswhilesimultaneouslyallowingforsomefoundational

categorizingofthesubstantivedata.

Thenextstepinthetranscriptionprocesswasbyfarthemosttime

consumingandlaborintensivestepintheprocess.Thiswastheactualverbatim

transcriptionofeachinterview.Thiswasaccomplishedthroughlisteningtoand

typingeverywordthatwascontainedintheaudiorecordings.Throughoutthis

processIalsomadenotesregardingmood,toneofvoiceandemotionsthatwere

evident.Thiswasatediousprocessthatrequiredconstantlystoppingandre‐

windingtherecordinginordertoaccuratelytranscribeeachinterview.Greatcare

wastakenthroughoutthisprocessinordertoassurevalidityofthedataby

transcribingtothehighestpossiblelevelofaccuracywhileconstantlysafeguarding

theoriginalmeaningincontextandcontent.Thecompletionofthetranscription

phaseleftmewithahighqualitytextualformofdatagainedintheinterviews.The

nextstepintheanalysisofthedatawouldbethecategorizingofdatainto

meaningfulgroupingsofdatarelevanttotheresearchquestion.

Basedonsensitizingconceptsgleanedfromareviewofcurrentrelevant

literature,acodingschemewasdevelopedallowingforthecategorizationofdata

gainedfromfocusgroupandintensive,in‐depthinterviewtranscripts,andthe

resultantfieldnotesandreflexivememos,intotheoreticallymeaningful‘databins’.

Thesedatabinswerethenfurtherrefinedintoincreasinglydetailedunitsof

meaningcomingdirectlyoutofinterviewtextsanddirectlyrelatedtotheresearch

questionasindicativeoffactorsthatserveaseitherfacilitatorsorbarriersto

AmericanIndianacademicattainmentatPSU.Thecodingschemewascolor‐coded

usingahighlighterfunctionavailableonMicrosoftWordforMac2008.

Thebinlabeled‘Facilitators’wascolor‐codedYELLOW.Thebinlabeled

‘Barriers’wascolor‐codedGRAY.Thebinlabeled‘Culture’wascolor‐codedBLUE.

Thebinlabeled‘Place’wascolor‐codedRED.Thebinlabeled‘ReferenceGroups’was

color‐codedGREEN.Thebinlabeled‘EmergentThemes’wascolor‐codedPURPLE.

And,thebinlabeled‘NormativeStatements’wascolor‐codedTURQUOISE.

Oncethecodingschemewasdevelopedandtestedagainstthefoundational

categorizationofdataascarriedoutfromthebeginningof,andconcurrentwiththe

processofdatacollectionandanalysis,theprocessofactualcodingcouldbedone.

Towardthisend,Ire‐readeachinterviewtranscriptandappliedthecolor‐coded

highlighttoalltextfallingunderaconceptualcategoryaslabeledinthecoding

scheme.Forexample,inapplyingthecodingschemetoFocusGroup#1interview,I

readthatinterviewtranscriptfromtoptobottomandappliedaYELLOWhighlight

toanyandalltexthavingtodowiththeconceptuallabel‘Facilitators’.Likewise

weredonewiththeconceptuallabel‘Barriers’andtheGRAYhighlight.Andsoon

throughoutthetext.Thisprocesswasappliedtoeachinterviewtextforeachofthe

conceptuallylabeledcategories.Theendresultofthisprocesswastheapplicationof

multiplecoloredhighlightedtextsthroughouttheinterview.

Itshouldbenotedatthispoint,thatinmanyinstances,ablockoftextmight

applytomorethanoneconceptualcategory.Forexampleagivenquotemightbe

dealingwith‘Culture’color‐codedasBLUE,andhowculturecanbeafacilitator,

color‐codedasYELLOW.

Thenextstepinthecodingprocesswastheactualseparatingoutfromeach

interviewofconceptuallycolor‐codedtextsintocategoricalbins.Thisprocesswas

againachievedbyre‐readingeachinterview.Atthisstephowevercodedcategories

weretakenfromwithinthecontextoftheoriginalinterviewandputintoanewbin

specifictoagivencategory.Forexamplealltextscodedas‘Facilitators’and

highlightedYELLOWwouldbecutandpastedintoabin.Duringthisphase,text

blocksorquoteswerecategorizedbyintervieweeclass.Forexample,afacilitator

binwaspartitionedforallquotesmadebyfacultyoradministrators,orstudentsand

soon.Thisprocesswascarriedoutforeachconceptualcategory.Theresult,atthis

pointwasabineachforfacilitators,barriers,culture,place,referencegroups,

emergentthemesandnormativestatements.Eachoftheseconceptualbinswas

partitionedaccordingtointervieweeclass,i.e.faculty,administration,students,or

staff.

Thefinalphaseincodingthedatainvolvedfurtherrefiningthecategories

intoevenmoredetailedbins.Thecontentsoftheserefinedbinsincluded

subcategorieswithineachconceptuallycategorizedbin.Forexample,thefacilitator

binwasfurtherrefinedtoincludeabreakdownofallfacilitatorsincluding,support,

family,finances,andsoon.Furthermore,thefacilitators/supportbinwasthen

refinedintomoredetailedsubdivisionsincludingfacilitators/support/faculty,or

facilitators/support/peerreferencegroup,orfacilitators/support/family.This

refiningofeachcategoricalbinintomoredetailedsubdivisionswasappliedtoeach

oftheoriginalsevenconceptualcategories.

Throughthecarefulapplicationofthiscodingschemetothepainstakingly

accuratetranscriptionofqualitativeinterviewsIwasabletodeveloptheensuing

richdescriptionoftheAmericanIndianexperienceatPSU.Itistheemerging

insider’sviewpointthatallowsforilluminationofwhatfactorscombinetofacilitate

orhinderacademicattainmentforthesestudents.

ValidityandReliability

Issuesofvalidityandreliabilityareconcernsinallresearchandespeciallyso

inqualitativeresearchprojectssuchasthis.Whencollectingdataintheformof

narratives,theissuesconcerningvalidityhavetodowithboththeresearcherand

thosesubjectsprovidingthenarrative.Detailingtherelevantcontextofobservation

isofparamountconcerninstrivingtoachievereliability(KirkandMiller1986).

Towardthisend,fourseparatekindsoffieldnoteshavebeenkept.Theseinclude;

condensed,intheformofnotestakenthroughouttheinterviewprocessand

recordeddirectlyontheinterviewguide,anexpanded(verbatim)account,inthe

formofdigitalrecordingskeptonfile,afieldworkjournal,includingnotesand

reflections,andarunningrecordofanalysis(Spradley1980).

Validityisindicatedbytheconstanttestingandretestingofemergingand

repeatedthemesoverthecourseofdatacollectionanddataanalysis.Throughout

thedatacollectionprocessthesamethemesemergedfromnumeroussourcesat

varioustimesandfromunconnectedsources.Thepointwasreachedwherethe

interviewguidesbecamelessusefulasanavigationaltoolandmoreofamile

markerofpredictability.Atthispoint,itcouldbesaidthattheoreticalsaturation

wasreachedandfurthersamplinghadreachedapointofdiminishingreturns.

Validityisalsoenhancedthroughthetriangulationofqualitativemethods

includingintensiveinterviewing,fieldobservationanddocumentarydataanalysis.

Towardthatend,interviews,focusgroups,observation,anddocumentarydataall

contributedtoaholisticunderstandingoftheAmericanIndianstudentexperience

atPSU.Avalidstudyisonethatstrivestoderivemeaningfromtheperspectiveof

theinformant(KirkandMiller1986).Interviewschedulesandobservationguides

werepre‐testedandre‐tested.Throughoutthedataanalysisphase,acontinuous

processofcodingandre‐codingtheinterviewdatayieldedintra‐raterandinter‐

raterreliability.

Inanadditionalattempttoensurevalidity,draftsofcodeddatawere

submittedtotheCoordinatorofPSU’sAmericanIndianStudiesProgram,andthe

NativeAmericanStudentAdvisorforadoublecodingfromtheNativeperspective.

Bothwereaskedtoreviewmycodingscheme,myapplicationofthatschemetothe

data,andforpossiblealternativeinterpretationsofthedata.Thesetwooutside

codingadvisorshadnodisagreementswiththedataascoded.

ConsiderationofHumanSubjects

Thepurposesandproceduresofthisstudywereclearlystated,informed

consentwasobtained,andallparticipantswereinformedoftheirrighttorefuseto

participate.Allsubjectswereassuredthattheirresponsesaretobeheldinstrict

confidence.Allinformantswereassuredanonymity.Assoonaspossible,all

identifyinginformationwasseparatedfromdata.Copiesofthedissertationwillbe

madeavailabletothosewithinterestandwillbeprovidedtothosestudy

participants.

Confidentiality

Focusgroupsessionsandpersonalinterviewswererecordedusingadigital

audiorecorder.Noindividualidentificationinformationwasattachedtothese

recordingsexceptforthetime,dateandplaceofthefocusgrouporinterview.

Respondent’sidentifyinginformationandtheirresponseswerekeptstrictly

confidentialwithnopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinany

reportsorarticlesarisingfromthisresearchproject.Interviewtranscriptswere

organizedusingacodingsystemwithidentitycodeskeptseparatefromactual

identification.Allidentifyinglinkstodataweredestroyedoncedatacollectionand

analysiswascompleted.Interviewrecordingswerekept;alongwithoriginal

identificationinformationandconsentformswerekeptinasecurelocation.Any

respondentsmentionedinthefinalresearchreportwereidentifiedusinga

pseudonym,andbirthplaceorplaceofresidencewaskeptconfidential.Anyplace

namesused,suchasspecificreservationcommunities,arereferredtousingonlyby

genericregionalidentifiers.Eachinterviewwastranscribedinthequickestpossible

mannerafterwhichoriginalrecordingsweredeleted.

Aftertranscriptionofpersonalinterviews,respondentsreceivedafull

transcriptfortheirreview.Followupcontactsweremadewitheachparticipantin

ordertoconfirmtheiragreementordisagreementwiththecontentastranscribed.

Therewerenodisagreements,andinmostcases,participantswantedtoaddmore

information.

Recruitment

StudentswereinvitedtoparticipatethroughprimarycontactbyNative

AmericanStudentAdvisorinPSU’sMulticulturalStudentAffairsOffice(OMA).I,as

theresearcher,madenocoldcontacts.Oncecontactwasmade,studentsinterested

inparticipatingweredirectedtocontactme.Ithenscheduledindividualinterviews

andfocusgroupdates.Pizzaandsoftdrinkswereprovidedfortheparticipants,

facilitatinganinformal,comfortableatmosphere.ANativeAmericanfacultymember

wasalsopresentatthefirstfocusgroupmeeting.Thishelpedcreateanatmosphere

oftrustandfacilitatedmoreopencommunicationamongthegroup.Nosuch

measurewasneededforsubsequentfocusgroups.

Administratorsandfacultymembersweresentaletterofintroductionalong

withadescriptionoftheresearchprojectandaninvitationtoparticipate.

Appointmentswerethenscheduledthroughtheappropriatechannels.

Praxis:thePracticalApplicationofResearch

andnon‐Indianstudents(Paveletal.2008),theimplicationsofthisstudymayhave

widerangingapplicationsfortheimplementationofculturallyrelevantprograms,

policiesandcurriculafocusedonincreasingretentionandgraduationratesfor

AmericanIndianstudentsinhighereducation.Towardthisend,Iwillorganizeand

executeseminarswhereverandwheneverpossible,startingatPSU,forall

stakeholdersinterestedinthefindingsofthisresearchandhowthesefindingscan

beimplementedtoenhancetheunderstandingoffactorsthatcombinetohinderor

facilitateretentionandgraduationofAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Inkeeping

withthecriticalperspectiveofthisresearch,myhopeisthatincreased

understandingofsuchfactorswillleadtopolicychangesthatgreatlyincreasethe

chancesforeducationalattainmentforNativestudents.

CHAPTERFIVE

Findings:Quantitative

AQuantitativePictureofDiversityatPSU

ThePrairieStateBoardofRegentsFactBookforthefiscalyear2010

providesaquantitativesnapshotintimeofthediversityofthePSUstudent

population.Forthefallsemesterof2009thetotalnumberofstudentsenrolledat

PSUwas12,376.At10,577,WhiteNon‐Hispanicstudentsaretheoverwhelming

majorityat83.9percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.At436,thegroupidentified

asAsian/PacificIslandersisthenextlargestgroupandthelargestofallminority

studentgroupsat3.1percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.Accordingtoseveral

administratorsIinterviewed,themajorityofAsianstudentsatPSUaregraduate

student/researchassistants.NativeAmericanstudentsnumber249andcomprise

thesecondlargestethnicgroupatPSUat2.3percent.Thereare168students

identifiedasAfricanAmerican/BlackNon‐HispanicatPSU,comprising1.5percent

ofthetotalstudentpopulation.Thegroupnumberingthefewestofanyidentified

ethnicpopulationisHispanicstudents,at122,or1.3percentofthetotalstudent

population.

RegardingthequantitativecategorizationofPSU’sminoritypopulations,the

caveatmustbemadethatanyaccountingofminoritynumbersisdependentonhow

minoritystudentsplacetheirownethnicidentityinthehierarchyofsalienceatany

giventimeandinanygivensituation.Forpurposesofthisresearch,whileallowing

forthepossibilitythatthegroupnumbering824studentswhorefusedinformation

orarelistedas‘unknown’mayinfactincludemembersofanyethnicminority

group,includingAmericanIndianstudents.This‘unknown’grouphasbeenexcluded

fromtheaccountingofethnicgroupsexpressedasapercentageofthetotalstudent

populationduetotheunknownnatureofthediversemake‐upofthegroup.This

leavesonlythoseindividualswhoself‐identifyasamemberofthegroupslisted,

includingthosewhoselfidentifyasNativeAmerican.Table5.1displaysthe

diversityofthePSUstudentpopulation:

Table5.1

EthnicOriginPSUStudentPopulation:

Source:PrairieStateBoardofRegentsFactBookFY2010,RegentsInformationSystems.

AmericanIndian/Alaskan 249 2.3percent

Asian/PacificIsland 436 3.1percent

AfricanAm/Black,Non‐Hispanic 168 1.5percent

Hispanic 122 1.3percent

InformationRefused 81 0.7percent

Unknown 743 7.2percent

WhiteNon‐Hispanic 10,577 83.9percent

TotalEthnic/RacialOriginPSUStudentPopulation 12,376 100percent

AComparisonofRetentionandGraduationRates

StatisticaldataonretentionandgraduationratesforallPSUstudents

categorizedbyethnic/racialgroupisavailablethroughthePSUOfficeof

InstitutionalResearch.Forthepurposesofthisresearch,andinkeepingwiththe

researchquestion,IwillmakecomparisonsonlybetweentheNativeAmerican

studentpopulationandallotherstudents.

Tables5.2and5.3showcomparativeretentionandgraduationratesofthe

first‐time,full‐time,Bachelor’sDegreeseekingstudentpopulationcategorizedas

NativeAmericanstudents(5.3)comparedtothetotalnumberoffirst‐time,full‐time

Bachelor’sDegreeseekingPSUstudents(5.2).Thisdatarangesintimefromthefall

semesterof2000throughthefallof2009.Somestudentsbeginningin2000arestill

continuingintothetenthyear.Dataislimitedforstudentsbeginningin2008and

willbeoffurtherinterestwiththepassingoftime.

Someobservationscanbemadefromthesedata.Firstisthevastdisparityin

cohortsize.Overthecourseoftimedepictedinthetable,someyears,incoming

NativeAmericanfreshmanstudentswereoutnumberedbyover100:1when

comparedtoallotherincomingfreshmen.

Anothersignificantdisparityisquicklyobservableinthenumberofstudents

thatcontinuefromthefirsttothesecondyear.Forthetotalincomingfreshman

studentstheretentionratefromfirsttosecondyearis77percent.Bycomparison,

theretentionratefromfirsttosecondyearforNativeAmericanstudentsis48

percent.

Thestudynowturnsitsattentiontoenhancingunderstandingoftribal

students’experiencesatPSU.Intheensuingchapters,qualitativedatawillbe

presentedfrominterviewswithadministrators,faculty,staffandstudentsto

developfurtherinsightintofacilitatorsofandbarrierstoeducationalattainmentfor

AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.

CHAPTERSIX

Findings:Facilitators

“Somuchofitisaboutrelationships.It’snotjustthebricksandmortarofaplaceforcommunity...it’sabouttherelationshipsthatpeoplebuild.It’sfromthatcommunity—thoserelationshipsthatpeoplefindthestrengthandthesupporttheyneedtosucceed—inanythingreally.”

Analysisofthedatarevealsthatseveralfactorsactasbothfacilitatorsand

barriersdependingoncontextandthepeopleinvolved.Thischapterwillexplore

thosefactorsthatprimarilyactasfacilitatorstoacademicattainmentforAmerican

IndianstudentsatPSU.

Table6.1liststhosefactorsmostcommonlycitedasfacilitatorsofacademic

attainmentforNativeAmericancollegestudentsatPSU.Facilitatorsarelistedfrom

topdownwiththemostsalientlistedfirst.Thisrankorderwasderivedfroma

compilationofdatafromadministrators,faculty,staffandstudents.Whereasany

onegroupmayrankfacilitatorsdifferently,thistablecombinestheviewpointsofall

groupsforanoverallbestfitofallfactorscitedasfacilitators.

Table6.1:FacilitatorsofAmericanIndianEducationalAttainmentatPSU.

Facilitator SampleQuotationSupport Itboilsdowntosupport...makingan

environmentwherestudentsfeelsupported.(SupportStaff)

Culture

...Buttheseelders,theyshowedmethatmyreligion...wasimportantwhenIwasgrowingup...Thatwasmystrength,formetofamiliarizemyself....sweat‐‐‐andthat’slikeourchurch....andeventuallytheSunDance.(NativeAmericanStudent)

Financial ...wedohaveseveralNativeAmericanscholarships…theonly[ethnic]grouponcampusthathasspecificscholarshipsgearedtowardthem.(Administrator)

Amongthosefactorsthatactasfacilitators,inthisstudy,offoremost

significanceistheover‐archingthemeofsupport.Containedwithinthesupport

themeareseveralmorespecificareas,orissuesencounteredbyNativestudents

whereinsupport,orlackthereof,isthenumberonefactorimpactingeducational

attainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withoutsupport,thecollegecareer

ofaNativeAmericanstudentatPSUmaybeshortlived.

Facilitator:Support

SupportiveFamily Amongfacultyandadministratorsinterviewed,therewasuniversal

agreementthatfamilysupportplaysanimportantroleincollegesuccessfor

AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Amongthesevoicesisthenon‐NativeDirectorof

arecruitmentandstudentsupportprogram:

Ithinkfamilyishugelyimportantinourstudents’success.Manyofoursuccessfulstudentshavestrongfamilysupport.Familycanbequiteanumberofdifferent‐‐Ilookatfamilyasvery,verybroadsense.Itcouldbeaspouse,itcouldbeapartner,children,itcouldbeparents,itcouldbeguardian,aunts,uncles,grandmothers,whatever,butsomanyofoursuccessfulstudentsdohaveafamilynetworkthatsupportsandbolsterstheireducation...Wearetryingtoincorporatefamilymoreintoourholisticapproachtohelpingstudentssucceed.SoIthinkthat’sahugefactorinAmericanIndianstudentsuccess.

TheWhitemaleCoordinatorofUniversityDiversityEnhancementagreed

withtheimportanceoffamilysupportforNativeAmericanstudents:

Familyisextraordinarily,extremelyimportant.Whileit’simportantforeveryone,it’sespeciallyimportantforNativestudentsbecausetheyhavetraveledfromoneworldtoanotherandwhentheyarrivehere,theyoftenarequiteisolatedfromthekindofemotionalsupportthatafamilycanprovide...Significanceoffamilyfornativestudents,especiallythoseraisedtraditionallyonthereservationsis,inmyopinion,farmoresignificantthanforthetypicalnon‐Indianinthisparticularculture.

ManyPSUNativestudentscitefamilyasamajorsourceofsupport.Family

membersprovideemotional,motivationalandlogisticsupportforstudentswho

oftenfeeloutoftheirelementonamainstreamuniversitycampus.

SeveralNativestudentscommentedontheimportanceoffamilysupportof

theircollegeexperience.Afemalestudentfromareservationcommunityspokeof

familysupport:

Mymomdidn’tfinishcollegelikea‐‐‐whatdoyoucallit?Traditionally.ThenshewentbacktoSinteGleskaandshegotherdegreeforteachingNativeAmericanStudiessoshe’sreallyexcitedthatI’mgoingtocollegeandgettinganeducationandsheencouragesit,nomatterwhatandshethinksit’sthemostimportantthingbecauseshedidn’tgettodothat.Anotherfemalestudentraisedinareservationbordertownsaid:

Likemyfamilyisthemostimportantthingtome.Weareverycloseandit’sjustashardformetoomoveaway.Athirdfemalestudent,alsofromareservationbordertown,agreed:Personally,Ihave100percentsupportfrommyfamily.Noquestionsaskedinanyaspectofanything.100percentsupportthere.

NotallNativestudentsatPSUarefromtheMidwest.Addingabitofdiversity

amongNativestudents,onegraduatestudentspokeoftheimportanceoffamily

supportofthecollegeexperiencefromtheviewpointofasouthwesternNative

Americanfamilybackground:

Myfamilyhasplayedahugerolethroughoutmyschoolsanddegrees.MysisterwenttoNotreDame.Bothofmyparentsweremigrantfarmworkers.Theydidn’tgetaneducation‐‐‐wellmymotherhadasixthgradeeducation,myfatherhadaneighthgradeeducation.ButhealsogothisGEDat25yearsold.Butatanearlyagetheywouldalwaystellus;education,education,betteryourself,betteryourself.Youknowand—sometimesit’seasiersaidthandone.Alotoftimespeoplewhodon’thavethemeansgointothemilitary.Andthensometimesyougointhereandlearndiscipline.Butmyfatherdidn’twantustogointothemilitary.Onethingthathelpedus,mysisterandI,isthatmymothertookusoutwhenIwas10andmysisterwas9tohelpinthefields.Weworkedoutthereoneday.That’sallittookandIsaid,“nothisisnotforme.”Andthenwhenwegothome,mydadtoldus;“Ifyoudon’tgetaneducation,thefieldswillneversaynotoyou.There’salways

ajobforyououtthereinthefieldswithoutaneducation.”SoIwouldthinkfamilyisthebest—orthemajorthing.Familymembersoftenprovidelogisticalaswellasemotionalsupport.Thisis

especiallytrueforsingleparentswhorelyonfamilyforhelpwithcaringforyoung

childrenwhileparentsareinschoolorworking,oftenatmorethanonejobwhile

alsotakingafullcreditload.Anon‐traditionalstudentcitedtheimportanceof

familyhelpwithchildcare:

ThereasonI’mstayinghere,thenumberonereasonismyMomandmydaughter.WithoutmymomIwouldn’tbeabletocontinuedoingwellinschool...theonlyreasonIamstayingisbecauseIhavesomeonetohelpmewithmydaughter.

SupportiveFriends Afterfamilysupport,anetworkoffriendswascommonlycitedasan

importantsourceofsupport.OneNativestudentsaid:

Ithinkpeopleareanasset.Youknow?Peoplethataretheretosupportyou,andpeoplethatencourageyouandsay‘youcandoit’.‐‐‐Wekidaroundbutit’sakindofsupportforeachothertogetthroughcollege.

Onefacultymemberpointedtotheformationofsupportiverelationshipsas

ofprimaryimportancetostudentsuccess.Theserelationshipsarenotrestrictedto

friendshipsorfamily,butalsoincludementorshipbyfacultyandstaffinandaround

thecampusenvironment:

Somuchofitisaboutrelationships.Ithinkthatwhenwe’reinourowncommunitywithpeoplewhoarelikeus,that’saloteasiertopulltogetherthanwhenyou’realone.Butsomuchisaboutrelationships.It’snotjustthebricksandmortarofaplaceforcommunity.Thatdefinitelycanhelp,butyoucandoitinatentorwherever‐‐‐it’sabouttherelationshipsthatpeoplebuild.

It’sfromthatcommunity—thoserelationshipsthatpeoplefindthestrengthandthesupporttheyneedtosucceed—inanythingreally.

NativeCommunity TherewasalmostuniversalagreementamongPSUfaculty,staffand

administratorsontheimportanceofaNativecommunityandpeerreferencegroup.

SeveralNativestudentsspeakopenlyabouthowasupportivegroupofpeersisa

facilitatortocollegesuccess.Anon‐traditionallyagedmalestudentfroma

reservationcommunitycitedtheimportanceofasupportnetwork:

Regardlessand,likeIsaid,ifyouhavethatfamily,awayfromhome—thenwecanmakeit.Youknowlikehere—there’sagroupofalotofus—there’smanyofusbutthenweallsicktogetheranditjustbranchesoutandwealltrytokeepeachotherhereand...Atraditionallyagedfemaleupperclassman,fromabordertown:YouknowIthinkmorethananything,wekeepeachotherhereratherthanPSUkeepsushere.Imean—

And,atraditionallyagedmaletransferstudentfromareservationtown

mentionedtheimportanceofthepeersupportedfoundintheNativeAmericanClub:

Yeah,Ihavealocalnetwork.Imean,IcomeinandImeettheseguys.IseethemmoreasmyfriendsthanthepeopleIknewbeforeIcametoschoolhere.It’sbecausewehavesomuchmoreincommon.Andit’slike;IlovetheNativeAmericanClub.That’smyfavoritethingaboutthisschool.Icome,hangoutwithpeoplewiththesamekindofbackground,thesamesenseofhumor.It’salotmorerelaxingandIthinkifwehadahouseitwouldevenbealotbetter.

SeveralstudentscommentedabouttheimportanceofhumoramongNative

students:

That’sagoodpointwiththatsenseofhumorpart.Becauseifyoucanimagineyourselfherewithoutthatclub,howoftenwouldyoubelaughing?AndwhatishumortoNativepeople?It’saformofsurvival—Sowhetheryouregisteritthatway,that’swhatoneofthethingsisforyou.Itjusttakesalotofthestressaway—fromeverythingelse.

Manyfacultyandstaffmembersshareanunderstandingequaltothe

studentsthemselvesoftheimportanceofacommunitytoNativestudent

persistence.Onecommented:

WellIthinkthattheyneedtofeelathomehere,andtheprimarywaythattheycanfeelathomeisiftheycanmakeconnectionwithothertribalstudents.SotheNativeAmericanClubisespeciallyimportantforsomeofthem‐‐‐andorsomekindofsupportgroupofotherNativestudents,whichgivesthemsomesenseofcommunity.Ithinkthat’simportantforthemtohavetribalrolemodelshere.SoIthinkit’sveryimportantforthemtohaveaNativeAmericanStudentAdvisor,aNativeAmericanClubAdvisor,andNativeAmericanfaculty,which,wehavesomeofthat—butnotnearlyenoughofit.

AWhitefemalestudentservicesupportprogramdirectordrawsananalogy

tootherpeergroupswhoprovidesupportivecommunityfortheirmembers:

Andthenagainfindingaplacewheretheycanallcongregatetogether,justlikeeverybodyelsedoes.Butlikesstickwiththelikes,andIdon’tknowifthat’sabadthing.Butithappensallover;footballplayers,basketballplayers,Greeks,theaterpeople,studentgovernmentpeople,rodeopeople‐‐‐allofthesepeoplefindagroupofpeoplelikethemselves,withcommoninterestsandcommonbackgrounds.Yougowithwhoyouhavestuffincommonwith.It’sthesamewithcareersandmajors,allthepeoplewithcommoninterestshangtogether…Whatpeoplealwaysgetsohunguponis;‘Whydotheyalwayswanttobetogether?Whyshouldweencouragethatsegregation?ButItrytoexplaintopeople,it’slikethatwhereveryougo.IfIgotoaconference,I’mgoingtositwithagroupofwomen.I’mnotgoingtogotoatablefullofmenandsay;‘Hey,how’sitgoing.’Whereveryouare,youlookforlikepeople.

SupportiveFaculty AmericanIndianstudentsatPSUpointedtotheimportanceofsupportive

facultymembersincontributingtocollegesuccess.Anon‐traditionallyagedmale

studentfromareservationcommunitysharedhisperceptionsofsomefaculty

members:

Someteacherswilltotallyunderstandwhereyouarecomingfrom—andahh—likeyourfamilyissuesandlike,youknow,yourculture.Anothermalestudentfromareservationcommunityaddedhisthoughts:Thereareprofessorsherethatknowaboutthecultureandthehistoryandtheyteachthesubjectsfromtheheartandfromarealdeep‐seatedinterestinNativeculture,history,andpeople.And,fromatraditionally‐agedfemalefromabordertown:Imeanthegenuinepeople...theyfoughtforus.Theyreallycared.Theywouldbeherehourslaterthantheyhadtobe—doingwhateveritwasthatweneeded....Ithinktherearesomeinstructorsthat,nomatterhowmanystudentstheyhaveintheirclass,they’llgotoanylengthstomakesurethatstudentlearns.Somearereallycommittedandsupportive.

AmongPSUAmericanIndianstudents,andothersinterestedinAmerican

Indianeducationatthisuniversity,itisgenerallyagreedthatthereisacoregroupof

facultyandstaffthataredeeplycommittedtothefosteringofapositiveeducational

experienceforthisuniversity’sNativestudents.Thiscadreofsupportiswellknown

andcommonlymentionedinvariouscirclesandcontextsregardingtheNative

studentexperience.Throughoutmyinterviewsconcernwasrepeatedlymentioned

forthetimewhenthesesupporterswillbegintoretire.Students,administrators

andfacultyhaveallpointedtotheneedtobringinnewfaculty,staffand

administrationthatwillcarryonthistraditionofsupport.

Onestudentsaiditespeciallywell.“Itmakesyouwonderwhatwillhappen

whenthesepeopleretire.Iftheyarenotreplaced‐‐‐‐thenwe’llhavenoone.Ifit

weren’tforacoupleofthem,thiscampuswouldbethreedecadesback.We’dbe

evenfurtherbehindthanweareifitwasn’tforthem.”

Ahigh‐rankingadministratoralsomentionedaparticularprofessorwhois

seenasachampionofAmericanIndianstudentsandmirroredthissentiment.That

professorspeaksofprogressmadetowardincreasingfacultysupportoncampus:

I’mencouragedthesedaysbythefactthatmoreandmoreofmycolleaguesaretryingtobemoreinclusiveintheirthinkingandintheirteaching.Andadministratorsareshowingsomesignsofwantingtobemoreproactiveandtodothekindsofthingsthatarelongoverdue....They(thestudents)needanunderstandingfaculty—andbythat,Imeanfacultymemberswhohavesomeappreciationoftheirhistoryandculture,wherethey’recomingfromandwhattheyarehopingfor.Wecertainlyhaveimproveddramaticallyinthatareathroughtheyearsandvariousprograms.Iwouldsaythatmostofthetribalstudentswhogiveitachance,findsupportivefacultymembers.

SupportiveAdministration WithoutuniversityadministratorssensitivetoissuesparticulartoAmerican

IndianstudentsandinterestedinprovidingaqualitycollegeexperienceatPSU,

chancesforNativestudentsuccesswouldbelimited.IndicationsarethatPlains

StateUniversitydoeshaveaverysupportiveadministrationdedicatedtocreatinga

universityenvironmentconducivetoacademicsuccessforitsNativeAmerican

studentpopulation.

InJulyof2009,PSUappointedanewProvostandVicePresidentfor

AcademicAffairs.Onefacultymemberwhohasplayedapivotalroleinhelping

AmericanIndianstudentsmaketheadjustmenttolifeonamainstreamcollege

campusspeaksofthesupportofandcommitmenttoacademicsuccessforNative

students:

OurcurrentProvostisjusthugelysupportive.I’vesaidthismanytimesinmanycontexts‐‐‐theirworkonthe2+2+2program‐‐‐justsetthemodelforAmericanIndiancollaboration,andforthesuccessofAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Andbecauseofthewaytheydidthings,theyweresoinclusive,‐‐theywerenotonlywonderfulmodels,andwonderfulinnovators,‐‐um—andenergeticleaders,butintheprocessof2+2+2,theybroughtinsomanypeople,likeme,whojustlearnedfromthem.SoourProvost,fromtheacademicsideishugelysupportive.

InthewordsoftheProvostherself:

Ithinkprimarily—well,letmestartoutbysayingthatthereareseveraldifferentofficesandgroupsofpeoplewhoreallyhavebeenchargedtofurtherdiversityeffortsoncampus.Thenwehavesomeadvisorygroups.Wehaveadiversityadvisorygroupthat’smadeupofabout16people.ItincludesStudentAffairsandAcademicAffairsfacultyandtheymeet,generallyaboutonceamonth.AndtheyreallytakeondiversityissuesandtrytoprovideadviceandcouncilbacktotheDirectorforDiversityEnhancementwhothenkindofcarriesoutthework.

…Havingsaidthat,thereareawholelotofotheradvisorygroups,andI

won’tbeabletotellyouallofthembut—forexample,Athletics,hasadiversityadvisorygroup.Imeantherearemanyotherthingsoutthereaswell.SoIcan’tjustpointtoonepersonandsay‘theydoit’,butyetwekindofhavethisUniversityDirectorofDiversityEnhancement,andthenwehavealotofotherthingshappening.Wekindofaskthatpersontokeeptheirfingeronthepulseofwhat’shappeningoncampus.Tobringissuesup,totrytodoprogrammingandotherthingssothatwecanbeasdiverseofacampusaswecanpossiblybeatPSU.

SoIthinkwhatwe’vereallytriedtodoistoprovideveryovertwaysthattheycanhaveavoice.Forexample,oneofthosewaysisintryingtohaveanactiveaspossibleofaNativeAmericanClub.Wheretheycancometogetherandtheycanbeanidentifiablegroupandwheretheydohaveavoice.Where,iftheydohaveaconcern,theyhaveanavenuethattheycantakethatup.Youknow?‐‐throughtheirclub,throughtheiradvisorandsoforth.SoIthinkthat’sawaythatwe’vereallytriedtoenhanceminoritystudentsonthiscampus.Wehaveanumberofprogramsthatwehavetriedtodevelopthatnotonlyrecruitsthemtocomeherebutalsotriestohelpthembesuccessful.

UniversityCommunitySupport TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisordescribedthecampussupportsystem

thisway:

IthinkthereisalotofsupportforNativeAmericanprogramsoncampusindifferentareas.Somehavesuggestedthatit’sthesizeoftheschoolthatcanbeintimidating,butIthinkifyoufindacommunity,it’snotthatbig.Youknow?Spreadoutwise—numberwiseit’sbig.Butnostudenthereknowsall12thousandofthePSUstudents.That’swhycommunityisimportantinprovidingsupportthattheymayhavehadateitherboardingschoolorattheirhomecommunity...likeasortofextendedsurrogatefamily.

SupportServices FromtheviewpointofthePSUAdmissionsOfficeMinorityStudentRecruiter,

supportservicesforminoritystudentsareofutmostimportance:

Theidealsituation‐‐‐‐Youknow,forme,Ijustkeepcomingdowntostudentservices.That’swhatitcomesdownto,forme.Ifstudentsfeelliketheyaresupportedthroughstudentservices,Ifeelliketheycanexcel.Again,thereisnooneanswer,butIdofeelthatstudentservicesmakeabigimpactonhowcomfortableastudentfeels.AndIhadtosay;well,actually,wedohavealittlebitmorethansomeplaces.

SomeNativestudentsareawareofStudentSupportServicesandhavemade

useofthehelpavailable.Onestudentspokeofhisexperiencewithsupportservices:

Tutoring.TheWritingCenter.Ididn’tknowaparagraphorasentencehadtohaveanounoranadjective.Ijustwrote.WhenIdidadiagnostictestinEnglish1,itwasallmarkedup.So,IwenttotheWritingCenterandthatlastpaperthatIwrote,Iwroteonmyown.IgotanAonmylastpaper.Thathelpedmealot.SodidtheChemistryonetoo.StaffatPSU’sStudentSupportServicesCenteroffersavarietyofservicesfor

qualifiedNativestudentsinterestedingettinghelpinadjustingtocollegelife.The

directorofStudentServicesexplains:

Wetryveryhardtomakethemawareoftheopportunitiesthatareavailable.Whentheyarestillinhighschool,wetrytosendtheminformationbywhatevermeanswecan,aboutthepossibilitiesandwhat’savailable.Wehaveaprettygoodnetworkwithinthisstate,withintheTrioorganizations.ThereareactuallydifferentprogramsthatfallundertheumbrellaofwhatiscalledTrio.Prettymuchallofthemarebasedinhelpingstudentsthatarelowincome,firstgenerationstudentswithorwithoutdisabilities,togaincollegeaccess.Wehaveacoupleofthemhereoncampus,StudentSupportServicesistheoneIworkwithandthenUpwardBoundistheotheronehereoncampuswhichisacollegeaccessprogramthathelpsthestudentstokindofmakethatbridgefromhighschoolintocollege.Andbeyondthat,wealsohavetheacademicprogramsinplacethataddress,atleasttoanextent,theminorityacademictraining.Forexample,wehavetheAmericanIndianStudiesProgram.Wehavearetentionprogramwiththatandit’sopentoallAmericanIndianstudentsandthatinvolvesastudytableforAmericanIndianstudents.ItinvolvesblockschedulingsothatstudentscangetintothesameclassestogethersotheyarenottheonlyIndianinaclasshereatPSU.Italsoinvolvescommunalhousing.

StudentSupportServiceprogrammingisbased,inpart,onthebeliefthat

sociabilityiskeytoafulfillingcollegeexperience:

Ahugepartofwhatwedoinourprogramwithallofourstudentsistohelpthemcometocampusandputdownrootsandfeelcomfortablehere,andfeellikethisishome.Itisabsolutelyimportanttohavethatpersonalcontact.Tryingtofind–evenifit’sjustoneortwopeople—butsomebodywho–maybeasastudent,youlookuptothem,maybenot,maybejustsomebody

youjustmeetatorientation.Butthey’reafriendlyface,somebodythatknowswhatyournameisandwhyyou’rehereandwhatyou’reupto.Iwillhavestudentstellmethattheyjusthadsomebodytakeaninterestinthemfor30secondsatorientation,butthatmadeadifference.Itreallymadeadifference,becausesomebodycaredwhatmynamewas,whyI’mhere,whereI’mfrom. Ifwecanjustmakethatconnection,thenonthewayhome,theytakeawaythefeelingthatsomeonereallycared.Thatlittlestuffgoessofar.Afriendlyfaceoranoutgoingpersonalitycanbetremendouslyinfluential—itdoesn’thavetobefaculty—itcanbeafoodserviceworkeroracustodianinaresidencehall.Justbecausethatpersonsaid‘goodmorning’asthatstudentwasheadingoutfortheday.Sillylittleinsignificantthingsthatmakepersonalconnectionsaresuchhugedealsforstudents,especiallywhenthey’reinacircumstancewheretheyreallykindoffeelliketheyareanalieninadifferentworld.

StudentsupportservicesandthededicatedstaffatPSUappeartobean

importantfacilitatorofNativestudentcollegesuccess.Ofparticularinteresttome

asIinterviewedsupportstaffwastheirobviouslevelofcommitmenttohelping

Nativestudentssucceed.Asidefromthecommentstheymade,non‐verbal

communications,includingbodylanguage,voiceinflectionsandevenanoccasional

tearyeyewereevidenceofthedeeplyfeltmeaningthattheirjobsasfacilitatorsof

successheldforthem.

Facilitator:FinancialResources

Acrosstheboard,studentscitedfinancialconcernsassignificantlyimportant

regardingcollegesuccess.Interestingly,itwasnotmentionedasthemostsalient

factor.Infact,whilefinancialresourcesareimportanttoallstudents,theNative

studentsIinterviewedgenerallydidnotbringupthetopicunlessaskedspecifically

aboutit.Thedatarevealsamixtureofviewpointsabouttheamountofand

availabilityofscholarshipsforNativestudents.Forexample,oneadministratorand

oneNativestudentsaidthattherewerenotverymanyscholarshipopportunitiesfor

AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Anotheradministratorsaidthattherearean

abundanceofscholarshipsspecificallyforNativestudents.Furthermore,atPSU,

AmericanIndianstudentsaretheonlyminoritygrouptohavescholarshipsdirected

specificallytowardthem.

Itappearsthatthisdiscrepancyismainlyamatterofbeinginformedof

financialaidopportunities.MyinterviewwiththeDirectorofthePlainsState

UniversityOfficeofFinancialAidmadeitabundantlyclearthatfinancialaid

resourcesareavailabletoNativestudents.AlistofscholarshipsavailabletoNative

studentsisincludedintheappendices.

However,evensubsequenttothatinterview,Icontinuedtoheardivergent

opinionsabouttheavailabilityoffinancialaid.Financialrealitiesare,infact,

differentforeachstudent,asarethesourcesofpotentialsupport.Onefinding

relatingtothisistheneedforgreaterawarenessamongNativestudentsofthe

opportunitiesforfinancialassistancethatareavailabletothematPSU.

IaskedthedirectorofFinancialAidaboutthepercentageofNativestudents

whorelyonfinancialaidtoattendPSU:

Ahighpercentage—91percentofallofthestudentsatPSUreceivesometypeoffinancialaid.AndsotheNativestudents,iftheyareenrolledinadegreeprogram,andiftheyapplyforascholarship,andiftheyhaveothereligibility,meaningthattheyareacademicallypreparedinthesenseofhavinga2.0orhigher,theyarereceivingsometypeofascholarship.Sothe

answerasapercentageis100percentifenrolledfull‐time.Now,thereissomemisunderstandingaboutfinances,becausethereisnofreeridefortheNativestudents.Andascostshaveincreased,otherfundingsourceshavenotkeptupwiththeincreasedcosts—andsomoststudents,includingNativestudentsaretakingoutsignificantstudentloans.It’samisperceptionamongmanypeoplethatNativestudentsaregoingtoschoolforfree.InPrairieState,therearenostateprograms.SomestatesdoallowstudentswhoareNativetotheirstatetogowithnotuitionandfeeexpenses.

Oneadministratorlistedscholarshipsasafacilitatorrelievingfinancial

strain,“Financial...wedohaveseveralNativeAmericanscholarships...morethan

foranyotherminoritygroup.Actually,that’stheonlygrouponcampusthathas

specificscholarshipsgearedtowardthem.”

Thereisanextensivelistofscholarshipopportunitiesavailablespecifically

forNativeAmericanstudents.ManyofthosearespecificallyforPSUwhilemany

othersareavailableforAmericanIndianstudentsregardlessofwheretheyattend

college.

Oneinterestingnoteforconsiderationisthatofallstudentsinterviewed,

nonementionedfinancialaidofanykindasafacilitatortocollegesuccess,rather,it

wascitedbyadministrators.Ihavelearnedfromvariousadministratorsthatseveral

NativestudentsatPSUaretherecipientsofscholarshipawards,someofwhichare

quitegenerousasinthecaseoftheGatesMillenniumScholarship.Onepossible

conclusiontobedrawnmaybethatstudentsseesupportintheformofhuman

interactionssuchasanencouragingwordorawarmgreetingasofprimary

significanceoverfinances.

AppendixGlistsscholarshipsavailabletoNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU.

Facilitator:Culture

Justasfamilysupportemergesasaprimaryfacilitatorforcollegesuccess,the

issueofcultureemergesasanintegralpartoftheAmericanIndianstudent’s

identity.Culture,familyandidentityareintertwinedandcanprovideastrong

buttressagainstthediscomfortthatcancomewiththeculturaldiscontinuityof

movementfromthereservationcommunitytothemainstreamuniversity.Howthat

culturalidentityisnurturedandexpressedthroughoutthePSUexperiencemayplay

apivotalroleinthesuccessoftheNativestudent’scollegecareer.

NothingdescribesthisexperiencebetterthanthevoiceofanAmerican

IndianPSUstudent:

Iwasthinkingofoneofthethingsthatisimportantfromastudent’sperspective,notonlymyselfasanon‐traditionalstudent,istheirself‐confidence—andbeinginthistypeofsetting.Becauseoneofthethingsthatneedtobeconsideredis,wheretheycomefrom.Whatkindofrelationshiptheyhadwiththeirfamily—theirrespectedelders—evenliketheirteachers,orsomeoneinauthority.So‐‐‐‐youknow—inthatenvironmentathome,ofcoursethere’sconfidence.

FortheNativestudentwhobringsfromhomeandfamilyastrongsenseof

culturalidentity,cultureprovidesasortofempoweringsenseofcomfortina

strangeenvironment.

Oneofthecommonthemescitedasafacilitatorwastheopportunityforthe

NativestudentsatPSUtoexpressorparticipateintraditionalculturalactivities.

WhilesuchanopportunityisuniversallyseenasapositiveexperienceforPSU

Nativepopulation,itmustbementionedconversely,thatlackofsuchopportunities

presentabarriertocollegesuccess.

Onestudentsharedhisperspectiveofcultureasafacilitatorinthisway:

OnethingIkeepgettingchoppedofffromsayingis‐‐‐‐umm‐‐‐justgrowin’upandcomin’‐‐‐Ihadalotofdeadtimeaftertheservicejustdrinkin’andpackin’onthepoundage‐‐‐Doin’nothin’yaknow?Iwastedthattimebut‐‐.Ididn’thavethatsupportingcast–fromthebeginning.Youknow?Ihadtofinditonmyown.And‐‐‐Istartedgrowin’myhair‐‐‐and‐‐‐notshavin’anymore,notrunnin’anymore(laughterfromeveryone.)Youknow?‐‐‐Buttheseelders,theyshowedmethatmyreligion‐‐‐whatIthoughtwasimportantwhenIwasgrowingup‐‐‐cuzonmydogtagsitsaidRomanCatholic.AndIknowI’mnotRoman,‐‐sowhyamICatholic?Yaknow?SoIreverted,Iconvertedbackto‐‐‐okay‐‐‐Iwatchedallthesehistoricalmovies;RabbitProofFenceandah‐‐‐BuryMyHeartatWoundedKnee,andaTattooonmyHeart,Running’Brave‐‐‐Butthat’swhatIreachedouttowhenIstartedtorealizemyidentityandthatwasmysupportingcast.Thatwasmystrength,formetofamiliarizemyself.Isaid‐‐‐okayum‐‐‐sweat‐‐‐andthat’slikeourchurch.…andeventuallytheSunDance.Ittookme15yearstoquitdrinkingandtosurviveoffthereservation‐‐‐Ilearnedthatintheservice‐‐‐but,tocomebackhometoPrairieState,nothin’changeshere.Imeanstuffdoesbut‐‐‐youknow,asfarasthisIndiansandWhitesthinggoes,it’salwaysgonnabethere.It’slikegangs,drugs,violenceitnevergoesaway.Soforme,thatsupportingcastofhelpingmefind‐‐‐likeare‐birthofmyspirit‐‐‐thathelpedmesoIcanbeheretoday.So‐‐‐nomatterhowmanyscarsIgotonmyface,oronmyknuckles,Idon’tcareanymore.I’llwalkthroughherelikeasorethumbandIdon’tcare‐‐‐People,Ithink,theyjustkindalookatmeandjustkindawalkawayandlookaround.Idon’tcare.I’mheretogotoschoolso‐‐.

WhenI’mdone,Iwanna‐‐‐IthinkIwouldbemore‐‐‐morehelpfuloutside‐‐‐outwithintheNativeAmericancommunitiesratherthanbeontheoutside.ButI’dliketoworkontheoutsidetogetexperience.AndIthinkIwouldprobablyhavealreadywithoutgraduatingrightnow,butIwannagraduatesothatwayIcanatleastgobackandhavethatwithme.‐‐‐Butthat’simportantforme.It’sgonnabeathankyoubacktothekids.Youknow?SomeofourkidsgrowupwiththeirGrandparentsbecausetheirparentsstillwannadrinkandparty.The‘youonlyliveonceattitude.’But,youwasteallthattime.And,Ididthatso‐‐‐Idon’tknow,I’dliketokindahelpbea

supportingcastforyoungadolescents.Andwhetheritbecoachingor(unintelligible)…Iwantsomethingbetterthanthat,butifIcanrelatetokids‐‐‐youknow?That’simportanttomebecausealotofreservationkidsdon’thavethat.Theydon’thavethatsupportingcast.

ThemostsignificantwayconsistentlycitedbyAmericanIndianstudentsfor

facultytobeapartofthat“supportingcast”wasthroughculturalawareness,

culturalsensitivity,understandingandacceptance.

Conversely,oneofthemosthurtfulbarrierscommonlycitedbyNative

studentsweretheirexperienceswithculturallyinsensitiveorhostilefaculty.Inthe

nextchapterIwilladdresssomeoftheseexperiencesalongwithotherbarriersto

academicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.

CHAPTERSEVEN

Findings:Barriers

Fromthereviewofliterature,onecanseemanybarriersencounteredby

AmericanIndiancollegestudentsarerootedinthehistoryofeducationasatoolto

forceassimilationandattemptstodestroyindigenouscultures(Berry1969).

Thoughasoutlinedintheprecedingchapter,positiveprogresstowardeducational

attainmenthasbeenmadeintheeducationofAmericanIndians,manybarriersstill

remain.StrideshavebeenmadetowardAmericanIndiancollegesuccessatPSU,

basedoncomparisonofqualitativedatagathered,indicationsarethatforthe

subjectsparticipatinginthisresearch,barriersoutweighfacilitatorsbymorethana

2:1ratio.

Table7.1providesalistofthemostsalientbarrierstoacademicattainment

forAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Barriersarelistedfromtopdownwiththe

mostsalientlistedfirst.Thisrankorderwasderivedfromacompilationofdata

fromadministrators,faculty,staffandstudents.Whereasanyonegroupmayrank

barriersdifferently,thistablecombinestheviewpointsofallgroupsforanoverall

bestfitofallfactorscitedasbarriers.

Table7.1:BarrierstoAmericanIndianEducationalAttainmentatPSU.

Barriers SampleQuotationInstitutionalBarriers

Ithinkthatinstitutionalchangeisinorder,butisverydifficultbecausethisisthewayit’salwaysbeen.(Faculty)

PoorHighSchoolPreparation

OneofthegreatestshortcomingsIseewithNativeAmericanstudentscomingintoouruniversityispreparation.(SupportStaff)

PrejudiceorRacism

Ithinkabarrierisracismoncampus.Ithinkthatthereisalotofit.(NativeAmericanStudent)

LackofSupport

Butforus‐‐‐wejustwanttohavepeopleonourside...ifsomebodycomesherefromtherezanddoesn’talreadyhavethatconnectionitwouldbeharderforthem...(NativeAmericanStudent)

Family Some…parentshaveactuallyputintheirkidsheadsthattheuniversityisoutto‘makeyouoneofthem.’...Infact,I’vehadmorethanonestudentwhowouldbedoingverywell,academically,butaregettingcallsfromhomethataresaying;‘Youneedtocomehome.Youdon’tbelongthere.’(SupportStaff)

FinancialResources

Sofewofthestudentscomeinwithamplefinancialbacking.Thesestudentscomefromsuchincrediblypoorbackgrounds.(SupportStaff)

Community Well,PrairieStateisactuallytheheartofIndianandWhiteracism.(NativeAmericanStudent)

Culture Yeah,IjustthinkPSUgenerallydoesn’t…theyreallydon’tembraceNativeAmericansatall.(NativeAmericanStudent)

DominantCultureReferenceGroup

OneofthethingsInoticedwasthatalotofthestudentscomefromsituations,which‐‐‐theWhitesociety‐‐‐ormainstreamAmericaviewsdifferently.(SupportStaff)

Place(AIECC)

Firstofall,we’retheonlyschoolforhundredsofmilesaroundwithasignificantNativepopulationthatdoesn’thaveaNativeAmericanHouse.So‐‐‐youknow‐‐there’sahugegapinservicehereandwhatshouldbejustanaturalpartofwhatwedohere.(Faculty/Administrator)

DatacollectedatPSUforthisresearchsupportspreviousresearchcitedin

theliteratureindicatingthatinstitutionalstructuralbarriersmaybeasignificant

factorhinderingacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.

EveryoneIinterviewedagreedthatsocialchangefocusedonimprovingthe

chancesforAmericanIndianacademicsuccessatPSUmuststartwiththePSU

administration.Somediscusseditintermsoftheinstitutionalmission.

InstitutionalBarriers

AveteranprofessorspeaksofthehistoryoftheAmericanIndiancollege

experienceatPSUspecifically,howthatcollegeexperiencehasbeenaproductofan

institutionalizedstructure:

Ithinkthatinstitutionalchangeisinorder,butisverydifficultbecausethisisthewayit’salwaysbeen.GenerationsworthofIndianpeoplebeingjustabliponthescreen,ornotonthescreenortangentialorperipheral,orsubordinate,orwhateveryouwanttocallit.It’sprettyhardtounlearnthat.There’snomodelforitintheeducationalexperiencesofmostPh.D.s.They’vejustbasicallygonethroughtheirvarioussystemswithoutmuchofaninterestindiversity.Diversityingeneral,letalonediversityofAmericanIndians.Ithink,historically,theuniversityhasbeenreactiveratherthanproactive.Andsothere’sbeenquiteafewthingsinresponsetoaccreditationreportsandaccreditationteamscominghereandevaluatingprograms,andsoforth,NorthCentralandotherwise—evaluatingprogramsandpointingoutthatweneedmorediversityemphasis.So,we’vebeenbehindthecurveforasmanyyearsasI’vebeenhere.Buthistorically,here,likeotherplaces,it’sbeenmostlyreactive.Andtheproblem,ofcourse,withthatisthatyoucan’tinstitutionalizechangethatwaybecauseit’ssomethingthatlooksminimallysatisfactoryonpaperbutitdoesn’tfundamentallychangetheinstitution—andso,ifyou’regoingbeproactive,Ithinkyouhavetore‐thinkthewholesystemandmakechanges

thataretrulyfoundationalsothatyouarenotonlyaccommodatingdiversity,butwelcomingitandimmersinginitandlearningfromit.

RegardingtheLandGrantMissionoftheuniversity,thesameprofessor

continues:

...It’sbeenaglaringomissionactually,thattribalkidshavebeenunderserved....Universityadministration,asastructurefromthetopdown,doesn’tdirectlytakeresponsibility,asapriority,foraddressingissuesofdiversity,particularlyrelatedtoNativestudents,butrather,thatresponsibilityfallstoindividualpockets,orenclaveswithin.It’ssafetosaythatthroughtheyears,thecentraladministrationhavebeenreactiveratherthanproactive.Sometimesresponsivetowhatsomeofusaredoingandaskingfor,butrarelyareinitiators.Exceptforgivinglipservicetoit,ofcourse.Theyarereally,reallygoodatthat.

OneuniversityadministratoraddressesissuesconcerningthehistoryofPSU

andremainingbarrierstoAmericanIndianacademicattainmentfroman

institutionalperspective:

Idon’tknow,structurally,andI’mtalkingorganizationally,ifwe’vequitelandedonthebestorganizationtoworkwithdiversity.So,Ithinkwe’resiloey,ifthatmakessense.Youknowweliveinourlittlesilos,andIdon’tthinkwehaveenoughcrossintegrationhappeningwithourwork.Letmegiveyouanexample;Idon’tknowhowwellAdmissionsgoesoutandrecruitsNativeAmericanstudents.Idon’tthinktheyaredoing‐‐‐Iprobablyshouldn’tsaythisbut—Ithinkwecouldimprove...Admissionsofficethatisnotdoingverymuch.Sothat’sanexamplewhereImean,Idon’tknoworganizationally,ifwe’rereallyworkingacrossthewayweshouldandifwehaveeverybodyonboard.SometimesIthinkwegetsocomfortableworkinginourlittlerealmofthecampusworld—thatwe’renotdoingenoughtogether...wehavegottodoabetterjobofbringingacademicsandstudentaffairstogether.Theykindofoperateintheirownlittleworldsrightnow.Sothat’sanPSUproblem.Anditimpactshowwellwedoouttherewithrecruitingandactuallyservicingstudentswhentheycomehere.

TheissueofPSUcommitmenttominorityrecruitingisonethatwas

continuouslyquestionedbyallinterviewees,includingadministrators,facultyand

staff.Oneadministrativestaffmemberspeaksfranklyaboutpriority,historically,

forminoritystudentrecruitment,includingrecruitingNativeAmericanstudents:

Wedon’thaveaveryextensive—(sigh)recruitingprogram.Wedon’thaveveryextensiveinformationforminoritystudents....ButIfeellikeatPSU,wewerenotreallygettingthatfromanywhereelse,youknow?...We’renotreallygettingthatpushfromanywheresowe’renotdoingit.

OnefacultymemberhasworkedtowardenhancingdiversityatPSUfor

decades.Amonghismanypassionswasworkingtowardanenhancedappreciation

forNativeAmericanstudents,andanappreciationforindigenouscultureasanasset

totheuniversity.

I’moftheviewthatwearenotfulfillingourmissionandpurposesverywell.Weneedtoreallyfocusonthatanddoabetterjobofit.Butit’sthere.It’sinthemission.It’swhatwearetobedoing.Wearetobemakingourinstitutionatleastreflectthediversitythat’swithinourownstate,becausewearetoembraceallofthepopulation.Butwealsoneedtorecruitindividualsintohighereducationtoprovidethosediversityexperiences.Forexample,therearehighschoolsthroughoutthereservationsthatarenevervisitedbyPSUeventhoughthenon‐nativeschoolsareallvisitedbyPSU.Theviewthat’sbeenpresentedtomeisthattheyieldofstudentswhoactuallywillcometoPSUissmall,andthatfundsforrecruitmentarebetterspentelsewhere.So—Ithinkthatthereisanimmediateconflicttherewithourmission.Theadmissionsofficeseemstobelookingmoretowardtotalnumbers,whilethemissionoftheuniversityislookingtowardservingallofthepeople.Andthosetwomissions,thosetwoapproacheshavenotyetbeenproperlyintegratedinmyview.Theadministration,inmyopinion,needstobothbetterfundandbetterinsistthatminoritystudentsberecruitedandretained.Thatis,thereneedstobedirectionfromhigheradministrationthatminoritystudentsarerecruited

andthatfundingbeprovidedforthatpurpose.Wehaveminimalfundsdirectedtothateffortrightnow.So—theadministrationdefinitelywantstoseeithappen—buttheorientationtowardsmakingithappenjustdoesn’tseemtohavematerializedasyet.Theyseeitasaproblem,butnotonethattheywanttospendalotofmoneyon.Orevenverymuchmoneyon.It’saproblemthat’sbeenassignedtootherswhoareunderfundedandhavedifficultymakingithappen...Soitgetscomplicatedmakingthesethingshappen.ButIwouldsaytheadministrationjusthasn’tproperlyfundedordirectedittohappen.Butifyoutalkwithanyadministrator,they’lltellyoudiversityisimportantandthey’dliketoseemoreofit.Theyarejustnotmakingithappen.It’snotaveryhighpriority.Totalnumberssadlyseemstobeahigherprioritythandiversitywithinthosenumbers.

Itquicklybecomesapparentthatoneofthebarrierstoacademicattainment

forAmericanIndianstudentshasitsgenesisinthedivergentviewpointsconcerning

whattheprioritiesareinaddressingdiversityissues.Morespecifically,howthe

officialuniversitypolicyaddressesAmericanIndianstudentswithintheoverall

issueofdiversityhasadirectimpactontheNativeAmericancollegeexperience.

Anotheruniversityadministratordiscussestheirperspectiveondiversity

andeventhedefinitionoftheterm.Clearly,itisabroadissuethatextendsbeyond

theparametersofthisresearch:

Ithinkitwasveryinterestingtome—andIthinkit’sstillastumblingblock,toreallydefine‘what’sdiversity’.Youknow‐somepeopleareverypassionatethatitincludeseverything,ethnicity,sexualpreference,thewholegamut,includinggender.Andthereareotherpeoplethatreallywanttonarrowittojustethnicity,andthatdon’twanttodealspecifically,withsexualpreference—that’ssupposedtobeahotpointforsomepeople.ButIjustfoundthatverycurious.Mysenseandmyapproachisthatdiversityisveryglobal,andthatweneedtoberespectfulofallpeople.Andthatthatincludesnotonlyyouknow,peopletendtofocusonwhat’seasy,whichisthecolorofsomeone’sskin,andweseemtobeable,asasociety,toseewhat’spoliticallycorrectthere.ButIalsothinkthatmyviewisthatweneedtoberespectfulofwomen,andIstillthinkthereareissueswithgender.Nothere,butnation

wide—Imeaneverywhere.AndIthinksexualpreferenceisamajorissue.AndI’dsaythatwhenyoutalkaboutdiversityinPrairieState,obviouslyworkingwiththeNativeAmericanpopulationisbigforPrairieStatebecauseofthenumberofreservationsandourmakeup.ButIwouldtellyouthatsexualpreferenceisanotherhotbuttoninthisstate.Andthatisanareaofconcernforusworkingwithstudentsbecausethat’sanothermajorprejudicethattendstopopup.Andthatdoesn’tmeanthatyougivepreferencetooneareaoveranother,butthatyouneedtoworkonallareasifwe’regoingtobeacommunity,auniversitythat’srespectfulofalldifference.

FromaDirectorofoneofthestudentsupportservicesoncampuscomes

furthertestimonyregardingtheconfusionofwhatdiversitymeans,whoisdefined

asdiverse,andwhereprioritieslie:

Ithinktherearepeopleonthiscampuswhodon’tincludeNativeAmericankidsaspartoftheiroutlookfordiversity.Whichissilly.Whenyoulookatthepopulationofourstate,Imeantheincrediblewealthofpotentialabilitythat’sthereintheNativekids—howwecannotlookonthatasaresourceisasinine,tome,frankly.Um—buttherearethosewhowanttomakediversityaeuphemismforworldly.Ah‐who‘wantkidsfromKuwaitandwewantkidsfromNepal,andwewantkidsfromwherever.’‐‐ontheothersideoftheglobebecausethatmakesusamoreworldlyuniversity.Andthere’ssometruththere.Imeanthatabsolutelyhassomeworththere.Buttocloseoutonegroupinfavorofanother,kindofdiffusesthewholemeaningoftheworddiverse.

AfacultymemberwhohasremainedveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndian

studentsformanyyears,addressestheissueofdiversityandexpressesdeep

concern:

IguessifyouareaNativeperson,aWhiteinstitutionisnotattractivetoyouespeciallyifthatinstitutiondoesn’thaveagoodreputationasbeingwelcomingandvaluingtheNativeculture.Sometimes,yougetthefeelingthat—wellmaybeit’smorethanafeeling—sometimestheworddiversityisthrownaroundbecauseit’spoliticallycorrectandit’ssomethingthathastobeaddressed,ratherthansomethingthatisaddressedbecauseit’sauniversallyheldvalue‐‐addressedfortherightreasons.

AfacultymemberwhohasadministeredasuccessfulprogramforNative

studentsdiscussedhowtheuniversitydealswithdiversity:

Inaword,insufficiently,Ithinkwe’vemadealotofprogress,butstill,alotofpeopledonotappreciatethestrengthandthebenefitthatcomesfromhavingdiversefacultyanddiversestudentswhoareapartofthewholebigworldwelivein.Iwouldsaythereislessopenracism,butwestillhavealotofeducationtodowhenyouhavepeoplewhohavebeenhereforeverinleadershippositionsandtheyreallydon’tunderstandit...Andtherearestillalotofpeopleherewhohaveneverbeenexposedto–toknowhowitcanbenefitthisinstitutionandthemastheirownperson.

Oneprofessordiscussedadministrativesupportasfundamentaltotheinstitution’smission:

ThefirstthingthatpopsintomyheadaboutthatistheknowledgethatthisisalandgrantinstitutionandthatTribalCollegeshavethelandgrantstatusaswell.Andthatmeansweshouldallbeinthistogetheraboutusingourresourcestomakepeoplebebetterthrougheducation.

AnotherfacultymemberwhoisprimarilyinvolvedwithNativeAmerican

studentscomments:

ThisisaLandGrantinstitution.Anditissignificanttosaythatinthisstate,wehaveninereservations,andthosereservationsoccupy20percentofourlandmass...Ifourmissionistoservethepeopleofthestate,andwedon’tgetthatthosepeopleintermsof,certainlypeopleofcolorareAmericanIndianpeopleandthatisourcalling,thenwe’vereallysortofmissedtheboat.Ifourmissionisservingthepeopleofthestate,wehaveagiganticunderservedpopulation,righthere,whoare,intermsoftheuniversity,whoareourneighbors...ourfrontyardsjoineachother.Andforalargepartofourhistory,thehistoryofPSU,andthesystemofhighereducation,thegateshavebeenclosedtoourneighbors.Andso,tome,it’satotalno‐brainer.It’stotallyobviousthatcollaborationwithAmericanIndiancommunitiesandservicestoAmericanIndianstudentsisfirstandforemostinthemissionofthisuniversityandwhatwedohere.

Congruentwithfindingsfrompreviousresearch,highschoolpreparation

wasacommonbarriertocollegesuccessmentionedbyadministrators,faculty,staff,

andstudentsatPSU.

ANativeAmericanupperclassman,workingtowardamajorinMathspeaks

ofhisexperienceinhighschoolinareservationtown:

Myparentsbothtaughtandtheysentmeto(Publicschool)justbecausetheeducationtherewas—welltheirmathandscienceprogramsarewaybetterthan(Tribalschool’s).(Tribalschool’s)highestmathclassisgeometry,whichisridiculouslylowifyouhadanyhopesofbecominganengineer.Cuzyouneed‐CalcandTrig—butanywaysImeanum—at(Publicschool),it’slikeanuphillbattle.Whenyougointoaclassroom,you’renoteven‐‐teachersdon’tevenlookatallthestudentsequally.AndI’mnotsayingthatalloftheteachersarelikethis,butmostofthemare.AndbeingNative‐‐youreallyhavetoproveyourselfthere.Imean,onceyouareconsistentlyontheirAorBhonorroll,thentheywillstarttorespectyou,butyouhavetodothateverywhereyougoat(Publicschool)...

AnotherupperclassmanworkingtowardadegreeinRangeSciencerecalls

histribalhighschoolexperienceinadifferentreservationtown:

Icanrememberinmyfouryearsthere,thestaffwouldselectcertainstudentsthatweredoinggoodacademicallyandtheywouldsolelyconcentratetheireffortsonthosestudents.Therestofthemprobablygotleftbehind.Andsowhenthey‐‐‐(pausesandcoughs)Alright,I’llputitthisway.WhenIwasafreshman,wehadabout160studentsinmyclass.Whenwegraduated—therewasonly48ofusthatgraduated.Therestofthemeitherfellbackbecausetheteachersjustweren’tgivingthetimeofthedaytoactuallyhelpthemwiththeirstudies—makingsurethattheylearnedthematerialfortheclasses—allofthat.Ummm—alotofteacherswouldratherhaveoneofthegoodstudents—theonesthatweregettingAsandBscomeinafterschoolanddoextrastuffforclassesandearntheextracreditorwhatever.Soalotofstudents—Ihadacouplefriendswhojustthought;‘what’sthepointofbeinginschool?’‘What’sthepointofgoingtocollege?’Thoseteachersdon’tcareaboutus...andoutofthe48ofusthatgraduated;only12ofuswentontocollege.

ANativegraduatestudentrecountsherexperienceatatribalreservation

highschool:

Iactuallywentto(Tribalschool),wherethehighestmathwasgeometry.TheyofferedAlgebra2onlinewithlikeallofPrairieState,butitwasridiculousbecausetheteacherwouldalwaysbecalling(TribalSchool)out.They’dbelike;‘(Tribalschool),youaretwochaptersbehind.’Wewerelike;‘We’retryingtoteachourselvesthanks.’SoIwenttocollegeterrifiedofanymathorsciencecourses.

Somestudentsspeculatethatonefactorleadingtosubstandardhighschool

educationatreservationhighschoolsstemsfromabadfitbetweenreservationhigh

schoolsandpersonaltraitsthatsomenon‐Indianteachersbringtothoseschools.

Onesharedhisperspective:

Teachersthereareterrifiedtoteachattribalschools.SometimeswhenIdogoby(Tribalschool)orI’llgoandtalktomymom,theteachers—theyjusthavethehardesttimecommunicatingwithNatives.Theyjusthaveahorribletime.Idon’tknowwheretheinteractionbreaksdown.Idon’tknowwhatthecauseandeffectsare.Idon’tknowifit’sbecauseyouhaveabunchof‐‐‐basically,abunchofWhitepeopleyouknow—it’swhatwe’refightingwithhereatPSU–theyjustreallydon’tknowtheculture.Theyjustreallydon’tknowNativeAmericanpeople.Theyjustdon’tknowhowtodealwiththem.Andtheyhavejusthugeproblemstryingtoteachthemanythingbecausetheydon’tclicklikethat.Alotofteacherswillgothereandjustgettheirtimein.Andthen‘boom’oncetheirtimeisin,they’reoutofthere.Andduringthattime,theydon’ttaketheinitiative—that’salltheyarethereforisjustajob.Theydon’ttakethetimetogettoknowtheculture,orknowthearea.

Agreementamongthestudentsindicatesthatthisisacommonexperience

forstudentsattendingreservationhighschools.Anotherstudentrecallsher

experienceofconflictbetweenNativestudentsandnon‐Nativefaculty:

Yeah,Ithinkwehadpeoplelikethattoo.Liketheywouldjustbethereforalittlebit.LikeIactuallywentintocollegeknowingthatmyguidancecounselorwrotemycollegealettersaying;‘She’snotgonnamakeit.’‘Idon’tthinkshe’spreparedforthecoursesyou’regoingtobeofferingher—andIdon’tthinkthatyoushouldaccepther.’AndsoIwaslike,‘Okay.’Andmyparentswerelike,‘Ignorethat.’‘She’ssomeWhitewoman—justignoreher,youcandoit.’

Anotherstudentfromaruralreservationcommunityattendedareservation

highschool.HerecalledtheconflictbetweenAmericanIndianstudentsandhigh

schoolfaculty:

Therewerestudentsdownto(Reservationtown)thatwerethesameway,butitwastheattitudeofthestaff—wellforone;theydidn’tliverightin(Reservationtown).Theycamefrom(Bordertown#1),youknow—(Bordertown#1)and(Bordertown#2)areknownfor(pause)the(Bordertown#2)SchoolDistrictisknownforhatingtheirownIndianstudentsintheschooldistrict.Ithinkalotofteachersfrom(Bordertown#2)and(Bordertown#1),bothtowns,don’tlikeIndians.Soobviouslythey’regoingtohavethatattitude.Andit’sweirdforthem,comingfromthosetowns,toteachataschoolonareservation,where98percentofthestudentsareIndian.

Whateverthecause,everystudentIinterviewedagreedthatthereisa

differenceinthequalityofeducationbetweenreservationhighschoolsand

mainstreamhighschools.SomeoftheNativestudentsIinterviewedattended

mainstreamhighschoolsanddidnotexperiencethesameeducationaldeficitupon

enteringcollege.Thismayindicatethattheproblemiswithreservationschoolsand

notwithAmericanIndianstudents.

OneNativeAmericanPSUstudenthadhighschoolexperienceinboth

mainstreamandreservationhighschools.Sherecallsthedifferenceandtheeffects

thatdifferentialqualityhaveonNativestudentsfromreservationschools:

IwenttoschoolinacityschoolinRapidCity.SoIfinishedthatcitycurriculumsoIwentto(Tribal)HighSchoolonthereservation.And—Iwasinvolvedinactivitiesrangingfromdramatobasketball,torunningandeverythingattheseWhiteschools.AndthenIwentto(Tribal)andIwasinvolvedtheretoo.But,Icouldseeabigdifferenceintheatmosphere—andjustwhattheydosociallyandthewaytheycommunicate,andthewayofdress,ImeaneverythingwasjustsodifferentfromthatWhitesociety.AndthenIthinkwhenkidsgethere,theyfeellikesuchanoutcast...Butum—thereservationschoolswerejustnotuptopar.Andthatisveryhardbecauseyouhavestudentscomingherethatcouldmaybereadokaybutonlyata10thgradelevel.Ornotreadasfastandcomprehendthat.Sotheyhavespeciallearningcircumstances,wheretheseclassesaresohardforthem.Imeanevenjustgeneralclasses.Iwasroomedwithagirlfrom(Tribal)HighSchoolwhoIbecamefriendswith–andshecamehere,butshedidn’tlastthatyearbecauseshecouldbarelydoanything.ItriedtohelpherasbestIcouldandstuff,butitwasjusttoohardandoverwhelmingforher.AndwhenthereweretraditionalWhitestudentsspending10hoursinthelibrarytostudyforthisreallyhardpathologycourse,theseNativesneedlikedaystoprepare.Youknow?Itisjusthardforthem.Theydon’tlearnthosestudyhabits.Theydon’tlearnthat.Theydidn’thavethesameopportunitiesbeforegettingtocollege.Soitisveryhard.Theyareplayingcatchup.

AnotherNativestudentwhoattendedamainstreamcityhighschoolspeaks

oftheexperienceofstudentsfromreservationschools:

Iknowalotofpeoplethatbecauserezschoolsarenotadvancedassomeotherschools,whowereabigdealinhighschoolandthentheycomehereandtheirwritingskillsarebehind,ortheirmathskillsorscienceskillsorwhatever.Andthentheycomehereandit’slikethisdefeatforthemrightaway.Andsothentheythink‘wow,Ican’tdoit.I’mnotassmartasIthoughtIwas.’

AnotherchallengeconcernsNativestudentswhocometoPSUfromboarding

schools.TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwhoworksespeciallycloselywith

incomingfreshmanstudentsmanyofwhomhavebeeninahighlystructured

environmentthroughouttheirentireschoolcareerdetailedthispossiblebarrierfor

Anotherthingthatmightbeabarrieristhestructure,orthelackofstructureforstudentswhocometocollegefromaboardingschool.Intheboardingschoolseverythingindailylifeishighlystructured.Butthisgoesbothways.Therewasone,whofelt,because(SupportProgram)isveryregimentedandstructured,hefeltuncomfortablebecausehesaiditmadehimfeellikeaspecialneedsstudents.Hefeltcategorizedorseparatedasifhewerein‘SpecialEd’.Sohehadadifficulttimefullyparticipatinginthatprogrambecausehe‐‐‐butyetwithoutit,hewouldn’thavebeenhere.Sothat’sthedifficulty.Andthenalotofthestudentstalkaboutapartofthetroublesgoingbacktothefactthatalotofthestudentscomestraightherefromsomeofthetribalschoolshavebeeninboardingschoolsmostoftheirlivessotheyareusedtothatstructure.Andtheygethereandtheydon’thavethat.Andpartofthatstructureevenincludeshomeworktimeandstudytimeandtutortime.Whereasit’snotquiteasstructuredherethroughtheprogram,butyetatthesametime,thereissomuchmorefreedomthattheyarenotusedto.Andmostofthemhavecomethroughanentiresystemofboardingschools,starting,probablyfromelementary,throughmiddleschoolandhighschoolsothat’swhattheyknow.Andtheyjusthaveahardtimewithithere.

SomeNativestudentscometoPSUunpreparedforcollegelevelwork.There

isextantdetailedliteratureonthissubject.Faculty,administration,admissionsstaff

andthestudentsthemselvesarewellawareoftheeducationalhandicapmany

AmericanIndianstudentsbegintheiruniversitycareerwith.Anadmissions

counselorcommentedonhighschoolpreparation:

Gettingbacktoenrollmentandwantingstudentstosucceedhere;oneofthethingsthatIfoundkindofsurprisingand—well—it’sjustveryinteresting…frombeingonreservationsmyself,‐‐umm‐justseeingwhatkindofschoolstheNativestudentscomefrom‐‐.AndIthinkthat’spartoftheproblemtoointhatsometimestheschoolsdon’tpreparethemtocometocollege.Sowhentheygethere,wecan’talwaysadmitthem—youknow?Ortheycomehereandtheydon’tdowell.

Amongthosewhomaybemostqualifiedtospeakonthisissuearethosewho

workintheareaofStudentSupportServices.Asupportservicesadministrator

spokeatlengthonthistopic:

OneofthegreatestshortcomingsIseewithNativeAmericanstudentscomingintoouruniversityispreparation.Weneedtogobacktothatpreparationthing,andhelpingourstudentstocomeintothesysteminamannerinwhichtheyhaveanabilitytosucceed.Becausethewaythey’recominginnow,they’restandinginahole3feetdeepthedaytheywalkinthedoor—metaphorically—andtheyjusthavesuchadisadvantage.ThequalityandthedepthofpreparationoftheNativestudents,simplyissofarbelow,I’msorrytosay,thatofthegeneralpopulation.Andonecanlookattheboardingschoolsofcourse,whichwedealwithquiteoften.Um—onecanlookatthesomeoftheprivateschoolsversusjustthegeneralpopulationofthereservationschools,andtherearesomevastvariancesinthequalityofpreparation.Notsurprisingly,moreoftenthannot,theprivateschoolstendtosendthestudentstouswithalittlebitbetterpreparationamongstthosegroups.Butoverall,theacademicpreparationis‐‐wespendsomuchtimetryingto,forlackofabetterphrase,makeupthedifference—catchthoseNativestudentsup,justsothey’reatabasiclevelofunderstandingwithmanyoftheotherstudentscomingin.It’satruedisadvantagetothosekids.Somanyofthemendupcominginandimmediatelygettingpluggedintoremedialclassesinthehopesthat,perhaps,theycandosomecatchingup.And—boyfrankly,sometimestheycan,andsometimesit’sjustsuchacolossaltaskbecausesomanyofthemhave—justdon’thavethebasisofunderstandingtoevenknowwheretostartonalotofthosesubjects.That’sahugedisadvantage.Theystartoutfromabighandicap.YouunderstandthatI’mlookingcomparativelywithotherstudentsthatIamworkingwiththatarealsolowincome,thatarealsofirstgeneration,perhapswithvaryingtypesofdisabilities.Imeanthesearenotjustyoureveryday,walk‐inoffthestreetstudentseither.Imeantheseotherstudentsaredisadvantagedaswell,buteventhough,whenyoucomparethetwogroups,still,theNativekidsarecominginsopoorlyprepared.Anditit’s‐‐‐Ifeelterribleforsomanyofthembecausetheyhave—absolutely,fromanintellectstandpoint,andanabilitystandpointofgeneralknowledge,theyhavethetools—withoutquestion.Manyofthemcomeinwithsomewonderfulscholarshipopportunitiesandsomevarioustypesofbackingfromthetribesandwhatnotthatfinancially;oftentimesgivethemsomegreatopportunities.Buttheyjust,oftentimes,don’thavethebasistoutilizethat.It’sashame.It’sahorribleshame.

Sooften,thesestudentshavetoldmehowatalotofthesegeneralreservationschools,somanyoftheteachersandtheadministratorsarefocusingsomuchoftheirtimeonjusttryingtokeepthepeace.Andtryingtoholdthephysicalbuildingtogether,thattheopportunityforadvancementisvery,verylow.Andthen,ifastudentdoesexcelinthatenvironment,it’sstillcomparativetolowstandards.I’vebeentoldthatsomestudentscomefromareservationschoolthinkingtheywereanacademicsuperstar,onlytofindthattheyarestillbehind.Hence,ahandicap,evenforastudentwhocameherewithconfidence.Sotheymayfeelthatseparationhappeningveryquickly.Ofcoursewecannotgeneralize.AndIdon’twanttosaythatthecardsarestackedagainstthem—butoverandover,Ihearthestatement;thattheyfeelliketheyareontheoutsideofPSUlookingin‐‐thattheydon’tfeellikePrairieDogfreshman,rathertheyareNativestudentsatPSU.

PrejudiceorRacism

Thevoicetobestdescribeexperiencedracialprejudiceisthatofthe

AmericanIndianstudentsthemselves.Thereisnoshortageofsuchstories.During

thefallsemesterof2009,Iwasmadeawareofacaseofthreateningmessages,

includingdeaththreatsdirectedatanincomingfreshmanlivinginaresidentialhall

oncampus.ThecasewasreportedtotheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorandto

theUniversityPoliceDepartment.Investigationswereconducted,butnopersonor

personswereeverdeterminedtoberesponsibleforthemessagesnorwasanyone

heldaccountable.Whilethestudent’sResidentAssistantandotherstudentsonhis

floorweresupportivethroughouttheordeal,thesourceofthethreatsremains

undeterminedleavingthatstudentwiththelingeringdiscomfortoftheknowledge

thatsomeonecloseenoughtoslipwrittenmessagesunderthedoorofhisroommay

wanttodohimharm.

AnotherNativestudentrecallshisfirstyearoncampus:

Myfirstyear,myfreshmanyearhereIlivedinaresidencehall.Ilivedonthefourthfloor,theverytopfloor.Iwastheonlypersonofcoloronthefloor.AndtherewastwoincidentswhereIhadtwofloormatescomeuptomeandtellmethey“F’nhateNativeAmericans”.AndI,youknow,Ididn’tgetscaredoranything.Ijustsortofsay‘Okay,thanksforlettingmeknow”.Uhh‐Isaid,“I’lltrynottocreateanduncomfortablesituationforyou”.“I’lltrytoavoidyouatallcosts.”But,thatwasoneincident.Uhm,andthere’sbeensomethingsinafewofmycourses.

Regardlessofwhetheraspecificincidentisrecalled,NativestudentsatPSU

agreethatracismdirectedtowardAmericanIndiansisacommonreality:

Well,PrairieStateisactuallytheheartofIndianandWhiteracism.That’sallitbasicallyis.AlotofpeopleinmyclasshaveevenadmittedthattheycomefromcommunitieswhereitispredominantlyWhite,wheretheyonlyreallyinteractedwitheachother—like...Asmuchaspeoplewillpreachortalkuntiltheyareoutofbreathsayingitdoesn’texistinPrairieState‐‐itdoes.Itdoes.Everywhere.

AnotherNativestudentexpressedherawarenessofracismoncampus

alludingtothecomplexityofNativestudentidentity:

Ithinkabarrierisracismoncampus.Ithinkthatthereisalotofit.IknowalotofotherpeopleI’vetalkedtothatfeltthattherewereracistattitudesinclassroomsthattheywentintoandtheygetlookedat.IknowonegirlwhoisalmostfullbloodOjibwa,andshe’sprettydarkskinned.Shewastellingmethatshegetslookedatallthetime.Peoplelookatherandtheythinkshe’smeanandallthisstuff,andtheyjusthavethisassumedattitudeofherbecauseshe’sdarkskinnedNative.So—andthenthere’stheflipside.Ihaveanotherfriendwhoislighterskinned.Shedoesn’tnecessarilylookNativewhenyoufirstlookatherandshedidn’tgrowupfeelingNativeandsoshehastroublecomingintoherownbeingNativebecauseshealreadysensestheracismoncampus.Andsoshedoesn’t—soit’sabigstressforher.

WhileracismundoubtedlystingstheworstforAmericanIndianstudents

wholiveit,othersarealsoawarethatitdoesexist.OneNativeAmericanfaculty

memberhasseenitfromtheperspectiveofstudentandprofessor:

Racism.OvertheyearsI’veseenandheardofincidentswhereIknowsomestudentshavereallyhadahardtimeinsomeoftheirclassesbecauseteachershavemaderacistremarks....SoracismisaliveandwellandIknowstudentshaveexperiencedracistattitudes.

LackofSupport

Manyfactorscombinetoaffecttheuniversityexperienceandchancesfor

academicsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Dependingoncontext,many

ofthosefactorsactasfacilitators,barriers,orboth.Asseenabove,itappearsthat

supportmaybethemostsignificantfacilitator.Conversely,thelogicalconclusion

canbedrawnthatalackofsupportmaybethemostsignificantbarriertocollege

successforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Thelackofsupporttakesmanyforms

includingfriends,facultycommunityenvironmentandfamily.

LackofSupport:Friends Onenon‐traditionallyagedNativemalestudentcommented:

HowIcameupheretogotoschoolwasIknewsomepeoplehereandIcameuptovisitthem.Andeventually,Icametoschoolhere.Itwasthesamewaywithmybrother.Butforus‐‐‐wejustwanttohavepeopleonourside...butifsomebodycomesherefromtherezanddoesn’talreadyhavethatconnectionitwouldbeharderforthemiftheydon’tknowaboutthecluborhavesomebodytointroducethemandhelpthemalong.

AnotherNativestudentrecallshisfirstyearatPSUbeforehedevelopeda

supportnetworkoffriends.“Myfreshmanyear,inthefallof03,Ihadnoideathat

theNativeAmericanClubexisted.Honestly,thatfirstyearandahalfwasthehardest

formebecauseIfeltIwastheonlyNativeAmericanstudentoncampus.”

NonSupportiveFaculty

TotheAmericanIndianstudent,alreadyfeelinglikeastrangerina

potentiallyhostileenvironment,amongthemosthurtfulexperiencesareencounters

withnon‐supportive,culturallyinsensitive,oropenlyhostileprofessors,

administratorsorstaff.ManyofthestudentsIinterviewedwereeagertosharesuch

experiences.Itwasevidentthroughvoiceinflectionandbodylanguage,aswellas

thecontentoftheirstories,thatthesehadbeenhurtfulexperiencesOnenon‐

traditionallyaged,butculturallytraditionalNativestudentrecalledsuchexperience:

Thereareprofessorsthatneedtounderstandthatsometimewedohavetogohomeforsomereason,maybefamilyoradeathorwhatever.Professorsneedtounderstandthatifsomebodyneedsaweektogohomethatthey’renotgoingtofallbehindorgive‘emgriefforit.I’vehadfriendsinthepastthathadtogohomeandtheprofessorjustdidn’twanttogivethemachancetocatchup.Iftheyweren’tsickoriftherewasn’tsomesortofuniversityreasontomissclass—itwas...ifit’safuneral,theyexpectyoutobeanimmediatebrotherorsister.Youcan’tevenbeacousintogobackforit.Imeanbecauseweknowonreservations—likeoutatPineRidgeit’skindofbig,butnormallythey’reprettysmallsoyouknoweverybody.You’repracticallyrelatedtohalfofeverybody.Idon’tknow.Ihadtogohomeandburyacousintoo.AndIwastoldtobringafuneralprogramback,andtheprofessorsaid‘ohwhere’syourname?Wereyouacasketbearerapallbearer?Isaid“no”.

Atraditionallyagedandculturallytraditionalfemalestudentalsorecounted

herexperienceswithculturallyinsensitiveprofessors:

Someteachersaresoclosedmindedthat“no”—youknowtheyholdyoutothatsameWhitestandard‐‐that‐‐‘youshouldbeabletoleaveyourfamily’—thatyouhavenoconnection,thatyourfamily’sdoinggreatwithoutyou.Like,theythinkthatandtheyholdyoutothatstandard.ButasIndianpeople,Imean,thisyear,I’vehadmylittlesister.Youknow,theydon’tunderstandthat.Theyjustthink‐‘ohwell,that’stheirchoice’,orsomething.Butit’sthatclosefamilytie.Theydon’tcaretoknowyourstory.Theydon’tcaretounderstandyou.AndIthinkthat’sreallyhardsometimesforsomeofthesecases.

Somefacultyactionsreflectedalackofculturalunderstanding:

Iknowofaninstancewherethestudenthadtotalktotheprofessorandtheydidn’tmakeeyecontact‐‐‐outofrespectfortheteacher,theydidn’tlooktheteacherintheeye.Because,backhome,that’swhatyoudo.Wellthatteacherjustblewupaboutnotlookingthemintheeye.Youknow,thatstudentwasouttheredoingsomethingright,anditwasjustabigconfusion.

Othertimes,thislackofculturalunderstandingwasexplicitintheclassroom.

Averyculturallytraditional,non‐traditionallyagedmalestudentspokeofa

professor’shandlingofasacredritualinaclasslecture:

Ithinkthatforthoseinstructors,therearesomeculturalsensitivitiesthattheyjustoverlook.Youknow‐‐‐justterminology‐‐‐youknow‐‐‐brieflyflyingoveradescriptionofaSunDance…And,forme,inmymind‐‐somethinglikethat‐‐that’sapartofourcultureyes.And,it’s‐‐‐theirpurposeistoteach‐‐‐butthat’snotanythingtobe‐‐‐‐spokeofalot‐‐‐especiallyataschoolsettinglikethat.But,whatI’mgettingatisthatsensitivity…

Anothernon‐traditionallyagedmalefromareservationcommunityshared

anexperiencewithinsensitivity:

Iwasinaclasswheretheinstructorsaid‘Indianwrestling’‐‐‐andIsaid;‘what’sIndianwrestling?’andhesaid;‘Well,don’tyouwrestlewithyourlegs?’Youknow‐‐‐nobodycantaketheirdegreesaway.Butthatdoesn’tmeantheycanjustsaywhatevertheywant,iftheydon’tknowwhattheyaretalkingabout.

Insomecases,culturalinsensitivitydoesnotstemfromhostilityto,oralack

ofunderstandingtraditionalculturalpracticesorculturalidentity,butratherfroma

lackofunderstanding,orrecognitionofmoderntriballifeasitrelatestomodern

technology.Theseissuescanbepresentinawiderangeofacademicdisciplines.A

NativeAmericanRangeSciencemajorexplainshowaprofessorcouldtakesuch

socialdifferencesintoaccountinthecurriculum:

Iknowforme–mostofmyclassesareagriculturebasedsoit’sallintheAnimalRangeSciencedepartment.I’mtheonlyminorityinthoseclassesandsoalotoftimeswhenwe’readdressingissuesaroundagriculture‐‐‐Iconstantlyhavetoraisemyhandandsay‘Well,youknow,I’mfromRosebud‐‐‐fromthataspect,it’salotdifferent.Ialwaysfeltthatforrangeprofessors,orevenanimalscienceprofessorshereatPSU‐‐‐there’snineSiouxtribesinPrairieState.IwouldhavealwaysthoughttheywouldhaveanunderstandingasfarasreservationsandNativeAmericanagricultureproducersandhowtheyoperateaswell.Ihavethatconstantfightthat‐‐‐Idon’tknowwhichisrightandsosometimesIhavetoaddressitwiththeprofessor.Likewe’retalkingaboutthis‐‐‐butIwanttoaddressitfrommyperspectivebutitdoesn’tapplytoyourlecturebecauseifIapplyit,thenyou’renotgoingtounderstand‐‐‐youknow.IcanrelatetoitbutIhavetoputmyself‐‐‐IhavetoputmywayofthinkingasaWhiteperson.Butthensometimes,ifIapplymyperspectiveonsomething,Ialwaysgetweirdlooksfromsomeoneorotherstudentsinclasswillbelike,‘wellwhatdoesthathavetodowiththisclass?’SosometimesIwon’tsayanythinginclassjustbecauseofthat.

Somefacultymembersareawareoftheseissuesandpointtoneededchange.

OneveteranProfessorsaid:

Ithinkthatweneedmuchmorefacultyre‐educationinregardtoNativeAmericanhistoriesandculturessothattheyhaveabetterunderstandingofNativestudents,andarebetterabletoencouragethemandbesupportiveofthem.Youknow,it’snotuncommonfortribalstudentstohavetheexperienceofafacultymembermisrepresentingtribalissues,andmysteriesandsoforth,stereotypingIndiansinvariousways‐‐‐notbeingsensitivetoculturalcontext....Maybeafteraninitialbadexperiencesomestudentsgetdiscouragedandhangitup,orforvariousotherreasons,don’tdowhattheyneedtodotohanginthere.

OneAmericanIndianProfessorsawthefacultyissuethisway:

Thereisindifferenceamongfaculty.Somedon’tcare‐‐‐theydon’tcare.Iknowinmydepartmentthere’sfacultywhowouldn’tdothingsunlesstheywereforcedtodoit‐‐‐soIthinktherearejustsomepeoplewhodon’tcarewhethertheyhaveNativestudentsornot.Andthentherearesomewhocareforthewrongreasons.…Ithinkifyouareanoutstandingstudent,youhaveagoodrelationshipwithyourteachers.Youknow?Andtherearesometeachers,um,‐‐whetheryouareNativeornon‐Native,ifyouhaveproblems,theycouldcareless.

Inappropriatecommentsfromtheprivilegedpositionoffacultyinthe

universitysystemcanhavelastingnegativeimpacts.Anothercommentfroman

AmericanIndianfaculty:

IknowthatwhenIwasinschoolthereweresomestudentsthatreallyhadahardtimehere.AndonereallyhadahardtimewithprofessorswhowereprejudiceorderogatorytowardsIndians.AndtherewasoneincidentwheresheREALLYhadahardtime;shewasveryupsetonetimeinaclasswhereherprofessorsaidthatgonorrheacamefromIndians.Shewassoupsetthatshedidn’tgotoclassthenexttime‐‐‐andshecried‐‐‐

PSU’sadministrationisalsoawareofthevariousattitudestowarddiversity

ingeneral,andspecificallyAmericanIndianstudentsandthedivergentlevelsof

commitmenttotheircollegesuccess.Accordingtooneadministrator,“Theproblem

stillremainsthatwehavealotoffacultymemberswhojustdonotunderstandor

appreciateNativeAmericanstudentsortheirconcerns.”

OneUniversityVice‐Presidentputitthisway:

Wedon’thavealotofpeopleatPSUwhooutrightsaythingslike‐‐‐Idon’tthinktheyarebigots.Idon’tthinkwehavealotoffolkslikethat.Maybethey’remoresubtle,butthey’renotvocalaboutit.Wehavepeoplewhomaybecouldstepupanddomoreanddon’t.Youknow,we’vegotagrouptoworkon.Oneuniversityadministratorseesdiversityinall‐inclusive(global)terms:So,goingbacktothatglobaldefinitionofdiversity.Arewe,asauniversity,goingtosay;‘weneedtomovetowardrespectforalldifferences.’Wehavefacultywhoputdownstudentsofdifferentsexualpreference.WehavefacultywhomakenegativecommentsaboutHispanicstudentsandHispanicculture...Ithinkacampusthatmakesinappropriatecomments,makesstudentsfeelunwelcome.Nowwe’vetalkedaboutsomeofthat.Ithinkthat(pause)soalackofsensitivity.That’sabetterwaytosaythat‐‐‐alackofsensitivitytoourstudentsofcolor,obviouslyincludingNativeAmericans,sometimeswestilldon’tgetit.

BarrierstoSupportServices ANativeAmericanupperclassmanrecallsherfeelingsofdiscomfortand

thoseofherfriendsandclassmatesaboutusingtheuniversitystudentsupport

servicesforacademicassistance:

AlotofNativestudentsarealwayskindofscaredtotellsomeonethatthey’renotdoingwell.Theydon’twanttogotoatutoringcenter,theydon’tlikegoingtothosecentersfortutoringhelpbecausetheyfeelliketheymightgetjudgediftheyaskforhelp.Iftheygotothetutoringcenterthey’regonnagointhinkingthatthepeopletherearegonnasay‘OhherecomessomedumbNativestudentwhoneedshelpwithclass.’SoalotofNativepeopledon’twanttoadmitthattheyneedhelpsotheydon’tgothere.Theydon’twannasaythat‘Idon’tknow...

Family

SomeNativestudentsmayexperienceeitherapulltowardthefamiliar

comfortofhomeoraculturalpushbackhomefromtheunfamiliarenvironmentof

themainstreamcommunity.Whetherthestudentfeelsapushorapullisdependent

uponcontext,thedegreetowhichastudentisimmersedintraditionalculture,the

strengthoffamilytiesandtheabilitytoreconcilethosetieswithculturalshockand

thetransitiontothecampusenvironment.Theconceptofaculturalpushbackhome

willbecoveredinmoredetaillaterinthesectiondealingwithculturalbarriers.

Asdiscussedabove,familysupportcanbeapowerfulfacilitatortoAmerican

Indiancollegepersistence.However,itmustbekeptinmindthatgeneralizations

cannotbemaderegardinganyfactorservingasafacilitatororabarrier.Indeed,

whereasforsomestudents,Nativeandnon‐Native,familyactsasafacilitator,

conversely,forothers,familyfactorscanbebarrierstostudent’seducational

attainment.

FormanyAmericanIndianstudents,theimportanceoffamilyisanintegral

partoftheirculture.ThismaybeespeciallytruewhentheAmericanIndian

student’sfamilyisverymuchanchoredintraditionalNativecultureandis

suspiciousofthemainstreamuniversityasonewhosegoalistheassimilationof

theirNativestudent.Insuchacase,thefamilyactsasapullbackhome.Whetheror

notthestudentadoptsthisperspectivemaybelesssignificantthanthefamily

applyingpressuretothestudenttoreturnhomeoutoffearbasedinseeingthegoal

oftheuniversityasassimilationtomainstreamcultureandawayfromthe

traditionalworldviewbywhichthefamilybackhomestilllives.

ForsomeNativestudents,theirfamilyisadamantlyopposedtotheirstudent

attendingamainstreamuniversityawayfromhome.Suchcasescanbe

heartbreakingasdescribedbyaDirectorofStudentSupportServiceswhohasoften

seenstudents’hopesforacollegeeducationoverriddenbyfamilypressure:

There’safeelingonthepartofmanyoftheNativestudentsthatIdealwith,thatastheycomeinthedoor,theyareexpectingustobeanadversary.Thedaytheywalkinthedoor,theyareexpectinganadversarialrelationship.Itcouldpossiblybenotfromanythingofourdoing.Itcouldbefromanyoneofahundredthings.Itcouldbefromsomethingtheypickedupintheirhomeschools.Itcouldbeparental.I’vecertainlyhadNativekidsthatIhaveworkedwith,thatIhavecounseledinmyprogram,wherewe’vereallyhadtoworkonundoingalotoftheattitudesthatweregivenbytheirparents.AndI’mcertainlynotsayingthatwearetheallknowing,ortryingtodestroybeliefsystems,butwehavekidswhocomeinwhohaveessentiallybeen,eitherpurposefully,ornon‐purposefullybeeninstructedbytheirparentsthatCaucasianpeopleare‘againstyou’,thatthey’re‘workingagainstyou’andthattheyaregoingto‘keepyoufromsucceeding’,‘assimilateyourcultureout

ofyou’.Someoftheseparentshaveactuallyputintheirkidsheadsthattheuniversityisoutto‘makeyouoneofthem.’I’veheardthatphrasebefore.Infact,I’vehadmorethanonestudentwhowouldbedoingverywell,academically,butaregettingcallsfromhomethataresaying;‘Youneedtocomehome.Youdon’tbelongthere.’Icanthinkspecificallyaboutoneyoungladythat,itjustbrokemyheart,wasaGatesscholarum‐‐‐waspursuingahealthcaredegree,incrediblybrightanddoingwellacademically,andjusthadsuchabrightfutureandsomeoneIwasluckyenoughtoworkwithindividually.Andthatwasoneofthoseconversationswehadjustabouteverytimewemeet.Which,attimes,wasonceaweek.Andthatwas;‘Ijustgotoffthephonewithmydad.Ijustgotoffthephonewithmymom.Shetoldmetogetmyasshome.’‘Idon’tbelongthere.Idon’tknowwhatyou’redoingthere.’‘Weneedyouhere.’Andmyfirstquestionwasalways;‘Whatdotheyneedyoutherefor?’‘Whydotheyneedyouthere?’Anditwasusuallyjustamatterof;‘Because,yournotbeingherebreaksupthefamilyunit.’Herparentsworkedonhersoconstantly.Andtheydid,theycompletelyunderminedit,anditwaslike2½semestersandshewasgone.Shewenthome.She’sneverbeenbacktoschool.

Ithinkthisispartofthatperceptionofsomepeopleonthereservations–thosewhopersuadetheirkidstodropoutandreturnhome‐‐‐theperceptionisthat‘thisisusandwearen’tgonnagoanywhere.’WhenNativestudentscomehere,theycarrythatlabel‐‐‐they’renotjuststudents,they’reNativestudents,andtheyknowthat.Andsoeverythingthattheydo,orareseentodohappensthroughthatlensorthatidentityasaNativestudent.Weneedtodoawaywiththatfilter.

Otherstudentsfindthesupportnormallyofferedbyfamilyinsubstitute

placeswhileattheuniversitybutstillfeelapullbackhome.Thispullmaybeoutof

responsibilityforhelpingwithvariousfamilyresponsibilitiesthatmayinclude

contributingtofamilysupportorcaringforyoungersiblings.Atraditionallyaged

femalestudentfromabordertownsharedherthoughts:

Ithinkpeopleareanasset.Youknow?Peoplethataretheretosupportyou,andpeoplethatencourageyouandsay‘youcandoit’.Because,sometimeswedon’tgetthatawayfromhome.Youneedtobeincollegebutsomefamiliesdon’tsupportthat.Theywantyouhometohelptakecareoftheiryoungeronesorsomething.

Financial

FinancialResources

AmongallthoseIintervieweditappearsthatthemajorityofAmerican

Indianstudentsdonotcomefromabackgroundoffinancialwealth,or,inmany

cases,evenfinancialstability.Again,itmustbereiteratedthatsweeping

generalizationscannotbeappliedacrosstheboardregardingthePSUAmerican

Indianpopulationasawhole.HoweverwhenlookingspecificallyatPrairieState’s

Nativepopulation,itisrelevanttonotethatnoneoftheninereservationsinthe

statearewealthyascomparedtosomeofthewealthiestinthenationwithsmall

tribalenrollmentsandhugegamingprofits.

Faculty,staffandadministratorsareallwellawareoffinancialneedasa

significantbarriertocollegepersistence.Aprofessorcommented:

Andyouknow,anotherobviousobstacleisfinancial.Alotofthesestudentscomefrompovertyregions.Andtheydon’thavethefallbackfundsthatalotofnon‐Nativestudentshave.Theycan’tnecessarilycountonfamilyfinancialsupportwhencomingfromareaswhereunemploymentis60,70,80percent.Andthat’soneofthebigmythsaboutNativestudents‐‐‐‘thattheygetallthismoneytocometoschool’andthat’syetanotheruntruth‐racistassumptionatworst.So‐‐‐youknow‐‐‐finances‐‐‐gettinghereandstayinghere‐‐‐that’sabigpartofit.

Anadministratorofferedthisview:

Thetypicalstudentsthatcomeherehavebackupinavarietyofwaysthat’softenunrecognized.Moststudentscanaskafriend,afamilymember,aparentforextrafundingiftheyneedtosay‐‐‐suddenlymakeatriphome.ANativestudentoftendoesn’thavethatkindofbackup.Theirfamiliesdonothaveextramoney.

BeyondthegenerallackoffinancialresourcesheldbyNativestudentsand

theirfamilies,somePSUsupportstaffIinterviewedpointedtothelackofmoney

managementskillsthatAmericanIndianstudentspossessupontheirarrivalas

incomingcollegestudents.Asaprimarysupportperson,theNativeAmerican

StudentAdvisorhasseenthisasasignificantissue:

OneofthebarriersthatIhaveseenthroughmypositionwiththestudentsisalackoffinancialunderstanding,financialpreparedness.Theyhaven’thadthekindofinstructionalbackgroundinfinancingtomanagetheiraffairs.Ithinktherewereacoupleofstudentsfromafewyearsagothatleftbecausetheygothookedintosomeofthequickloantypethingsorcreditcards.Iknowonegirlthatleftbecauseshetookasemesteroff,andsheleftingoodstandingwiththeschoolbutshewasjustdrowningincreditcarddebt.

TheDirectorofStudentSupportalsodealswiththemoneymanagement

challenge:

Sofewofthestudentscomeinwithamplefinancialbacking.Thesestudentscomefromsuchincrediblypoorbackgrounds,thatnotonlydotheynothaveanymoney,buttheyhavenoconceptofthemoney,ifthereissomedroppedintotheirhands.It’sjustanentireeducationthathastogoon.

PerhapsnooneIinterviewedismorequalifiedtocommentonfinancial

resourcesasabarriertocollegesuccessthantheDirectorofthePSUFinancialAid

Office:

Well,thebarrierswouldbefinancesintheoverallpicture.Lookingatitfrommyperspectiveisthattheyaretakingloans—theyarereluctanttotakeloansbecause,culturallyit’ssomethingthattheyhaven’thadexposureto.Andtofillouttheformsit’s‐‐‐it’snoteasyforthem.Sometimes,youhavetodoitforthesestudents;otherwiseit’snotgoingtogetdone.Andthenwheredoyoustopandsay;‘Well,eventually,you’regonnahavetodoityourself.’That’sthehardpartofit.Howdoyoutell—wheneachpersonisdifferent—doyoucontinuetokindadoitforthem?Ordoyouletthemmissout?

Thereseemstobesomedifferenceofunderstandingamongsome

administrators,faculty,staffandstudentswithregardtoavailabilityoffinancialaid

intheformsofstudentloansandscholarshipsandgrantsforAmericanIndian

students.Onecampusadministratortoldmethattherearenotmanyscholarships

available.“Wehaven’ttalkedaboutitbutfundingisanissue.Thecost‐‐‐andwe

don’thaveverymanyscholarshipstoofferthem.SoIthinkcostisanissue,much

moreforthatpopulationthanwegiveitcreditfor.”

ANativeAmericanupperclassmanwasadamantaboutthelackoffundingfor

AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU,“ThepurelackofscholarshipsforNativestudents

isaproblem.AmericanIndianStudiesonlyhasonescholarshipandit’sfor$500.00

forthefullyear.Ithinkthat’sridiculous.”

Thisstudentfurtherrecountshowherdealingswiththefinancialaidoffice

hasbeen,fromherperspective,lessthanrewarding:

FinancialaidisanightmareherebecausethereisnoonewhoiseitherwillingorabletohelpNativestudentswithallofthethingstheyneedtoknowbutdon’tevenknowthattheydon’tknoworneedtoknow...IwentintotheFinancialAidOfficeonetimeandIleftcrying.IcalledmymomrightafterwardsandIwasbawlingupsetbecauseIcouldn’tgotosummerschoolbecauseeverythinghadgottensoscrewedupandnoonetoldmeIhadtotake12creditstogetfinancialaid...AndthenIhadtore‐doallofmyfinancialaidandIhadtoverify‐‐‐Iwasjustcompletelyupset.IwalkedoutcryingIwasjustlike‘Ican’tbelievethis!’andhowitallsetmeback.ThenIplannedongraduatinginDecemberof2010‐‐‐andnowIcan’tbecauseIgetsetbackawholesemesterbecauseofthepeopleinFinancialAid...Sothisisthekindofthingthatmakespeoplefeelfrustrated.Becausenoone‐‐‐there’snot‐‐‐thereneedstobesomeonespecificjustforNativestudentsonthingslikefinancialaidandallthesethings.Someonewhocantellthemthethingsthattheyneedtodo‐‐‐insteadofgoingintothatoffice…

Asafollowuptothesecomments,IaskedtheDirectorofFinancialAid

questionsspecificallyaboutfinancialaidtoAmericanIndianstudents.

Whilethereisculturalawarenesstrainingforfinancialaidstaff,accordingto

itsdirector,manyNativestudentsdonottakefulladvantageofitsservices:

Moststudentsdonottimelycompleteapplications,includingformsneededfortribalhighereducationawards.ThePSUNativeAmericanscholarshipsareawardedafterstudentscompleteascholarshipapplicationthatiseithermailedoremailedtothem.Thetribalgrantsvaryamongthevarioustribesdependingonavailabilityoffundsandwhetherthereisareservationbasedpostsecondaryschool.

Hecontinuedwithamoreindepthdiscussionofissuesfacedwhendealing

withsomeNativestudentsinaddressingfinancialneed:

ThefinancialawarenessismorelimitedforNativestudents,especiallytheFISandotherboardingschoolstudents.It’struethatsomeofthestudentswhoarefromtheFISorsomeotherboardingschoolarrangement,wheretheyhavethathighdegreeofoversight,orinothersituationswheretheyhavebeenusedtoahighlevelofstructure,donotdowellwiththeirmanagingoffinancesortheirdiningplanorwhateverthingstheymighthavetodooutsideoftheacademicclassroom.Thereservationstudentsalsohavemoredifficultyinfinancialawarenessinbudgetingtheirdiningplansandmoney.Culturalchange,financialchange,iftheyhavesomeresourcesandtheyjustdon’tbudgetwellascomparedtootherstudentswhomaybudgettothinkaboutwhathappensafterwards,theyareprobablytoogenerousinasenseofsharing,iftheyhaveamealplan,withsomebodyelse,orinafamilysituationwheretheymaybewillingtohelpsomeoneout.Andtheymaynotunderstandsomeofthethingsbecausetheyarenotusetohavingtopayforitemsormeals‐‐andtheymaynotchoosetherightamountsofthingsthattheybuy.

Community

Localcommunity ThebestwaytounderstandwhatitislikecomingtoapredominantlyWhite

mainstreamcitylikeRailtown,PrairieState,fromareservationcommunityor

reservationbordertownisthroughtheexperiencesofthoseAmericanIndian

studentswhohavelivedthetransition.Itisthroughthesensesofthosestudents

thatwemaybegintogainaninsider’sperspectiveofcultureshockandadjustment

theyexperiencewhentheycometoPSU.

OneNativestudentcomparesthemovetoRailtowntothesafetyand

confidenceofthehomecommunity:

Cuzalotofthethingsthatneedtobeconsideredis;wheretheycomefrom.Whatkindofrelationshiptheyhadwiththeirfamily—theirrespectedelders—evenliketheirteachers,orsomeoneinauthority.So‐‐youknow—inthatenvironmentathome,ofcoursethere’sconfidence.Sowhentheygethere—youknow‐‐‐Where’sthatconfidencego?Whydoesitdropoff—rightthen?

AnotherNativestudentrecallstheexperienceofgrowingupinRailtownand

beingeducatedasaminoritystudentintheRailtownschoolsystem:

Wegottreatedlikecraphere.Wegotteasedallthetime.Wegotthepeyotejokes.Wegotallkindsofstuff.Youknow,weweretheonlyNativestudentsinourhighschool.Andgrowingupmeandmybrotherwereconstantlyteased.Wegotteasedbeyondbelief.Fromelementaryschoolup,wegotteased.Ididn’tevenwantMomtocomeonNativeAmericanDay,toourclass.Becausethatonlymadeitmoreobviousthatweweredifferent.LikeIjustfeltsoooo—Youwerejusttryingtofitin.Anditwasallthetimethatpeoplewouldjustknowthatyouaresomethingdifferentandtheywouldteaseyouandhurtyou.SoIjustdidn’twannabe—Ididn’twannabeIndian.Iwasso‐‐‐andthenmydadwasinourtextbooksinhighschool.Wewouldwatchvideosinourclassandthenmyunclewouldbeonit.Iwaslikeohhhhmorecraptoremindmethat‐‐‐youknow?Andso,Ididn’twannabeanIndian.

Oneveteranprofessorcommented:

PSUisinaveryseriouscircumstance,inmyview,inthatitisbothgeographically,socially,andtoalargedegree,politicallyisolatedandourcurrentcompositionisoverwhelminglyWhite.Wearenotaverydiverseuniversity.Weareabout95percent—94percentWhite.

IfthelocalRailtowncommunityisperceivedasgenerallyuncomfortablefor

AmericanIndianstudents,howdoestheuniversitycommunityenvironmentcreate

afeelingofcohesivewelcomeorisolationfortheNativestudent?

Universitycommunity

Afaculty/administratorwhoisveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndianstudent

successspeakscandidlyaboutthecampusclimate:

Ithinkwehavesomesignificantissueshereintermsofthecampusclimate.Youknowwecancreateaveryprotective,loving,supportiveenvironmentforourstudents,thatnurturestheirsuccess,butthatdoesnotnecessarilyalwaysprotectthemfromtheslingsandarrowsthattheyfaceinthelargeruniversitycommunityortheRailtowncommunity.Thatprejudice,racism,discriminationareallverypainful,verydamagingtoidentity,verydamagingtosuccess,verydamagingtoone’sselfconfidence,selfesteem,senseofself.SoIthinkthat’ssomethingthat’sreallyabarrier.

AnAmericanIndianstudentcommentsonthefeelingofstandingoutas

differentinacrowdofuniformity:“Forme,itwouldallgobacktotheconfidence

andcomfort.HowcomfortableandconfidentisanyonesittingintheStudentUnion

likethedarkspotinthemiddleofapieceofpaper?”

Astudentsupportstaffmemberspeaksthroughonevoicethethoughtsthat

wererepeatedthroughoutallofmyinterviewsregardingthelackofanyvisiblesign

thattheNativeAmericancultureisvaluedandcelebratedonthecampusofPSU:

Idon’tthinkwehaveanythingoncampuslikeaplaqueorastatueoranythinglikethatthatsignifiesthatthiswasIndianland,youknow?‐‐‐Anythinglikethat.ImeanthereisnoacknowledgementanywherethatthiswasonceYanktonSiouxland.It’snottaughtintheclassesandnoonehasaclue.Indianpeoplearenotevenreallyrecognizedletalonecelebrated.PSUcoulddosomuchtobringitselfuptodateandreallyembracethecultureofthepeoplewhowereherelongbeforetheuniversityorevenWhitepeople.NativestudentsandNativeculturecouldbe,shouldbeseenasaresourceforthisuniversity.

Arecentlyretiredadministratormirroredthesamethoughts:

Weneedtohaveacampusthatiswarmandwelcomingandhasthekindofdécorexhibitedthatletsthestudentsknowthattheircultureisrecognized,thatitiscelebrated,thatit’sunderstoodthatthelandthatthisinstitutionisonislandthatwascededbytheNativeAmericanpopulationatsomepointinthepast.ThatwearealandgrantinstitutionandthelandthatwasgrantedtofundthisinstitutionwasoriginallyNativeland.Sowedoneedtodothat.Wedon’thave,inmyopinion,anyexternaldécoronthiscampusthatwouldindicatethatnativecultureiscelebratedandappreciated.Andwedoneedtodothat.

Culture CultureShock Cultureshockcanmakeforatraumatictransitionforanyoneentering

college.Manyfaculty,staff,andadministratorsIinterviewedwerequicktomake

thispointregardinghowmostincomingfreshmenmustmakethisadjustment.For

manyAmericanIndianstudents,however,thisadjustmentiscompoundedbymany

factors.NotonlymusttheNativestudentdealwiththeadjustmenttocollegelevel

work,andlivinginanewenvironmentamongstrangers,butformanyNative

studentsthesechallengesareismagnifiedthroughdifferencesinphysical

appearance,culturaltraditions,beliefs,andpracticesandthegeneraldisconnected

feelingonehasas‘notfittingin’.Thisisespeciallysignificantsincethemajorityof

AmericanIndianstudentsattendingPSUarefromPrairieStateorneighboring

states.Foranunderstandingofwhatitfeelsliketobeastrangerinone’sownhome

state,thebestvoicesarethoseofthestudentswhohavelivedtheexperience.Here,

twostudentvoicesspeakformany.

Atraditionallyagedmalefromaveryruralreservationcommunityrecalled

hisfirstexperienceatPSU:

SometimesIfeellikeIhavemoreincommonwiththeforeignstudentsthanIdowiththelocalWhitekids,whichshouldn’tbehappening.Somepeoplelookatuslikewe’resomesortofcartoonthing.Theythinkstereotypes,thescaryIndians.Ithinkthethingswetouchedonbefore,comingoffofthereservation,thecultureshockisabigpartofit.Myfreshmanyear,IhadnoideathattheNativeAmericanClubexisted.Ialsodidn’tknowthattheMulticulturalAffairsOfficeexisted...honestly,thatfirstyearandahalfwasthehardestformebecauseIfeltIwastheonlyNativeAmericanstudentoncampus.SoIhadtoadjustfrombeing‐‐‐tocomingfromthereservationtobeingmyownindividualselfinapredominantlyWhiteuniversity.Ihadtolearnhowtoliveintwoworlds.IntheWhiteworld—hereattheuniversityandthen—convertwhenIgobackhometobeingonthereservation.So—thatformewasachallenge.Ihadtolearnhowtobalancethat.OtherwiseifIdidn’t—aftermyfirstyear,Iprobablywouldhavequit.ButIsawthechallengeandIhadtoaddressit.ThankfullyIadaptedtoit.Sothatconnectiontothecommunityisanimportantthing.Otherwiseyoumightfeellikeyouarealoneontheoutsidelookingin.

Anon‐traditionallyagedbutculturallytraditionalmalefromanother

reservationcommunityalsocommented:

Youknow,whenaNativeAmericancomesfromhome,uptoagreatbigschoollikethis,youtakehimoutofthatcomfortzone—andinstantaneously,whenthey’rejusttryingtoblendinthey’llfeeltoobuckytoevenasksomebodyfordirections—likewhereisthisbuildingorwheredoyoudothis?They’lljusttrytodoitallontheirown.CuzIdidthatso...

Somecampusadministratorsareawareofthisdifficulttransitionforthe

Nativestudent:

Thefactthatyou’rebringingsomebodyhowmanyhundredsofmilesawayfromhomeandoffthereservation,whichhasbeenhome,andthat’stheircomfortlevel,andyou’rebringingthemtothisplace,which,youandIthinkisjustfine,butthisisahugeplacetosomebodycomingfromaPineRidgeorRosebudorwherever.SoIthinktherearesomerealculturalissuestoo.And,they’recomingtoapredominantlyWhitefaculty,whodon’tnecessarilyunderstandtheircultureortheirbackground—sotherearemorebarriersthere.

CulturalPushBackHome

Thisdynamicmaybeatworkforthestudentwhoisstronglyanchoredinthe

Nativeculturebutseestheuniversityenvironmentasathreattothatculturalwayof

life.Inthiscase,theuniversityenvironmentcreatesapushtowardthesafetyand

comfortofhomeandfamilyasarefugefromtheperceivedthreat.Ineverycase,

contextisanimportantconsideration.SomeNativestudentsmayhaveadifficult

timeadjustingtolifeatPSUforavarietyofreasons,whetherconcerningcultural

differencesornot,theescapefromwhichcanleadtoseekingcomfortathomewith

thefamilyoneisusedto.

Studentswhoarelessassimilatedtothemainstreamculturewillexperience

morecultureshockuponarrivalatcollegeandwillbemorelikelytodropoutand

returnhomewithoutsomesupportorservicesdesignedtofacilitatethetransition

fromthefamiliar,moretraditionalenvironmenttothemainstreamcollege

environment.

TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorrecallsaverytraditionalstudentfor

whomthemainstreamcultureofthecampusenvironmentwasnotacomfortablefit:

Ihadthatverysamediscussionwithayoungmanlastyear.Hecameinveryquick.Hesawnoconnectionbetweenwhathewasdoinghereandwhathegrewupdoing,culturally.Andhisdesirewastobemoreofaleaderinthatcommunity.Tobemoreofa–ah‐‐,prettymuchhewasonaspiritualjourney‐‐‐tobealeaderamonghispeople‐‐culturalleader,aspiritualleader‐‐‐andhejusthadnoconnectionwithwhathewasdoinghere....Ithinkpartofittoowasculturalinsensitivity,becauseonedaywhenhecamein‐‐‐hehadreallylonghairandhehadcut‐‐‐oh,I’msure,10inchesoff.And,youknow,foryouandI,weunderstandthat’sasign,that’stellingusthathe’sgoingthroughsomething.Something’shappened,therewasareason.Itwasn’tforthelook.Itwasn’tastyledecision.Atthetime,thereweresomeotherstaffmembershereandtheywerelike“Ohmygosh!Why’dyoucutyourhair?Ican’tbelieveyoudidthat!”Youknow,therewasnoconsiderationof‐‐‐Hejustkepttryingtoshrugitoff.Andatthesametime,Iknowthatmadehimveryuncomfortable.Icouldseeitinhisface.Icouldseeitinhisposture.Andthatmademeconsiderthedifference,theculturaldifferenceofbecomingaman‐‐‐ofgrowingupinaman’scultureandthisculture.Andallofasuddenyouareinaplacewherewomenareprofessors,orwomenarestaffthatdirectwhatyoudo.Youknowthosearetwothingsthatareindirectcontrastofwhattodo.AndsoIthinkthatwasapartofhisstruggleof;‘whatdoIdowiththat?’‘HowdoIhandleit?’Ultimately,hedidleave.Hejusthadadifficulttimecomingtothatbalance.AndIdo,Iunderstandthattoo.There’salotoftimeswhereIfacesituationswhere,youknow,okay,I’mhereandtheydon’tunderstandwhat’shappeningsoIkindofgowithit.Butatthesametime,Ireallyidentifywithwhathewasstrugglingwithandhejustsawnoconnectionbetweenbeinginschoolhereandwhathereallydesired,inhisheart,tobeathomewithhispeople.

Lackoftraditionalcultureopportunity Priorresearchindicatesthatthemaintenanceofculturalidentityand

traditionswasfoundtobeinstrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthe

postsecondarylevel.ThevastmajorityofNativestudentsIinterviewedcitedthe

lackofsuchopportunitiesasamajordrawbacktolifeatPSU.Oneveteranprofessor

citedtheimportanceforopportunitiesforthepracticeofculturaltraditions:

Inthiscommunitywehave—Idon’tknowhowmanychurches.Itseemsthere’sachurcharoundeverycorner.WehavefourorfiveLutheranchurches...wehaveaCatholicchurchofcourse,andBaptistchurchesandsoon,justalotofchurches.WehaveamosqueforIslamicah‐Muslimstudents.WedonothaveanyfacilitiesforNativestudents.AsweatlodgeissomethingthataNativeAmericanCentercouldprovide,butwedon’thavethat.Studentswhoarefeelingaspiritualneedandarenativereallyhavetoogobacktothereservation.SothatisanotherareainwhichIthinkthereisabarriertostudentsbeingcomfortablehere.Unlesstheyhaveasetoffriendsandcolleagueswhoaresupportiveofthatparticularneed,theyaregoingtofeelveryaloneandisolatedhere.

Onceagain,thestudents’ownvoicesgiveusthebestideaofwhatitislikefor

themtoseetheirculturediscountedorignored.Amalestudentfromareservation

townspokewithdiscernablefrustrationaboutheseesNativestudentsreceivedat

Yeah,IjustthinkPSUgenerallydoesn’t—Imeanifyoubreakitdownandreallyanalyzeitlikewehaverightnow—theyreallydon’tembraceNativeAmericansatall.Consideringthelocation—we’reinthenorthernplains.AndsinceI’vebeenatPSUI’vehadpeoplewho’vesaid‘WellwhatdotheNativeAmericansdo?”‘Welltheyhaveabigpowwowinthespring.’Andthat’sasfarasitgoes.Anditstops.TheonlywayNativeAmericanstudentsherearegoingtobeabletoembracetheircultureoutsideofthatoneweekendisiftheygotoaNativeAmericanClubmeetingandmeetotherNativeAmericanswhoarefromPrairieStateandthenmaybegohomewiththemovertheweekend.Ouruniversitydoesnotprovideanyoutletforculturalthingswhatsoever.None.SoImean—youcanalmosttellthatbylookingattheoutside—

Imean—samething.Dowehaveourownfacilityforus?No.Dowehave‐‐‐wedon’tevenhaveamajor.Thosearetwobigflagsrighttherethatalotofotheruniversitiesdohave.WhichIjustthink,inmyopinion,makesPSUlooklikecrap.Imeanreally.Imeanwe’rethebiggestuniversityinthestate—butyetwehavethesecoupleofmajorindicationsthattheycompletelyshunus.

ThisstudentvoicedthefeelingsofmanyNativestudentsIspokewithabout

howtheyfeelshunnedanddiscountedbythemainstreamcommunitybothatPSU

andRailtowningeneral.

TheAmericanIndianstudentthatcomestoPSUmayquicklyfindoneself

feelingaloneinaforeignenvironment.Asdiscussedabove,theimportanceofa

supportivecommunityformedofpeersissignificant.Withoutareferencegroupof

peerstoprovidethecomfortandsecuritythatoneleftbehindwithfamilyand

friends,thestudentisleftsurroundedbyadominant,mainstreamsocietyinwhich

onemayfeel,asoneNativestudentdescribed,“likeadarkspeckonapieceof

paper.”ThisdominantgroupthenservesastheNativestudent’sreferencegroup.It

isincomparisontothisgroupthattheNativestudentwillmakeself‐appraisalsof

one’sfitintothePSUandlocalRailtownenvironment.

Theunderlyingsourceofthefeelingofisolationthaterodesself‐confidence

isalackofculturalunderstandingamongthedominantsociety.Studentsrepeatedly

commentedthattheyhavelearnedfromnon‐Indianclassmatesthatmanymembers

ofthemainstreamhavenevermetanyNativeAmericansandknownothingofwhat

lifemaybelikeformanystudentscomingfromreservations,reservationborder

towns,orevenaNativesubculturewithinlargercities.

Thedominantmainstreamsocietyservesasareferencegroupagainstwhich

theNativestudentcomparesoneselfinattemptingtofindwaystofitintothelocal

communityandtheoverwhelminglyWhitecampusenvironment.Allofthestudents

Iinterviewedcitedthisculturaldiscontinuityasabarriertocollegesuccess.The

followingsectionsdetailsomeofthechallengesNativestudentsfaceinmaking

adjustmentstofitintoorliveamongthedominantgroup.

CulturalConflict:Culturalawarenessanddiversityexperiencelacking

TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorisinapositiontowitnesstheeffectsof

thisculturaldisconnectonaregularbasis:

OneofthethingsInoticedwasthatalotofthestudentscomefromsituations,which‐‐‐theWhitesociety‐‐‐ormainstreamAmericaviewsdifferently.Soif‘achildcomesfromabrokenhome’,thenrightaway,themajorityofAmericanswouldsay,‘okay,theparentsaredivorcedandthechildisdecidingwhichparenttolivewith’.ForalotofthestudentsIdealtwith,itwasn’tthatway.Alotoftimes,Dadwasneverinthepicturetobeginwith.AndtheywerecompetingwithMomtostayatAunties’houseortostayatGrandma’shouse.Itwasn’t‘Momisgonnatakecareofme’,itwas‘I’mcompetingwithMomforspace’.Sotosayinreports‐‐‐ifit’sonpaperthattheycamefromabrokenhome‐‐‐youknow,whoeverisgoingtoseethatreportisgoingtoseeitoneway,buttherealitymaybetotallydifferent.

Itmustbeacknowledgedthatnoteveryculturalmisunderstandingisonthe

partofthenon‐NativedirectedtotheNativeAmerican.Therealityisthatmany

NativeAmericanslackexperiencewithdiversityjustasdomanyWhites.One

studentwhoattendedmainstreamandreservationhighschoolsrecallsbeingwith

someNativestudentsthefirsttimetheywereeveroffthereservation:

Thebigdifferenceiscultural.Likehowyouarebroughtup.ManyIndiankidsdon’tevenevergetoffthereservation.IknowIwenttomysenioryearat(TribalHighSchool),andforourseniortrip,halfthekidshadn’tevenbeenoffthereservation,andwewenttoMinneapolis.AndwewenttoValleyFair,andwewenttotheMallofAmericaandtheywerejustamazedbecausenoneofthemhaveevenbeenofftherez,letalonebeeninawholeplacethatwaspredominantlyWhitesociety.AndIthinkthat’sscaryforthem.Youknow,soitdoesn’thavetodowith‐‐‐everyonedoesgethomesickforotherkids,whethertheyareBlack,White,whatevertheyare.Weallagreeonthat.ButIthinkthat—justculturally,wearesodifferent—

TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorrecallsastudentwhowasunableto

reconcilehisownsenseofselfwiththedominantreferencegroupinwhichhewas

embeddedatPSU:

Ithinksometimes,asNatives,wetendtothinkourexperienceisunique.Andmaybeit’sjustaculturaldifferenceofhowwegoaboutexpressingourpersonalspiritualbeliefsorourculturalbeliefs.Noteveryonewearsitontheirsleevessoitisn’ttransparent.Ifwelookonlyamongstourpeers,it’seasytosee.Butisitsoeasyforotherslookingintoourpeers.Solike,forasNativeswemaybeabletorecognizeotherswhoSunDanceandwhosweatandpracticetraditionalnativereligion.AsNatives,wecanquicklyassessthatjustthroughconversation,throughmannerisms,throughbehaviors.Buttootherculturalgroups,cantheyidentifythatwithinus?Theymightreadthosethingsdifferently.SotheNativeswithinthatgroupmightthink‘yeah,thisissomethinguniquetous.’Butyetinanotherculturalsense,theymightbeabletoidentifyeachotherbysomeotherconnectingforce.Ithinkit’samatterofbeingopentoseethateachgroupisabletohavethesamekindofexperiencesbutjustmaybeinslightlydifferentvariations.

Afinalexampleofculturalconflictstemmingfromalackofexperienceor

understandingoccurredwhentheNativeAmericanClubparticipatedinthe2009

HoboDayParade.AgroupofNativestudentsrecallsthereactionsofsomeofthe

mainstreamcrowdliningthestreetsastheNativeAmericanClubfloatpassedby:

Theparade‐Idon’tknow—didanyofyoufeellike‐youwereondisplay?Itgotquietlikeeverytimewecame.Yeahitwouldeitherbelikedeadsilent,orpeoplewouldbecheering.I’mlike‘whatareyoucheeringfor?’WellIthinktheywereapplauding.Andthenlikeherewecomeandwegetcloserandwegetcloserandthenwhenwe’dgetthereitwouldbelike‐‐‐silence.Itneverusedtobelikethatthough.Itusedtobewaybadyearsago.Like,myfirstyearthatIwasintheparade.Likethere’dbeguysthrowin’beercansatus—or—ummlikedoingthosewarwhoopsorlikejumponthestreetandstartdancingaroundorwhatever.Andyou’dhearpeoplehollering“F’nprairieniggers!”andstufflikethat.Itwasbad‐‐Justrealbad.NobodyhereknowsanythingaboutIndians.NobodycarestoknowanythingaboutIndians.

ToofewNativeAmericanfaculty/staff Alladministrators,faculty,staff,andstudentsIintervieweduniversally

agreedthatPSUwouldbenefitfrommoreAmericanIndianeducators.

FromtheperspectiveofauniversityVicePresident,“Ithinkthatoneofthe

issueswehaveisthatweareveryleanstaffing.Andthat’sanissueforus.Weneed

morepeopletoworkwithminorityandNativeAmericanstudentsandwedon’t

havealot.”

Arepresentativefromtheuniversityofferedthisperspective:

Ithinktherereallyneedstobeastrongpush,astrongerpushtosay‘weneedmoreminorityfacultyandstaff....It’snotapriorityoftheadministration,oroftheadministrativeleadership....Someofthepositionsaren’tfilled...Ihaven’theardofanypush,outsideofthepositionsthatwereopenhere,tohireanymoreminorityfacultymembersorstaffmembers.Idon’tthinkthattheuniversityhassaidthat‘weneedtomakethiscommitment.’

FromtheNativestudentviewpoint:“Onethingthat’swrongisthattheydon’t

reallyhaveanyNativefacultyreally.SoIthinknothavingNativestaffaroundisa

realshortcoming.”

AnAmericanIndianfemalegraduatestudentdescribesthefrustrationthat

manyNativestudentsexperiencefromhavingtheirownculture,includingreligion,

taughttothembyanon‐Indianinstructor,fromaEuro‐centricacademic

perspective:

It’dbenicetohaveanacademicIndianpointofview—like‘okay,theysaythis—butasaculture,webelievethis—youknow?—AndtotellthattoWhitepeople,becausetheybelievewhatevertheteacherisdirectingtowardsthemwhenwe’re‐‐‐‐wellyouknow—Imeaninthatclass—onethingIwasmadaboutwashowtheyjusttriedtotakeouridentityawaybysayingwewerelikeSiberianorChinese‐‐‐andI’mlikeWHAT???YouknowwhatImean?...IthinkweneedmoreNativeprofessors.Likehowmanyarethere?Aretheretwo?...CauselikeIknowthatthestudentsIworkwith—theywentintoaNativereligionsclassandtheywerelikecompletelytakenabackbecauseit’ssomeWhitedudeteachingitand—hedoesn’tknowwhathe’steaching.Andsothosegirlswerelike‘HowaretheygonnahaveaWhiteguyteachusaboutreligion?’—LikeourNativereligion?

Anon‐traditionallyagedmalegraduatestudentshareshisreactiontoanon‐

Indianprofessorteachingaboutthemostsacredofrituals:

Ithinkthatforthoseinstructorstherearesomeculturalsensitivitiesthattheyjustoverlook...Youknow—brieflyflyingoveradescriptionofaSunDance.‐‐‐And,forme,inmymind—somethinglikethat—that’sapartofourcultureyes.Andit’s—theirpurposeistoteach‐‐‐butthat’snotanythingtobe‐‐‐‐spokeofalot‐‐‐especiallyataschoolsettinglikethat.But,whatI’mgettingatisthatsensitivityis‐‐‐thewayshedescribedcertainthingsataSunDance—andthecertaintimeofyear.‐‐‐Shedidn’tgivethat.Shedidn’tgivethosedescriptions,orreasons,oranything.Itwasjustapoleinthemiddleanditwasdoneonceayear.So—itwasjustverybroadandgeneral.Tosomebodyontheoutsidethatdoesn’tunderstandit—that’senough,that’salltheyneedfortheirinstruction.Butforsomebodythatgoesthroughitand–

it’sapartoftheirlife,that’swholedifferentthing.That’sbeingveryinsensitive.

ItwasuniversallyagreeduponbyeveryoneIinterviewedthatPSUshould

makeitaprioritytorecruitandretainmoreNativeAmericanfaculty,staffand

administrators.

PlaceHardFeelingsatOMA EarlyoninthefirstofthreefocusgroupsIconductedwithAmericanIndian

studentsitbecameclearthattherewasadiscernabletensionwhenthetopicofthe

OfficeofMulticulturalAffairs(OMA)wasthefocusofconversation.Somestudents

inthefirstgroupreadilypointedtothewaysinwhichtheOMAwasseenasa

facilitatortocollegesuccess.Asdiscussedabove,thataspectseenasafacilitatorhad

todowiththeOMAservingasaplaceforcongregationasaNativecommunity,the

onlysuchplaceoncampustoservethatpurpose.Beyondthatpoint,wasamuch

moresignificantdynamicatwork.Ipursuedthispointinthefirstgroup.In

subsequentfocusgroupsthetopicof‘Place’becamethefirstandmostsalienttothe

NativeAmericanstudents.

AmongalloftheAmericanIndianstudentsIinterviewed,theconsensuswas

bestsummedupbyonestudentwhosaid:“I’dratherbesomeplacewhereIknow

it’scomfortable—theatmosphereiscomfortable,wherewefeel,asstudents,thatwe

belongthere—youknow?”

AnotherNativestudentcommentedontheissue:

Ikindofmisshangingoutdowntherewithallofusthatcomfortzonehasbeentakenfromusandwewantanewspot.Evenifit’sahouse—ifyoulookatUSD,they’vegotahouserightacrossfromcampus.Ifwecouldhavesomethinglikethat—youknow?Hey,wecouldhaveourmeetingsthere.Wecouldcookourmealsthere.Wecouldhaveoursocials—youknoweverythingthatyoucouldthinkof,wecoulddorightthere.

Thisentireconversationwasfilledwithanemotionaltonesignifyinghurt

feelings,anger,resentment,andafeelingoffrustrationandpowerlessness.Itisvery

apparentthatthePSUAmericanIndianstudentsdonotfeelcomfortableinthespace

thatwasdesignedtoaccommodatethemandallotherminoritystudents.

Collectively,theNativestudentsofPSUinterviewedforthisresearch

conveyedalevelofdiscomfortandfrustrationbornofthefeelingofbeing

marginalizedasagroup:

Idon’tknowifwe,asagroup,areheardhear—Imean‐‐‐doesanybodyhearourconcerns?Doesanybodycare?Ireallydon’tknow‐‐‐Ifwedidhaveavoice—youknow—consideringthatourgrouphasthebiggeststudentorganizedeventoncampus—andthenwhentheyputitinthenewspaper—weareputonthebackpage‐‐justalittleblurbhereandthere.Howstrongofavoiceisthat?Ourspace—whichwesharewithothergroups,allputtogetherandlabeledasdiversitygroupsisinthebasementandourbiggesteventisputonthebackpage.Whatdoesthatsayabouthowweareseenonthiscampus?

TheconceptofaNativeAmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforthePSU

AmericanIndianpopulationhasbeenconsideredatPSUforseveralyears.Both

sidesoftheargumentinthisdebateadmitthatitisapointofcontentionthathas

lingeredwithoutresolution.

Ahighrankinguniversityadministratorcomments:

Oneofthethingsthatwe’vetalkedaboutistryingtohaveaphysicalstructureforminoritystudentsandparticularlyNativeAmericanstudents.There’sbeenalittlebitofdebateoncampusintermsofwhetheritshouldbeaMulticulturalCenterorwhetheritshouldbeaNativeAmericanCenter.Andtobehonest,we’vegottenalittlehunguponthatissue.Butthatisanotherissuehangingouttherethatwehavenotbeenabletoresolveyet.Anditneedstobe‐‐‐weneedtomoveforwardonthattoo.

TheideaofaNativeAmericanCenteralsohasfacultysupport.Oneveteran

Professorisparticularlyoutspokenonthesubject.AsisthecasewiththestudentsI

interviewed,thisprofessor’ssinglevoicerepresentsthepositionofmanypeopleI

spokewith:

Collegeisenoughofanadjustmentforallstudents,andthat’swhyanumberofstudentsdon’tcontinue—butforatleastsomeofourNativestudents,it’sagreateradjustment.It’slikecomingfromoneworldtoanother.Andsothatcanbeasignificantproblemandasignificantobstacle.Ithinkthatwe’redisadvantagedinthatwedon’thaveaNativeAmericanCenter,aNativeAmericanStudentCenter.Ithinkthatweneedmuchmorefacultyre‐educationinregardtoNativeAmericanhistoriesandculturessothattheyhaveabetterunderstandingofNativestudents,andarebetterabletoencouragethemandbesupportiveofthem.

FromtheexperiencedperspectiveofoneformerstudentandAmerican

Indianfacultymember,theissueofplacecomesdowntotheneedforaNative

AmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforNativestudentsratherthanasharedspace

withalldiversestudents:

IthinkthatitwouldgoodiftheyhadaNativeAmericanCenterwheretheycouldcongregateandfeellikeacommunity,ratherthanscatteredaroundthecampus.Um‐‐‐‐whenIwasastudent,IlookedforotherNativestudents—andthisisabigcampusandifyoulookaround,youdon’talwaysseethem.AndIthinkitwouldhelpthemfeelliketheybelonghere,thatthey’renotjustbeingusedasdiversitystatistics,thattheuniversitywouldreallyprovideaplaceforthem,letthemknowthattheyarevalued.Andyouknowtherearesomeprogramsthatthestudents‐‐‐youknowweshouldbeeducatingourstudentstobecomeleadersandIthinkiftheyhadaCenterandtheycouldfeedoffof

eachotherandelevatetheirstatusandhelpthemtofeelbetteraboutthemselvesandincreasetheirculturalvalues.Youknow,alotoftimesstudentsdon’twanttostandoutandbenoticedalone‐‐‐butifyou’reasagroup‐‐‐thereiscomfortandconfidence.IthinkaCenterwouldhelpthembuildcommunity.

Anotherfaculty/administratoroffersherviewsontheimportanceofaNative

AmericanCultureCenterwherenonecurrentlyexists:

Firstofall,we’retheonlyschoolforhundredsofmilesaroundwithasignificantNativepopulationthatdoesn’thaveaNativeAmericanHouse.So‐‐‐youknow‐‐there’sahugegapinservicehereandwhatshouldbejustanaturalpartofwhatwedohere.Ifstudentsareconstantlystressedaboutsomethingorfeelingunderstress,understrain,thendothosestudentshavealloftheirenergytoreachtheirfullpotentialasscholars,ashumanbeings,aswhatever?Well,wecoulddothisforourstudentsinsuchasimplewayasprovidingahouse.Ifwecoulddothatandwipeawayagoodpartofthisuneasiness,thisstressfulness—ifthisiswhatthey’resayingtheyneedtohelpmaketheireducationmorecomplete,thenIjustthinkit’sano‐brainerthatwereallyhavetohavethathere.SoImeanthehousewouldprovidethat.

Anadministratorwithpreviousinvolvementintheareaofuniversity

diversityenhancementhasbeenalongtimeproponentofaNativeAmericanCenter.

“Ithinkthestateshouldmakeitarequirementthateveryuniversityshouldhavea

NativeAmericanCulturalCenter.Ithinkthatshouldbejustagiven.”

SupportfortheNativeAmericanCulturalCenterisnotunanimous.Some

believethereisnota‘criticalmass’ofNativeAmericanstudentstojustifyaCenter,

andassuchtheissuesimplyboilsdowntonumbersandthebestwaytoallocate

resourcessuchthatthegreatestnumberofminoritystudentsbenefitfromalimited

poolofresources.

Oneuniversityadministratorvoicedconcern:

TheNativeAmericanCulturalCenter,Istrugglewith.Whenwelookedatoneseveralyearsago,theresearchdonewithourstudentsatthatpointreallypointedtowardamulticulturalcenter,‐‐where,aswetalkedaboutearlier,wecouldbuildsynergybecausewedon’thavecriticalmass.Whenwedidtheresearch,campusesencouragedustocreateamulticulturalcenter,andtobuildoffofthat.AndatonepointwehadtalkedaboutaMulticulturalCenterandaswegrew,youcouldhavewingsforthedifferentgroupsbutstillhaveacenter,andthecenter‐‐‐um—andweseemtohavegoneawayfromthat.And‐‐andifwe’rereadytodothatandthereisalotofcampussupport,maybeweneedtodothat,Idon’tknow.Idon’tknowhowyougetyourarmsaroundthat.I’mstilltryingtogetmyarmsaroundthat.

CommentsofNativestudentsandothersinvolvedintribalstudent

programmingandstudentsupportsuggestthatthetimehascomefortheinstitution

tobuildoffitscurrentmulticulturalconceptandtogetitscollectivearmsaround

theconceptofaNativeAmericanCulturalCenter.Themainpointtobemade

regardingaplaceforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUandhowthatbecomesa

barriertocollegesuccessissimplythatnosuchplacecurrentlyexists.

CHAPTEREIGHT

Discussion

Inthischapter,Iwillturnmyattentiontoadiscussionoftheimplicationsof

findingsasoutlinedinchapterssixandseven.Inordertoprovidethemost

comprehensivepossiblecoverage,Iwillincludethevoicesofthosewhohave

offeredtheiropinions,oftenpassionately,intheformoftheirownnormative

statements,andwillintegratethesevoiceswithsignificantrelatedfindingsfromthe

literature.

Overthecourseofconductinginterviewsforthisresearch,thereemergeda

categoryofdatathatIhavelabeled‘NormativeStatements’.NormativeStatements

isacategoryofemergentthemesthatincludes‘shouldsandoughts’aswellas

opinions,demands,andspecific,subjectiveviewpointsrelatingtotheAmerican

Indiancollegeexperience.

Withoutexception,thoseinterviewedwerequicktooffertheirviewpointson

everyaspectofthetopicofAmericanIndianacademicsuccessatPSU.Whilethese

statementsdonotfitneatlyintocategoriesaseitherfacilitatorsorbarriers,theyare

ofsignificantimportanceincreatingadetailedpicturefromtheperspectiveofthose

participantsinterestedinacademicattainmentforNativestudentsatPSU.The

omissionoftheseviewpointswouldcreateaseriousgapinrepresentationofthe

currentreality.

AsoutlinedinCHAPTERSIX,amongthosefactorsthatactasfacilitators,of

foremostsignificanceappeartobetheover‐archingthemeofsupport.Contained

withinthesupportthemeareseveralmorespecificareas,orissuesencounteredby

Nativestudentswhereinsupport,orlackthereofisthenumberoneconsiderationin

collegesuccess.Withoutsupport,thecollegecareerofaNativeAmericanstudentat

PSUmaybeshortlived.

Facilitators

SupportiveFamily Familysupportandencouragementplayanimportantroleinstudent

retentionandacademicsuccessincollege(Wilson1983;Rindone1988;Huffman,

SillandBrokenleg1986;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994).Theeducationleveland

occupationofparentsarefoundtobeimportantpredictorsofstudentsuccessin

college(Brown1993).

Amongfacultyandadministratorsinterviewed,therewasuniversal

agreementthatfamilysupportplaysanimportantroleincollegesuccessfor

AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.TheDirectorofoneNativestudentsupport

programcommentedonhowPSUcouldimprovethelevelofservicetostudentsasa

waytocompensateforthelossofsupportprovidedbythefamilywhenthestudent

isawayfromhome:

IthinktheimplicationsoftheimportanceoffamilysupportarethatweneedtoincorporatefamilymuchmoreinourworkwithAmericanIndianstudents.Ithinkanareathatwecanreallygrowalotinisbringinginfamilybecause

weknowthatthatisahugely—again—nottoovergeneralizebutformanyofourstudentsit’sahugelyimportantpartofwhotheyare.

Familymembersoftenprovidelogisticalaswellasemotionalsupport.Thisis

especiallytrueforsingleparentswhorelyonfamilyforhelpwithcaringforyoung

childrenwhileparentsareinschoolorworking,oftenatmorethanonejobwhile

alsotakingafullcreditload.ManyPSUNativestudentscitefamilyasamajorsource

ofsupport.Familymembersprovideemotional,motivationalandlogisticsupport

forstudentswhooftenfeeloutoftheirelementonamainstreamuniversitycampus.

RegardingtheimportanceoffamilysupportcitedbyNativestudentsatPSU

andpreviousresearch,fromotheruniversities,supportingthesamefindings,

indicationsarethatAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUwouldbenefitfroman

enhancedinstitutionalfocusonprovidingsupportbasedonfamilycenteredmodels

inplaceatothertribalandmainstreaminstitutions,inadditiontocultural,financial,

andacademicneeds.Familybasedprogramsmodeledafterpriorresearchwillbe

discussedintheBarrierssectionbelow.Relevanttothecurrentdiscussionisthefact

thatrecognition,bycampusadministrators,oftheimportanceofincorporating

familyintothetotalsupportpackagefortheNativePSUstudent,isinandofitself,a

potentialfacilitator.

SupportiveFriends Afterfamilysupport,anetworkoffriendswascommonlycitedasan

importantsourceofsupport.Administrators,faculty,staff,andstudentsallpointed

totheformationofsupportiverelationshipsasofprimaryimportancetostudent

success.TherewasalmostuniversalagreementamongPSUfaculty,staffand

administratorsontheimportanceofaNativecommunityandpeerreferencegroup.

Theserelationshipsarenotnecessarilyrestrictedtofriendshipsorfamily,butalso

includementorshipbyfacultyandstaffinandaroundthecampusenvironment.

CampusclimatewasmentionedasanimportantfactorintheabilityofNative

studentstocometogetherinacommunityofpeersthatwouldofferthecomfortand

supportoftencitedasofprimaryimportancetopersistenceandacademicsuccess

forAmericanIndianstudents.Oneelementofthatclimateoftenmentionedwasa

placeforNativestudentstocometogetherasacommunityofpeersinsupportof

eachother.

ThetopicofsuchaplaceforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUwillbe

discussedinfurtherdetailinChapterNine.Relevanttothecurrentdiscussionisthe

needforsuchaplaceatPSUwherenonecurrentlyexistedatthetimeIconducted

interviews.Giventhesignificanceofasupportivenetworkoffriendsascited

unanimouslybyparticipantsinthisresearch,itcouldbeconcludedthatofutmost

importancefortheformationofsuchasupportgroup,isaplaceforthatcommunity

toexistsafelyandcomfortably.Beginninginthefallof2010,thenewlyformed

AmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenterwilloffersuchaplace.

SupportiveFaculty

Inpriorresearch,NativestudentsinAlaskareportedaccessibility,

approachability,genuinenessandcaringbycollegeoruniversityfacultyas

necessaryforlearningsuccess(Wilson1997).AmericanIndianstudentsatPSUalso

pointedtotheimportanceofsupportivefacultymembersincontributingtocollege

success.

OneofthemostimportantfacilitatorsIfoundatPSUfortheeducational

successforAmericanIndianstudentsistheexistenceofacoregroupofpeoplewho

areproventobeextremelydedicatedandeternallycommittedtofosteringa

positiveacademicexperienceforNativestudentsatPSU.Itiswidelyagreedthatthis

coregroupoffacultyandstaffaredeeplycommittedtothefosteringofapositive

educationalexperienceforthisuniversity’sNativestudents.

ThestudentsIspoketorecognizethepresenceofthisgroupandare

appreciativeofallthatthesepeopledo.Throughoutmyinterviewsconcernwas

repeatedlymentionedforthetimewhenthesesupporterswillbegintoretire.

Students,administratorsandfacultyhaveallpointedtotheneedtobringinnew

faculty,staffandadministrationthatwillcarryonthistraditionofsupport.

Themembersofthiscoregrouphavebeenthepillarsofsupporttothe

AmericanIndianstudentatPSUformanyyearsandremainsotothepresentday.

However,asmentionedbymany,ifnewpeoplewithasimilarcommitmenttoNative

studentsuccessarenotbroughtintotheuniversityasothersretire,thesupport

thesepeopleprovidewillmostassuredlybemissed.

SupportiveAdministration WithoutuniversityadministratorssensitivetoissuesparticulartoAmerican

IndianstudentsandinterestedinprovidingaqualitycollegeexperienceatPSU,

chancesforNativestudentsuccesswouldbelimited.IndicationsarethatPlains

StateUniversitydoeshaveaverysupportiveadministrationdedicatedtocreatinga

universityenvironmentconducivetoacademicsuccessforitsNativeAmerican

studentpopulation.

InJanuaryof2007,theuniversitycameundernewleadershipwiththe

inaugurationoftheits19thPresident,analumnusofPSU.Duringthe20thAnnual

PSUWacipi(powwow)thePresidentannouncedthecomingofanewlyformed

AmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenteropeninginthefallof2010.

InJulyof2009,PSUappointedanewProvostandVicePresidentfor

AcademicAffairs.DuringmyinterviewwiththeProvostshediscussedtheforward

movingvisionsheholdsforsupportofNativestudentsincludinganenhanced

curriculumintheformofamajorfieldofstudyinAmericanIndianStudies.

Bothoftheseuniversityleadershavedemonstratedacommitmentto

AmericanIndianstudentsatPSUbothinthepresentandthroughavisionforthe

futurethatwillleadtothattopdowninstitutionalchangementionedbyseveralof

thoseIinterviewed.

UniversityCommunitySupport OfsignificancetoNativestudentsonthePSUcampusistheexperienceofone

oftheirpeers,afirstyeargraduatestudentwhowasa2009graduateofDartmouth

College.DartmouthiswellknownforitsAmericanIndianStudiesprogramand

NativeAmericanHouse(GarrodandLarimore1997),andmightserveasamodelof

successforPSU.Thatstudentdescribesherexperience,“Inmyundergrad

experienceweweregreetedrightawaybytheNativecommunity...thatconnection

tothecommunityisanimportantthing.Otherwise,everyday,youfeellikeyouare

aloneontheoutsidelookingin.”

TheimportanceofsupportfortheAmericanIndianstudentcannotbe

overstated.Itmustalsoberecognizedthatsupportisalreadyinplaceinmany

instancesandthatbymodelingthesuccessesatplacessuchasDartmouth,PSUcan

moveingreatstridestowardanenhancedsystemofsupportiveelements

throughoutawiderangeofservicesandfacilities,andpersonnel.

NativeAmericanfaculty/staff Onesignificantmovetowardanenhancedenvironmentofsupportisinthe

hiringofadditionalAmericanIndianFaculty.Thisadditionnearlydoubledthe

numberofAmericanIndiansworkinginfacultyorstaffpositionsbringingthetotal

numbertofive.

In2009,PSUappointedanAmericanIndianfacultytothepositionof

CoordinatorofAmericanIndianStudies.Heiscurrentlyworkingonthe

developmentofanAmericanIndianStudiesmajor.

AlsoofsignificantvaluetoPSUistheadditiontotheathleticsdepartmentof

oneofjustafewNativeAmericanwomentoplayandcoachDivision1athletics.

Together,thesevaluableadditionsbringwiththemimpressiveacademicaswellas

experientialcredentials.

ThroughoutmydatacollectionIbothobserved,andheardtestimonialsofthe

importantinfluencetheyhavehadontheNativestudentcommunityinproviding

valuablementoringsupportandleadershipwhileservingasthebestpossiblerole

models.

SupportServices Studentsupportservicesrespectfuloftheneedsandinterestsofculturally

diversestudentsareseenasanimportantfactorsleadingtosuccess(Barnhardt

1994).

AmongallthoseIinterviewedforthisresearch,itdidnotescapemy

attentionthatwhilemanyareextremelydevotedtoNativestudentsuccess,those

workingintheareaofstudentsupportserviceswereamongthemostoutwardly

passionateandvisiblymovedastheyspokeonthetopic.Toputitsuccinctly,these

peoplearefacilitatorstoNativestudentsuccessfirstandforemostintheir

understandingoftheroletheyplayandwhattheystrivetoaccomplish.

If,assuggested,theoverarchingthemeinthefacilitationofacademicsuccess

forAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUisstudentsupport,thenthesestudentsupport

professionalsmustberecognizedasessential.Onceagain,itbecomesapparentthat

humanrelationshipsarethekeytocreatingasupportiveenvironmentforNative

studentsatPSU.

FinancialResources

Throughoutmyinterviews,regardlessofwhomIspokewith,Iwasstruckby

thefactthateveryoneknowsthedirectoroftheFinancialAidOfficeatPSU.Some

studentsaffectionatelyreferredtohimasDad,orasSantaClaus,saying,“Ifyouneed

somemoneytostayafloat,he’swhereyouturn.”Noonecouldspeaknegatively

aboutthismanandwhathehasdoneforallstudentsatPSUtofacilitatetheircollege

experience.AsIinterviewedhim,Iwascognizantofmyownexperiencewithhimas

agraduatestudentoverthelastseveralyearsanditwasclearaswespokethatheis

unwaveringlycommittedtofosteringeducationalattainmentforNativestudents

throughanyandallmeansathisdisposal.Duringthe20thAnnualPSUWacipiin

FebruaryIobservedhimvisitwithNativestudentsthroughouttheeveningandtake

agenuineinterestintheeventandthepeopleinattendance.Themanisinaword,a

“facilitator”.

Interestingly,whilesomeofthestudentsIinterviewedcomplainedaboutthe

perceivedlackoffinancialaidopportunitiesavailable,andtheFinancialAidOffice,

ormoreaccurately,thepersonnelintheofficewithwhomfirstcontactismostoften

made,nonecomplainedaboutthedirectorofthatofficeorquestionedhislevelof

commitmentanddedicationtoeitherthemortheirfinancialneeds.Thisreaffirms

thenotionofthesignificanceofrelationshipsbetweenpeople.Perhapsthemost

significantfindinghereistheneedforimprovedlinesofcommunicationthrough

whichhealthyrelationshipscanbebuilt.Suchcommunicationwouldnecessarilybe

achievedthroughamutuallackofpreconceivednotionsleadingtocultural

discontinuity.

TraditionalCulture Themaintenanceofculturalidentityandtraditionswasfoundtobe

instrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthepostsecondarylevel(Huffman,

SillandBrokenleg1986).

Justasfamilysupportemergesasaprimaryfacilitatorforcollegesuccess,the

issueofcultureemergesasanintegralpartoftheAmericanIndianstudent’s

identity.Culture,familyandidentityareintertwinedandcanprovideastrong

buttressagainstthediscomfortthatcancomewiththeculturaldiscontinuityof

movementfromthereservationcommunitytothemainstreamuniversity.(Waxet

al.1964,Berry1969;Hertzburg1971;Oppelt1991;Tierney1992,2000;Carney

1999).HowthatculturalidentityisnurturedandexpressedthroughoutthePSU

experiencemayplayapivotalroleinthesuccessoftheNativestudent’scollege

career(Fordham1988;Feagin1996).

Oneofthecommonthemescitedasafacilitatorwastheopportunityforthe

NativestudentsatPSUtoexpressorparticipateintraditionalculturalactivities.In

orderforNativeAmericanstudentsatPSUtomakefulluseofthebenefitsderived

fromparticipationinculturalactivitiesasafacilitatortoacademicsuccess,there

needstobemoreopportunitiesforthepracticeofsuchactivities.Theprovisionof

thoseopportunitiesmaybeaccomplishedinlargepartinthenewlypromised,and

longawaitedAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter.Suchwasthe

experienceofaNativegraduatestudentassherecalledherundergraduateyearsat

Dartmouth:

Wehadahouseatmyundergradwhereyouactuallycouldlive.Thereweretwofloors.Thetopfloorhadthreebedsandthenthebottomfloorandthemiddlefloor.Andthestudentscouldlivethereifyouappliedtolivethere.Andlikeeverybodywantedtolivethereandeverybodywasalwaysthere.LikeIdon’tknowifitwasbecausewehadahugecommunity—Idon’tknowwhatitwasbut—everybodywasalwaysthere.Wewerelike—duringtheafternoonswewouldbeintheNAHallcrowdedonthecouchjusteatingtogetherandthenintheevenings,we’dbeinthediningroomattwobiglongtables.We’dbejuststudyingorlaughing.Andthentherewasabasementwherewe’dwatchmovies....ButthatwashowIkeptmyconnectionwithhome.Andtherewasadrumgroup‐‐‐wehadalotofguysfromtheSouthwest,soitwaskindofasoutherndrumgroup.They’dcomeinandtheywouldlikesingandthey’dbeintheNativeAmericanHouse—they’dbeinthebasementandthey’dsing.Anditfeltsogoodtohearthat…that’swhatwe’lldosometimes.Likepeoplewilljuststartplayinghanddrumsongsandwe’lljustsitthereandlistentoit.It’snicethough.

ItmakessensetoacknowledgethosefactorsalreadyinplaceatPSUthatact

asfacilitatorstoacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.Ithasbeen

demonstratedthattheuniversityhasmanyassetstoitscredit.Theseassetsarein

theshapeandformofpeoplededicatedtothesuccessofNativestudentsandthe

programsthatthosepeopleadminister.Oneprofessorsaidthat‘bricksandmortar

canonlyallowforsomuch,andthatthemostimportantthingisrelationships

betweenpeople.’Ithasalsobeendemonstratedthatthemostvaluableofallassets

atPSUarethosepeoplededicatedtothesuccessofNativestudentsandthe

relationshipstheyfoster.

Theseassetsworkingasfacilitatorsmayserveasastartingpointfromwhich

tobuildandstrengthentheopportunitiesforNativeAmericancollegesuccess.

PerhapsifPSUbuildsonitsstrengths,theweaknesseswilltakecareofthemselves.I

willnowturnthefocustoadiscussionofbarrierstoacademicattainmentforNative

students.

Barriers

Inhis1999book,FirstPeoples:ADocumentarySurveyofAmericanIndian

History,CallowayprovidesatimelineforAmericanIndiansthatcanbeintertwined

withthehistoryofPlainsStateUniversity,asprovidedintheuniversity’sofficially

publishedBulletin(PlainsStateUniversityBulletinQuarterly,Volume99,Number2,

May2008).Together,thesehistoriescreateapictureofPrairieState’smainstream

educationalinstitutionandtheNativepeopleofPrairieState.WhilePSUhasgrown

andcontinuestogrowintoapremierresearchandteachinguniversity,there

remainsthirdworldlikeconditionsonmanyofthestatesreservations.Itisclear

thatthisisahistoryinwhichthedevelopmentofoneisnotinsynchwiththe

developmentoftheother.

Thishistorybegsthequestions;howhasthemissionofPSUasan1862Land

GrantinstitutionbeenappliedtotheNativepeopleofthestate?Towhatextenthave

AmericanIndiansgainedaccesstohighereducationatPSU?And,wheredoes

responsibilitylieforthelevelofacademicattainmentreachedbyNativeAmericans,

bothhistoricallyandpresently?

Onceagain,cautionmustbetakenagainstbroad,sweepinggeneralizations.

Qualitativedatagatheredthroughoutthisresearchsuggestsawidevarietyoffactors

actingaseitherfacilitators,orbarriers,orbothdependingoncontextandthose

individualsandgroupsinvolved.Amongthosefactorsareindividualpersonal

characteristicssuchasdriveanddetermination,andstructuralcharacteristics

includingracismatvaryinglevels,availabilityoffacilitiesforNativestudentsand

culturaldiscontinuitybetweenNativestudentsandthemainstreamcommunity

(Berry1969;Kerbo1981;Wilson1983;Huffman,SillandBrokenleg1986;Rindone

1988;WrightandTierney1991;Tierney1992;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994;

Barnhardt1994;Carney1999;Huffman1999).

Togetherthesefactorsintertwineandoverlaptocreateacomplicatedmatrix

thatisdifficulttosortoutordisplaygraphicallyorevennarratively.Theone

constantisthattheonlyaccurateunderstandingofthiscomplexissuecanbegained

throughthevoicesdescribingtheworldviewsandexperiencesofallthoseinvolved,

whethertheybestudent,faculty,stafforadministrator.Fromthesevarious

standpoints,nounilateralresponsibilitycanbeassignedforsuchavagueconceptas

NativeAmericancollegesuccess,orlackthereof.Aswithallthingsinthesocial

world,itisacombinationoffactorsinanygivencontextthatresultsinwhatwe

perceiveasrealityatanygivenmoment.Whatweperceiveasrealisaproductof

ourownsociallyconstructedreality.AsW.I.Thomasstated,“Ifmendefine

situationsasreal,theyarerealintheirconsequences”(ThomasandThomas,1928:

Thisresearchrepresentsonlyasmallsliceintimeconsideringtheentire

historyofPSU,thecompletehistoryofAmericanIndianhighereducationtothe

presentday,andperhapsmostimportantly,thehistoryofcontactbetweenthe

indigenouspeopleofthiscontinentandallthosewhocamelater.Itmustbenoted

thatthecomplexityofallaspectsrelativetothisissuemustbekeptsalientinour

attemptstounderstand.Itisalsoimperativethatweunderstandandremainaware

thathowweassignmeaningtothecomponentpartsofthiscomplexissueis

dependentuponthevaluesweasindividualsholdthemostdear.

Historian,andeducatorHowardZinncautionsontheuseandapplicationof

historyinhis1990bookDeclarationsofIndependence:

Wecan...decideforourselves,basedonourownvalues,whichaccountsaremostimportantandmostuseful.Anyonereadinghistoryshouldunderstandfromthestartthatthereisnosuchthingasimpartialhistory.Allwrittenhistoryispartialintwosenses.Itispartialinthatitisonlyatinypartofwhatreallyhappened.Thisisalimitationthatcanneverbeovercome.Anditispartialinthatitinevitablytakessides,bywhatitincludesoromits,whatitemphasizesordeemphasizes.Itmaydothisopenlyordeceptively,consciouslyorsubconsciously.

Thechiefprobleminhistoricalhonestyisnotoutrightlying.Itisomissionorde‐emphasisofimportantdata.Thedefinitionofimportant,ofcourse,dependsonone’svalues.(P.51)

Oneprofessorcommentedontheimportanceofknowingwherewemust

startinaddressingbarrierstocollegesuccessforNativestudents:

Soweneedtobesincereaboutthepresent,butwealsohavetoberealisticthatwehavealotofthingstoovercome.Wehaveatroubled,troubledhistory,andthefolksweservenowarepartofthathistory.WearepartofthathistorysoIthinkwearejustattheverybeginning.

AthoroughunderstandingofthebarrierstoAmericanIndianacademic

attainmentatPSUmustbeginfromanacknowledgementofthehistoriesofthe

institutionandoftheNativepopulation.ThroughtheuseofwhatMills(1959)called

theSociologicalImaginationwecanattempttolookbackintime,throughtheeyes

ofAmericanIndiansinPrairieState,andnationwide,toseehowlifepossibilities,

includingthepossibilitiesforacademicattainment,wereinfluencedwithinthe

contextofsocialclimateofthetimes.

InFebruaryof1881theTerritorialLegislaturegranted120,000acresat

Railtown,PrairieStatefortheestablishmentofan‘AgricultureCollege’.Lessthan

tenyearslater,between200‐300people,mostlyelders,women,andchildrenofSi

Tanka’sbandofMinniconjouOyateweregunneddownbytheSeventhCavalryat

WoundedKneeCreek(Calloway,1999).

By1923,instructionalprogramswereorganizedintofivedivisionsincluding:

Agriculture,Engineering,GeneralScience,HomeEconomics,andPharmacy.The

futurePSUwasbeginningtotakeshape.

Thefollowingyear,1924,allAmericanIndiansweregrantedU.S.citizenship.

TheJohnson‐O’MalleyActandtheIndianReorganizationActwerepassedin1934.

ThroughJohnson‐O’Malley,thefederalgovernmentprovidedfundstoschool

districtsforAmericanIndianchildrenattendingpublicschools(Calloway,1999).

TheIndianReorganizationActprovidedforIndianself‐determinationthroughthe

developmentoftribalgovernments(Calloway,1999).

1956Broughtasixthundergraduatedivisioninthefieldofnursing.Alsoin

1956,thefederalgovernmentpassedtheRelocationActtoencourageNative

Americanstoleavethereservationandmovetourbancenters.Thiswasbelievedto

beawaytoassimilateNativepeopleintotheEuro‐centricmainstreamculture

(Calloway,1999).In1957,theGraduateDivisionwascreatedatthecurrentPSU

whileAmericanIndiansmovedtoChicago,Minneapolis,SanFrancisco,Cleveland

andotherlargecitiesinsearchofmainstreamopportunities.

1961sawthefoundingoftheNationalIndianyouthCouncilandthe

emergingdevelopmentofaPan‐IndianidentityamongIndiansrelocatedtourban

centers(Hertzberg,1971).In1964,thenameoftheAgricultureCollegeatRailtown

waschangedtoPlainsStateUniversityatwhichtimethecollegesofAgricultureand

BiologicalSciences,ArtsandScience,Engineering,HomeEconomics,Nursing,and

GraduateStudieswerecreated.

1973sawtheSiegeofWoundedKnee,orwhathasbeencalledWounded

KneeII,whenmembersoftheAmericanIndianMovementgatherednationwide

supportfromtheburgeoningPanIndian,RedPowermovementinprotestofpoor

livingconditionsandmismanagementbytheOglalaSiouxTribalgovernment.This

protestquicklyturnedintoafull‐scaleconflictbetweengovernmentforces,

includingStatePatrol,NationalGuardunits,andtheFBIononesideagainstAIM

membersatitssupportersontheother.

In1989,theDivisionofEducationwasofficiallynamedPSU’sCollegeof

CounselingandEducation.Alsoin1989,TheNationalMuseumoftheAmerican

Indianwasestablishedbyanactofcongressasthe16thmuseumoftheSmithsonian

InstitutioninWashingtonD.C.Themuseumopenedin2004.

Inthe2003‐2004schoolyear,PSUbegantheprocessofmovingtoNCAA

Division1athletics,withfullDivision1statusachievedin2008.Inthefallof2008,

studentenrollmentwas11,995.Bythefallof2009,totalstudentenrollmentwas12,

376.Ofthose,8.4percentwerelistedasminoritystudents.AmericanIndian

studentsenrolledatPSUcomprisethesecondlargestofminoritygroupsenrolledat

2.3percentofallstudentsenrolled.Inwhatcanonlybedescribedasan

overwhelminglyWhite,mainstreamuniversity,2.3percentisdisproportionate

whentakingintoaccountthetotalNativeAmericanpopulationinPrairieState,

whichiscitedbytheU.S.CensusBureau,asbetweeneightandninepercent.

ThroughouttheparallelhistoriesofPSUandtheNativeAmericanpopulation

ofthestateandoftheUnitedStates,AmericanIndianstudentshavenotbeen

proportionatelyrepresentedregardingacademicattainment.Thereasonsforthis

disproportionatecollegesuccesscannotbeseparatedfromthathistory.

InstitutionalBarriers/Administration

DataIcollectedatPSUforthisresearchsupportspreviousresearchcitedin

theliteratureindicatingthatinstitutionalstructuralbarriersmaybeasignificant

factorhinderingacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.

WhilestrideshavebeenmadetowardAmericanIndiancollegesuccessatPSU,

basedoncomparisonofqualitativedatagathered,indicationsarethatforthe

subjectsparticipatinginthisresearch,barriersoutweighfacilitatorsbymorethana

2:1ratio.

EveryoneIinterviewedagreedthatsocialchangefocusedonimprovingthe

chancesforAmericanIndianacademicsuccessatPSUmuststartwiththePSU

administration.Somediscusseditintermsoftheinstitutionalmission.

AveteranprofessorspeaksofthehistoryoftheAmericanIndiancollege

experienceatPSUspecifically,howthatcollegeexperiencehasbeenaproductofan

institutionalizedstructure:

Ithinkthatinstitutionalchangeisinorder,butisverydifficultbecausethisisthewayit’salwaysbeen.GenerationsworthofIndianpeoplebeingjustabliponthescreen,ornotonthescreenortangentialorperipheral,orsubordinate,orwhateveryouwanttocallit.It’sprettyhardtounlearnthat.AsItoldthePresidentinameetingnottoolongago,‘We’reprogressing,insomeways,academically,butanAmericanIndianCulturalCenteris–youknow—50yearsoverdue.((laughs))Ifyoulookatcomparableinstitutionseverywhere,wearesuckingwindcomparedtothembecausewehaven’t

beenproactiveenoughtounderstandthatyoucan’treallybeofmuchappealtotribalstudentsifyoudon’thaveaplace.

RegardingtheLandGrantMissionoftheuniversity,thesameprofessorcontinues:

...It’sbeenaglaringomissionactually,thattribalkidshavebeenunderserved....Universityadministration,asastructurefromthetopdown,doesn’tdirectlytakeresponsibility,asapriority,foraddressingissuesofdiversity,particularlyrelatedtoNativestudents,butrather,thatresponsibilityfallstoindividualpockets,orenclaveswithin.It’ssafetosaythatthroughtheyears,thecentraladministrationhavebeenreactiveratherthanproactive.Sometimesresponsivetowhatsomeofusaredoingandaskingfor,butrarelyareinitiators.Exceptforgivinglipservicetoit,ofcourse.Theyarereally,reallygoodatthat.

Ahigh‐rankinguniversityadministratoraddressesissuesconcerningthe

historyofPSUandremainingbarrierstoAmericanIndianacademicattainment

fromaninstitutionalperspective,“Idon’tknow,structurally,andI’mtalking

organizationally,ifwe’vequitelandedonthebestorganizationtoworkwith

diversity.”

OnefacultymemberhasworkedtowardenhancingdiversityatPSUfor

decades.Amonghismanypassionsisworkingtowardanenhancedappreciationfor

NativeAmericanstudents,andanappreciationforindigenouscultureasanassetto

theuniversity.“I’moftheviewthatwearenotfulfillingourmissionandpurposes

verywell.Weneedtoreallyfocusonthatanddoabetterjobofit.”

Itquicklybecomesapparentthatoneofthebarrierstoacademicattainment

forAmericanIndianstudentshasitsgenesisinthedivergentviewpointsconcerning

whattheprioritiesareinaddressingdiversityissues.Morespecifically,howthe

officialuniversitypolicyaddressesAmericanIndianstudentswithintheoverall

issueofdiversityhasadirectimpactontheNativeAmericancollegeexperience.

FromaDirectorofoneofthestudentsupportservicesoncampuscomesfurther

testimonyregardingtheconfusionofwhatdiversitymeans,whoisdefinedas

diverse,andwhereprioritieslie,“Ithinktherearepeopleonthiscampuswhodon’t

includeNativeAmericankidsaspartoftheiroutlookfordiversity.”

AfacultymemberwhohasremainedveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndian

studentsformanyyears,andwhoisawellknownasamentor,addressestheissue

ofdiversityandwhereNativestudentsfall,asamatterofpriorityinthediversity

issueexpresseddeepconcern,“IguessifyouareaNativeperson,aWhiteinstitution

isnotattractivetoyouespeciallyifthatinstitutiondoesn’thaveagoodreputationas

beingwelcomingandvaluingtheNativeculture.”

Anotherfacultymemberwhohasadministeredasuccessfulprogramfor

Nativestudentsdiscussedhowtheuniversitydealswithdiversity,“...alotof

peopledonotappreciatethestrengthandthebenefitthatcomesfromhaving

diversefacultyanddiversestudentswhoareapartofthewholebigworldwelive

in.”

AnotherfacultymemberwhoisprimarilyinvolvedwithNativeAmerican

studentscomments,“Ifourmissionisservingthepeopleofthestate,wehavea

giganticunderservedpopulation,righthere,whoare,intermsoftheuniversity,who

areourneighbors...ourfrontyardsjoineachother.Andforalargepartofour

history,thehistoryofPSU,andthesystemofhighereducation,thegateshavebeen

closedtoourneighbors.”

TheissueofPSUcommitmenttominorityrecruitingisonethatwas

continuouslyquestionedbyallinterviewees,includingadministrators,facultyand

staff.

Goodacademicperformancepriortocollegehasbeenlinkedtogood

academicperformanceincollege(Brown1993).

Whateverthecause,everystudentIinterviewedagreedthatthereisa

differenceinthequalityofeducationbetweenreservationhighschoolsand

mainstreamhighschools.SomeoftheNativestudentsIinterviewedattended

mainstreamhighschoolsanddidnotexperiencethesameeducationaldeficitupon

enteringcollege.Thismayindicatethattheproblemiswithreservationschoolsand

notwithAmericanIndianstudents.

NativestudentsoftencometoPSUunpreparedforcollegelevelwork.There

isextantdetailedliteratureonthissubject.Faculty,administration,admissionsstaff

andthestudentsthemselvesarewellawareoftheeducationalhandicapwithwhich

manyAmericanIndianstudentsbegintheiruniversitycareer.

PrejudiceorRacism

insensitivityhasbeeninstitutionalizedonmainstreamcollegecampusesintheform

ofEuro‐centriccurriculum,lackofinterestinAfricanAmericanstudents,andthe

expectationbyfacultythatindividualBlackstudentsarerepresentativeoftheentire

race,asFeagin(2000)suggests,thesameappearstoholdtrueforNativeAmerican

studentsonmajorityWhite,mainstreamcampusofPSU.

Oneveteranprofessorofferedhisperspectiveonaddressingracismthrough

curriculumreform:

Andso,weneedqualitycontrol.Weneedprogramdevelopment.Weneedthesecoursesauthoredbypeoplewhoarepassionateaboutthem,whocareaboutthemintheheartaswellasinthehead—andwhocanpersuadeaspiringteachersoftheimportanceofthemandhowtheycanbeusedinavarietyofcircumstancesinourschoolsystems.Because,ofcourse,that’stheproblemhere‐youcanstillgetauniversity‐anPSUdegreewithouthavingyourmostfoundationalandfundamentalsuperficialracismsaddressed.Youdon’thavetoprocessanyofthis.Youcancomeherearacist—youcanleaveherearacist.YoucanweaveyourwaythroughtheprogramandstillnotknowthefirstthingaboutAmericanIndianhistoriesandcultures.

Regardlessofwhetheraspecificincidentisrecalled,NativestudentsatPSU

agreethatracismdirectedtowardAmericanIndiansisacommonreality,one

studentrelateshisperspective“Well,PrairieStateisactuallytheheartofIndianand

Whiteracism.That’sallitbasicallyis...”

TheuglytruthisthatracismhasbeenapartofU.S.societyfromits

beginning.Greatpeoplehavespenttheirlivesattemptingtoovercomeracism,

othershavelosttheirsinpursuitofthesamegoal.Whetherornotitiscomfortable

toadmit,racismdoesexistatPSU.Whilehistoryhasshownthatthereisnosimple

cure,perhapsthestartingpointwithinreachisforeachofus,asindividuals,to

becomeawareofthoseidealswehavebeensocializedwithandofthosewithwhich

wehavenot,andofthethingswetakeforgranted,andofthosethingsthathave

becomeinstitutionalizedtothepointofbecominginvisibly,subconsciouslytaken

forgranted.RecallthoseIinterviewedwhosaid,“Somuchofitisabout

relationships...It’sfromthatcommunity—thoserelationshipsthatpeoplefindthe

strengthandthesupporttheyneedtosucceed—inanythingreally.”

LackofSupport

Manyfactorscombinetoaffecttheuniversityexperienceandchancesfor

academicsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Dependingoncontext,many

ofthosefactorsactasfacilitators,barriers,orboth.Asseenabove,itappearsthat

supportmaybethemostsignificantfacilitator.Conversely,thelogicalconclusion

canbedrawnthatalackofsupportmaybethemostsignificantbarriertocollege

successforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Thelackofsupporttakesmanyforms

includingfriends,facultycommunityenvironmentandfamily.

ANativestudentrecallshisfirstyearatPSUbeforehedevelopedasupport

networkoffriends.“Myfreshmanyear,inthefallof2003,Ihadnoideathatthe

NativeAmericanClubexisted.Honestly,thatfirstyearandahalfwasthehardestfor

mebecauseIfeltIwastheonlyNativeAmericanstudentoncampus.”

HelenKellerisquotedaspointingouthowlittlewecandoaloneandhow

muchwecandotogether.Again,relationshipsmaybethekeytostudentsuccess.

NonSupportiveFaculty

TotheAmericanIndianstudent,alreadyfeelinglikeastrangerina

potentiallyhostileenvironment,amongthemosthurtfulexperiencesareencounters

withnon‐supportive,culturallyinsensitive,oropenlyhostileprofessors,

administratorsorstaff.AlmosteverystudentIinterviewedhadastoryregarding

hurtfulbehaviordirectedtowardhimorherbyinsensitivefaculty.Somefaculty

actionsreflectedalackofculturalunderstandingsimplymanifestedthrough

ignorantorethnocentricbehaviororremarks.Othertimes,thislackofcultural

understandingwasexplicitintheclassroomasevidencedagainbyinappropriate

curriculumorthewayinwhichlecturematerialwasdelivered.Somefaculty

membersareawareoftheseissuesandpointtoneededchange.Oneprofessorsaid:

Ithinkthatweneedmuchmorefacultyre‐educationinregardtoNativeAmericanhistoriesandculturessothattheyhaveabetterunderstandingofNativestudents,andarebetterabletoencouragethemandbesupportiveofthem.Youknow,it’snotuncommonfortribalstudentstohavetheexperienceofafacultymembermisrepresentingtribalissues,andmysteriesandsoforth,stereotypingIndiansinvariousways‐‐‐notbeingsensitivetoculturalcontext.

OneAmericanIndianProfessorsawthefacultyissuethisway:

Thereisindifferenceamongfaculty.Somedon’tcare‐‐‐theydon’tcare.Iknowinmydepartmentthere’sfacultywhowouldn’tdothingsunlesstheywereforcedtodoit‐‐‐soIthinktherearejustsomepeoplewhodon’tcarewhethertheyhaveNativestudentsornot.Andthentherearesomewhocareforthewrongreasons....Ithinkifyouareanoutstandingstudent,youhaveagoodrelationshipwithyourteachers.Youknow?Andtherearesometeachers,um,‐‐whetheryouareNativeornon‐Native,ifyouhaveproblems,theycouldcareless.

Inappropriatecommentsfromtheprivilegedpositionoffacultyinthe

universitysystemcanhavelastingnegativeimpacts.PSU’sadministrationisalso

awareofthevariousattitudestowardAmericanIndianstudentsanddivergent

levelsofcommitmenttotheircollegesuccess.Accordingtoone

faculty/administrator,“Theproblemstillremainsthatwehavealotoffaculty

memberswhojustdonotunderstandorappreciateNativeAmericanstudentsor

theirconcerns.”

ThroughmyownexperienceatPSU,throughobservationsI’vemade,and

conversationswithNativestudentsandinstructorsofaparticularcoursedealing

withtheIndigenousPeopleoftheNorthAmericancontinent,Imustpointouta

lingeringrealityofacoursespecificallyrequiredforEducationmajorsinorderto

completeadiversityrequirement.Aprofessorwhotaughtthiscourseforyears

describedherfrustrationwiththefactthateducationmajorswereinthecoursefor

noreasonotherthantofulfillthatrequirement;thisistosaytheywerethere

begrudgingly.Someofthesestudentssawnovalueinlearningabouttheindigenous

peopleofthestateintowhichtheywereabouttoembarkonacareerinteaching.As

aresultofthisdisinterest,manystudentsinthecoursewereonlyminimally

interestedorinvolvedwhileotherswereoutrightdisruptive.Thisisanexampleof

theculturaldiscontinuitydescribedby(Berry1969;Wax,WaxandDumont1964,

andHuffman1999).Italsoprovidessomepossibleexplanationtotheaccounts,

offeredbystudentsinthefocusgroupsIconducted,oftheattitudesandbehaviors

ofsomenon‐Indianteacherstheyhadencounteredinreservationhighschools.

Granted,adirectcorrelationbetweenPSUstudentsfulfillingadiversity

requirement,teachersinreservationhighschoolsandinsensitivecollegeprofessors

maynotbepossible.However,theremaybeacommonthreadinthecharacteristics

ofeducatorsintrainingandthoseveteraneducatorsinhighschoolsoratPSU.That

commonthreadmaybedescribedasinsensitivity,culturaldiscontinuityoroutright

racism.Howeveritislabeled,andtowhomeverthatlabelmightbeapplied,theend

resultisthatitishurtfultoNativestudentsandcounterproductivetocollege

successatPSU.

BarrierstoSupportServices Studentsupportservicesrespectfuloftheneedsandinterestsofculturally

diversestudentsareseenasanimportantfactorsleadingtosuccess(Barnhardt

1994).

ANativeAmericanupperclassmandescribedherfeelingsandthoseofher

friendsandclassmatesaboutusingtheuniversitystudentsupportservicesfor

academicassistance.ShedescribedareluctanceonthepartofsomeNativestudents

toreachoutforhelpforfearthattheywillbelookeddownonorlabeledas

unworthy.Thesefeelingswerebasedinthebeliefthattheywereseenasless

capable,orlessvaluablethanmainstreamstudents.Inmanycasesthesefeelings

fromwithinwerethebarriertobeovercome.

Myinterviewswithstudentsupportserviceprofessionalsindicatethatthis

inaccurateviewheldbysomeNativestudents,isunfortunateandis,initself,a

barriertoNativestudentsgettingthevaluablehelpthattheymayneedandthatis

availablefrompeopleeagertoprovideit.Irecallthepassionexhibitedbythe

supportstaffIinterviewed.BarrierstoNativestudentsreceivingacademicsupport

maybeovercomebyaddressingthesefeelingswhetheraccurateornot.Itmaybe

thatsimplyimprovingcommunicationbetweenStudentSupportServicesand

AmericanIndianstudentscouldgoalongwayinovercomingthisbarrier.

Family FormanyAmericanIndianstudents,theimportanceoffamilyisanintegral

partoftheirculture.ThismaybeespeciallytruewhentheAmericanIndian

student’sfamilyisverymuchanchoredintraditionalNativecultureandis

suspiciousofthemainstreamuniversityasonewhosegoalistheassimilationof

theirNativestudent.Insuchacase,thefamilyactsasapullbackhome(Tierney

1992;Carney1999).

Thisdynamicmayalsobeatworkforthestudentwhoisstronglyanchored

intheNativeculturebutseestheuniversityenvironmentasathreattothatcultural

wayoflife.Inthiscase,theuniversityenvironmentcreatesapushtowardthesafety

andcomfortofhomeandfamilyasarefugefromtheperceivedthreat(Tierney

1992;Carney1999).Ineverycase,contextisanimportantconsideration.Some

NativestudentsmayhaveadifficulttimeadjustingtolifeatPSUforavarietyof

reasons,whetherconcerningculturaldifferencesornot,theescapefromwhichcan

leadtoseekingcomfortathomewiththefamilyoneisusedto.

ForsomeNativestudents,familyismorethanjustacommonbarrier,but

ratherisadamantlyopposedtotheirstudentattendingamainstreamuniversity

awayfromhome.

Huffman(1999)hascreatedtaxonomyforclassifyingNativeAmerican

studentsalongacontinuumofculturaltraditionallifestylerangingfromAssimilated

atoneendandEstrangedattheotherend.Huffmanexplainshow,whileforthe

Assimilatedstudent,transitiontocollegeandthemainstreamcultureposeslittle,if

any,challengeorthreat;theEstrangedstudentwillbemostlikelytodropoutof

collegequicklybecausethatstudentwillfeelthreatenedbythemainstreamcampus

environmentandseetheuniversityasaninstitutionwhosesolepurposeisoneof

totalassimilationandtheeradicationoftraditionalNativevaluesandlifestyle.

Whetherornotthestudentadoptsthisperspectivemaybelesssignificant

thanthefamilyapplyingpressuretothestudenttoreturnhomeoutoffearbasedin

seeingthegoaloftheuniversityasassimilationtomainstreamcultureandaway

fromthetraditionalworldviewbywhichthefamilybackhomestilllives.

Regardlessofthecombinationoffamilialfactorsatwork,previousstudies

discussedabovepointtothevalueofprogramsincorporatingfamilymembersinto

themilieuofthestudentandcampuslife.

HeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)describeaprogramdevelopedby

AmericanIndianeducators,socialworkprofessionalsanduniversityadvisorsfrom

fourMontanaTribalcollegesincooperationwiththeUniversityofMontanathat

theyhavecalled,‘TheFamilyEducationModel’(FEM).FEMwasbasedonthree

assumptionsrelevanttoAmericanIndianstudents.Amongtheseassumptionsare

thatTribalcollegesmustfacilitatetheabilityoffamilymemberstosupporttheir

student’sefforts,andthatTribalcollegesneedtoengagefamilymembersinthelife

ofthecollegecommunitythroughbuildingpartnershipsandinvolvingthemin

socialandculturalactivities.ThebenefitsoftheFEMareexplainedbyHeavyRunner

andDeCelles(2002)throughtheexamplesofsocialandculturalactivitiessuchas

dances,socials,sportsandoutdooractivitiestowhichfamilies,spousesandchildren

areregularlyinvitedtojoin.Throughtheirparticipationintheseactivities,the

familymembersdevelopasenseofbelongingtothecampusenvironmentandare

nolongerresentfulofthetimespentoncampusbytheirstudentfamilymember.

AccordingtoHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)“Establishingandmaintaininga

senseof‘family’bothathomeandatcollegefortifiesAmericanIndianstudents’

academicpersistence.”

GuilloryandWolverton(2008)appliedtheFamilyEducationModel(FEM)as

describedbyHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002)inastudyofNativeAmerican

studentsatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsinWashington,IdahoandMontana.

AmericanIndianstudentsinthestudyidentifiedfamilyandstudentsocialsupport

andthedesiretogivebacktotheircommunityasimportantpersistencefactors.

Theseresearcherssuggest“...creatingwaysinwhichNativeAmericanstudents

canconnectwithboththeuniversityandtheirhomecommunities”(Guilloryand

Wolverton2008:81).Theysuggestcollaborativeprogramswithtribes,supporting

daycare,andbringinghighereducationtoNativeAmericancommunities(Guillory

andWolverton2008).

ThecreationoftheplannedAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter

(AIECC)atPSUmayprovideaplacewherefamilycancometobewiththeirstudents

whilevisitingRailtownandbuildthatpartnershipofsupportbetweenfamily,home

anduniversity.Throughplanning,programmingandstaffingattheAIECCfamilycan

beincorporatedintothesupportstructureavailableatPSU.

FinancialResources

AmericanIndianstudentscommonlyidentifiedfinancialsupportasan

importantfactorforstayingincollege(Wilson1983).

AmongallthoseIintervieweditappearsthatthemajorityofAmerican

Indianstudentsdonotcomefromabackgroundoffinancialwealth,or,inmany

cases,evenfinancialstability.Again,itmustbereiteratedthatsweeping

generalizationscannotbeappliedacrosstheboardregardingthePSUAmerican

Indianpopulationasawhole.HoweverwhenlookingspecificallyatPrairieState’s

Nativepopulation,itisrelevanttonotethatnoneoftheninereservationsinthe

statearewealthycomparedtosomeofthewealthiestinthenationwithsmalltribal

enrollmentsandhugegamingprofits.

BeyondthegenerallackoffinancialresourcesheldbyNativestudentsand

theirfamilies,somePSUsupportstaffIinterviewedpointedtothelackofmoney

managementskillsthatAmericanIndianstudentspossessupontheirarrivalas

incomingcollegestudents.Severalrespondentshavementionednewstudent

orientationprogramsdesignedtohelpincomingstudentsadjusttocollegelife.It

maybeusefultoincludesomebasictraininginfinancialmanagementforthosein

needofit.

Thereseemstobesomedifferenceofunderstandingamongsome

administrators,faculty,staffandstudentswithregardtoavailabilityoffinancialaid

intheformsofstudentloansandscholarshipsandgrantsforAmericanIndian

students.Onecampusadministratortoldmethattherearenotmanyscholarships

available.ANativeAmericanupperclassmanwasadamantaboutthelackoffunding

forAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU,“ThepurelackofscholarshipsforNative

studentsisaproblem...”

Asafollowuptothesecomments,IaskedtheDirectorofFinancialAid

specificallyaboutfinancialaidtoAmericanIndianstudents.Heprovideddetailed

informationofscholarshipsavailabletoNativestudentsintheformofalist.See

appendixGforalistofscholarshipopportunities.

AccordingtotheDirector,“Moststudentsdonottimelycomplete

applications,includingformsneededfortribalhighereducationawards.”

ItappearsthatthisisacaseofeitheralackofinformationavailabletoNative

studentsregardingscholarshipopportunities,orabreakdownincommunications

betweenNativestudentsandwhomevermightbeadvisingthem,oritmaybethe

casethatNativestudentssimplyarenottakingthestepstofillouttheappropriate

formsandapplicationsintimetotakeadvantageofthosefinancialopportunities

thatonecampusadministratorpointedoutareinfact,morenumerousforAmerican

Indianstudentsthanforanyotherminoritygroup.“...wedohaveseveralNative

Americanscholarships...morethananyotherminoritygroup.Actually,that’sthe

onlygrouponcampusthathasspecificscholarshipsgearedtowardthem.Thereare

noscholarshipsforHispanicstudentsorAfricanAmericanorAsianAmerican

students.There’snone.There’snone.”

Aswiththecaseoffinancialmanagementskills,improvedprogramming

providingincreasedawarenessofscholarshipopportunitiesandstructuredhelpin

securingthataidmayberequired.

OneNativestudentcommentedonherdiscomfortindealingwithinitial

contactpeopleorgatekeepersintheFinancialAidoffice.

Whilethisstudentattributesthedifficultytoculturallyinsensitivebehavior

bytheFinancialAidofficestaff,theDirectorassuredmethathisstaffdoesreceive

culturalsensitivitytraining.

InkeepingwithexperiencesdescribedbyseveralNativestudentsIspoke

with,thereappearstobeacommonthemeofNativestudentsreportingthatthey

weretreatedrudelyinmainstreamofficesthroughoutthecampus.Thisismight

verywellbesimplyamatterofperceptionandviewpoint,forwhichwemightonce

againinvoketheThomastheorem,whichaspreviouslymentionedstates,“Ifmen

defineasituationasreal,itisrealinit’sconsequences”(ThomasandThomas1928).

RegardlessofthedifferencesinperceptionsbetweenofficepersonnelandNative

students,ifstudentsfeeltheyhavebeentreatedpoorly,thentheconsequencesare

asiftheyhave,infactbeentreatedpoorly.Thesolution,asmentionedinseveral

examplesabove,mightcomeintheformofimprovedcommunicationleadingto

improvedrelationships.

Local community ThebestwaytounderstandwhatitislikecomingtoapredominantlyWhite

mainstreamcitylikeRailtown,PrairieStatefromareservationcommunityor

reservationbordertownisthroughtheexperiencesofthoseAmericanIndian

studentswhohavelivedthetransition.Itisthroughthesensesofthosestudents

thatwemaybegintogainaninsider’sperspectiveofcultureshockandadjustment

theyexperiencewhentheycometoPSU.Itmustbereiteratedthatwecannotmake

sweepinggeneralizationstoincludeallofPrairieStateorallofRailtown.Still,the

bestunderstandingofthePSUexperiencecomesfromseeingthatexperiencefrom

theperspectiveofthestudentsthemselves.

EventhoughNativestudentsmayfeeloutoftheircomfortzone,andmaylive

someharshexperiencesinRailtown,therearesomepeopleinthecommunitywho

orareempathetic.AgroupofpeoplecomprisedofRailtownresidentsandbusiness

peopletogetherwithuniversityfacultyandstaff,bothcurrentandretired,meet

regularlytoaddressissuesrelevanttoNativeAmericans,themainstream

community,bothlocalandstatewideandthehistoryofinteractionbetweenthetwo

groups.TheRailtownReconciliationCouncilworks,throughcontinueddedication

andcommitment,towardtheameliorationofhistoricaldiscordandmistreatmentof

theNativepopulationbymainstreamsociety.Anongoinginterestofthegroupis

thefacilitationofsuccessfuluniversityexperienceforAmericanIndianPSU

students.Towardthatend,theRRCcontinuesworkingforincreasedawarenessof

andappreciationforNativeAmericanpeopleandcultureinRailtown.Onepossible

shortcomingoftheseeffortsisthelimitedexposureofthegrouptoNativeAmerican

PSUstudentsandviceversa.ItishighlylikelythatthemajorityofPSUAmerican

IndianstudentsareunawareoftheRRCanditscommitmenttoreconciliation,

includingthefacilitationofacademicsuccessforNativestudents.

EvengiventhesupportofsomewithintheRailtowncommunity,ifthelocal

RailtowncommunityisperceivedasgenerallyuncomfortableforAmericanIndian

students,howdoestheuniversitycommunityenvironmentcreateafeelingof

cohesivewelcomeorisolationfortheNativestudent?

Universitycommunity OneofthegreatestbarrierstobeovercomeinorderforPSUtofacilitate

collegesuccessforNativestudentsisthelackofawelcomingenvironmentinwhich

Nativestudentsandculturearevaluedandappreciated.Afaculty/administrator

whoisveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndianstudentsuccessspeakscandidlyabout

thecampusclimate:

Ithinkwehavesomesignificantissueshereintermsofthecampusclimate....Youknowwecancreateaveryprotective,loving,supportiveenvironmentforourstudents,onethatnurturestheirsuccess,butthatdoesnotnecessarilyalwaysprotectthemfromtheslingsandarrowsthattheyfaceinthelargeruniversitycommunityortheRailtowncommunity.Thatprejudice,racism,discriminationareallverypainful,verydamagingtoidentity,verydamagingtosuccess,verydamagingtoone’sselfconfidence,selfesteem,senseofself.SoIthinkthat’ssomethingthat’sreallyabarrier.

AnAmericanIndianstudentcommentsonthefeelingofstandingoutas

differentinacrowdofuniformity:“Forme,itwouldallgobacktotheconfidence

andcomfort.HowcomfortableandconfidentisanyonesittingintheStudentUnion

likethedarkspotinthemiddleofapieceofpaper?”

Aswithprejudice,racism,discrimination,andanymeasureofintolerance,

dealingwiththeharmfuleffectsofthenarrow‐mindednessthatpermeatessome

peoples’entireworldviewremainsachallengethroughoutallofsociety.Onceagain,

‘It’sallaboutrelationships.’

Culture Cultureshockcanmakeforatraumatictransitionforanyoneentering

college.Manyfaculty,staff,andadministratorsIinterviewedwerequicktomake

thispointregardinghowmostincomingfreshmenmustmakethisadjustment.For

AmericanIndianstudents,however,thisadjustmentiscompoundedbymany

factors.NotonlymusttheNativestudentdealwiththeadjustmenttocollegelevel

work,andlivinginanewenvironmentamongstrangers,butformanyNative

studentsthesechallengesaremagnifiedthroughdifferencesinphysicalappearance,

culturaltraditions,beliefs,andpracticesandthegeneraldisconnectedfeelingone

hasas‘notfittingin.’

Indeed,someNativestudentscomefrommonoculturalenvironmentswhere

communityneighborhoodsandschoolsarepopulatedwithrelatives,tribal

members,andamajorityofNativepeoplelikethemselves,sharingacommon

history,cultureandworldview;whereNativeartandceremonyareomni‐present,

whereradiostationsplaytraditionalandmodernNativemusic,includingpowwow

songs,wheretribalprogramsandculturalresourcesarereadilyavailable,where

theirtiospaye(extendedfamily)isallaroundthemofferingsupport.Toleavethe

comfortandsafetyofthehomeplaceandcometoaplacesuchasPSU,wherenone

ofthatexists,isahugeandsometimesoverwhelmingadjustment.Withoutthe

properpeopleandsupportservicesinplacetoassiststudentswiththetransitionto

thisverydifferentenvironment,theirchancesforsuccessfuleducationalattainment

arediminished.

Themaintenanceofculturalidentityandtraditionswasfoundtobe

instrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthepostsecondarylevel(Huffman,

SillandBrokenleg1986).

OnePSUOfficeofadministratorspeakstotheimportanceforopportunities

forthepracticeofculturaltraditions:

WedonothaveanyfacilitiesforNativestudents.AsweatlodgeissomethingthataNativeAmericanCentercouldprovide,butwedon’thavethat.StudentswhoarefeelingaspiritualneedandareNativereallyhavetoogobacktothereservation.SothatisanotherareainwhichIthinkthereisabarriertostudentsbeingcomfortablehere.Unlesstheyhaveasetoffriendsandcolleagueswhoaresupportiveofthatparticularneed,theyaregoingtofeelveryaloneandisolatedhere.

In1978,congresspassedtheAmericanIndianReligiousFreedomActwith

intent.“...toprotectandpreserveforAmericanIndianstheirinherentrightof

freedomtobelieveexpress,andexercisetheirtraditionalreligions,includingbutnot

limitedtoaccesstosite,useandpossessionofsacredobjects,andthefreedomto

worshipthroughceremonialsandtraditionalrights.”(Calloway1999:491)

MyinterviewdataunequivocallydemonstratesthevaluesomeNative

studentsplaceontheadherencetoandpracticeoftribalculture.Themaintenance

anduseofasweatlodgewasrepeatedlymentionedinconnectionwithstudents’

hopesforaplaceoftheirown.Suchaplacewouldprovideopportunitiesfor

culturallyspecificpracticesthatcannotbeaccomplishedintheOMA.

Anon‐Nativeadministratorpointedout,“Inthiscommunitywehave—Idon’t

knowhowmanychurches.Itseemsthere’sachurcharoundeverycorner.Wehave

fourorfiveLutheranchurches(henamesseveral)...wehaveaCatholicchurchof

course,andBaptistchurchesandsoon‐‐‐justalotofchurches.Wehaveamosque

forIslamicah‐Muslimstudents.”Also,onoradjacenttothePSUcampusarethe

CatholicCampusParishandtheUniversityLutheranCenter,yetasmentioned

above,nosuchfacilitycurrentlyexistsforPSUNativestudentsforthenurturanceof

atraditionalspiritualbase.

Thereareotheraspectsofculture,asidefromreligionthatmainstream

studentsmaytakeforgranted,butthatarereadilyavailable.Whetherthose

traditionsareexpressedthroughactivities,socialclubs,sportingevents,orany

numberofpossibleculturalactivities,theopportunitiesforNativeAmerican

culturalactivityhasfocusedprimarilyontheannualWacipi,alsocalled‘thepow

wow.’

Overthecourseofayear,IattendedseveralNativeAmericanClubmeetings

andhadcountlessconversationswithNativestudentsandtheNativeAmerican

StudentAdvisorregardingthepossibilityforsocialgatherings,duringwhich

culturalactivitieslikesocialdances,orworkingoncraftssuchaspowwowregalia,

quilting,oreventheformationofadrumgroupcouldhavebeendone.Forone

reasonoranother,thesegatheringsnevermaterialized.Whetherresponsibilityfor

thelimitedexpressionofculturerestswhollywiththeuniversity,orwiththeNative

studentsthemselvesisprobablynotimportant.Whatisofsignificanceisthatthe

newlypromised,andsoontobeforthcomingAIECCmayprovideaplacewheresuch

activitiescanoccur.Itwillbeinterestingtoseetheeffectssuchanopportunitywill

haveonboththeNativecommunityandtheRailtowncommunityingeneral.One

possiblepositiveoutcomemightbethatincreasedexpressionofNativeculturewill

leadtoanincreasedawarenessandappreciationforNativeAmericanstudentsand

theircultureacrossthelocalcommunityandtheregion.Suchadevelopmentwould

goalongwaytowardovercomingthediscomfortmanyNativestudentsfeelasthey

findthemselvesfeelingaloneandontheoutsideofthedominantculture.

AccordingtoHewitt(1994:90),referencegroupsare“socialgroupsthat

providegeneralizedotherstowhomtheindividualrefers”.Singer(1981)explains

referencegroupsasthosegroupsthatprovideanorientationforsocialcomparison

ofone’sself.Referencegroupsprovideaframeworkfromwhichtheindividualis

abletoshapehisorherevaluations,attitudesandbehavior(Singer1981).A

comparativereferencegroupservesasa“standardofcomparisonforanappraisalof

eithertheselforother”(Singer1981:77).

TheAmericanIndianstudentthatcomestoPSUmayquicklyfindoneself

feelingaloneinaforeignenvironment.Asdiscussedabove,theimportanceofa

supportivecommunityformedofpeersissignificant.Withoutareferencegroupof

peerstoprovidethecomfortandsecuritythatoneleftbehindwithfamilyand

friends,thestudentisleftsurroundedbyadominant,mainstreamsocietyinwhich

onemayfeel,asoneNativestudentdescribes,“likeadarkspeckonapieceof

paper.”ThisdominantgroupthenservesastheNativestudent’sreferencegroup.It

isincomparisontothisgroupthattheNativestudentwillmakeself‐appraisalsof

one’sfitintothePSUandlocalRailtownenvironment.

Theunderlyingsourceofthefeelingofisolationthaterodesself‐confidence

isalackofculturalunderstandingamongthedominantsociety(Berry1969;Carney

1999;Huffman1999).Studentsrepeatedlycommentedthattheyhavelearnedfrom

non‐Indianclassmatesthatmanymembersofthemainstreamhavenevermetany

NativeAmericansandknownothingofwhatlifemaybelikeformanystudents

comingfromreservations,reservationbordertowns,orevenaNativesubculture

withinlargercities.

Thedominantmainstreamsocietyservesasareferencegroupagainstwhich

theNativestudentcomparesoneselfinattemptingtofindwaystofitintothelocal

communityandtheoverwhelminglyWhitecampusenvironment.Allofthestudents

Iinterviewedcitedthisculturaldiscontinuity(Carney1999)asabarriertocollege

success.

Culturaldifference:Lackofdiversityexperience Itmustbeacknowledgedthatnoteveryculturalmisunderstandingisonthe

partofthenon‐NativedirectedtotheNativeAmerican.Therealityisthatmany

NativeAmericanslackexperiencewithdiversityjustasdomanyWhites.

TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorrecallsastudentwhowasunableto

reconcilehisownsenseofselfwiththedominantreferencegroupinwhichhewas

embeddedatPSU,“Ithinksometimes,asNatives,wetendtothinkourexperienceis

unique.Andmaybeit’sjustaculturaldifferenceofhowwegoaboutexpressingour

personalspiritualbeliefsorourculturalbeliefs.”

ToofewNativeAmericanfaculty/staff Fox,LoweandMcClellan(2005)compiledalistofrecommendationsfor

collegeadministratorstomeettheneedsofAmericanIndianstudents.These

recommendationsareofparticularvalueastheycomedirectlyfromAmerican

Indianeducators.Amongthoserecommendationsistherecruitmentandretention

ofAmericanIndianfaculty.Alladministrators,faculty,staff,andstudentsI

intervieweduniversallyagreedthatPSUwouldbenefitfrommoreAmericanIndian

educators.

FromtheperspectiveofauniversityVicePresident,“Ithinkthatoneofthe

issueswehaveisthatweareveryleanstaffing.Andthat’sanissueforus.Weneed

morepeopletoworkwithminorityandNativeAmericanstudentsandwedon’t

havealot.”

FromtheNativestudentviewpoint:“Onethingthat’swrongisthattheydon’t

reallyhaveanyNativefacultyreally.SoIthinknothavingNativestaffaroundisa

realshortcoming.”

Asmentionedabove,PSUhasrecentlymadepositivestridesinthisdirection

withtheadditionoftwoNativefacultymembers.Thesepeoplehavequicklyproven

themselvestobeofgreatvaluetoNativestudentsandtotheuniversityasawhole

throughtheirleadership,scholarshipandunwaveringsupportandenhancementof

thePSUAmericanIndiancollegeexperience.

Place EarlyoninthefirstofthreefocusgroupsIconductedwithAmericanIndian

studentsitbecameclearthattherewasadiscernabletensionwhenthetopicofthe

OfficeofMulticulturalAffairswasthefocusofconversation.Somestudentsinthe

firstgroupreadilypointedtothewaysinwhichtheOMAwasseenasafacilitatorto

collegesuccess.Asdiscussedabove,thataspectseenasafacilitatorhadtodowith

theOMAservingasaplaceforcongregationasaNativecommunity,theonlysuch

placeoncampustoservethatpurpose.Beyondthatpoint,wasamuchmore

significantdynamicatwork.Ipursuedthispointinthefirstgroup.Insubsequent

focusgroupsthetopicof‘Place’becamethefirstandmostsalienttotheNative

Americanstudents.

AmongalloftheAmericanIndianstudentsIinterviewed,theconsensuswas

bestsummedupbyonestudentwhosaid:“I’dratherbesomeplacewhereIknow

it’scomfortable—theatmosphereiscomfortable,wherewefeel,asstudents,thatwe

belongthere—youknow?”

Collectively,theNativestudentsofPSUinterviewedforthisresearch

conveyedalevelofdiscomfortandfrustrationwiththestatusquoandtheirplacein

theOMA:

Idon’tknowifwe,asagroup,areheardhear‐‐Imean‐‐‐doesanybodyhearourconcerns?Doesanybodycare?Ireallydon’tknow‐‐‐Ifwedidhaveavoice‐‐youknow‐‐consideringthatourgrouphasthebiggeststudentorganizedeventoncampus(annualwacipi)‐‐andthenwhentheyputitinthenewspaper‐‐weareputonthebackpage‐‐justalittleblurbhereandthere.Howstrongofavoiceisthat?Ourspace‐‐whichwesharewithothergroups,allputtogetherandlabeledasdiversitygroupsisinthebasementandourbiggesteventisputonthebackpage.Whatdoesthatsayabouthowweareseenonthiscampus?

Throughoutthecourseofconductinginterviewsforthisresearch,Native

studentsatPSUrepeatedlytoldmethattheydonotfeelthattheirvoiceisvalued.

Thesestudentsdemonstratedtomethatoneofthemostdevastatingeffectsof

belongingtoamarginalizedgroupisthefeelingofpowerlessness,thefeelingof

beinginvisibleandinaudible.TheNativestudentswhoreachedoutthemosttome

werethosethatlingeredafterafocusgroupmeetingtovoicetheirconcernthat

nothingpositivewouldcomeofmyresearch.Theywerecertainthattheirvoice

countedfornothingandwerequicktopointtoalonghistoryofbrokenpromises.

Theirfrustrationwaspalpable.Thetopicmostoftencitedasasourceoftheir

frustrationwastheissueofaspecialplacefortheNativecommunity.

NativeAmericanHouse

studentsatDartmouthandfoundthatthegroupknownas“TheNativeAmericansat

Dartmouth”providedachanceforsupportandsolidarityforNativestudentsinthe

foreignworldofanIvyLeaguecampusintheNortheasternUnitedStates.

ContributorscitedtheexistenceoftheNativeAmericanHousealongwiththeNative

AmericanStudiesprogramandthesupportofNativeAmericanfacultyasprimary

factorsintheircollegesuccess.TheNativeAmericanHouseatDartmouthprovided

asafeplaceforstudentswhowereexperiencingatypeofcultureshockarisingfrom

conflictbetweenacademicandtraditionalAmericanIndianvalues(Garrodand

Larimore1997).

TheUniversityofMinnesotarecentlyheldacelebrationinhonorofthefifth

yearofoperationoftheAmericanIndianCulturalHouse(AICH).AICHisa

“UniversityefforttohelpAmericanIndianstudentsadjusttocampuslife”(San

2008:1).AstestimonytotheeffectivenessoftheUniversityofMinnesota’sNative

AmericanCulturalHouse,oneAmericanIndianalumnaestated,“Asafreshman,itis

oftenhardtotransitionintolifeonyourown...TheCulturalHousegavemean

informaleducationabouthowtosurviveandhowtoincorporateNativetraditional

ways.Thehousegavemeahome;acommunityinwhichIbelonged...thebest

thingisthatbeingapartoftheCulturalHousewaslikehavingyourownfamily.It

wasagoodsteppingstonetothecampusforfirstyearstudents”(San2008:1).

TheUniversityofMontanaisalsorecognizedasaprogressiveleaderinthe

fieldofAmericanIndianhighereducation.ThefirstofitskindintheUnitedStates,

the$8.6milliondollar30,000squarefootNativeAmericanCenterattheUniversity

ofMontanawasbuiltfortheexpresspurposeofhousingtheNativeAmerican

StudiesDepartment,AmericanIndianStudentServicesandotherrelatedcampus

programming.OneNativegraduatestudentexplainsthevalueofthenewNAC,“It’s

reallyimportanttohaveaplacewherewecandevelopourextendedfamiliesaway

fromhome.Oncewegettoknoweachother,thenwedothesamethingsforeach

otheraswedoathome”(Baynham2010:16).

SomeNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU,includingmanyofthosewho

participatedinthisresearch,arewellawareoffacilitiessuchastheNativeAmerican

HouseatDartmouthandtheAmericanIndianCulturalHouseattheUniversityof

Minnesota,andthenewNativeAmericanCenterattheUniversityofMontana.For

manyupperclassmenstillinattendanceandformanymore,decadesremovedfrom

theirdaysonthecampusofPSU,ithasbeenadreamforsuchahousetoexist.Such

ahousewheretherecoulddevelopaNativecommunityofpeoplewithsimilar

worldviews,andpridefultraditions,andsimilarfearsandconcerns.Atitsbest,this

wouldbeacommunitynotsegregatedfrommainstreamcampusorstudentsbut

servingasanenhancementtotheuniversitycommunitythroughthecelebrationofa

culturalidentitythathas,foryears,keptmanyNativestudentsfromtrulyfeeling

likeapartofPSUcampuslifeandcommunity.

ADartmouthgraduateandcurrentPSUgraduatestudenthasexperienced

bothworlds:

Itwaslike‐‐‐like‐‐‐Idon’tknow—inmyundergradwehadaspace.ItwasintheNativeAmericanProgramOffice.Itwasjustlikealittleloungewithlikethreecouchesinit.Andall–liketheNativeswouldpileonthosecouchesandwewouldeatlunchtogether.Andwewouldbelaughinganditwouldbeloud.Anditwouldjustbearealcoolspace.Wehadahouseatmyundergradwhereyouactuallycouldlive.Thereweretwofloors.Thetopfloorhadthreebedsandthenthebottomfloorandthemiddlefloor.Andthestudentscouldlivethereifyouappliedtolivethere.Andlikeeverybodywantedtolivethereandeverybodywasalwaysthere.Idon’tifitwasbecausewehadahugecommunity—Idon’tknowwhatitwas

but—everybodywasalwaysthere.Wewerelike—duringtheafternoonswewouldbeintheNAHallcrowdedonthecouchjusteatingtogetherandthenintheevenings,we’dbeinthediningroomattwobiglongtables.We’dbejuststudyingorlaughing.Andthentherewasabasementwherewe’dwatchmoviesand…ButthatwashowIkeptmyconnectionwithhome.Andtherewasadrumgroup‐‐‐wehadalotofguysfromtheSouthwest,soitwaskindofasoutherndrumgroup.They’dcomeinandtheywouldlikesingandthey’dbeintheNativeAmericanHouse—they’dbeinthebasementandthey’dsing.Anditfeltsogoodtohearthat.Idon’tknowifwecouldgetlikethatsameplaceherethen...

AreviewoftheliteraturecoupledwiththevoiceofPSUNativestudents

revealstheunderlyingvalueofsuchplacesastheNativeAmericanHouseat

Dartmouth,theAmericanIndianCulturalHouseattheUniversityofMinnesota,the

NativeAmericanCenterattheUniversityofMontana,andthefuturePSUAmerican

IndianEducationandCulturalCenter.ThatvalueisinwhatOldenburg(1989)

termedthethirdplace.Thethirdplaceisnotworkorhome,butrather,aplacefor

congregation,aplaceforfellowship.Inshort,thethirdplaceisaplaceforthe

formationofasupportivecommunityofpeers.Suchaplacemayprovidean

environmentthatwouldfosterastrongAmericanIndianidentityasanassetrather

thanadeficit(Yasso2005).Thiscouldbeafacilitatortocollegesuccess.

TheconceptofaNativeAmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforthePSU

AmericanIndianpopulationhasbeenconsideredatPSUforseveralyears.Both

sidesoftheargumentinthisdebateadmitthatitisapointofcontentionthathas

lingeredwithoutresolution.

TheideaofaNativeAmericanCenteralsohasfacultysupport.Oneveteran

professorisparticularlyoutspokenonthesubject.AsisthecasewiththestudentsI

interviewed,thisprofessor’ssinglevoicerepresentsthepositionofmanypeopleI

spokewith:

AsItoldthePresidentinameetingnottoolongago,‘We’reprogressing,insomeways,academically,butanAmericanIndianCulturalCenteris–youknow—50yearsoverdue.(Laughs)Ifyoulookatcomparableinstitutionseverywhere,wearesuckingwindcomparedtothembecausewehaven’tbeenproactiveenoughtounderstandthatyoucan’treallybeofmuchappealtotribalstudentsifyoudon’thaveaplace...Ithinkthatwe’redisadvantagedinthatwedon’thaveaNativeAmericanCenter,aNativeAmericanStudentCenter.

FromtheexperiencedperspectiveofoneformerstudentandAmerican

Indianfacultymember,theissueofplacecomesdowntotheneedforaNative

AmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforNativestudentsratherthanasharedspace

withalldiversestudents:

IthinkthatitwouldgoodiftheyhadaNativeAmericanCenterwheretheycouldahcongregateandfeellikeacommunity,ratherthanscatteredaroundthecampus...AndIthinkitwouldhelpthemfeelliketheybelonghere,thatthey’renotjustbeingusedasdiversitystatistics,thattheuniversitywouldreallyprovideaplaceforthem,letthemknowthattheyarevalued…Youknow,alotoftimesstudentsdon’twanttostandoutandbenoticedalone‐‐‐butifyou’reasagroup‐‐‐thereiscomfortandconfidence.IthinkaCenterwouldhelpthembuildcommunity.

TherecentlyretiredadministratorwasalongtimeproponentofaNative

AmericanCulturalCenter:

Ifwecouldhavea‘Center’,a‘place’whereNativestudentswouldfeelwelcomeandcomfortableandathome,aplacewheretheycouldmeetwiththeirfriends,families,peerswhoareNative,engageinsocialevents,engageinceremony,beabletostudyandworktogether...wouldbeanenormouslypositivedevelopmentforthiscampus,forservingstudents.SoIthinkthatisanimportantelementthatneedstobedeveloped.

SupportfortheNativeAmericanCulturalCenterisnotunanimous.Some

believethereisnota‘criticalmass’ofNativeAmericanstudentstojustifyaCenter,

andassuchtheissuesimplyboilsdowntonumbersandthebestwaytoallocate

resourcessuchthatthegreatestnumberofminoritystudentsbenefitfromalimited

poolofresources.

Oneuniversityadministratorvoicedconcern:

TheNativeAmericanCulturalCenter,Istrugglewith.Whenwelookedatoneseveralyearsago,theresearchdonewithourstudentsatthatpointreallypointedtowardamulticulturalcenter,‐‐where,aswetalkedaboutearlier,wecouldbuildsynergybecausewedon’thavecriticalmass.Whenwedidtheresearch,campusesencouragedustocreateamulticulturalcenter,andtobuildoffofthat.AndatonepointwehadtalkedaboutaMulticulturalCenterandaswegrew,youcouldhavewingsforthedifferentgroupsbutstillhaveacenter,—andweseemtohavegoneawayfromthat.And‐‐andifwe’rereadytodothatandthereisalotofcampussupport,maybeweneedtodothat,Idon’tknow.Idon’tknowhowyougetyourarmsaroundthat.I’mstilltryingtogetmyarmsaroundthat.

CommentsofNativestudentsandothersinvolvedintribalstudent

programmingandstudentsupportsuggestthatthetimehascomefortheinstitution

tobuildoffitscurrentmulticulturalconceptandtogetitscollectivearmsaround

theconceptofaNativeAmericanCulturalCenter.

FromtheperspectiveoftheAmericanIndianstudent,whileincorporating

culture,buildingasupportivecommunity,andenhancingthedevelopmentofNative

Americanidentityasanassetratherthanadeficit(Yasso2005),thedebatecanbe

reducedtothewordsofonestudentwhorepeatedlysaidtome,“Iamnot

Multicultural,IamNativeAmerican.”

ThemainpointtobemaderegardingaplaceforAmericanIndianstudentsat

PSUandhowthatbecomesabarriertocollegesuccessissimplythatnosuchplace

currentlyexistsatthetimeofthisresearch.Butthereisgreathopeandenthusiasm

forthefuturewiththecomingoftheAmericanIndianEducationandCultureCenter

cominginthefallof2010.

CHAPTERNINE

Summary,Conclusions,RecommendationsandLimitations

Thischapterincludesasummaryoffindingsdisplayedasalistoffacilitators

andbarrierstoacademicattainmentatPSU.Ineachcategory,Ihavelistedfactorsin

ahierarchyofsaliencefromhightolowwiththosefactorslistedfirstrankingasthe

mostimportantasseenfromtheperspectiveofallparticipantsincludedinthis

research.

Aftersummarizingthefindings,Ihaveoutlinedconclusionsdrawnfromthe

data,andmaderecommendationsbasedonthoseconclusionsforimprovingthe

qualityofthecollegeexperienceforAmericanIndiansatPSU,andforincreasingthe

likelihoodofstudentpersistenceandacademicattainment.

Finally,Idiscussthelimitationsofthisresearchandrecommendationsfor

futureresearchthatmaypossiblyexpandtheparametersofthisstudytoincludeall

ofPrairieState’sinstitutionsofhighereducation,withafocusoncollaborative

effortstowardenhancingthechancesforacademicattainmentforAmericanIndian

students.

Summary/Conclusions

Quantitative

ThePrairieStateBoardofRegentsFactBookforthefiscalyear2010

providesaquantitativesnapshotintimeofthediversityofthePSUstudent

population.Forthefallsemesterof2009thetotalnumberofstudentsenrolledat

PSUwas12,376.At10,577,WhiteNon‐Hispanicstudentsaretheoverwhelming

majorityat83.9percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.Thereisanequally

significantgapbetweentheWhitenumericalmajorityandthenextlargestethnic

group.At436,thegroupidentifiedasAsian/PacificIslandersisthenextlargest

groupandthelargestofallminoritystudentgroupsat3.1percentofthetotal

studentpopulation.AccordingtoseveraladministratorsIinterviewed,themajority

ofAsianstudentsatPSUaregraduatestudent/researchassistants.NativeAmerican

studentsnumber249andcomprisethesecondlargestethnicgroupatPSUat2.3

percent.Thereare168studentsidentifiedasAfricanAmerican/BlackNon‐Hispanic

atPSU,comprising1.5percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.Thegroupnumbering

thefewestofanyidentifiedethnicpopulationisHispanicstudents,withat122,

approximatelyonehalfthenumberidentifyingasNativeAmericanat1.3percentof

thetotalstudentpopulation.

DataoncomparativeretentionandgraduationratesforNativeAmerican

studentsrelativetothetotalstudentpopulationshowtwosignificantdifferences.

1.IncomingNativeAmericanfreshmenareoverwhelminglyoutnumbered

comparedtototalincomingfreshmenofallracial/ethnicgroups.Manyyears

between2000and2009,theratiowasroughly100:1.

2.ThereissignificantdisparitybetweenNativeAmericanfreshmenandall

otherfreshmenthatreturnforasecondyear.Retentionfromfirsttosecond

yearforNativeAmericanstudentsaveragedroughly48percentbetween

2000and2009.Retentionoftotalincomingfreshmenfromfirsttosecond

yearaveragedroughly77percent.

Facilitators

Thefollowingfactorsemergedinorderasthemostsignificant

facilitatorsofAmericanIndianeducationalattainmentatPSU.

• SupportiveFamily

• SupportiveFriends

• SupportiveFaculty

• SupportiveAdministration

• SupportiveUniversityEnvironment

• NativeAmericanFaculty/Staff

• StudentSupportServices

• TraditionalCulturalOpportunities

• FinancialSupport

SupportiveFamily

OfallthefacilitatorscitedbyAmericanIndianstudents,supportisclearlythe

mostsalient.Allfactorsconsideredthesupportoffamilyisclearlythemost

importantfromtheperspectiveoftheNativestudent.

SupportiveFriends

Intheabsenceoffamily,asupportivenetworkoffriendsisthemostlikely

facilitatortoNativestudents’persistenceincollege.Withoutasupportivenetwork

offriends,Nativestudentsreportedfeelingaloneinaforeignenvironment,asifto

be‘anoutsiderlookingin’ataplaceandpeopleoverwhelminglydifferentfrom

one’sself.

SupportiveFaculty

Facultysupportintheformofculturalsensitivity,willingnesstounderstand

andembracethecollegeexperiencefromtheNativestudent’sperspectiveandsome

flexibilityfromthemainstreamnorm,isofvitalimportancetotheNativestudent’s

makingacomfortableadjustmenttothemainstreaminstitution.

SupportiveAdministration

InstitutionalbarriersarewithinthedomainofPSUadministration.

OvercomingthehistoryofstructuralbarrierstoacademicattainmentforAmerican

IndianstudentsatPSUbeginswithastrongcommitment,byuniversity

administration,tofulfillingthemissionofPSUasalandgrantinstitution.PSU

administratorshavedemonstratedsuchcommitment,andstepstowardthatend

havealreadybegunwiththeannouncementofthecomingoftheAmericanIndian

EducationandCulturalCenterandtheplanningofanenhancedcurriculumin

AmericanIndianStudiestoincludeamajorinthatareaofstudy.

SupportiveUniversityEnvironment

Leadershipbyuniversityadministrationtowardthegoalofanenhanced

academicsuccessforNativestudentscancreateauniversityenvironmentthatis

builtonafoundationofembracingAmericanIndianstudents,faculty,staff,and

administrators,andtheirculture,asanassettotheuniversityandthelocal,state

andregionalcommunities.

NativeAmericanFaculty/Staff

NativeAmericanstudentsplacegreatvalueonthepresenceofAmerican

Indianfacultyandstaff.Theseindividualsserveassupportivementorsandrole

modelstoNativestudentsatPSU.

StudentSupportServices

StudentsupportservicesarevitalresourcesforsomeAmericanIndian

students.Thismaybeparticularlytrueforincomingfreshmanstudentswhoare

statisticallyreportedtobelesslikelytoreturntoPSUforasecondyear.Increased

useofstudentsupportservicesmayincreasethelikelihoodofpersistence.Student

supportstaffisdedicatedintheircommitmenttohelpingNativestudentsbe

successful.

TraditionalCulturalOpportunities

OpportunitiestoengageinthepracticeofNativetraditionalactivitieswere

citedbystudentsasanimportantfacilitatorallowingthemtomaintainalinkto

theirlifeathomeandwithfamilywhileatPSU.TheNativeAmericanClubandthe

communityformedbythoseactiveintheclubwereabouttheonlyopportunityto

engageinsuchactivitiesdiscussedbyparticipants.

FinancialSupport

TheNativestudentsIinterviewedwereallawareofthenecessityof,andthe

availabilityoffinancialaid.Interestingly,andinkeepingwithmyreviewofthe

literature,financialconcernswereconsistentlymentionedonlywhenaskeddirectly.

Thissupportspriorresearchfindingsthatfinancialconcernsarelowinahierarchy

ofsalientfactorseitherasfacilitatorsorbarriers.

Barriers

Thefollowingfactorsemergedasthemostpowerfulbarrierstoeducational

attainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.

• InstitutionalBarriers

• LackofSupport

• InadequateHighSchoolPreparation

• Non‐supportivefaculty

• LackofTraditionalCulturalOpportunities

• LackofSpecialPlaceforDevelopmentofSupportiveCommunity

• Prejudice/Racism

• CulturalDiscontinuity

• CultureShock

• DiscomfortinLocalCommunity

• DiscomfortinUniversityCommunity

• TooFewNativeAmericanFaculty/Staff

• FamilyDiscouragement

• InadequateFinancialResources

InstitutionalBarriers

Throughoutthe130‐yearhistorytherehavebeenseveralsignificantly

successfulNativeAmericanstudentsgraduatedfromPSU.However,datagathered

throughthisresearchindicatelimitedemphasisonrecruitmentorretentionof

NativeAmericanstudents.ManyrespondentsmentionedthatPSUisalandgrant

university,butthatithashistoricallyfailedtoincludetheNativeAmerican

populationofPrairieStateasafocusinprovidingeducationalopportunities.

Additionally,campusclimate,intermsofembracingdiversity,andNativeAmerican

cultureshasbeenlessthanoptimal.

LackofSupport

ThedatashowthatsupportforNativeAmericanstudentscomesinavariety

offorms.Aweakeningofanyofthepossiblecomponentsofsupportmayleadtoan

apparentoveralllackofsupport.Whilestudentsupportstaffisdedicatedintheir

commitmenttohelpingNativestudentsbesuccessful,itappearsthatsomeofthose

studentsmayunderutilizesuchservices.Possiblereasonsforunderutilization

include,lackofawarenessoftheavailabilityofservices.SomeNativestudentsare

hesitanttoseekouthelpandutilizeexistingsupportservices,eitherforlackoftrust,

culturaldiscomfort,orfearofbeingseenaslesscapablethanmainstreamstudents.

InadequateHighSchoolPreparation

Poorhighschoolpreparationiswelldocumentedintheliteratureasa

significantbarriertoacademicattainmentforNativeAmericanstudents.Data

revealedinthisstudyiscongruentwithfindingscitedinpriorresearch.Remedial

needsofsomeNativestudentscanbeaddressedatPSUthroughstudentsupport

servicesandunderstandingfaculty.However,inmanycasestheacademichandicaps

withwhichmanystudentsarriveatPSUmaybedifficultorimpossibletoovercome.

SomeNativestudentsIinterviewedhaveexperiencedbothtribalandpublichigh

schoolsandwerequicktodescribethedifferencesbetweenthemintermsofthe

qualityofpreparationforcollege.

Ofparticularsignificancerelativetostudentswithinadequatehighschool

preparation,asmentionedabove,arefacultymembersunwillingtomake

adjustmentsforstudentsneedingremedialhelp.Studentsneedingremedialhelp

canquicklybecomelostiffacultyareinflexibleorinsensitivetothatstudent’sneeds.

Suchneedshowever,maybedifficultforindividualfacultytoaccommodate,and

thusrequireamoreintentional,systemicremediationprogram.

Nonsupportivefaculty

Facultymembersareinapositiontoactaseitherfacilitatororbarrierto

collegesuccess.Attimesthisinfluencecanbeextremeineitherdirection.Many

studentstoldofinstancesofextremeinsensitivityandinflexibilityofprofessorsto

culturaldifferences,familyobligations,andavarietyofotherissues.Manystudents

toldofhighlyinappropriateremarksmadebyfaculty.

LackofTraditionalCulturalOpportunities

AllofthestudentsIinterviewedmentionedthelackofopportunitiesto

participateinculturalactivitiesasabarriertofeelingcomfortableatPSU.Many

citedsuchactivitiesastheironlylinktothecomfortofhomeandfamily.TheNative

AmericanClubprovidestheonlyavailableoutletforculturalexpressionforNative

studentsatPSU.ItappearsthatthemainfocusoftheNativeAmericanClub

throughouttheyearwastheplanningoftheannualPSUWacipi,heldinFebruary.

Otherthantheplanningofthatevent,Iwitnessednootherculturallyspecific

activities,eventhoughsuchactivitiesweresometimesmentioned.Datagatheredin

focusgroupsandpersonalinterviewsindicatethatthereisahighlevelofinterestin

participatinginculturaleventsandactivities.

LackofSpecialPlaceforDevelopmentofSupportiveCommunity

Eventhoughthelackofaspecialplaceisnotatthetopofthesalience

hierarchyasa‘makeorbreakfactor’,itisundoubtedlytheoneissueaboutwhich

everyoneIinterviewedwasmostpassionate.ThelackofaNativeAmericanCulture

Centerhasanimpactoneveryothercategory.Itcouldprovideaplaceforthe

formationandmeetingofasupportivecommunityofNativestudents,facultyandall

thosewhoembraceNativepeopleandcultureasavaluableasset.Itcouldprovidea

placewherestudentsfeelsecureinaskingforhelp.Itcouldprovideaplaceforthe

organizationofandparticipationinculturalactivities.Itcouldprovideaplace

wherefamilymemberscouldcometoPSUtobesupportiveoftheircollegestudent.

Itcouldprovideaplacefortheinterfaceofthelocalmainstreamcommunitywith

thePSUandlocalNativeAmericancommunity.This,inturncouldleadtoan

increasedappreciationofNativeculturewithintheRailtowncommunity.TheCenter

couldprovideasafeandcomfortableenvironmentforNativeAmericanstudents.

Perhapsmostimportantly,itcouldprovideaplaceforanetworkofsupportto

empowerNativestudentsinsuchawaythattheycouldbetterdealwithallofthe

factorsthatcombinetoworkasbarrierstoacademicattainmentforNativestudents

atPSU.

TheconclusionIdrawonthispointisthataplacespecificallyforNative

Americansandtheirsupportersisofkeystonesignificancetothefacilitationof

academicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Relevanttoallofthe

pointslistedabove,theAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCentercan

potentiallyserveintheameliorationofthedetrimentaleffectsofthosefactorslisted

immediatelybelowthatworkasbarrierstocollegepersistence.

Prejudice/Racism

Eventhoughprejudiceandracismarenottopicsmostpeoplespeakabout

comfortably,everyoneIinterviewedcitedtheexistenceofsuchattitudes,beliefsand

behaviorsasabarriertoacademicattainmentforNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU.

PrejudiceattitudesandracistbeliefsdoexistacrosstheU.S.,PrairieState,in

Railtown,andatPSU.

CulturalDiscontinuity

Thereisagapintheexperienceswith,thelevelofexposureto,andthe

understandingofculturaldifferencesbetweenboththemainstreamandtheNative

AmericanpopulationsatPSU,andinthelocalcommunity.ManyNativestudentsI

interviewedhavehadlimitedexperienceoffthereservationandcanspeakofothers

theyknowwiththesamelimitedexposuretothemainstream,dominantculture.

Likewise,Nativestudentsgavenumerousaccountsoftheirinteractionswith

classmateswhohadnevermetaNativeAmericanorbeentoareservation.This

culturaldiscontinuityleavesavoideasilyfilledwiththenarrowmindednessof

prejudiceandracism.

CultureShock

Thelackofexposuretoaworlddifferentfromthatwhichoneisaccustomed

tocaneasilyleadtodisorientationforsomeNativestudentscomingfromthe

reservationhomecommunitytoPSU.Thisismostsignificantforthosestudents

comingfromculturallytraditionalhomeenvironmentstoRailtownandthe

overwhelminglymainstreamcultureoftheuniversityenvironment.

DiscomfortinLocalCommunity

HavingcitedthepossibilityofhavingracistencountersinPrairieStateand

Railtown,manyNativestudentsIinterviewedgaveaccountsoffeeling

uncomfortableinthemainstreamcommunity.Itcannotbeassumedthateveryone

feelsathomeinmainstreamestablishmentssuchasrestaurants,grocerystores,etc.

DiscomfortinUniversityCommunity

QuantitativedatashowthatforeveryincomingNativeAmericanfreshmanin

anygivensemestertheremaybe100ormorenon‐Nativefreshman.Withouta

networkofsupport,andwithoutareferencegroupofpeers,manyNativestudents

retainaninitialfeelingofdiscomfortthroughouttheirentirefirstyearatPSU.This

becameevidentduringmyresearchasseveralNativestudentsleftPSUevenaslate

asApriloftheirfreshmanyear.

TooFewNativeAmericanFaculty/Staff

NativeAmericanfacultyandstaffaresignificantfacilitatorstoNativestudent

success.WithonlyfivetotalcurrentlyatPSU,therearetoofewtobeaseffectiveas

couldbethecasewithmoresuchindividualstoserveasmentors,rolemodelsand

anenhancednetworkofsupport.Commitmenttotherecruitmentandretentionof

NativeAmericanfaculty,staff,andadministratorsisvitaltothecreationofa

supportiveuniversitycommunityandenvironmentthatembracesNativepeople

andcultureasanasset.

FamilyDiscouragement

Itappearsthatthemostdevastatingtypeofalackofsupportisthenon‐

supportive,oractivelydiscouragingfamily.Informationconveyedbysupport

professionalsindicatethatalackoffamilysupporthasbeenacommonbarrierfor

someAmericanIndianstudents,particularlythosecomingfromreservation

communitieswheretheirfamiliesaretraditionalandfeelthreatenedbythe

universityasaninstitutionwhosegoalistoassimilatethecultureoutoftheir

student.Suchfamilialpressurehasproven,overtime,tobenearlyinsurmountable

formanyNativestudents.

InadequateFinancialResources

Asmentionedintheconclusions/facilitatorssectionabove,noneofthe

NativestudentsIinterviewedlistedfinancialneedswithoutdirectprompting.This

indicatesthatwhilefinancialneedsareanissuethatmustnecessarilybeaddressed,

thoseneedsarerankedasmuchlesssalientamongallofthebarrierslisted.Thisis

congruentwithfindingsfrompreviousstudies,includingGuilloryandWolverton

(2008)whofoundthatNativestudentsconsistentlylistfamily,friends,and

communityasmoreimportanttotheircollegesuccessthanfinancialconcerns.

Limitations

Thegoalofqualitativeresearchistoprovidearichdescriptivepictureof

peopleorgroupsofpeopleinagivencontextandmostimportantly,tocreatethat

picture,ascloselyaspossible,fromtheperspectiveofthosebeingdescribed.I

believethatthisgoalhasbeenaccomplishedthankstotheeagercooperationofthe

Nativestudentsalongwithfaculty,staff,andadministratorsofPSU.However,the

study’slimitationsmustbekeptinmind.

Asisthecasewithallqualitativeresearch,thisstudyprovidesapictureof

theNativeAmericanstudentexperienceatPSUasonlyasinglesliceintime,almost

asortofphotographicmoment,consideringtheentirehistoryofPSU,ofAmerican

Indianeducation,andofcontactbetweenWhitemainstreamEuro‐centricsociety

andtheindigenouspeopleofthecontinent.Eventhoughtheplanning,preparation

andcompletionofthisprojectspannedalittleovertwoyears,thecollectionofdata

thatprovidesthatpicturewasaccomplishedduringthefinalweeksofthespring

2009semesterandmostlyoverthecourseofthefall2009semester.Therehave

beensomedevelopmentsduringthecourseofthisresearchthatmaychangethe

natureoftheNativestudentexperienceatPSUinthefuture.Twosuch

developmentsincludetheannouncementandplanningoftheAmericanIndian

EducationandCulturalCentertobeginserviceinthefallof2010,andtheproposal

andplanningofamajorinAmericanIndianStudies.

Anotherlimitationliesinthefactthatwhilethisresearchattemptstoprovide

athoroughdescriptionoftheNativecollegeexperienceatPSU,itisonlyone

university,atonepointintimeandcannotbegeneralizedacrossotheruniversities

inPrairieStateortheMidwest.

ArelatedlimitationisthatonlyasmallproportionofallAmericanIndian

studentsregisteredatPSUparticipatedinthestudy.Theparticipantsinthis

researchrepresentapurposivesample,chosenlargelyfortheiravailabilityand

willingnesstoparticipate.Theywerenotrandomlyselected,andtherefore

generalizabilityislimited.Whilestudentparticipantsincludedfreshmenthrough

graduatestudents,traditionalandnon‐traditionalagedstudents,malesandfemales,

mostweremembersoftheNativeAmericanCluborwereotherwiseactivein

campuseventsandthus,theperspectivessharedinthisresearchmayrepresentthe

biasesofthatgroup.Relatedtothislimitationisthepossibilitythatthosewho

participatedinthefocusgroupsmayhavebeensomewhatguardedintheir

responsesasaresultofsocialpressuretoconformtothegroup’sviewpoint.WhileI

wenttogreatlengths,withthehelpoftheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisor,togeta

samplepopulationrepresentativeofthewiderangingdiversityamongAmerican

IndianstudentsatPSU,onesignificantroadblockisthatthe249NativeAmerican

studentslistedasregisteredatPSUarethosewhoselfidentifyasAmericanIndian.

ItislikelythatthereareNativestudentsunaccountedforiftheychosenotto

provideinformation,possiblybecausetheirNativeidentityisnothighinsaliencefor

Anotherlimitationinsamplingis,perhapsmoresignificant,andcouldin

itselfbeconsideredafindingoftheresearch.IfweconsiderthetotalNativestudent

populationatPSUtobeat249,itisinterestingtonotethatthevastmajorityofthose

studentsgounnoticedandlargelyunaccountedthroughouttheschoolyear.Inthe

fallof2009IattendedseveralmeetingsoftheNativeAmericanClub.Interestwas

highatthattimeoftheyearandattendancewastypicallyrightaround20students.

Astheschoolyearprogressed,studentsbecamebusywithstudiesorotherwise

distracted,leavingattendanceatNACmeetingsfluctuating,withalowofsix,but

normallyintheteens.ThehighestnumberofstudentsinvolvedwithNACactivities

wasduringtheweekendofthe20thannualWacipi,duringwhichmanystudentsthat

Ihadneverseenbeforeturnedout.Thisisfurthertestimonytotheimportanceof

theopportunityforculturalexpression.Thelownumberofregularparticipantsin

NACactivitiesbegsthequestion:wherearetheothertwohundredandtwentysome

Nativestudents,andwhydotheynotparticipate?Thismightbeaquestionfor

futureresearch.

ThisresearchisbaseduponthetheoreticalperspectiveofCriticalSociology.

Asacriticalethnography,thisresearchisadmittedlyvalueladenandopenlyfocused

ontheemancipatoryameliorationofoppressivesocialconditionsforthepopulation

beingresearched.Thepoliticalnatureofcriticalsociologicalresearchmakesthe

reportingoffindingspotentiallyuncomfortable,controversialandpotentially

invalidatedifnotsafeguarded.IhavebeeninvolvedwithAmericanIndianstudents,

facultyandstaffthroughoutmyentiretimeatPSU.AttimesIfounditnecessaryto

pullbackandengageinareflexivere‐evaluationofmylevelofparticipationin,and

thedegreetowhichIwasembeddedinmyownresearch.Ibecameawareofthe

dangerof‘goingnative’andpotentiallydamagingthevalidityofmydatabylosing

focusonthegoaloftheresearchasacademicratherthanactivist.Fortunately,I

recognizedthisdangerearlyonandwasabletokeepitincheckbyprocessingit

withmyadvisorandotherswhoseopinions,andadviceIvalueandrespect.Among

thosewerebothNativeandnon‐Nativepeople.

Recommendations

Summer,2010,isacriticalmomentinthehistoryofPlainsStateUniversity

anditsworkwithAmericanIndianstudents.Giventheinstitution’srecentHigher

LearningCommissionvisit,anditsrenewedcommitmenttodiversity,thefindings

fromthisresearcharepresentedatanopportunetimeforPSUtoconsiderthese

datainitsstrategicplanningintheareasofdiversity,academicandstudentaffairs,

andcampusmasterplanning.Buildingonthisstudy’sbaseincriticaltheoryand

praxis,itsultimategoalistoputtousetherelevanttheoryanddatathathas

emergedfromtheresearchtoovercomebarriersandenhancefacilitatorsinorder

toenhanceacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.Basedonthedata

presentedinthisdissertation,Imakethefollowingresearchbased

recommendations:

1. Beginninginfall,2010,thenewlyannouncedAmericanIndianEducation

andCulturalCenter(AIECC)shouldincludeprogramsreachingouttoNative

studentswhohavepreviouslybeennon‐participantsintheNativestudent

communityatPSU.AdditionalprogrammingshouldbebasedontheFamily

EducationModel(FEM),asdescribedbyHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002).

Acadreofcurrent,successfulAmericanIndianstudentleadersmaybebest

positionedtoconductthisoutreach.

2. TheAIECCshouldreceivestrongsupportandbackingfromthe

administration,faculty,staff,students,familiesandallstakeholders

concernedwithAmericanIndianstudenteducationalattainment.Such

supportisparamounttotheCenter’ssuccessasafacilitatortocollege

successforNativestudents.Thedangerofnothavingsuchcollaborativeand

cooperativesupportisthatpersonalities,opinions,andstrugglesforthe

dominantinfluencecouldmaketheCenterapointofpoliticalcontentionto

thedetrimentofprogrammingandpersonnelwhoseprimarygoalshould

remainthebenefitofAmericanIndiancollegestudentsandtheirfamiliesas

theyseektoimprovetheirchancesinlifethroughacademicattainment.

3. ProgrammingprovidedthroughtheCenterandthroughoutcampusshould

addressthesalientfacilitatorsandbarrierspresentedinthisresearch.For

example,inbuildingonthefindingregardingsupport(orlackthereof)asa

facilitator(orbarrier)tostudentsuccess,modelsthatbringtogether

multiplesupportservicesshouldbeadvanced.Suchintegratedservicesmay

includeacademic,social,familyneeds(e.g.childcare,healthcare),financial,

andculturalcomponents.

4. PSUshouldmoveforwardaggressivelywithitsplansforanew,permanent

AmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter.Centerssuchasthoseatthe

UniversityofMontanaandDartmouthmaybeparticularlyimpressive

models.ImportantcomponentsofthenewCenterincludesupportprograms,

officesforkeycontactpeople,tutoring,study,meetingandloungespace,

computerlaboratory,kitchen,spaceforculturalactivitiesandaclassroom

forAmericanIndianStudiescourses.Spacefortribalartandculturalartifacts

shouldalsobeavailable.

5.PSUshouldsponsorcontinuingeducationandfaculty/staffdevelopment

programmingthatsharesthefindingsofthisresearch,alongwithsuggested

interventionstrategiesandbestpracticesforenhancingNativeAmerican

studentacademicattainmentatalllevels.Suchprogrammingmayinclude

moreinformalbrownbagdiscussionsormoreformalworkshopsand/or

trainingsessionsthatarerequiredorstronglyencouragedforallfaculty.

Withoutsuchanapproach,manyparticipantswhomostneedorwould

benefitmostfromsuchtrainingmaynotparticipate.Materialsshouldinclude

specificinformationdesignedwitheachtargetaudienceinmind.

6. PSUshouldfosterrelationshipsacrosscampusandintheRailtown

communitythatcontributetoNativeAmericanstudentcollegesuccess.This

shouldincludeadministration,teachingfacultyinallacademicunits,student

servicesstaff,andmembersoftheRailtownReconciliationCouncilinits

effortstobridgethediscontinuitybetweenthemainstreamRailtown

populationandthePSUandPrairieStateAmericanIndianpopulations.

Theserelationshipscanstrengthenthenetworkofsupportavailablefor

NativeAmericanstudentsatPSU,andultimately,theiracademicattainment.

7. WiththenewAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter(AIECC)asa

focalpoint,PSUshouldexpandthepresenceofNativeAmericanmaterial

cultureoncampus.Thepresenceoftribalartandculturalartifactsin

prominentplacescampuswide(i.e.notonlyattheAIECC)–onthegrounds

andinadministrativeandacademicbuildings–willhelpeasethetransition

fortribalstudentsandmakethemfeelthattheircultureisindeedpresent

andvaluedatPSU.Inarelatedrecommendation,PSUshouldbuildonthe

successofitscurrentseriesofculturalevents(e.g.speakers,powwow,

musicians,etc.)andworktoexpandstudentandfacultyparticipation.

8. PSUshouldtakeaggressiveactiontowardenhancingthesocialclimatefor

AmericanIndianstudentsandprofessionals.Theissuesofmaterialculture

andculturalprogrammingdescribedaboveshouldbecomplementedwith

educationaleffortstocombatracismandculturalinsensitivitythatoccuron

campus.CurrentNativeAmericanstudents,facultyandstaffshouldhave

inputintodesigningtheseprograms.

9. PSUshouldincreaseitsfocusonAmericanIndianstudentrecruitment

throughoutthestate,andregion.Thisshouldincludetheallocationof

necessaryresourcestoachievea‘criticalmass’ofNativestudentsatPSU.

Effortsshouldincludearegularpresenceattribalhighschoolsandcolleges,

campusvisits,familyinvolvement,andstrategiesforovercoming

shortcomingsinprospectivestudents’academicpreparation.Onceagain,the

activeinvolvementofcurrentNativeAmericanstudentsandstaffin

designingandimplementingsuchprogrammingwillbecriticaltoitssuccess.

10. PSUmustdevelopanimprovedsystemofaccountingforitsNative

Americanstudents,includingaccuratecontactinformation,wherethey

attendandhowtheyareprogressingtowardtheiracademicandprofessional

goals.CarefulmonitoringwillhelpalertfacultyandstafftobarriersNative

studentsmaybeexperiencingintimetohelpthemovercomethesebarriers

andfacilitatethestudents’academicattainment.Anearlyalertsystemcanbe

implementedthatwillincludetheNativeAmericanAdvisor,academic

advisor,teachingfacultyandresidentiallifestaffandmakethemallmore

awareofandresponsivetoeachstudents’strengthsandchallenges.This

supportnetworkthenbecomesa‘safetynet’whenproblemsoccurand

otherwiseencouragesthestudents’collegesuccessandacademicattainment.

11. PSUshouldincreaseitsemphasisonrecruitingandretainingAmerican

Indianfacultyandstaffinordertoreachnumbersproportionaltoand

representativeofthestate’sAmericanIndianpopulation.Recruitmentefforts

mustbeintentionalandcouldbetargetedateitherPSUNativegraduatesor

otherprogramswithlargenumbersofAmericanIndiangraduates.Onceon

campus,Nativefacultyandstaffshouldhaveamentortoassistthemwith

adjustmenttothecampusandcommunityandwhocanhelpthemfind

comfortandsuccessatPSU.Thisshouldincludeintroductionand

networkingwiththeothertribalpeople.

12. PSUshoulddevelopanenhancedAmericanIndianStudiescurriculumto

includeamajorintheareaattheBachelor’slevel,alongwiththe

developmentofgraduatedegrees.Thisimpliesrecruitmentofadditional

NativefacultyandpromotionoftheprogramtobothNativeandnon‐Native

students.

13. AcollaborativeorganizationcomposedofstakeholdersinPrairieState

AmericanIndianHigherEducationshouldbeformed.Thiscouldincludea

cooperativeboardofeducators,fromRegentalandnon‐Regentalinstitutions,

togetherwiththestate’stribalcollegesanduniversities.Thegroup’sprimary

goalshouldbeworkingtogethertoaddresscommonbarriers,enhance

facilitators,sharebestpractices,andworktowardimprovedrecruitment,

retention,andgraduationofAmericanIndiancollegestudentsinthestate.

SuggestionsforFurtherResearch

1. FurtherresearchatPSUshouldcollectsurveydatafromabroadercross‐

sectionofthecampusNativestudentcommunity.Inaddition,majority

studentandfacultyattitudesandexperiencesmightbeexaminedtobetter

understandtheirattitudestowardAmericanIndiansandthebroadercontext

oftheNativestudentexperienceoncampus.

2. Carefulevaluationresearchthatdocumentstheeffectivenessandbest

practicesofcurrentcampusdiversityinitiativesshouldbeundertaken.

Currently,whilethereexistsanarrayofprogrammingaimedatrecruiting

andretainingNativestudents,thereisnotaclearunderstandingofwhat

aboutthoseprogramsisandisnotworkingtoenhanceAmericanIndian

studentacademicattainment.DifferentialgraduationratesbetweenNative

andNon‐Nativestudentssuggestthereisroomforimprovement.More

intentionalprogramassessmentshouldbeconductedandresultsshared

widelysothatsuccessescanbebuiltupon,commonmisstepsavoided,and

limitedresourcesmaybestrategicallydirectedtosuccessfulprograms.

3. Theapproachexecutedinthisresearchcouldbesimilarlyappliedto

enhanceunderstandingofbarriersandfacilitatorsofeducationalattainment

forotherstudentsofcolor,includingAfricanAmericans,Latino/as,

Asian/PacificIslanders,andthediversearrayofinternationalstudents

attendingPSU.Whilecommonthemesmayemerge,additional,unique

insightswouldbegainedfromthisbroaderfocus.

4. FurtherresearchfocusedonsimilaruniversitiesinPrairieStateandthe

Midwest,andanyothercomparablysizeinstitutionwithasubstantialNative

Americanstudentpopulationshouldbeconducted.Suchresearchshould

includemoreintensiveindividualinterviewswithNativestudentsinaddition

tothefocusgroupinterviewtechnique.Theuseofadditionalintensive

interviewswillprovideasafeguardagainstpossibleinhibitionsresulting

fromsociallyconstructedgroupviewpoints.Suchinvestigationswillenhance

theunderstandingofbothcommonanduniquebarriersencounteredby

NativeAmericanstudentsandbestinstitutionalpracticesforfacilitating

studentattainment.

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Althusser,Louis.1969.ForMarx.Harmondsworth,England:Penguin.Astin,AlexanderW.1982.MinoritiesinAmericanHigherEducation.SanFransisco: Jossey‐Bass.Babbie,Earl.2007.ThePracticeofSocialResearch,11thEdition.Belmont,CA: ThomsonWadsworth.Ball,Jessica.andAllenPence.2001.Constructingknowledgeandtrainingcurricula about earlychildhoodcareanddevelopmentinCanadianAboriginal communities.PaperpresentedattheAnnualMeetingoftheAmerican EducationalResearchAssociation,Seattle,WA.April12,2001.(ERIC DocumentReproductionServiceNo.ED451995).Barnhardt,Carol.1994.Lifeontheotherside:AlaskaNativeteachereducation studentsandtheUniversityofAlaskaFairbanks.Ph.D.dissertation,University ofBritishColumbia,1994.Barth,Fredrik.1969.EthnicGroupsandBoundaries.London:AllenandUnwin.Baynham,Jacob.2010.Montanan:TheMagazineoftheUniversityofMontana. Winter,2010.14‐17.Belgarde,MaryJ.1992.“TheperformanceandpersistenceofAmericanIndian undergraduatestudentsatStanfordUniversity.”Ph.D.dissertation, StanfordUniversity,1992.DissertationAbstractsInternational,5305A.Berg,BruceL.1989.QualitativeResearchMethodsfortheSocialSciences3rded. NeedhamHeights,MA:AlanandBacon.Berkhofer,RobertF.1978.TheWhiteMan’sIndian:ImagesoftheAmericanIndian fromColumbustoPresent.NewYork:RandomHouse.Berry,Brewton.1969.TheEducationofAmericanIndians:ASurveyoftheLiterature. Washington,D.C.:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice.Bordewich,FergusM.1996.KillingtheWhiteMan’sIndian:ReinventingNative AmericansattheendoftheTwentiethCentury.NewYork:Doubleday.

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APPENDIXA:

InterviewGuideforAdministratorsandFaculty

IamScottFlemingoftheSociologyDepartmentatPlainsStateUniversity.

Thankyoufortakingthetimetospeakwithme.Iamapersonofancestraldescent

fromtheMeskwakipeopleofIowaandtheCherokeepeopletheSoutheastern

UnitedStates.Ihavebeenaroundnativepeopleandcommunitiesallofmylife.I

haveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunitiesinMinnesotaandWisconsin.I

haveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPowWowsacrossthecountry.Ihave

longbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacingAmericanIndianpeople,particularly

howtoimprovetheconditionsforeducationalsuccessforAmericanIndian

students.

IamdoingmydoctoraldissertationintheareaofIndianhighereducation,

specifically,whatfactorscombinetofacilitateorhindereducationalattainmentfor

AmericanIndiancollegestudents.

Aspartofthisstudy,thefollowinginterviewisdesignedtoenhanceour

understandingofwhatfactorsworktowardthefacilitationorhindranceof

educationalsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withyourpermission,I

willrecordourconversationonadigitalaudiorecorder.AsItranscribethe

interviewallidentifyinginformationwillberemovedthuskeepingyour

participationinthestudyanonymous.

Iwillalsoprovideyouwithcontactinformationincaseyouwouldliketo

furtherdiscussanyinformationorissuesyoumayhaveaftertheinterviewis

completed.

DoyouagreetoparticipateinthisinterviewasIhaveexplainedittoyou?

Doyouhaveanyquestionsformebeforewebegin?

ToAdministratorsandFaculty:

• Describehowtheuniversityaddressesissuesofdiversity?

• Howdoestheuniversityaddressissuesrelatingtominoritystudents,specificallyNativeAmericans?

• WhatthreeorfourfactorsdoyoubelievehelpNativeAmericanstudentspersistthroughcollege?

• Whatdoyouperceiveasthethreeorfourgreatestbarrierstocompletingcollege?

• HowdoeshelpingAmericanIndianstudentssucceedfitwiththemissionandstrategicplanoftheuniversity?

• WhataresomeoftheproblemsadministrationseesinrecruitingandretainingNativeAmericanstudent?

• WhatistherelationshipbetweenNativeAmericansstudentsandfaculty?

• Whatcanthestatedotoensuretheuniversityissupportingdiversity,especiallyNativeAmericanstudents?

• DescribeidealsituationforNativeAmericanstudentstoflourishattheuniversity.

• CouldPSUbetterserveitsAmericanIndianstudents?

APPENDIXB:

InterviewGuideforStudents

Thankyoufortakingthetimetospeakwithme.Iamapersonofancestraldescent

fromtheMeskwakipeopleofIowaandtheCherokeepeopletheSoutheastern

UnitedStates.Ihavebeenaroundnativepeopleandcommunitiesallofmylife.I

haveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunitiesinMinnesotaandWisconsin.I

haveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPowWowsacrossthecountry.Ihave

longbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacingAmericanIndianpeople,particularly

howtoimprovetheconditionsforeducationalsuccessforAmericanIndian

students.

Aspartofthisstudythefollowinginterviewisdesignedtoenhanceour

understandingwhatfactorsworktowardthefacilitationorhindranceofeducational

successforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withyourpermission,Iwillrecordour

conversationonadigitalaudiorecorder.AsItranscribetheinterviewallidentifying

informationwillberemovedthuskeepingyourparticipationinthestudy

anonymous.

furtherdiscussanyinformationorissuesyoumayhaveaftertheinterviewis

completed.

DoyouagreetoparticipateinthisinterviewasIhaveexplainedittoyou?

Doyouhaveanyquestionsformebeforewebegin?

Tobeginwith,I’dliketolearnalittleaboutyou:

DemographicCharacteristics:

1. Yourage:

2. Gender:

3. TribalAffiliation:

4. Placeofbirth:

5. Maritalstatus:

6. Numberofchildren(ifany):

7. Yearinschool:CollegeMajor

ToStudents:

• Describehowyouperceivehowtheuniversityaddressesissuesofdiversity?

1. Haveyouexperiencedanyinstancesofprejudiceonthiscampus?2. Ifso,willyoutellmeaboutthat?

• Howdoestheuniversityaddressissuesrelatingtominoritystudents,specificallyNativeAmericans?

1. Doyoufeelthattherearechallenges,asanAmericanIndianstudent,hereatamainstreamcollegethatdonotexistfornon‐Indianstudents?Explain

2. Whatwaysdoyouhavefordealingwiththat?3. DoyouspendtimeattheNACC/MAO?Howmuch?When?4. Doyoufindithelpful?Comfortable?5. Howso?6. Ifnot,why?

• Whatwouldyouconsidertobethreeorfourfactorsthathaveledyoutopersistthroughyouruniversitysofar?

1. Inwhatwayswouldyousayyourfamilyhasbeensupportiveofyourcollegeexperience?

2. Inwhatways,ifany,doyoudrawontraditionalnativeculturetohelpdealwiththechallengesofcollegelife?

3. Doyouhaveasupportivenetwork?Friends,FacultyFamily?4. Tellmewhatsupportservicesprovidedbytheuniversityyoutakeadvantageof?

• Whathavebeenthethreeorfourbarrierstoovercomeintryingtocompleteyoureducation?

1. Howdoyoucopewith__________asabarrier?2. Ifrespondentmentionedmoneyasaproblem.Doyouwork?Doyoureceive

financialaid?Inwhatspecificwaysdofinancialconcernscauseyouproblems?3. Hasyourfamilybeennon‐supportiveinanyway?Explain.

4. WheredidyougotoHighSchool?DescribeyourH.S.experience.Didyougetgoodgrades?Didyouhaveafavoritesubject?Wereyourteachershelpful?

5. DoyouthinkH.S.preparedyouforcollegelevelcourses?

• Ifyouthinkaboutfriendsthathavestartedcollegebutnotfinished‐whatdoyouthinkkeptthemfromdoingso?

• Whatwouldbeyouridealinstitution?

• CouldPSUbetterserveitsAmericanIndianstudents?

APPENDIXC:

PARTICIPANTCONSENTFORM

(Tobesignedinthepresenceoftheresearcher/participantcopyprovided)

PARTICIPATIONINPERSONALINTERVIEW

PlainsStateUniversity

Railtown,PSXXXXX

ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming

DepartmentofRuralSociology

Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX

Pleasereadthefollowingpoints,andfeelfreetoaskanyquestionsthatariseasyoudoso.

ThisisaninvitationforyoutoparticipateinaresearchprojectunderthedirectionofScottFleming.Thenameofthisprojectis“AmericanIndianEducationalAttainment:AComparativeAnalysisofFactorsthatHinderorFacilitateEducationalSuccessforAmericanIndianStudentsatPSU”.

ThepurposeofthisprojecttogainanincreasedunderstandingofthefactorsthatcombinetohinderorfacilitateeducationalsuccessattwopredominantlyWhite,mainstreamcollegesinPrairieState.Theproposedstudywillusethequalitativeresearchmethodsincluding;focusgroups,personalinterviews,fieldobservationsanddocumentarydataanalysis.ParticipantsinthestudywillincludeAmericanIndiancollegestudentsatbothPlainsStateUniversityandtheUniversityofPrairieState.Additionally,UniversityPresidents,DiversityCoordinators,facultymembersandProgramCoordinatorswillbeinterviewedinordertogainasenhancedunderstandingofthosefactorsoutlinedintheresearchquestionsfromaninstitutionalperspective.

Thisportionofthestudyconsistsofaoneononepersonalinterview,thetotalnumberofwhichwillbe10to12AmericanIndiancollegestudents.Thisprocesswillincludeatapedgroupinterview,andwillprobablylast1to2hours.Your

identifyinginformationandresponseswillbekeptstrictlyconfidential.Everyeffortwillbemadetoensurethattherewillbenopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinanyreportsorsubsequentworksarisingfromthisresearchproject.Yourtranscriptwillnotbeidentifiedbyeithernameorlocation.OriginalcontactsheetswillbekeptinalockedcabinetintheofficeoftheDeanoftheHonorsCollegeatPlainsStateUniversity.Thisinterviewwillbetranscribedontoahardcopyformatatwhichtimethedigitalrecordingswillbedeleted.Pleasenotethatallinformationdiscussedduringthissessionisconfidential,andthatwithyoursignatureandparticipationyouagreetokeepallinformationinthisdiscussionconfidential.

Therearenoknownriskstoyouforparticipatinginthisstudy.Pleasebeawarethatyourparticipationisvoluntaryandthatyouhavetherighttowithdrawatanytimeinthecourseofthestudy.

Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcernsrelatingtoyourparticipationinthisfocusgroupyoumaycontactmebyphoneore‐mailaslistedabove.YoumayalsocontactmyresearchsupervisorDr.XXXXXXXXXXat(605)XXX‐XXXX,orbye‐mailat....

Inaddition,ifyouhavequestionsregardingyourrightsasaparticipantinthisstudy,pleasecontact.

Dr.Ph.D.

ChairpersonoftheHumanSubjectsCommittee

Box2115,Library

Railtown,PSXXXXX

Office:(605)XXX‐XXXX

ThePSUInstitutionalReviewBoardhasapprovedthisproject.

ApprovalNo.:__________________

Asaresearchparticipant,Ihavereadtheabove,havehadanyquestionsanswered,andagreetoparticipateintheresearchproject.Iwillreceiveacopyofthisformformyinformation.

Participant’sSignature________________________________________________Date______________

ProjectDirector’sSignature__________________________________________Date______________

APPENDIXD:

PARTICIPATIONINFOCUSGROUPINTERVIEW

Railtown,PSXXXXX

ThisisaninvitationforyoutoparticipateinaresearchprojectunderthedirectionofScottFleming.Thenameofthisprojectis“AmericanIndianEducationalAttainment:AComparativeAnalysisofFactorsthatHinderorFacilitateEducationalSuccessforAmericanIndianStudentsatPSU”.

Thisportionofthestudyconsistsofafocusgroupincluding10to12AmericanIndiancollegestudents.Thisprocesswillincludeatapedgroupinterview,andwillprobablylast1to2hours.Youridentifyinginformationandresponseswillbekeptstrictlyconfidential.Everyeffortwillbemadetoensurethattherewillbenopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinanyreportsorsubsequentworksarisingfromthisresearchproject.Yourtranscriptwillnotbeidentifiedbyeithernameorlocation.OriginalcontactsheetswillbekeptinalockedcabinetintheofficeoftheDeanoftheHonorsCollegeatPlainsStateUniversity.Thisinterviewwillbetranscribedontoahardcopyformatatwhichtimethedigitalrecordingswillbedeleted.Pleasenotethatallinformationdiscussedduringthissessionisconfidential,andthatwithyoursignatureandparticipationyouagreetokeepallinformationinthisdiscussionconfidential.

Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcernsrelatingtoyourparticipationinthisfocusgroupyoumaycontactmebyphoneore‐mailaslistedabove.YoumayalsocontactmyresearchsupervisorDr.XXXXXXXXXXat(605)XXX‐XXXX.Inaddition,ifyouhavequestionsregardingyourrightsasaparticipantinthisstudy,pleasecontact.

Dr.Ph.D.

Box2115,Library

Railtown,PSXXXXX

ApprovalNo.:__________________

ProjectDirector’sSignature__________________________________________Date_____________

APPENDIXE:

PARTICIPATIONINPERSONALINTERVIEWADMINSTRATOR/FACULTY

Railtown,PSXXXXX

ThisisaninvitationforyoutoparticipateinaresearchprojectunderthedirectionofScottFleming.Thenameofthisprojectis“AmericanIndianEducationalAttainment:AnAnalysisofFactorsthatHinderorFacilitateEducationalSuccessforAmericanIndianStudentsatPSU”.

Thisportionofthestudyconsistsofaoneononepersonalinterviewwithamemberofadministrationorfaculty.Thisprocesswillincludeatapedgroupinterview,andwillprobablylast1to2hours.Youridentifyinginformationandresponseswillbekeptstrictlyconfidential.Everyeffortwillbemadetoensurethattherewillbenopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinanyreportsorsubsequentworksarisingfromthisresearchproject.Yourtranscriptwillnotbeidentifiedbyeithernameorlocation.OriginalcontactsheetswillbekeptinalockedcabinetintheofficeoftheDeanoftheHonorsCollegeatPlainsStateUniversity.Thisinterviewwillbetranscribedontoahardcopyformatatwhichtimethedigitalrecordingswillbedeleted.Pleasenotethatallinformationdiscussedduringthissessionisconfidential,andthatwithyoursignatureandparticipationyouagreetokeepallinformationinthisdiscussionconfidential.

Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcernsrelatingtoyourparticipationinthisfocusgroupyoumaycontactmebyphoneore‐mailaslistedabove.YoumayalsocontactmyresearchsupervisorDr.XXXXXXXXXXat(605)XXX‐XXXX.Inaddition,ifyouhavequestionsregardingyourrightsasaparticipantinthisstudy,pleasecontact.

Dr.Ph.D.

Box2115,Library

Railtown,PSXXXXX

ApprovalNo.:__________________

ProjectDirector’sSignature__________________________________________Date______________

APPENDIXF:

IntroductiontoFocusGroupandDemographicQuestionnaire

Thankyoufortalkingwithme.Iamapersonofancestraldescentfromthe

MeskwakipeopleofIowaandtheCherokeepeopletheSoutheasternUnitedStates.

WhileIamnotanenrolledmemberofanytribe,Ihavebeenaroundnativepeople

andcommunitiesallofmylife.Ihaveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunities

inMinnesotaandWisconsin.IhaveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPow

Wowsacrossthecountry.Ihavelongbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacing

AmericanIndianpeople,particularlyhowtoimprovetheconditionsforeducational

successforAmericanIndianstudents.

Aspartofthisstudy,thefollowinginterviewisdesignedtoenhanceour

understandingofwhatfactorsworktowardthefacilitationorhindranceof

educationalsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withyourpermission,I

willrecordourconversationonadigitalaudiorecorder.AsItranscribethe

interviewallidentifyinginformationwillberemovedthuskeepingyour

participationinthestudyanonymous.

furtherdiscussanyfurtherinformationorissuesyoumayhaveaftertheinterviewis

completed.

DoyouagreetoparticipateinthisinterviewasIhaveexplainedittoyou?Do

youhaveanyquestionsformebeforewebegin?

DemographicInformation

Tobeginwith,I’dliketolearnalittleaboutyou:

DemographicCharacteristics:

1. Yourage:

2. Gender:

3. TribalAffiliation:

4. Placeofbirth:

5. Didyougrowuponornearareservation?

6. Wheredidyougotohighschool?

7. Maritalstatus:

8. Numberofchildren(ifany):

9. Yearinschool:

10. CollegeMajor:

APPENDIXG:

NativeAmericanStudentScholarships:SpecifictoPSU.

Abbott,Kasey&Karla‐Jr.andSr.S.D.studentsinsciencemajors.

Berg,Sherwood&Elizabeth‐Preferenceforhealthcaremajors.Leadership

qualitiesexhibitedinNativeAmericanculture/communityservices.

CrazyHorseMemorialScholarships‐Anymajorwithfinancialneed.

CrazyHorseHealthMajorsScholarship.

Daktronics‐Engineeringmajor.

France,William‐PrairieStatetribalaffiliation.

Houda,Eugene&MaryMilner‐Preferenceforscience,health,economics,and

familyservicemajors.

ManAfraidofHisHorses‐PreferenceforCollegeofAgricultureandBiological

Sciencesmajors.

MassachusettsIndianAssociation‐Forfulltimeundergraduateorgraduate

students.

Marken,Jack&Marty‐PreferenceforEnglishorcommunicationstudiesmajors.

NativeAmericanScholarship‐PrairieStateTribalEnrollment.

Nichols,Henrietta‐Mustbeenrolled(orhaveaparentenrolled)withtheYankton

SiouxTribe.

Reifel,Ben‐PrairieStatetribalenrollment.

Roberti,HelenTrust‐PreferenceforEducation,Science,andHealthmajors.

Sander,Brede&Siri‐Engineeringmajors.

NativeAmericanScholarships:NonPSUspecific.

AmericanIndianCollegeFund.TheAmericanIndianCollegeFund(AICF)awards

severaldesignatedscholarshipseachyear.

FordMotorCompanyTribalScholarship.FordMotorCompanywillawardupto

$5,000annually,basedonfinancialneed.Thescholarshipisforstudentsstudying

math,science,engineering,business,teachertraining,orenvironmentalscience.

AmericanIndianEducationFoundation.MustbeNativeAmericanorAlaskanNative

descent;full‐timestudent;attendinganaccredited2or4‐yearcollegeoruniversity

oravocationaltechnicalschool.Threetypesofscholarshipsareavailable:freshman

scholarships;undergraduatescholarships;continuingstudentscholarships.

AmericanIndianFellowshipinBusinessScholarship.Eachyear,theNationalCenter

forAmericanIndianEnterpriseDevelopmentawardsfivescholarshipstoAmerican

Indiancollegeorgraduatestudentsmajoringinbusiness.

AmericanIndianScholarshipFundAssociation.Providesscholarshipsandloansto

NativeAmericanstudents.

AmericanIndianScience&EngineeringSociety(AISES).TheAISESmissionis“To

substantiallyincreasetherepresentationofAmericanIndianandAlaskanNativesin

engineering,science,andotherrelatedtechnologydisciplines.”

BurlingtonNorthern/SantaFeFoundationScholarship.Thisscholarshipisavailable

to5newAmericanIndianhighschoolseniorseveryyear,whoresideinstates

servicedbytheBurlingtonNorthernandSantaFePacificCorporationandits

affiliatedcompanies:Arizona,California,Colorado,Kansas,Minnesota,Montana,

NewMexico,NorthDakota,Oklahoma,Oregon,PrairieState,andWashington.The

awardisfor4academicyears(8semesters)oruntilbaccalaureatedegreeis

obtained(whicheveroccursfirst).

A.T.AndersonMemorialScholarship.Thisscholarshipisawardedtomembersof

AISESwhoareAmericanIndian/AlaskanNativecollegestudentspursuingacademic

programsinthesciences,engineering,medical,naturalresources,andmath.

AmericanIndianServicesScholarship(AIS).AISofUtahhasfundsavailabletoassist

NativeAmericanstudents

AssociationofAmericanIndianAffairs(AAIA).TheAAIAhasseveralscholarships

available.Thevariousscholarshipsarebasedonfinancialneedandmerit.Grantsare

paiddirectlytoaccreditededucationalinstitutions.Themoniescanbeusedfor

tuition,books,andotheracademic‐relatedexpenses.Studentsarechosenonthe

basisoftheirapplication,anessay,transcripts,andtwolettersofrecommendation

aswellasproofofNativeAmericanheritage.Thebloodquantumrequirementisa

conditionsetdownbythedonorofthisscholarship.

AlloganSlagleMemorialScholarship.TheAlloganSlagleMemorialScholarshipsin

theamountof$1,500areavailabletoundergraduatestudentswhoaremembersof

StateRecognizedtribesthatarenotfederallyrecognized.

AdolphVanPeltScholarship.Thisscholarshipisavailabletoundergraduateand

graduatestudentsinamountsrangingfrom$500to$800.Agrantisrenewablefor

uptofouryearsofsupporttowardsanyonedegree.Eachyearthegrantisrenewed,

$100isaddedtothestudent'sscholarship.

DisplacedHomemakerScholarship.Thisscholarship($1.500)isbasedonfinancial

need.ItisdesignedtoassistNativeAmericanstudentswithchildcare,

transportation,andsomebasiclivingexpenses.

ElizabethandShermanAscheMemorialScholarship.This$3,000scholarshipis

availabletoundergraduateandgraduatestudentspursuingamajorinPublicHealth.

DavidRislingEmergencyAidScholarship.Thisscholarshipisavailableinamounts

usuallyrangingfrom$50to$400duringtheacademicschoolyear.Theprogramis

forfull‐timeundergraduatestudentsonly;isbasedonfinancialneed;andislimited

bytheavailabilityofscholarshipfunds.Studentsmayonlyreceiveonescholarship

peracademicyear.Applicantsmusthaveacritical/suddenneedduetoachangein

circumstances(deathinfamily,medicalemergency,caremergency,lossofjob,etc.)

–aneedthatwasn’texpectedorwouldpreventthestudentfromattendingschool.

Therearenodeadlines.

EmilieHesemeyerMemorialScholarship.Thisscholarshipisforfull‐timestudents

withpreferencetostudentsmajoringinEducation.Thescholarshipamountis

$1,500andmayberenewedupto4yearsbasedonacademicgrades.

CatchingtheDream.ProvidesfinancialassistanceforAmericanIndiansinfieldsthat

arecriticalforthepolitical,social,andbusinessdevelopmentofIndiantribes.

Scholarshipsarenotneed‐basedbutareawardedonmeritandonthestudent's

abilitytoimprovethelivesofIndianpeople.

MESBEC(Math,Engineering,Science,Business,Education,andComputers)isa

programforhighpotentialNativeAmericansplanningtostudyinthesefields.

Maximumawardis$5,000peryear.

NALE(NativeAmericanLeadershipEducation)isforhighpotentialpara‐

professionalNativeAmericanswhoplantocompletetheirdegreesandobtain

credentialsasteachers,counselors,oradministrators.

TribalBusinessManagementProgramManagement.Isforstudentsinbusiness,

finance,management,economics,banking,hotelmanagement,andrelatedfields

whoplantoworkineconomicdevelopmentfortribes.

ContinentalSocietyDaughtersofIndianWarsScholarship.A$500awardisavailable

tocertifiedtribalmembersenrolledinanundergraduateeducationorsocial

servicesprogram;studentmustplantoworkonareservation.

DakotaIndianFoundationScholarship(DIFS).TheDIFSwasestablishedtofurther

educationaladvancementofaspiringAmericanIndianstudentswithprioritygiven

tothoseofSiouxheritage.Thisisa$500pertermscholarshipforundergraduateor

graduate.

GatesMillenniumScholarship.Thisscholarshipisintendedtoincreasethenumber

ofAfrican‐Americans,AmericanIndians/AlaskaNatives,AsianPacificAmericans,

andHispanicAmericansenrollinginandcompletingundergraduateandgraduate

degreeprogramsindisciplineswhereethnicandracialgroupsarecurrently

underrepresented.

IndianFellowshipProgram.Fellowshipgrantsareawardedtostudentstopursue

coursesofstudyleadingtoundergraduatedegreesinbusinessoradministration,

naturalresources,engineering,andrelatedfields.

IndianHealthServicesScholarshipProgram(IHSSP).TheIHSSPisavailableto

conductthreeinter‐relatedscholarshipprogramstotrainthehealthprofessional

personnelnecessarytostaffIHShealthprogramsandotherhealthprogramsserving

theIndianpeople.

InternationalOrderoftheKing’sDaughtersandSons,Inc.Providesa$500grantto

NativeAmericanstudentsenrolledinatechnical,vocational,orundergraduatelevel

courseofstudy.

MassachusettsIndianAssociation.Thisisascholarshipforundergraduateor

graduatestudents

NationalSocietyDaughtersoftheAmericanRevolution.Providesaone‐timeaward

of$500toNativeAmericansbasedonfinancialneed,academicachievement,and

ambition.

NativeAmericanEducationGrants.Scholarships($200to$2,000)areavailableto

studentswhomeetthefollowingcriteria:preferencetomembersofPresbyterian

Church(membershipnotrequired);UScitizenorpermanentresident;enrolledfull‐

timeatanaccreditedinstitutionintheUnitedStates;makingsatisfactoryacademic

progresstowardadegree;demonstratefinancialneed;photocopyoftribal

identificationcard.

NativeAmericanScholarshipProgram.Upto$2,500peryearisawardedtoNative

Americanhighschoolseniorswhohaveatleast1/4Indianblood.

NativeVisionScholarships.TheguidingprincipleforNativeVisionistocultivatethe

corestrengths,values,andpositiverelationshipsforAmericanIndianyouththat

willmakethemresilienttotheprevailingrisksandhelpthemtransitiontohealthy,

productiveandfulfillingadulthood.NativeVisionhopestofosterschoolcompletion,

self‐esteem,culturalattachmentandpersonalidentity,andhealthylifestyles.Two

$4,000scholarshipsareavailable.

Udall(MorrisK.)Scholarship.Upto6studentseachyearfortheMorrisK.Udall

Scholarship.TheawardswillbemadeonthebasisofmerittoTWOgroupsof

Students:1)thosewhoarecollegesophomoresorjuniorsinthecurrentacademic

year,haveoutstandingpotential,andwhostudytheenvironmentandrelatedfields.

2)NativeAmericanandAlaskaNativestudentswhoarecollegesophomoresor

juniorsinthecurrentacademicyear,haveoutstandingpotential,andareinfields

relatedtohealthcareortribalpublicpolicy.

USDepartmentofAgriculture:NaturalResourceConservationService(NRCS)

Scholarship.TheaimoftheTribalScholarsProgramistostrengthenapartnership

betweenNRCSand1994Land‐Grantinstitutions;increasethenumberofstudents

studyinginagricultureandagencyrelateddisciplines;andtoofferemployment

opportunities.TribalscholarshipsareawardedtoU.S.citizenswhoarepursuinga

degreeinagricultureorrelatednaturalresourcesciencesata1994triballand‐grant

institution.Thescholarshipprovidesfulltuition,fees,books,useofapersonal

computerandsoftwarewhileonscholarships,roomandboardeachyearforupto

fouryearsaswellasemploymentandemployeebenefits.

AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeEmployeeAssociationforNRCS.Scholarshipswill

beawardedtoanAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudentpursuingadegreeina

naturalresourcesfield.Thescholarshipamountis$200.Therearetwocategories:

oneformembersoftheAI/ANEAandoneforanAmericanIndianorAlaskaNative

studentinthenaturalresourcesfield.

USDepartmentofEducation.Fellowshipsof$600to$24,000areavailablefor

AmericanIndianorNativeAlaskanundergraduateorgraduatestudentsstudying

education,psychology,guidancecounseling,orarelatedfield.

PresbyterianNativeAmericanScholarships.ForAlaskaNativesandNative

Americanspursuingfull‐timepost‐secondaryeducation.Criteria:preferencegiven

tomembersofthePresbyterianChurch(USA);behighschoolgraduatedorGED

recipients;beUScitizensorpermanentresidentsortheUS.Demonstratefinancial

need.Preferencewillbegiventostudentswhohavecompletedatleastone

semesterofworkatanaccreditedinstitutionofhighereducation.

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