american indian college success at a mainstream university: facilitators and barriers to academic...
DESCRIPTION
This study is an ethnographic exploration into the barriers to academic attainment and the factors that facilitate retention and graduation for American Indian students at a predominantly White university in the upper Midwest.TRANSCRIPT
AMERICANINDIANCOLLEGESUCCESSATAMAINSTREAMUNIVERSITY:
FACILITATORSANDBARRIERSTOACADEMICATTAINMENTBy
SCOTTD.FLEMING
Adissertationsubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe
DoctorofPhilosophy
MajorinSociology
SouthDakotaStateUniversity
2010
ii
AMERICANINDIANCOLLEGESUCCESSATAMAINSTREAMUNIVERSITY:
FACILITATORSANDBARRIERSTOACADEMICATTAINMENT
Thisdissertationisapprovedasacredibleandindependentinvestigationby
acandidatefortheDoctorofPhilosophydegreeandisacceptableformeetingthe
dissertationrequirementsforthisdegree.Acceptanceofthisdissertationdoesnot
implythattheconclusionsreachedbythecandidatearenecessarilytheconclusions
ofthemajordepartment.
____________________________________________________________
TimothyJ.Nichols,Ph.D. Date DissertationAdvisor
____________________________________________________________ DianeKayongo‐Male,Ph.D. Date Head,RuralSociology
iii
Acknowledgements
Therearemanywithoutwhosesupport,encouragement,andassistancethis
dissertationcouldnothavebeenpossible.TothosepeopleIoffermydeepest
gratitudeandeternaldebt.Firstandforemostamongmysupportersaremyfamily,
Ranae,Hannah,andTyler.Withouttheirsacrificeandperseverancethroughoutthe
manylongyearsthatIsoughtmyownacademicattainment,thiswouldnothave
beenpossible.
Tothefaculty,staff,andadministratorsofPSU,whograciouslysharedwith
metheirthoughts,feelingsandopinionsontheNativeAmericancollegeexperience
atthisuniversity,Ioffermanythanks.TheircommitmentanddedicationtoNative
studentsuccesswillserveasmymodelthroughouttheyearstocome.
Finally,andmostimportantly,ImustacknowledgethemanyAmerican
Indianstudentswhoplacedinmethetrustthatallowedthemtosharetheirhopes,
andaspirationsforcollegeandthefrustrationsthatmanyexperiencealongtheway.
Itismysincerehopethatthisdissertationplaysapartingettingtheirvoicesheard
andisofserviceinthefacilitationofacademicattainmentforallNativestudents
interestedinpursuinghighereducation.Toallofthosewhoparticipatedinthis
research,andwhomIconsidermyfriends,Ioffermysincereandheartfeltthanks
andeverlastingappreciation.
iv
Abstract
AMERICANINDIANCOLLEGESUCCESSATAMAINSTREAMUNIVERSITY:
FACILITATORSANDBARRIERSTOACADEMICATTAINMENT
SCOTTD.FLEMING
2010
Thisstudyisanethnographicexplorationintothebarrierstoacademic
attainmentandthefactorsthatfacilitateretentionandgraduationforAmerican
IndianstudentsatapredominantlyWhiteuniversityintheupperMidwest.
Worksincriticaleducationtheoryandcriticalracetheoryprovidethe
frameworkfortheinvestigation.Referencegrouptheoryprovidesthebasisfor
investigatingtheroleplayedbya‘thirdplace’asasafeenvironmentwhere
AmericanIndiancollegestudentscanaffiliatewithanormativereferencegroupthat
sharescommonculturalcapitalthataidsinnavigationthroughtheuniversity
environment.
Theethnographicresearchmethodsofintensiveinterviews,focusgroups,
andparticipantobservationwithuniversityadministrators,faculty,staff,and
studentsareusedtogatherdata.Quantitativedataonuniversityenrollment,
retention,andgraduationbyrace/ethnicityisalsopresented.
Findingsshowamongthemostsalientfacilitators,supportisthemost
significant,followedbycultureandfinancialresources.Amongthemostpowerful
v
barriers,themostsalientwasfoundtobeinstitutionalbarriers,followedbyalackof
support,poorhighschoolpreparation,andthelackofopportunitiesforcultural
expressionandparticipation.
Implicationsandrecommendationsforthepragmaticapplicationoffindings
tothefieldofhighereducationforAmericanIndianstudentsarediscussed.
Recommendationsforfurtherstudyareincluded.
vi
TableofContents
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….iv
ListofTables……………………………………………………………………………………………….….....ix
ChapterOne:Introduction…………..………………………………………………………..................1
ChapterTwo:LiteratureReview…………………..……………………………………………...…10
ABriefHistoryofAmericanIndianEducation………………………………………….10
TheCurrentStateofAmericanIndianHigherEducation………………………..…17
StudiesinAmericanIndianHigherEducation…………………………………….....…23
BarrierstoAmericanIndianHigherEducation……………………………………..….24
FactorsLeadingtoAmericanIndianSuccessinHigherEducation……………..28
SpecificStrategiesforSuccessinHigherEducation…………………………………..31
TheRoleofEthnicIdentityandEmpowerment………………………………………...35
TheRoleofaSharedPlaceforAmericanIndianStudents………………………….41
SummaryandConclusiontoLiteratureReview………………………………………...43
ChapterThree:TheoreticalOrientation……………….………………………………………....47
ChapterFour:Methodology……………………..……………………………………………………....61
ResearchQuestions………………………………………………………………………………....62
StudyInstitution……………………………………………………………………………………..63
StudyParticipants…………………………………………………………………………………...63
ResearchDesign……………………………………………………………………………………...66
Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………...……..67
DataCollectionandAnalysis…………………………………………………………………….73
vii
ConsiderationofHumanSubjects……………………………………………………………..80
ChapterFive:Findings:Quantitative…………………..…………………………………….……..84
ChapterSix:Findings:Facilitators…………………..…………………………………….…………89
Facilitator:Support………………………………………………………………………………….91
Facilitator:FinancialResources……………………………………………………………...101
Facilitator:Culture………………………………………………………………………………...104
ChapterSeven:Findings:Barriers………………………….……………………………….……..107
InstitutionalBarriers……………………………………………………………………………..109
PoorHighSchoolPreparation………………………………………………………………...115
PrejudiceorRacism……………………………………………………………………………….121
LackofSupport……………………………………………………………………………………..123
Family…………………………………………………………………………………………………..128
Financial……………………………………………………………………………………………….131
Community……………………………………………………………………………………………135
Culture………………………………………………………………………………………………….137
DominantCultureReferenceGroup………………………………………………………..142
Place……………………………………………………………………………………………………..147
ChapterEight:Discussion……………………………………………………….……………………...152
Facilitators……………………………………………………………………………………………153
Barriers………………………………………………………………………………………………...163
ChapterNine:Summary,Conclusions,RecommendationsandLimitations....201
Summary/Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………..201
viii
Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………………213
Recommendations………………………………………………………………..……………….216
SuggestionsforFurtherResearch……………………………….………………...………..222
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………...224
Appendices
A:InterviewGuideforAdministratorsandFaculty……………………….………...235
B:InterviewGuideforStudents……………………………………………………...………238
C:ParticipantConsentFormforPersonalInterview………………..............……...242
D:ParticipantConsentFormforFocusGroupInterview………………………….245
E:ParticipantConsentFormforPersonalInterview Administrator/Faculty………………………………………..………………………248 F:IntroductiontoFocusGroupandDemographicQuestionnaire…………….251
G:NativeAmericanScholarships…………………………………………….………..........253
ix
ListofTables
Table……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...page
5.1 EthnicOriginSDSUStudentPopulation………………………………………………….…85
5.2 RetentionandGraduationRatesofFull‐Time,First‐TimeBachelor’s
DegreeseekingStudentPopulation(TotalPopulation)…………………………..…88
5.3 RetentionandGraduationRatesofFull‐Time,First‐TimeBachelor’s
DegreeseekingStudentPopulation(NativeAmericanPopulation)………..…..88
6.1 PrimaryFacilitatorsofAmericanIndianEducationalAttainmentSample
Quotations…………………………………………………………………………………........……...90
7.1 PrimaryBarrierstoAmericanIndianEducationalAttainment
SampleQuotations………………………………………………………………………………...108
CHAPTERONE
Introduction
PlainsStateUniversity(PSU)isapredominantlyWhiteinstitutioninastate
withasignificantandgrowingAmericanIndianpopulation.PSUoffersadiversityof
programsaimedathelpingAmericanIndianssucceedincollege.However,the
mechanismsthatimpacttheefficacyoftheseprogramsarenotwellunderstood.
ThisstudyexploresfacilitatorsandbarrierstoeducationalattainmentforAmerican
IndianstudentsatPSU.
Thisstudyseekstodeterminewhatfactorscombinetoenhanceacademic
attainmentinhighereducationamongAmericanIndianstudents;andconversely,
whatfactorsworkasbarrierstoacademicattainment.Thisstudyexploresthe
factorsthatcontributetoeducationalattainmentamongAmericanIndianstudents
atapredominantlyWhiteuniversityinaMidwesternplainsstate.
ThroughoutthehistoryofcontactbetweenEuropeancolonizersandthe
indigenouspeoplesofNorthAmerica,Indianeducationhadasitsprimarygoalthe
reshapingoftheIndianintothemoldoftheEuropeanman(Meriam1928;Collier
1947;Berkhofer1978).
Berry(1969)illustratesthefailureofAmerica’slonghistoryoffailingto
educatetheIndianintotheWhiteman’simage.Berryattributesthisfailuretothe
historyofrelationsbetweenthedominantsocietyandtribalgroupsregarding
academicachievement.Berrypointsoutthatnearlyeveryconceivablebarrierto
2
educationalsuccesswasatworkregardingtheeducationalexperienceofthe
AmericanIndianstudent.
InthebookNativeAmericanHigherEducationintheUnitedStates,Carney
(1999:147)listsseveralproblemsthataremanifestattheindividuallevelthatactas
obstaclestosuccessinhighereducation.Theseinclude:apersistentlyhighdropout
rateduringorbeforehighschool(Tierney1992);alowproportionofhighschool
graduatesenteringcollege(Belgarde1992);astrongsenseofisolationandof
insurmountableculturalbarriers(RichardsonandSkinner,1991);agenerallackof
academicpreparationandskills,alackofrolemodels,financialproblems,negative
culturalpressure(GuyetteandHeth1983);cultureshock,lackofmotivation,
Englishdeficiency,unrealisticcareergoals,distrustoftheinstitution,andageneral
lackofsupport,socializationandcounseling,(McIntosh1987;WrightandTierney
1991).
AccordingtoHuffman(1999)studentswhoarelessassimilatedtothe
mainstreamculturewillexperiencemorecultureshockuponarrivalatcollegeand
willbemorelikelytodropoutandreturnhomewithoutsomesupportorservices
designedtofacilitatethetransitionfromthefamiliar,moretraditionalenvironment
tothemainstreamcollegeenvironment.Associationwithculturallysimilarpeers
helpssoftentheharsheffectsofcultureshockandsmooththetransition.
Inthebook,TheGreatGoodPlace(1989),Oldenburgmakesastrongcasefor
whatheterms‘thethirdplace’asaplacewhereinformalpublicassociationserves
3
tofacilitateasenseofcommunitywellbeingandsolidaritybasedonsharedvalues
andcommonlifeexperienceatthelocalcommunitylevel.
GarrodandLarimore(1997)compilednarrativesfromAmericanIndian
studentsatDartmouthandfoundthatthegroupknownas“TheNativeAmericansat
Dartmouth”providedachanceforsupportandsolidarityforNativestudentsinthe
foreignworldofanIvyLeaguecampusintheNortheasternUnitedStates.Many
contributorscitedtheformationofsuchareferencegroupastheprimaryfactorin
theircollegesuccess.TheNativeAmericanHouseatDartmouthprovidedasafe
placefortheformationofthereferencegroup.
GiventhecontinuingdisparitybetweengraduationratesofAmericanIndian
andnon‐Indianstudents(Pavel,Skinner,Farris,Calahan,TippeconnicandStein
1998;DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder2008),thisstudyhaswideranging
implicationsfortheimplementationofculturallyrelevantprograms,policiesand
curriculafocusedonincreasingretentionandgraduationratesforAmericanIndian
studentsinhighereducation.
SeveralstudiesshowadisproportionategraduationratebetweenNative
Americanstudentsandnon‐Indianstudentsatboththesecondaryandpost‐
secondarylevels.NativeAmericanstudentsareconsistentlyshowntobemorelikely
todropoutbeforethecompletionofhighschool.Severalreasonsforthedisparity
includealienation,feelingofpowerlessnessandinferiorityestrangement,
depression,andlackofsupport,sufficienthelptosucceedandlackofsuccess
experiences(Wax1967;Berry1969;FalkandAitken1984;Lin,LaCounteandEder
4
1988;Gilliland1988).AcademicdifficultiesandnonpersistenceofNativeAmericans
incollegearesimilarlywelldocumented(Steward1993;Pavelet.al.1998;DeVoe,
Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder2008).Atthecollegelevel,despiteevidenceof
academicability,dropoutratesarehigherforNativeAmericansthanforanyother
minority(Reddy1993;DeVoeetal.2008).NativeAmericansarealso
underrepresentedingraduateprograms(LaFromboiseandLow1989;Pavel1998).
NativeAmericansconsistentlyhavelowereducationalattainmentthanotherethnic
minorities(Lin,LaCounteandEder1988;DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder
2008).
WhatfactorsmightaccountforacademicsuccessamongAmericanIndian
studentsatPSU?Existingprogramssuchas2+2+2(NicholsandNichols,1998),Trio,
UpwardBoundandSuccessAcademy(Lee2006)andtheNativeAmericanClubat
PSUarebelievedtofacilitatesuccessfultransitionforstudentsintothemainstream
university.
Thecriticaltheoreticaltraditionprovidestheconceptualframeworkforthe
study.Worksrelatingtocriticaleducationtheoryandcriticalracetheoryare
identifiedasparticularlysalientforthisexaminationofretentionandgraduationof
AmericanIndianstudentsfromPlainsStateUniversity.
Thecriticalschoolofsociologicaltheory,commonlyreferredtoasthe
FrankfurtSchool,developedintheearly1900soutoftheMarxianperspective.Atits
core,criticaltheorydevelopsamodeofinquirythatgoesbeyondsurfaceillusionsto
uncoverrealstructuresinthematerialworld(Neuman2000).Criticaltheoristshold
5
thatfactscannotbeseparatedfromtheeffectofthedominantvaluesofasociety
(Althusser1969;Bottomore1984;Neuman2000).Criticaltheoryisvalueladenand
emancipatoryinthatitseekstoliberatehumanexistenceandameliorateoppressive
socialconditions.
Gramsci’s(1932)conceptofhegemonyisrelevanttothisstudy.Cultural
hegemonyisasocialconditioninwhichtherulingclassmanipulatescultural
symbolsinsuchawaythatleadsotherclassesorculturalgroupstoeffectively
contributetotheirownsubordination(Gramsci1932).Thisformofdomination
operatesthroughvitalsocialfunctionsinsocialinstitutionssuchaseducation
(Friere1974),andisofparticularinteresttothisstudyofAmericanIndiansand
highereducationatPSU.
Thisstudyemploysaninductiveresearchapproachtoexplorefactors
influencingsecondaryeducationalattainmentofAmericanIndians.Inkeepingwith
thecriticaltheoreticaltradition,themethodsofqualitativeethnographyprovides
thick,richdescriptionfromtheinsider’sperspective.Theconceptof‘praxis’as
introducedbyMarx,isaguidingprincipleinthedesignandimplementationofthis
study.Praxishasasitsgoaltoameliorateoppressivesocialconditionsthroughthe
applicationofpragmaticactionthatisbasedintheoreticallygeneratedideas.This
studyisdirectedatenhancingunderstandingsothatmoreAmericanIndian
studentsareabletoattaintheirhighereducationaspirations.
Datacollectedforthisresearchincludesfocusgroups,intensiveinterviews,
informalinterviews,fieldobservations,participantobservation,anddocumentary
6
dataanalysisincludingquantitativedataonenrollmentandretentionofNative
Americanstudents.Thisdataprovidesusefulinsightforanenhancedunderstanding
oftheresearchquestionsthatfollow.
Basedinthecriticaltheoreticaltradition,thisprojectinvestigatesthe
followingresearchquestions:
1.WhatfactorsfacilitateeducationalattainmentforAmericanIndian
students?
2.WhatfactorsactasbarrierstoeducationalattainmentforAmerican
Indianstudents?
Basedonareviewoftheliterature,thisresearchincludestheexaminationof
issuesrelatingto:
a. Supportprogramsb. Financialresources c. Campusenvironmentd. Familyrelationse. Pre‐collegeacademicpreparationf. Facultyexpectationsg. Faculty,staffandstudentattitudesh. Curriculumi. Culturallybasedreferencegroupj. Culturalfactorsk. The3rdplacel. Individual(personal)drivetowardacademicattainment
Themeasureofeducationalattainmentisdeterminedthroughcomparative
ratesofretentionandgraduationforAmericanIndianstudentsandallother
studentsatPSU.
7
Intheinterestofprotectingconfidentialitythenameoftheuniversityhas
beenchangedtoPlainsStateUniversity(PSU).Thestateinwhichitislocatedshall
becalledPrairieStateandthecityinwhichitislocatedshallbeknownasRailtown.
Allothercommunitiesmentionedthroughouthavealsobeenrenamedinorderto
safeguardtheidentityofthosewhospeakofthoseplacesinawaythatlinks
themselvesandtheirhistorytothoseplaces.
Students,administratorsandfacultyatPlainsStateUniversityprovidedthe
multiplevoicesandviewpointscontributingtothisstudy.
InFebruaryof1881theTerritorialLegislaturegranted120,000acresin
PrairieStatefortheestablishmentofan‘AgricultureCollege’.In1889,congress
grantedanadditional40,000acresforthefuturePSU.By1923,instructional
programswereorganizedintofivedivisionsincluding:Agriculture,Engineering,
GeneralScience,HomeEconomics,andPharmacy.ThefuturePSUwasbeginningto
takeshape.
AccordingtothePSUOfficeofInstitutionalResearch,forthefallsemesterof
2009,totalstudentenrollmentwas12,376.Afterexcluding824studentsof
unknownethnicoriginandthoserefusingtoprovideinformation,8.4percentofthe
totalstudentpopulationwaslistedasminoritystudents.AmericanIndianstudents
enrolledatPSUcomprisethesecondlargestofminoritygroupsandwere2.1
percentofallstudentsenrolled.TheonlyminoritygrouplargerisAsian/Pacific
Islandersat3percent,themajorityofwhichareinternationalgraduate
student/researchassistants.Inwhatcanonlybedescribedasanoverwhelmingly
8
White,mainstreamuniversity,2.1percentisdisproportionatewhentakinginto
accountthetotalNativeAmericanpopulationinPrairieState,whichiscommonly
citedasbetweeneightandninepercent,accordingtotheU.S.CensusBureau.
GiventhecontinuingdisparitybetweengraduationratesofAmericanIndian
andnon‐Indianstudents(Paveletal.,1998;DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder
2008),theimplicationsofthisstudymayhavewiderangingapplicationsforthe
implementationofculturallyrelevantprograms,policiesandcurriculafocusedon
increasingretentionandgraduationratesforAmericanIndianstudentsinhigher
education.Towardthisend,IplantoorganizeandexecuteseminarsatPSUforall
stakeholdersinterestedinthefindingsofthisresearchandhowthesefindingscan
beimplementedtoenhancetheunderstandingoffactorsthatcombinetohinderor
facilitateretentionandgraduationofAmericanIndianstudentsatPrairieState’s
largestmainstreamuniversity.Inkeepingwiththecriticalperspectiveofthis
research,itishopedthatincreasedunderstandingofsuchfactorswillleadtopolicy
changesthatgreatlyincreasethechancesforeducationalattainmentforNative
students.
Throughouttheconceptualization,designandimplementationofthis
research,Ihavesoughttoprovideamediumforthedeliveryofthevoicesofall
thoseadministrators,faculty,supportstaffandstudentswhoarethestakeholdersin
academicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Ofprimarysignificance
arethestudentsthemselveswhowereeagertobeheardandwhoremainhopeful
forpositivesocialchangeleadingtoempowermentandacademicsuccess.Ithas
9
beenmygoaltoprovideadetailedpictureofthecollegeexperienceatPSUthrough
theeyesoftheNativeAmericanstudent.
Therearerealisticlimitationsofsuchanendeavor.Amongthoselimitations,
itmustbenotedthatthisresearchspannedonlyoneyearinthelivesofthosewho
participatedandinthehistoryoftheinstitutionitself.Assuch,itisonlyabrief
snapshotintime.Duringthecourseofthatyear,manypositivechangeshave
alreadycometolife.Mostnotablyamongthosechangesisthecommitmentbythe
universityadministrationforthecreationofanAmericanIndianEducationand
CulturalCenterscheduledtoopenduringthefallsemesterof2010.Alsoof
significanceistheplanninganddevelopmentofanenhancedcurriculumintheform
oftheAmericanIndianStudiesmajortoaccompanythecurrentminorinthatfield
ofstudy.
WhilethelonghistoryofbarrierstoeducationalattainmentforAmerican
IndianstudentsatPSUisformidable,itisofconsiderablesignificanceandcausefor
renewedhopethatPSUismovinginapositivedirection.
Inthechaptersthatfollow,relevantliteratureandtheoreticalperspectives
arepresented.Methodsarediscussedandqualitativeandquantitativefindingsare
presented.Thedissertationconcludeswithadiscussionofthesefindings,
conclusions,andrecommendations.
10
CHAPTERTWO
LiteratureReview
PlainsStateUniversityisapredominantlyWhiteinstitutioninastatewitha
significantandgrowingAmericanIndianpopulation.PSUoffersadiversityof
programsaimedathelpingAmericanIndianssucceedincollege.However,the
mechanismsthatimpacttheefficacyoftheseprogramsarenotwellunderstood.
Inordertogainanimprovedunderstandingofmechanismsthatimpact
AmericanIndianpostsecondaryeducationalattainment,thisliteraturereviewwill
examineahistoryofAmericanIndianeducationfromitsearliestinceptionuptothe
currentstatusofAmericanIndianhighereducation.Inaddition,commonbarriersto
educationalattainmentforNativeAmericanstudentsandspecificstrategiesthat
haveprovensuccessfulforovercomingthesechallengeswillbeexplored.Previous
researchinvestigatingthelinkbetweenethnicidentity,empowermentand
educationalattainment,alongwiththeroleofasharedspaceforAmericanIndian
studentsinpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsofhighereducationisdiscussed.
ABriefHistoryofAmericanIndianEducation
EarlyAmericanIndianEducation
PriortoEuropeancolonizationoftheAmericas,tribalnationshaddiverse
systemsofeducationthatweredesignedtoteachyouth,accordingtothetribes’
specificcultures,theskillsnecessaryforsurvivalintheirenvironments(Zinn1980).
11
ThissystemofNativeeducationwasaccomplishedprimarilythroughinformal
observationandinteractionwithparents,relatives,eldersandreligiousandsocial
groups(Pewewardy2002).
ThroughoutthehistoryofcontactbetweenEuropeancolonizersandthe
indigenouspeoplesofNorthAmerica,Indianeducationhadasitsprimarygoalto
reshapetheIndianintothemoldoftheEuropeanman(Meriam1928;Collier1947;
Berkhofer1978).Europeanvaluessuchascompetition,individualachievementand
theaccumulationofwealthwerecommonlyseenasmorecivilizedthanwerethe
valuesofcooperation,communalismandaharmonywiththeEarth,whichwere
morecommontothetraditionalbeliefsofmanyAmericanIndiantribes(Eastman
1902;StandingBear1928;Neihardt1932;Brown1953).ThespirituallifeofNative
AmericanswasseenbymanyEuropeansasheathenandwassupplantedby
Christianityasthepathwaytocivilization(Berkhofer1978;McBeth1983;Oppelt
1990;DeloriaJr.1994;Boyer1997;Calloway1999).Inordertoachievethisgoal,
colonizerssupposedtheidentityoftheAmericanIndianwouldhavetobe
deconstructedandreconstructedintheimageoftheWhiteman(Berkhofer1978;
Bordewich1996;Utter2001).
AccordingtoPewewardy(1998:8),AmericanIndianpopulationswerenot
defeatedbymilitaryforceorpandemicdiseaseintroducedbyEuropeansbutrather
by“politicallystructuringeducationalinstitutionsforAmericanIndian/Alaska
Nativestudentstomoldacolonialethos.”CitingWilliams(2000),Pewewardy
(2002)continues:
12
SinceitsinvasionofAmerica,WhitesocietyhassoughttojustifythroughlawandlegaldiscourseitsprivilegesofaggressionagainstIndianpeoplebystressingtribalism’sincompatibilitywiththesuperiorvaluesandnormsofWhitecivilization(Williams2000:103).
Oppelt(1990)detailsthehistoryofIndianeducationfromthemissionary
schoolsofthecolonialtimesthroughthefederalgovernment’stenurewith
educationpolicy.Thishistoryincludesthemajormotivationsofthoseproponentsof
Indianeducation.Amongthesemotivesaretheearlyintentions,incolonialtimes,to
civilizetheIndianthroughChristianization.Bythemid‐nineteenthcentury,the
federalgovernment’seducationpolicywastoremodeltheAmericanIndianintothe
Euro‐Americanimage(Hertzberg1971;Berkhofer1978;Utter2001).Richard
HenryPrattimplementedthispolicywhen,in1879,heopenedthefirstfederal
boardingschoolinCarlisle,Pennsylvania.Prattsummarizedhisgoalofcomplete
assimilationinhisoftenquotedmotto;“KilltheIndianandsavetheman”(Utter
2001).ThiswastobeaccomplishedbyteachingtheIndianthevalueofland
ownershipandstewardship.Thegoalwastoeradicatethecultureoftheindigenous
peoplethroughtheprocessofassimilationandacculturation,thusblendingthe
IndianintotheEuro‐centricmainstream.Thiswouldbeaccomplishedbyremoving
childrenfromtheirhomesandplacingtheminboardingschoolsawayfromtheir
parentsandextendedfamily(Hertzberg1971;McBeth1983;Utter2001).Inthis
way,familystructurewoulddisintegrateandNativecultureswouldfadeawayas
Euro‐Americannormsandvaluesandthelearningofavocationaltradereplacedit
(Hertzberg1971:16;McBeth1983;Calloway1999:359).
13
Oppelt(1990)chronicledthehistoricalantecedentsofcontemporary
AmericanIndianhighereducation.Inparticular,hedescribestwoprominent
periodsinIndianeducation.Oppeltfirstdescribesthe‘MissionaryPeriod’from
approximately1568‐1870,whichwascharacterizedbyearlyEuropeaneffortsto
religiouslyconverttheNativepeopleofNorthAmerica.Thefirstschoolfor
AmericanIndians,foundedin1568bytheJesuits,theeffortsofJohnEliot,knownas
‘ApostletotheIndians’,HarvardUniversity’searlyobjectivetoeducateAmerican
IndiansandEleazarWheelock’sDartmouthSchoolforIndiansareamongthemany
examplesofearlyattemptstoeducatetheIndianinthe‘WhiteMan’sImage’
(Berkhofer1978).Oppeltpointsoutthatresistancebythevarioustribesandtheir
attemptstoestablishtheirownschoolsystemswerenegatedbypoliciesaimedat
makingAmericanIndiansintodocileChristianswhoactedinwayscongruentwith
theWhiteEuropeangoals.
Oppelt’s(1990)secondperiodisthe‘FederalPeriod’,whichwasfrom1870
to1968.Thisperiodwascharacterizedbyoff‐reservationfederalboardingschools
thatwereorganizedaroundtheprimarygoalofassimilatingtheAmericanIndian
intotheEuro‐Americanmainstreamsociety.Curriculaattheseboardingschools
werecenteredaroundmanualartsandvocationaltradeswhileheavyfocuswas
directedateradicatingallaspectsofNativecultureincludinglanguage,ceremonial
ritualandevenfamilyandkinshipties.WiththedistractionsprovidedbyWorld
WarIandWorldWarII,alongwiththecontinuedprotestsoftriballeadersandnon‐
Indians,criticismstartedtomountagainsttheboardingschoolsystem.“Muchofthis
14
criticismisjustified:theinvoluntaryremovalofchildrenfromtheirparentsandthe
brutaltreatmentofstudentsrightfullyembitteredsomeIndiansagainstalltypesof
‘Whiteman’seducation’”(Oppelt1990:20).
RethinkingtheGoalsandMethodsofAmericanIndianEducation
In1928theU.S.governmentpublishedareportgenerallyknownasthe
MeriamReportnamedforitsleadresearcherandorganizerLewisMeriam.The
report,requestedbytheSecretaryoftheInterior,wastheresultofasurveyofthe
economicandsocialconditionsofAmericanIndiansuptoandduringthe1920s.
Researcherscovered95differentjurisdictions,includingreservations,Indian
agencies,hospitals,schoolsandcommunitieswhereAmericanIndianshadmigrated.
ThereportislargebecauseofthediversityfoundamongAmericanIndiantribes.
Thereportisorganizedintothefollowingsections:1)ageneralpolicyforIndian
Affairs,2)health,3)education,4)generaleconomicconditions,5)familyand
communitylife,includingtheactivitiesofwomen,6)migratedIndians,7)legal
aspectsoftheIndianproblemand8)missionaryactivitiesamongIndians.Relevant
tothisstudyisthesectiononIndianeducation.Meriamresearchersfoundthestate
ofIndianeducationtobeinadequateandineffective.Thehistoryofmissionschools,
federalboardingschoolsandthenlocalreservationdayschoolsallleftmuchtobe
desiredintheeducationofAmericanIndianyouth,accordingMeriam(1928).
ParticularlydetrimentaltotheeducationoftheIndianchildwashisorherremoval
15
fromthefamily,inordertoeradicatetraditionalcultureandreplaceitwiththatof
thedominantmainstreamsociety.TheMeriamreportquotesDeanJamesE.Russell:
Howeverimportantmaybethecontributionoftheschools…theatmosphereandconditionsofthehomeare,especiallyintheearlydaysofthechild’slife,theprimarydeterminateinthedevelopmentofthechild,and,sinceitistheparentswhodeterminetheseconditionsandcreatethatatmosphere,itistheywhoareofnecessitythemostimportanteducationalfactorsinthelivesoftheirchildren(P.349).
AnotherMeriampassageisparticularlypoignant:
Moreover,itisessentialforthoseinchargeofeducationfortheIndiantorememberthattheIndian’sattitudestowardssocietyhavebeendeterminedlargelybyhisexperiences,andthatthesecan,wherevernecessary,bechangedtodesirablesocialattitudesbyexposingtoacorrespondingsetofrightexperiencesintherelationshipsofhome,familyandcommunitylife.(P.354)
TheMeriamReport(1928)markedthebeginningofthereformulationof
ideasconcerningtheeducationoftheAmericanIndian.Thisapproachwascentered
onavaluationofNativecultureanditsincorporationintoeducation.
TheTribalCollegeMovement
Oppelt(1990)andBoyer(1997)describethedevelopmentoftheTribal
Collegemovementasaneducationalmanifestationofself‐determinationfor
AmericanIndians.TribalcollegeshaveledtothegreatestgainsforAmericanIndian
highereducationtodate(Oppelt1990).
In1968thefirsttribalcollegewasformedbytheNavajonation.Thiswasthe
beginningofthemovementtowardthedevelopmentofanationalnetworkof
triballycontrolledcollegeswherehighereducationwasmadeavailableonamore
16
localizedbasisthatallowedNativeAmericansaccesstoeducationopportunities
whichwerepreviouslyunattainable.Mostofthefirststudentstotakeadvantageof
theseneweducationalopportunitieswerefemales.Theywere,onaverage,older
thantraditionalcollegeagedstudents.Manyweremotherslookingforapathwayto
abetterlifeforthemselvesandtheirchildren(Oppelt1990).
Oppelt(1990)liststhreemajorfactorsunderlyingthedevelopmentof
tribally‐controlledcollegesinthelate1970s.Theseare:1)Non‐Indianinstitutions
ofhighereducationprovedinadequateinmeetingtheuniqueeducationalneedsof
theculturallydiversegroupsofreservationIndians;2)Theconceptofself‐
determinationencouragedIndianstotakecontrolofthedevelopmentoftheirown
highereducationinstitutions;3)Theneedfortrainingandeducationon
reservationstodevelopnaturalandhumanresourceshadbecomemoreevidentto
AmericanIndianleaders.
Oppeltcloseswithobservationspointingtotheneedforalinkbetween
educationandthehopeforemploymentopportunitiesforAmericanIndians.Among
theseobservationsistheneedforgovernmentfundingfortribalcolleges.
Boyer(1997)alsodescribestheTribalCollegeMovementanditsimpacton
theeducationalandsocialopportunitiesforAmericansIndiansthroughhigher
education.Thecoreconceptuponwhichtribalcollegesarebuiltisthenotionof
providingaculturallyrelevantcurriculumthatismadeaccessibletotribalmembers
whomaynototherwisehaveaccesstohighereducation.Boyerincludesa
descriptionofthestateofbeingofthe27,(atthattime,in2010thereare37)
17
triballycontrolledcollegesandthechallengesfacedbythem.Themostsignificantof
thesechallengeswere:lackoffunding,thetenuousrelationshipbetweenthefederal
governmentandtribalcolleges,intermsoffinancialandmoregeneralsupportand
thesovereignstatusoftribalgovernmentsinrelationtotribalcolleges(Boyer
1997).
TheCurrentStateofAmericanIndianHigherEducation
DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder(2008)provideacomprehensive
overviewofthestatusofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesinPostsecondary
Educationin,StatusandTrendsintheEducationofAmericanIndiansandAlaska
Natives:2008.Findingsmostrelevanttothisresearcharehighlightedbelow.
DemographicOverview
In2006therewere4.5millionAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesinthe
UnitedStatesrepresenting1.5percentofthetotalU.S.population.In2006almost
half,(49percent)wereresidentsinwesternstates.In2003,thereweremorethan
560federallyrecognizedAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativetribes.Thelargestare
CherokeeandNavajo.Since1990,themedianageofAmericanIndianAlaska
Natives,includingthoseofHispanicethnicity,increasedbyfiveyears,from26to31.
In2006,themedianageforthegeneralpopulationwas36years.In2006,27
percentofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeindividualslivedinpovertycomparedto
13percentofthegeneralpopulation.At36percent,theAmericanIndian/Alaska
18
Nativepovertyratewashigheramongfamiliesonreservationsthanamongfamilies
inotherAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeareas(DeVoeetal.2008:iii).
PostsecondaryEducation
ThenumberofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudentsenrolledincolleges
anduniversitieshasmorethandoubledinthepast30years(DeVoeetal.2008:v).In
2006,AmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesaccountedfor1percentoftotalenrollment
incollegesanduniversities.OfallAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudentsenrolled
inpublicandprivatedegreegrantinginstitutionsin2006,morethanhalfwere
enrolledin4‐yearinstitutions.Thisisincontrasttotheyearsbetween1976and
1994whenmoreAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativeswereenrolledin2‐year
postsecondaryinstitutionsthanin4‐yearpostsecondaryinstitutions.In2006,a
smallerpercentageofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesbetweentheagesof18and
24wereenrolledincollegesoruniversitieswhencomparedtootherethnicgroups
(p.126).TwentysixpercentofAmericanIndians18‐24yearsoldwereenrolled
comparedto41percentofWhites,33percentofBlacks,27percentofHispanicsand
58percentofAsians(p.127).AmericanIndians/AlaskaNativescomprised1.1
percentofthetotalcollegeanduniversityenrollmentin2006representingan
increasefrom0.7percentin1976(p.126).Between1976and2006,collegeand
universityenrollmentofAmericanIndianandAlaskaNativemalesandfemales
grewatdifferentrates.In1976,38,500AmericanIndianmalesand37,600American
Indian/AlaskaNativefemaleswereenrolledindegreegrantingcollegesand
19
universities.By1978,thenumberoffemalesexceededthatofmalesenrolled.In
2006,111,000AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativefemales(61percent)and71,200
males(39percent)wereenrolledincollegesanduniversities(p.128).Theonly
racial/ethnicgrouptohaveawiderpercentagespreadbetweenmalesandfemales
enrolledincollegeoruniversityisBlackstudentsforwhomtheratiois65percent
femaleto35percentmaleenrolledstudents(p.128).
In2006,therewere32tribally‐controlledcollegesanduniversities,located
in12statesacrossthewestandMidwestwithonelocatedinAlaska.Tribally‐
controlledcollegesanduniversitiesaredesignedtofosterenvironmentsfocusedon
AmericanIndiancultureinordertopreserve,enhance,andpromoteAmerican
Indianlanguagesandtraditions(DeVoe2008:130).Studentsattheseinstitutions
aregenerallyolderthan24yearsofage(p.130).Totalenrollmentintribally
controlledcollegesanduniversitiesincreasedby23percent,from14,000infall
2001,to17,300infall2006(p.130).AmericanIndians/AlaskaNativestudents
numbered13,600intriballycontrolledcollegesanduniversities,representing79
percentoftotalenrollment,were(DeVoe2008:130).EightpercentofallAmerican
Indianstudentswereenrolledintribalcollegesoruniversities.Between2001and
2006,enrollmentofNativestudentsintribalcollegesoruniversitiesincreasedata
fasterrate(17percent)thandidenrollmentofNativestudentsgenerally(15
percent)(DeVoeetal.2008:130).
Inthe2003‐04schoolyear,82percentofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNative
studentsenrolledfull‐time,full‐yearinundergraduatedegreeprogramsreceived
20
financialaid(p.132).Duringthistime,theonlygroupwithahigherpercentageof
financialaidrecipientswasBlackstudentsat89percent.ThisiscomparedtoWhite
studentsat74percent,Asian/PacificIslandersat66percent,andHispanicsat81
percent(p.132).
AccordingtoDeVoeetal.(2008:134),between1976‐77and2005‐06,the
numberofdegreesawardedbycollegesanduniversitiestoAmerican
Indians/AlaskaNativesmorethandoubledforeachlevelofdegree(DeVoe
2008:134).In1976‐77,2,500associate’sdegreeswereconferredonAmerican
Indians.Thatnumbersteadilyincreasedto5,600by1995‐96(p.134).Thenumber
ofassociate’sdegreesearnedbyNativestudentsin2005‐06reached8,600.This
representsanincreaseof53percentbetween1995‐96and2005‐06.Thenumberof
associate’sdegreesforallstudentsroseonly28percentbycomparison(p.134).
Thissamepatternwasalsoapparentinthenumberofbachelor’sdegreesearnedby
Nativestudents.In1976‐77around3,300bachelor’sdegreeswereawardedto
AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudents;by1995‐96thatnumberincreasedto
7,000,andto11,000in2005‐06(p.134).Thisrepresentsanincreaseof57percent
comparedto28percentforthetotalpopulationbetween1995‐96and2005‐06
(p.134).Thenumberofpost‐baccalaureatedegreesawardedtoAmerican
Indian/AlaskaNativesalsoincreasedbetween1976‐77and2005‐06from970to
3500formaster’sdegrees,from100to230fordoctoraldegreesandfrom200to
710forfirstprofessionaldegrees(DeVoeetal.2008:134).
21
WhileagreaterpercentageofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudents
earnedtheirbachelorsdegreesinbusinessthaninotherfieldsinthe2005‐06
schoolyear,thepercentagethatearnedtheirdegreesinbusiness(19percent)was
smallerthanthatofallstudents(21percent).In2005‐06,52percentofmaster’s
degreesawardedtoAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeswereinthefieldsofeducation
andbusiness.Forty‐eightpercentofdoctoraldegreesawardedtoAmerican
Indians/AlaskaNativeswereinthefieldsofeducation,psychologyandsocial
sciencesandhistory.
SocialandEconomicOutcomesofHigherEducation
In2007,44percentofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesage25orolderhad
attendedsomecollegeorcompletedanundergraduateorgraduatedegree.
Approximately36percentofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativeshadcompletedhigh
schoolwithoutcontinuingontoapostsecondaryinstitution,and20percenthadnot
finishedhighschool(p.148).AhigherpercentofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNatives
didnotfinishhighschoolwhencomparedtoWhites(9percent),Asians(12
percent)andNativeHawaiians/PacificIslanders(11percent)onlyHispanicshada
higherpercentagethatdidnotfinishhighschoolat40percent(p.148).
AhigherpercentofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNatives,16andoverwere
unemployedin2007(12percent)comparedtopercentagesofWhites(4percent),
Hispanics(6percent)andAsianPacificslanders(3percent)(DeVoeetal.2008).
But,in2007,theunemploymentrateswerelowerforAmericanIndian/Alaska
22
Nativeswithhigherlevelsofeducation(p.148).Specifically,only2percentof
AmericanIndianswithabachelor’sdegreeorhigherwereunemployed,compared
to12percentofhighschoolgraduatesand29percentofthosewhodidnot
completehighschool(p.148).In2006,themedianannualincomefor25‐34year
oldsinthegeneralU.S.population,whowereemployedfull‐year,full‐time,was
$35,000.For25‐34yearoldAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesthemedianannual
incomewas$27,000.AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeyoungadultswithabachelor’s
degreeearned29percentmoreannuallythanthosewhoonlycompletedhigh
school.
InsummaryoftheDeVoeetal.(2008)document,dramaticgainsareevident
inAmericanIndianhighereducation.EnrollmentofAmericanIndiansincolleges
anduniversitieshasmorethandoubledoverthirtyyears.Enrollmentintribally‐
controlledcollegestopped17,000in2006;over82percentofAmericanIndianfull
timeundergraduatestudentsreceivedfinancialaid;thenumberofeverylevelof
degreesconferreduponAmericanIndianshasmorethandoubledsince1976.Still,
in2006,AmericanIndianstudentsaccountedforonly1percentoftotalcollegeand
universityenrollment.
Thestatisticsinthisreportshowapatternovertimethatincreasing
numbersofNativeAmericans/AlaskaNativesaregoingtocollegeandthattheir
expectationsofacademicattainmenthavealsoincreased.Employmentandsalary
statisticsdemonstratethepositivevalueandimpactsthatincreasinglevelsofhigher
educationarehavingonAmericanIndiancommunities.Still,despitegainsmade
23
overthepastthirtyyears,progresshasbeenuneven.Therestillexistsignificant
differencesbetweenAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativecollegeanduniversitystudents
andstudentsofotherethnic/racialgroupsonthekeyindicatorsofeducational
performancereportedbyDeVoeetal.(2008).
CurrentstudiesonthestateofAmericanIndianhighereducationare
discussedbelowincludingbarrierstoeducationalattainmentandstrategiesfor
overcomingthosebarriers.
StudiesonAmericanIndianHigherEducation
Barrierstocollegesuccessareofteninplacelongbeforethestudentgetsto
thecollegeoruniversity.FactorsthathinderacademicsuccessforAmericanIndian
studentsareofteninplacethroughoutthestudents’entireacademiccareer.Several
studiesshowadisproportionategraduationratebetweenNativeAmericanstudents
andnon‐Indianstudentsatboththesecondaryandpost‐secondarylevels(Wax
1967;Jackson,SmithandHill2003).NativeAmericanstudentsareconsistently
showntobemorelikelytodropoutbeforethecompletionofhighschool(Wax
1967;Berry1969;DeVoeetal.2008).Reasonsforthisdisparityincludealienation,
feelingsofpowerlessnessandinferiority,estrangement,depression,andlackof
support,lackofsufficienthelptosucceedandlackofsuccessexperiences(Wax
1967;Berry1969;FalkandAitken1984;Lin,LaCounteandEder1988;Gilliland
1988;Jacksonetal.2003).
24
AcademicdifficultiesandnonpersistenceofNativeAmericansincollegeare
similarlywelldocumented(Steward,1993;Paveletal.,1998;DeVoeetal.2008).At
thecollegelevel,despiteevidenceofacademicability,dropoutratesarehigherfor
NativeAmericansthanforanyotherminority(Reddy1993;DeVoeetal.2008).
NativeAmericansarealsounderrepresentedingraduateprograms(LaFromboise
andLow1989;Paveletal.1998;DeVoeetal.2008).NativeAmericansconsistently
havelowereducationalattainmentthanotherethnicminorities(Lin,LaCounteand
Eder1988;Paveletal.1998;DeVoe2008).
BarrierstoAmericanIndiansinHigherEducation
Berry(1969)discussesthelonghistoryofAmerica’sfailuretoeducatethe
Indianintothe‘Whiteman’simage’.Berrycoversthereasonsforthisfailure
throughthehistoryofrelationsbetweenthedominantsocietyandtribalgroups.
Amongcurrentproblemsresultingfromthisacademichistoryareage
appropriatenessforgradelevel,andthehighdropoutrateforIndianstudents.
Berry(1969)suggeststherelationsbetweenWhiteteachersandIndianstudents
commonlyresultinaself‐fulfillingprophecywhereteachersdonotexpectstudents
toachieveandthestudentsdonotexpecttoexcel.Berry(1969)pointsoutthat
nearlyeveryconceivablebarriertoeducationalachievementisatworkregarding
theeducationalexperienceoftheAmericanIndianstudent.Inadditiontothose
listedabove,otherroadblockstoeducationalattainmentincludechallengesinthe
formoflanguagebarriers,culturalbarriersandculturaldeprivation,lackofparent
25
involvement,culturallyinsensitiveteachertrainingandteacherexpectations
regardingAmericanIndianstudents(Berry1969).Manyofthesebarriersare
rootedinthehistoryofforcedassimilationandongoingattemptstodestroy
indigenouscultures(Berry1969).
ManyofthebarrierstocollegesuccessforAmericanIndianstudents
originatelongbeforethestudentarrivesattheuniversity.Thosebarriersbeginin
elementaryschoolandcontinuethroughhighschoolandcarryoverintothecollege
experience.ProblemsidentifiedbyWax,WaxandDumont(1964)involved
perceptionsandmisconceptionsonthepartofnon‐Indianteachersregardingthe
socialdynamicsoftheIndianculture.ManyWhiteteachersdidnotattemptto
understandthevalueoftheNativeculturebut,rather,soughttoteachfromthe
Euro‐centricmainstreamculturalbaseofvaluesandnorms.Theperspectiveofthe
teacherswasthattheabilityoftheIndianstudenttolearnwaslimited.Assuch,the
teachersprovidedinstructionatwhattheythoughtwasanappropriatelevel.Infact,
thisamountedtotrackingbasedoninaccuratepresumptions(Wax,et.al1964).
WrightandTierney(1991)describetheharshrealityofIndianeducation.
Amongtheserealitiesare:mostnativestudentscomefromeconomicallydepressed
remoteareasandonly3outof1009thgraderswilleventuallyreceivea
baccalaureatedegree.Thosefour‐yearinstitutionswiththehighestIndianstudent
populationareineconomicallydepressedstates;and,Tribalcollegesreceive
woefullyinadequatefunding.
26
Carney(1999)listsseveralproblemsidentifiedbyresearchers,including
Tierney(1992),thatarecommonamongindividualAmericanIndianstudentsand
thatactasobstaclestohighereducationattainment.Theseinclude:apersistently
highdropoutratefromhighschool;alowproportionofAmericanIndianhigh
schoolgraduatescontinuingontocollege;anoverwhelmingsenseofisolationand
alienationresultingfrominsurmountableculturalbarrierswhileatcollege;poor
academicpreparationandskillsbeforeenteringcollege;alackofAmericanIndian
rolemodelsforeducationalsuccess;financialproblems;disharmonybetween
traditionalcultureandthatofthemainstreamcollegeenvironment;cultureshock
uponarrivalatcollege;lackofmotivation;languagebarriers;unrealisticor
unplannedcareergoals;distrustoftheinstitutionasonewhosegoalisassimilation
intomainstreamculture;lackofsupportfromfamily;inappropriatesocialization
intocollegeenvironment;and,lackofcounselingorcounselingfromthedominant
Euro‐centricperspective.
AccordingtoCarney(1999),difficultiesexperiencedbyNativeAmerican
collegestudentscanbetracedtoculturalcausesoftwotypes.Bothcanbeclassified
astypesofculturaldiscontinuity(Wax,WaxandDumont1964;Huffman1999).
FirstisthegenerallyunsupportivesituationinwhichNativestudentsfind
themselvesastheyenteramainstreaminstitutionofhighereducation.Native
Americanstudents,particularlythosefromruralreservationcommunities,may
comefromhighschoolsthatarepoorlyfundedandlackthesupportsystemsneeded
tomakeaneffectivetransitionfromthelocalcommunityhighschooltothecollege
27
environmentwherethemilieuisbasedontraditionalEuro‐centricnormsand
values.Thesevaluesincludingcompetitionandconcernforselfovergroupwelfare
maybeinconflictwiththecommonvaluesincontemporaryNativefamilies,suchas
primaryconcernforextendedfamilyandcommunityoverindividual
accomplishment,competitionandselfpromotion.Studentsleavinghomeforthe
firsttimefindthemselvesatcollegefeelingisolated,alienatedandwantingtoreturn
hometothefamiliarenvironmentofsupportastraditionallyprovidedbythe
extendedfamilyandlocalcommunity(GarrodandLarimore1997;Carney1999).
Suchcultureshockcanbetraumatic.
Thesecondculturaldiscontinuityconsistsofthefundamentalcultural
differencesinU.S.mainstream‘Euro‐American’andAmericanIndianculture.Native
Americanstudentsmayfindthemselvesinaformaleducationalenvironmentthatis
unfamiliaranduncomfortableforthem.Thisconflictisthedirectresultof
fundamentaldifferencesbetweenWhiteandNativeculture.TheAmericanIndian
studentwhoadherestothetraditionalculturalbeliefsandpracticesseeshimor
herselfasconnectedtoboththenaturalphysicalworldandtoallpeopleand
creaturesinit.Thisholisticframeofreferenceisinoppositiontothefragmented
andcompartmentalizedframeofreferencethatcharacterizesacademicknowledge
asseparateanddistinctdisciplines.Itisalsoincongruentwiththesocialstructureof
theacademicworldthatisshapedbythedominantsocialstructureitselfandis
characterizedbystatusdifferentiationandhierarchicalrelationships(Tierney
1992).ThenecessityfortheAmericanIndianstudenttofunctioninthis
28
compartmentalizedacademicstylemayleavetheNativeAmericanstudentfeelinga
senseofincompletenessandinadequacy(Carney1999).
Feagin(1996),reportingonthecollegeexperienceofBlackstudentsat
predominantlyWhitecollegecampuses,statesthatprejudicialattitudesaboundon
WhitecampusesamongWhitestudents,facultyandadministrators.Ifracial
insensitivityhas,infact,beeninstitutionalizedonmainstreamcollegecampusesin
theformofaEuro‐centriccurriculum,lackofinterestinBlackstudents,andthe
expectationbyfacultythatindividualBlackstudentsrepresenttheentireBlackrace,
asFeagin(1996)suggests,thesamemayholdtrueforNativeAmericanstudentson
majorityWhite,mainstreamcampuses.
Despitethesehistoricalfailuresandbarrierstosuccessasseeninthe
literature,DeVoeetal.(2008)demonstrate,AmericanIndiansaremakingpositive
gainsalongmanyindicatorsofeducationalattainment.Thescholarlyunderstanding
of‘whatworks’isgrowingandisdiscussedbelow.
FactorsLeadingtoAmericanIndianSuccessinHigherEducation
TherearemanyfactorsleadingtosuccessincollegeforNativeAmerican
students.AccordingtoJackson,SmithandHill(2003)qualitativeinterviewswith15
successfulAmericanIndiancollegestudentswhogrewuponreservationsidentified
thefollowingthemesrelatedtotheirpersistenceincollege:familysupport,
structuredsocialsupport,faculty/staffwarmth,exposuretocollegeandvocations,
developingindependenceandassertiveness,relianceonspiritualresources,and
29
overcomingracism.Factorscontributingtonon‐persistenceincludedtheculturally
relevantthemeidentifiedasthenonlinearcollegepaththatintervieweesdescribed
asbreaksinattendance,forvariousperiods,beforedegreecompletionorattending
anumberofdifferentschools.Intervieweesalsocited,asabarriertopersistence,
culturaldiscontinuity,intheformofconflictbetweenacademicsuccessasdefined
bythedominantsocietyandmaintainingtraditionalculturaltieswithfamilyand
communitythatmaynotacceptthestudentasacollegegraduate.Theresults
indicatedthatstablementoringrelationshipsandprogrammaticsupportaretwo
factorsthatcanbeimplementedattheinstitutionallevelthatmaybebeneficialin
helpingAmericanIndianstudentsovercomeroadblockstoeducationalattainment
(Jackson,SmithandHill2003).
Inareviewofliteratureregardingwhatworksandwhatdoesnotworkin
educatingAmericanIndians,Demmert(2001:38‐9)listsseveralfactorsidentifiedby
researchersasleadingtosuccessforAmericanIndiansincollegethosefactorsare:
1. FamilySupport:Familysupportandencouragementplayanimportantrole, roleinstudentretentionandacademicsuccessincollege(Wilson1983;Rindone1988;Huffman,SillandBrokenleg1986;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994).Theeducationlevelandoccupationofparentsarefound
andarepredictorsofstudentsuccessincollege(Brown1993).
2. CulturalIdentity:Themaintenanceofculturalidentityandtraditionswas
foundtobeinstrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthe
postsecondarylevel(Huffman,SillandBrokenleg1986).
3.Personaldeterminationandgoalsetting:Personaldeterminationhas
beenshowntobeafactorleadingtocollegesuccessforAmericanIndians
(Kerbo1981;Wilson1983;Rindone1988;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994).
30
4. Financialsupport:AmericanIndianstudentscommonlyidentified
financialsupportasanimportantfactorinstayingincollege(Wilson
1983).
5. Academicskills:Goodacademicperformancepriortocollegehasbeen
linkedtogoodacademicperformanceincollege(Brown1993).
6. Mentorsandsupportivefaculty:NativestudentsinAlaskareported
accessibility,approachability,genuinenessandcaringbycollegeor
universityfacultyasnecessaryforlearningsuccess(Wilson1997).
7. Biculturalcurriculum:Abiculturalpostsecondarycurriculum
incorporatingbothEuro‐AmericanandtraditionalNativeknowledgewas
linkedtosignificantNativestudentretentionandprogramcompletion,
exertionofleadershipandclosertieswithcommunityand
intergenerationalrelationships(Barnhardt1994;BallandPence2001).
8. Studentsupportservicesrespectfuloftheneedsandinterestsof
culturallydiversestudentsareseenasanimportantfactorsleadingto
success(Barnhardt1994).
Priorresearchindicatesthatacombinationoffactorsworktoward
increasingretentionandsuccessfortheNativecollegestudent.Amongthesefactors,
familysupport,afundamentalfoundationintheeducationbasics,motivation,a
senseofselfbasedonethnicidentity,lackoflanguagebarriers,earlygoalsetting
andsupportivementorshaveallbeenshowntobeinfluentialinwhetheraNative
Americanstudentstaysincollegeandsucceedsacademically(Demmert2001).
31
SpecificStrategiesforSuccessinHigherEducation
WrightandTierney(1991)makeacaseforthesupportofIndianeducation
bythefederalgovernmentandsocietyingeneral.Thereisgreatneedforculturally
relevantcurriculaandthevaluationofNativecultureasasocialassetratherthana
deficit.Waxetal.(1964)andGarrodandLarimore(1997)suggestthatNative
studentsandtheirfamiliesplacegreatvalueoneducation.Itisthereforeincumbent
upontheinstitutionsofhighereducationtobreakfromthehistoricalEuro‐centered
moldandprovideaneducationalexperiencebasedontheculturalandhistorical
socialcharacteristicsoftheAmericanIndianstudent.
TheTribalcollegemovementanditsimpactontheeducationalandsocial
opportunitiesforAmericansIndiansthroughhighereducationhasbeenwell
documented(Oppelt1990;Stein1992;Boyer1997;Paveletal.,1998;Foxetal.
2005;DeVoeetal.2008).Accordingtotheseauthors,thecoreconceptonwhich
tribalcollegesarebuiltisthenotionofprovidingaculturallyrelevantcurriculum
thatismadeaccessibletotribalmemberswhomaynototherwisehaveaccessto
highereducation.Theseconceptscouldbebeneficiallyappliedtomainstream
collegesasanavenueforincreasedretentionandgraduation.
HeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)describeaprogramdevelopedby
AmericanIndianeducators,socialworkprofessionalsanduniversityadvisorsfrom
fourMontanatribalcollegesincooperationwiththeUniversityofMontanathatthey
havecalled,‘TheFamilyEducationModel’(FEM).FEMwasbasedonthree
assumptionsrelevanttoAmericanIndianstudents.Theseassumptionsare:1)Many
32
studentsandtheirfamiliesneedcollegetoactastheirliaisonwithexistinghealth
andsocialservicesintimesofcrisis;2)Tribalcollegesmustfacilitatetheabilityof
familymemberstosupporttheirstudent’sefforts;and3)Tribalcollegesneedto
engagefamilymembersinthelifeofthecollegecommunitythroughbuilding
partnershipsandinvolvingtheminsocialandculturalactivities.Thebenefitsofthe
FEMareexplainedbyHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002)associalandcultural
activitiessuchasdances,socials,sportsandoutdooractivitiestowhichfamilies,
spousesandchildrenareregularlyinvitedtojoin.Throughtheirparticipationin
theseactivities,thefamilymembersdevelopasenseofbelongingtothecampus
environmentandarenolongerresentfulofthetimespentoncampusbytheir
studentfamilymember.AccordingtoHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)
“Establishingandmaintainingasenseof‘family’bothathomeandatcollege
fortifiesAmericanIndianstudents’academicpersistence.”
GuilloryandWolverton(2008)appliedtheFamilyEducationModel(FEM)in
astudyofNativeAmericanstudentsatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsin
Washington,IdahoandMontana.AmericanIndianstudentsinthestudyidentified
familyandstudentsocialsupportandthedesiretogivebacktotheircommunityas
importantpersistencefactors.Interestingly,non‐Indianadministratorsatthesame
institutionsidentifiedfinancialassistanceasthemostimportantfactorinfluencing
NativeAmericanstudentpersistence.
Theseresearcherssuggesta“shiftawayfromdealingwithNativeAmerican
studentpersistencethroughpurelymonetarymeansandtowardcreatingwaysin
33
whichNativeAmericanstudentscanconnectwithboththeuniversityandtheir
homecommunities”(GuilloryandWolverton2008:81).Theysuggestcollaborative
programswithtribes,supportingdaycare,andbringinghighereducationtoNative
Americancommunities(GuilloryandWolverton2008).
Carney(1999:147)suggestssolutionstotheproblemofAmericanIndian
persistenceandpostsecondaryeducationalattainmentasnumerousasthe
problemstheyaddress.AmongthesolutionsCarneysuggestsare:expanded
recruitmentprogramsthatincludestudentsandtheirfamilies,aswellasmorenon‐
traditionalstudentswhohavebeenoutofschoolforafewyears;moreelaborate
socializationandorientationprogramsdesignedtoeasethetransitionofNative
studentsintoamainstreamcampusenvironment;increasedmonitoringofprogress
andongoingsupportforNativestudents;and,thedevelopmentofNativeAmerican
facultyandjobexperiencebyNativestudentsthatwouldpreparethemfor
employmentbeyondthecollegeexperience.Inallcases,thereistheneedfor
increasedfundingtosupportprograms(Carney1999).However,beforefunding
canberealizedastheprimaryconsideration,thereneedstobeanawarenessofthe
needsofNativestudentsandawillingnessbythoseinpositionsofauthoritytotake
actiononbehalfofthosestudents(Boyer1997).
Fox,LoweandMcClellan(2005)compiledalistofrecommendationsfor
collegeadministratorstomeettheneedsofAmericanIndianstudents.These
recommendationsareofparticularvalueastheycomedirectlyfromAmerican
Indianeducators.
34
Theyinclude:
1. EnhanceknowledgeaboutNativeAmericansandtheircultureamong
highereducationprofessionals.
2. ExpandappreciationofdiversityamongAmericanIndiansatbothmicro
andculturallevels.
3. Improveeducationalprofessionals’understandingoftribalsovereignty.
4. ShifttohighereducationmodelincorporatingNativeAmericanvalues,
worldviewsandexperiences.
5. Buildstrongerrecruitmentandretentionefforts.
6. Improvecommunicationsandimplementbureaucraticproceduresthat
bridgetheculturegapsbetweenIndianstudentsandtheirfamiliesand
mainstreamsocialsystemsthatareintimidatingandinhibitingtoIndian
people.
7. RecruitandretainAmericanIndianfaculty.
8. ExpandresearchinallareasofNativeAmericanhighereducation.
9. InvolveAmericanIndianpeopleinallaspectsofNativeAmericanhigher
education.
FromtheliteraturebyresearchersincludingBerry1964,Waxetal.1967,
Fox,etal.2005,Oppelt1990,Carney1999,Huffman1999,andDemmert2001,we
haveseenthemesrelatingtothesalienceofculturaldimensionsofNativeAmerican
studentsrepeatedlyemerge.Theconceptsofethnicidentityandempowerment
35
discussedbelowmayalsocontributetoanimprovedunderstandingofwhatcan
helpAmericanIndianstudentssucceedatcollege.
TheRoleofEthnicIdentityandEmpowerment
Field(1994:433)definesethnicidentityas“thedegreetowhichthe
individualsthoughtofthemselves,organizedthemeaningoftheirsocial
relationships,andinterpretedtheirexperiencesintermsoftheirnationality
background.”
Theconceptof“symbolicethnicity”asproposedbyHerbertGans(1979)is
usedasillustrationofthewayinwhichindividualswillpickandchoosefromastore
orcacheofculturalitems.Swidler(1986)referredtothisstoreasatypeof‘toolkit’
ofethnicorculturalitemstobebroughtoutandusedatparticulartimesin
particularsituations.Nagel(1994)seestheconstructionofethnicidentityas
accomplishedbychoosingitemsfroma‘shoppingcart’.Nagelseessocietal
constraintsasdeterminantoftheshapeofthecart,whereasexternalforcesbeyond
anyoneindividual’scontrollimitethnicidentification.Suchlimitationmayapply,
forexample,toAmericanIndiancollegestudentsonpredominantlyWhitecollege
campuses.
Inhisclassic1969work,EthnicGroupsandBoundaries,FredrikBarthposits
theconceptsoftheculturalconstructionistmodelofethnicity.Ethnicgroupsare
situationalandcontextual.Thisistosaythattheyaretheresultofparticular
interactional,historical,economicalandpoliticalfactorsincombinationsthatleadto
36
theformationofethnicboundaries.Throughoutthelongcolonialhistorysincethe
firstcontactbetweenAmericanIndiansandEuropeansettlerstherehavebeen
historicalattemptsbytheEuro‐dominantculturetoeradicatethecultureand
identityoftheNativeAmericans.Giventhishistory,acomplexsetoffactorsmay
influencehowAmericanIndianstudentsdevelopanethnicidentityandastudent
identitywithinthemainstreamcollegeenvironmentandhowthosetwoaspectsof
selfworkwithandagainsteachother.
InherbookentitledEmpowermentthroughMulticulturalEducation,Sleeter
(1991)explainshowpeopleempoweredbyeducationcanunderstandthe
oppressivenatureofthesocialstructure;actproactivelytowardreachingtheirown
goals;succeedasindividualswithinthedominantsocialstructureofschoolsand
othersocialinstitutions;advocateforthemselvesasindividualswithinthelarger
socialsystem;and,workcollectivelyforsocialjustice.Freire(1970)arguesthatitis
throughtheprocessofconscientizationthatoppressedpeoplerealizethattheir
culturalvaluesarelegitimate.Deyhle’s(1992;1995)researchshowsthatthe
differenceindropoutratesbetweenUtestudentsinabordercommunityand
Navajostudentsfromamoretraditionalreservationcommunityareanchoredinthe
degreeofconnectiontotraditionalNativecultureandthestrengthofIndian
identity.
Researchers(Oyserman,HarrisonandBybee2001;Oysermanetal.2003)
haveexaminedtheeffectsthatastrongracialidentityhasonprovidinga“positive
bufferagainstdecliningacademicefficacy”(2001:384)Thisispredicateduponthe
37
ideathatbeingamemberofaminoritygroupcanhavea‘deflatingandstigmatizing’
effect.Racialidentity,theresearchersargue,canbeacrucialelementaffectinghow
someadolescentsmakesenseoftheirselves.
Oyserman,GantandAger(1995:1222)describethestrategiesusedbyBlack
andWhiteuniversitystudents“toobtainachievementrelatedpossibleselves.”
Oyserman,BybeeandTerry(2006)explain“achievementrelatedpossibleselves”
and“academicpossibleselves”asdefinitionsofselfthataresupportiveand
consistentwithachievementandacademicsuccess.Oysermanetal.(1995)
recognizedthatsuchsociallyconstructedselvesareheavilydependentuponthe
backingofimportantothersinthesocialenvironment.Theseimportantothersmay
includefamilymembers,teachers,andmembersofthewidersupportnetworkand
referencegroups.Thesocialenvironmentisthearenainwhicheducational,
economicandothertypesofresourcesaregatheredas‘socialcapital’thatallows
youthtobecomeavaluedmemberofhisorhersocialgroup(Oysermanetal.1995).
AtthePlainsStateUniversity20thAnnualConsidertheCenturyConference
heldOctober8th,2008thePresidentofSittingBullCollegeatFortYates,North
Dakotawasasked,‘TowhatdoyouattributethesuccessofSittingBullCollege
studentsasmeasuredbyretentionandgraduationrates?’PresidentLaurel
VermillionrepliedbyexplainingthatSittingBullstudents“Knowwhotheyareand
wheretheycomefrom.”Inshort,somestudentshaveastronganchorintheformof
ethnic(Indian)identitythatmayleadtoempowermentandacademicattainment.
38
ZitzowandEstes(1980,1983)haveproposedaHeritageConsistent—
HeritageInconsistentContinuumasacounselingapproachwithAmericanIndian
students.Thiscontinuumisusedtoassesstheextenttowhichanindividual’s
lifestylereflectsthemajorelementsofhisorherhistoricaltribalculture.Wherean
individualfallsalongthecontinuumisdeterminedaccordingtothatindividual’s
knowledgeofandparticipationinthematerialandnon‐materialcultureand
customsoftheirtribalgroup.Thispositioningonthecontinuumappearstohavean
impactonself‐concept,acculturation,internalconflict,andidentity.AsHuffman
(1999)reports,theseaspectsofethnicidentitycanhaveadeterminanteffecton
howtheAmericanIndianstudentperceivesthecollegeenvironmentandnavigates
hisorherwaythroughit.
AccordingtoHuffman(1999)studentswhoarelessassimilatedtothe
mainstreamculturewillexperiencemorecultureshockuponarrivalatcollegeand
willbemorelikelytodropoutandreturnhomewithoutsomesupportorservices
designedtofacilitatethetransitionfromthefamiliar,moretraditionalenvironment
tothemainstreamcollegeenvironment.Huffman(1999)hascreatedtaxonomyfor
classifyingNativeAmericanstudentsalongacontinuumofculturaltraditional
lifestylerangingfromAssimilatedatoneendandEstrangedattheotherend.
Huffmanexplainshow,whilefortheAssimilatedstudent,transitiontocollegeand
themainstreamcultureposeslittle,ifany,challengeorthreat;theEstrangedstudent
willbemostlikelytodropoutofcollegequicklybecausethatstudentwillfeel
threatenedbythemainstreamcampusenvironmentandseetheuniversityasan
39
institutionwhosesolepurposeisoneoftotalassimilationandtheeradicationof
traditionalNativevaluesandlifestyle.BetweentheAssimilatedandEstranged
students,inthistaxonomy,HuffmanclassifiesMarginalstudentsand
Transculturatedstudentsasthosewhoareable,tovaryingdegrees,tobalanceout
thechallengesposedbylivinginboththetraditionalandthemainstreamworlds.
AccordingtoHuffman(1999),theMarginalstudentisonewhoattemptstolive
simultaneouslyintheboththetraditionalNativecultureandthemainstream
culturewhilefittingcomfortablyintoneitherone.Conversely,theTransculturated
studentdrawsstrengthfromhisorherethnicidentity,whichservesasananchor
andstabilizingfactor,providingresilienceandconfidencefornavigationthrough
themainstreamsocialstructure.
Lee(2006:6)describesTinto’smodelofcollegestudentdepartureaswhat
Tintotermed“longitudinalandinteractional”(Tinto1975,1993).Accordingto
Tinto,astudent’sdecisiontoremainincollegeorleaveistheproductofaprocess
thatoccursovertimeandisshapedthroughtheinteractionofcharacteristicsofthe
individualstudentandthoseoftheinstitution.Themodelsuggeststhatthosewho
completecollegedegreesarethosewhowereabletoassimilateandbecomefirmly
integratedintothemainstreamacademicandsocialsystemsoftheuniversity
environment.Thisbecomesproblematicforsomestudentsofcolorbecauseit
requiresthemtoconformtheirethnicidentitiestofitintothepredominantlyWhite
institutionalenvironment(Lee2006).Tintohassincerevisedhismodelsothathe
nowallowsfortheneedforsupportivecampuscommunitiesandinclusive
40
universityenvironmentsforstudentsofcoloriftheyaretoberetained(Lee2006).
OtherresearchersstillchallengeTinto’smodelasonethatisstillfirmlyembedded
inaframeworkofnecessaryassimilationandacculturationbytheminoritystudent
ifthatstudentistopersistincollege(Ogbu1978;Rendon,JalomoandNora2000;
Tierney1993,2000;Lee2006).
InherworkEthnicityMatters:RethinkingHowBlack,Hispanic&Indian
StudentsPrepareFor&SucceedInCollege,Lee(2006),reviewsfourmodelprograms
designedtohelpethnicminoritystudentsachieveacademicsuccess.Several
commondenominatorsforsuccessinclude:timing,earlyandintensive
interventions(collegepreparatoryprogramsbeginningintheseventhgrade),
persistence,geography,communication,high‐leveladministrativesupportand
collaboration,financialsupport,and,datadrivenapproachesbasedonquantitative
andqualitativeassessments.Leealsocitescriticalmassasacommonfactorin
successfulprograms.Numbers,sheargues,countintheempowermentofethnicand
racialminoritiesandtheirabilitytoparticipateinthedominantsocialstructure.
Numbersofenrolledandgraduatedracialandethnicminorities,Leesuggests,
shouldbeproportionatetothepercentageinthegeneralpopulation.
Lee’s(2006)analysisofprogramssuccessfulinservingtheneedsofethnic
andracialminoritystudentsintheirquestforacademicsuccessshowsthatwhen
peopleworktogethertoaddresstheneedsofminoritystudents,andwhenthey
understandhowethnicitymatters,greatprogresscanbemade.Throughthe
implementationoftheaboveprinciplesdevelopedbythetrailblazersinthefieldof
41
highereducationforminoritystudents,therecanbedevelopedandimplementeda
newpedagogy,whatFreire(1974)calleda‘pedagogyofhope’inwhicheducation
becomesatwowaystreetbetweenthetreasureofhistoricalculturalknowledgeand
thatofthedominantsocialstructurewhichhasbeeninstitutionalizedintheworld
ofhighereducation.Oneapplicationofthisunderstandingisthedevelopmentofa
sharedspaceforAmericanIndianstudentsonpredominantlyWhitecampuses.
TheRoleofaSharedPlaceforAmericanIndianStudents
Oldenburg(1989)makesastrongcaseforwhatheterms‘thethirdplace’as
aplacewhereinformalpublicassociationservestofacilitateasenseofcommunity
wellbeingandsolidaritybasedonsharedvaluesandcommonlifeexperienceatthe
localcommunitylevel.‘Thethirdplace’,accordingtoOldenburg,isneitherhomenor
work,butonethatoffersthefamiliarcomfortofbothwithouttheirincumbent
responsibilitiesorsocialrestrictions.Inthe‘thirdplace’onefinds,throughinformal
associationwithothers,thesourceofrecreation,recuperationandrejuvenationas
wellasvalidationandsocialsupportforindividualsagainsttheoppressivegrindof
thedailylifeinthedominantsocialstructure.Inaddition,itprovidesasafeand
nurturingenvironmentthroughassociationwithlikemindedindividuals.Justasthe
localpub,thebarbershop,thecaféandtheGermanbeergarden,offerplacesfor
groupaffiliation,theNativeAmericanHouseonthecampusatDartmouth,and
similarsuchfacilitiesatotheruniversitiesacrossthecountrymayofferaplacefor
thedevelopmentofasocialsupportnetwork.
42
GarrodandLarimore(1997)compilednarrativesfromAmericanIndian
studentsatDartmouth.ContributorscitedtheexistenceoftheNativeAmerican
HousealongwiththeNativeAmericanStudiesprogramandthesupportofNative
Americanfacultyasprimaryfactorsintheircollegesuccess.TheNativeAmerican
HouseatDartmouthprovidedasafeplaceforstudentswhowereexperiencinga
typeofcultureshockarisingfromconflictbetweenacademicandtraditional
AmericanIndianvalues(GarrodandLarimore1997).Thegroupknownas“The
NativeAmericansatDartmouth”providedsupportandsolidarityforNative
studentsintheforeignworldofanIvyLeaguecampusintheNortheasternUnited
States.
TheUniversityofMinnesotarecentlyheldacelebrationinhonorofthefifth
yearofoperationoftheAmericanIndianCulturalHouse(AICH).AICHisa
“UniversityefforttohelpAmericanIndianstudentsadjusttocampuslife”(San
2008:1).AstestimonytotheeffectivenessoftheUniversityofMinnesota’sNative
AmericanCulturalHouse,oneNativeAmericanalumnaestated,“Asafreshman,itis
oftenhardtotransitionintolifeonyourown...TheCulturalHousegavemean
informaleducationabouthowtosurviveandhowtoincorporateNativetraditional
ways.Thehousegavemeahome;acommunityinwhichIbelonged…thebestthing
isthatbeingapartoftheCulturalHousewaslikehavingyourownfamily.Itwasa
goodsteppingstonetothecampusforfirstyearstudents”(San2008:1).
Theimportanceofasharedplacefortheformationofsupportivegroupshas
beenshownatbothDartmouthandtheUniversityofMinnesota.AmericanIndian
43
studentsprovidetestimonytothevitalroleplayedbythe‘NativeAmericanHouse’,
touseagenericterm,intheirsuccessfultransitionfromthetraditionallysupportive
environmentprovidedbytheextendedfamilyandcommunityfromwhichmany
AmericanIndianstudentscome,totheforeignatmosphereoftheuniversity
environmentthatistheinstitutionalizationoftheEuro‐centriceducationsystem
andthedominantmainstreamsocialstructure.Thereisampleevidencetosuggest
thattheexistenceofsuchahousemaybebeneficialtoAmericanIndianstudentsat
universitieswherenosuch‘third’placecurrentlyexists.
SummaryandConclusiontoLiteratureReview
AreviewoftheliteratureregardingNativeAmericaneducationwithafocus
onhighereducationattainmentshowsthatearlyattemptssoughttore‐educate
NativeAmericansintothemainstreamEuro‐Americanmold(Eastman1902;
Meriam1928;StandingBear1928;Collier1947;Berry1969;Berkhofer1978).This
re‐educationwaslargelybasedintheChristianvaluesandtheindoctrinationof
EuropeannormsandvaluesintotheNativesociety(Berkhofer1978;McBeth1983;
Oppelt1990;DeloriaJr.1994;Boyer1997;Calloway1999).
Historyshowsthesegoalstohavefailed,resultinginagapineducational
attainmentbetweenAmericanIndiansandotherethnicgroupsDeVoeetal.(2008).
Beginninginthelate1960stribalcollegesbegananewmovementinself‐
determinationforAmericanIndianhighereducation(Oppelt1990;Boyer1997).
ThisnewmodelforNativeAmericaneducationisbasedontribalculture.Tribal
44
collegesandmoreresponsivemainstreaminstitutionshavehelpedAmerican
Indiansachieveanupwardtrendineducationalattainment(Oppelt1990;Boyer
1997;DeVoeetal.2008).In2008,highpercentagesofNativeAmericanstudents
soughtassociate,andbachelor’sdegreesatbothtwoandfour‐yearinstitutionsand
receivedmoregraduatedegreesthaneverbefore(DeVoeetal.2008).
WhilemuchprogresshasbeenmadeinAmericanIndianhighereducation,
barrierstoeducationalsuccessforNativestudentsremain(Waxetal.1964;Wax
1967;Berry1969;Tierney1992;Carney1999).Amongthesebarriersare:lackof
familialandfinancialsupport,lackofculturallyrelevantcurricula,fewNativefaculty
andstafftosupportNativestudents,alackofculturallybasedstudentsupport
services,ageinappropriatenessforeducationallevelandinadequatepreparationfor
college(WrightandTierney1991;Tierney1992;Carney1999).
EducatorsworkinginAmericanIndianhighereducationhaveidentified
factorsleadingtosuccessandstrategiesforeducationalattainment(Waxetal.
1964;WrightandTierney1991;Demmert2001;HeavyRunnerandDeCelles2002;
Jacksonetal.2003Foxetal.2005).Amongthesefactorsare:familysupport,
increasedculturalidentity,personaldeterminationandgoalsetting,financial
support,improvedacademicskillspriortocollege,supportivementorsamong
collegefacultyandstaff,andculturallyappropriatecurricula.
Someresearchershaveidentifiedalinkbetweenethnicidentityand
educationalattainmentforminoritystudents.Forexample,ZitzowandEstes(1980,
45
1983),Oysermanetal.(1995,2001,2003,2006),andLee(2006)haveallfounda
linkbetweenthedevelopmentofastrongethnicidentityandacademicsuccess.
Oneapproachthatshowspotentialforenhancingeducationalattainmentis
theexistenceofaNativeAmericanhouseasaplacefortheformationofreference
groupsprovidingsupportandtheopportunitytodevelopastrongethicidentitythat
isseenasaculturalassetthatmayimproveretentionamongAmericanIndian
students.Oldenburg(1989)andGarrodandLarimore(1997)illustratethe
importanceofasafegatheringplacewherelike‐mindedpeopleformacommunity
andfindsupportotherthanthatfoundathomeoratwork.TheAmericanIndian
CultureHousehasimprovedthesuccessofAmericanIndianstudentsin
transitioningfromhometothepredominantlyWhite,mainstreamcampusatthe
UniversityofMinnesota(San2008).AsPresidentLaurelVermillionexplainedwhen
askedwhatfactorismostbeneficialtostudentsatSittingBullCollegeinachieving
academicsuccess,‘Theyknowwhotheyareandwheretheycomefrom.’As
HeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002)havefound,familyandthecommunityareof
criticalimportancetoAmericanIndianstudentsintermsoftheirretentionor
persistenceincollege.
Evengiventheprogressmadeinidentifyingbarriersanddeveloping
strategiestoovercomethosebarriers,thereremainstheneedtobetterunderstand
themechanismsthatimpacteducationalattainment,particularlyastheyapplyto
thelivesofAmericanIndianstudentsatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionssuchas
PSU.
46
SociologyofEducation,CriticalRaceTheoryandCriticalEducationTheory
alongwiththeoreticalfocusontheformationandfunctionofreferencegroupswill
informthiswork.Theseperspectiveswillbecoveredinthenextchapter.
47
CHAPTERTHREE
TheoreticalOrientation
Thisstudyexploresthefactorsthatcontributetoeducationalattainment
amongAmericanIndianstudentsatapredominantlyWhiteuniversityinPrairie
State.Thecriticaltheoreticaltraditionprovidestheconceptualframeworkforthe
study.Worksrelatingtocriticaleducationtheoryandcriticalracetheoryare
identifiedasparticularlysalientforthisexaminationofretentionandgraduationof
AmericanIndianstudentsfromPlainsStateUniversity.
Thecriticalschoolofsociologicaltheory,commonlyreferredtoasthe
FrankfurtSchool,developedintheearly1900soutoftheMarxianperspective.
TheoristsmostassociatedwiththecriticalschoolincludeMaxHorkheimer,Theodor
Adorno,ErichFromm,HerbertMarcuseandinmoremoderntimes,Jurgen
Habermas(Bottomore1984).Criticaltheoryaimstouncoveraspectsofthesocial
worldthatmaybetakenforgranted,or,onthesurface,gounnoticedbutthatmay
beoppressiveorrestrictiveofthefreedomsofindividualsorgroups(Neuman
2000).Thebasicmotiveoftheearlycriticaltheoristswastocriticizelifeunder
capitalismandthedominantideologythatexplainedandpromotedit.Critical
thinkersstressedtheimportanceofcultureandwerecriticalofart,aestheticsand
themassmediaasproductsoftheoppressivedominantsocialstructure(Bottomore
1984;Neumann2000).Criticaltheoryisvalueladenandemancipatory,seekingto
liberatehumanexistenceandameliorateoppressivesocialconditionsthatare
48
dominatedbyvaluesofefficiencyandcontrolthroughtheuseoftechnology
(Bottomore1984;Neumann2000).Thecriticalperspectiveseekstocombinetheory
andactionaspraxis(Bottomore1984;Tierney1992).
Gramsci(1932)discussedtheconceptofhegemony.Culturalhegemonyisa
socialconditioninwhichtherulingclassmanipulatesculturalsymbolsinsucha
waythatleadsotherclassesorculturalgroupstoeffectivelycontributetotheirown
subordination(Gramsci1932).Thisformofdominationoperatesthroughvital
socialfunctionsinsocialinstitutionssuchaseducation(Friere1970),andisof
particularinteresttothisstudyofAmericanIndiansandhighereducation.
Ogbu(1978,1985)arguesthatlackofminoritystudentachievementin
school,andafterwards,istheresultofamacrostructuredesignedspecificallyto
keepthepowerinthehandsoftheWhiteEuro‐Americanmajority.Insupportofthis
position,Ogbu(1985)suggestsataxonomicclassificationsystemofminority
groups.Theseclassificationsrangeinlevelofoppressionfrombarelyseparated
frommainstreamasintheautonomousminoritiessuchasAmish,Jews,Mormons,
andWhiteEuropeanandAsianimmigrants,tothemostopenlyoppressedgroup,
castelikeminorities,includingNativeAmericans,AfricanAmericans,andMexican
Americans(Ogbu1985).
Feagin(2000),reportingonthecollegeexperienceofBlackstudentsat
predominantlyWhitecollegecampuses,statesthatprejudicialattitudesaboundon
WhitecampusesamongWhitestudents,facultyandadministrators.Ifracial
insensitivityhasbeeninstitutionalizedonmainstreamcollegecampusesintheform
49
ofEuro‐centriccurriculum,lackofinterestinAfricanAmericanstudents,andthe
expectationbyfacultythatindividualBlackstudentsarerepresentativeoftheentire
race,asFeagin(2000)suggests,thesamemayholdtrueforNativeAmerican
studentsonmajorityWhite,mainstreamcampuses.
Tierney(1992)describestherealisticchallengesofthecollegeanduniversity
experienceforAmericanIndianstudentsinEuro‐Americanmainstreamcolleges
anduniversities.ThetitleofTierney’s1992bookisilluminatinginitself:‘Official
Encouragement,InstitutionalDiscouragement’istherealityofcollegeexperiencefor
manyNativeAmericanstudents,heargues.Indeed,manyscholarscontendthat
barriersandobstaclestoacademicattainmentforAmericanIndiansaretheresultof
generationsofblockedopportunitiesformembersofsubordinateminoritygroups
(Waxetal.1964,Berry1969;Hertzburg1971;Oppelt1990;Tierney1992,2000;
Carney1999).
Fordham(1996)exploresstructuralbarrierscreatedbythemainstream
dominantsocietyagainstBlackAmericans(andotherracialsubordinategroups)
regardingachievementintheworkforce,marketplace,andeducationalsystem.
Suchbarriersinclude:prejudicialattitudesamongmainstreamstudents,facultyand
administrators(Feagin1996);fundamentalculturaldifferencesinU.S.mainstream
‘Euro‐American’andAmericanIndianculture(Wax,WaxandDuMont1964,Tierney
1992,2000,Carney1999);inadequatecollegepreparationfrompoorlyfunded
schoolsinminority(includingreservation)communities(Carney1999);
unsupportivemainstreamcampusenvironments(Wax,etal.1964,Tierney1992;
50
Huffman1999);inadequatefinancialsupportforNativestudents(Guilloryand
Wolverton2008);languagebarriers,lackofparentinvolvement,culturally
insensitiveteachertrainingprogramsandlowteacherexpectationsregarding
AmericanIndianstudents(Berry1969).
Fordham(1988)looksattheconflictbetweenBlackstudentsandtheir
culturalkinshiptiesandthecultureofhighereducationbuiltupontheidealsofthe
dominantmainstreamsocialstructure.Fordhampositsthatstudentsarepulledby
theirdualrelationshipsbetweenthecommunity‐focusedBlacksocialstructureand
theindividualisticemphasisofthedominantsocialstructurethatisthebasisforthe
competitiveideologyofthemainstreameducationsystem.
Forthecastelikesubordinateminority(Ogbu1985),theroadblocksto
academicaswellaslifegoalachievementaresignificant.Asethnic/racialgroup
boundariesaresetandmaintained,thecastelikeminoritymembersadoptnew
culturallyspecificwaysasareactionagainstnorms,valuesandexpectationsofthe
hegemonicmainstream.Someofthesemechanismsareseenasoppositional.For
example,aBlackstudentwillnotpartakeinschoolactivitiesthatwillbeseenby
peersormembersofhisorherin‐groupas‘actingWhite’.Inthisregard,itisseenas
bettertoremainloyaltothegroupthantobeseenasasellouttotheWhitemajority
powerstructure(Ogbu1978,1985;Fordham1988).
Fordham(1988)describestwomethodsadoptedbyracialminoritiesfor
dealingwiththenecessityofcompromisinginordertosucceedinthedominant
culture.‘Sellingout’referstodevelopingastateof‘racelessness’inorderto
51
downplayracial/ethnicculturewhileadoptingthevaluesofthedominantsociety.
Alternatively,studentsmayclingtothesolidarityofracialidentityanddownplay
thevaluesofthedominantsociety.ThisstrategyiscomparabletoHuffman’s(1999)
‘estranged’studentwhochoosesto‘dropout’ratherthan‘sellout’.
Huffman(1999)interviewedAmericanIndianstudentsathighereducation
institutionsintheupperMidwest,developingatypologytocharacterizetheirlevel
ofacculturation.AccordingtoHuffman(1999)theestrangedAmericanIndian
studentisimmersedinhisorhertraditionaltribalcultureandfeelslikeafishoutof
waterinthecollegeenvironment.FortheestrangedAmericanIndian,the
mainstreamcollegecampusseemsforeign.Theestrangedstudentismostlikelyto
dropoutofcollegeand,amongHuffman’stypes,isthequickesttodoso.Forthis
student,themainstreamEuro‐culturalvaluesofindividualismandcompetitionare
notwelcomingorcomfortable.Thisstudentseesthegoaloftheuniversityasthe
assimilationintothemainstreamculture.Thisthreattothestudent’straditional
valuesservestopushthemawayfromthecampusenvironment;concurrently,many
experiencea“pullback”totheirhometribalcommunity.
Whenthehighereducationsystemfailstorecognizethevalueofminority
students,thesestudentsmayfailtoachieveintheuniversityenvironment.Thisis
notafailureofthestudentorofthestudents’culturalgroups,Huffman(1999)
argues,butrather,thefailureoftheeducationalsystemsbuiltuponmainstream
values.
52
CriticalRaceTheory(CRT)hasitsontologicalrootsinthelifeexperiencesof
marginalizedpeopleofcolor(Yasso2005).Ithaslongbeenassumedthatifpeople
ofcolordonotadopttheworldviewofthedominantmiddleanduppermiddle
classes,thenthosepeopleofcolorlacktheculturalcapitalrequiredforsocial
mobility(Bourdieu1977;Ogbu1978,1985).Thoseinhegemonicmainstream
powerpositionsviewsuchalackofculturalcapitalfromthedominantclassesasa
deficit(Yasso2005).Thishashistoricallybeenthecaseinthefieldofeducation
regardingethnicandracialminoritystudents(Waxetal.1964,Berry1969;
Hertzburg1971;Oppelt1990;Tierney1992,2000;Carney1999).
CRTchallengestheconstructofracebyexaminingtheideologyofracism.
“CRTfindsthatracismisoftenwelldisguisedintherhetoricofshared‘normative’
valuesand‘neutral’socialscientificprinciplesandpractices”(Yasso2005:74).Itis
thegoalofCRTtochallengeracismbybringingtotheforefrontofconsciousnessthe
uniqueaspectsofaculturethatformthestoreofculturalwealth.Fromthe
recognitionofculturalwealthcomesthebeginningoftheprocessofempowerment
thatstartswiththereplacementoftheculturaldeficitframeworkandinitsplace
theviewthatculturalwealthisanasset.
Fordham(1988)andHuffman(1999)suggestthatremedying
underachievementamongAfricanAmericanandAmericanIndianstudentsrequires
amultilayeredapproach.First,minoritystudentsneedrolemodelsthatshowthat
theycanachieveinschoolandintheworkplacewithoutlosingtheirethnicidentity
ortheirmembershipinakinshipnetworkorextendedtribalfamily.Second,the
53
structuralandculturalbarriersthathavebeenseentoworkasroadblocksto
successmustbetorndown.
Yasso(2005)expandsonBourdieu’s(1977)workon‘culturalcapital’.
AccordingtoYasso,ratherthandefineminorityculturesasthosesufferingfrom
deficitofculturalpovertyanddisadvantageswhencomparedtothemainstream
Euro‐Americanculture,theycanbeseenasawealthofculturalknowledge,history
andconnection.Theseassetsprovideastrengthandstabilizinganchorforthe
minoritystudentsastheymaketheirwaythroughthesystemofhighereducation
thatisdevised,implementedanddominatedbypredominantlyWhitemembersof
themainstreameducationalhierarchy.Culturalwealthcanbeconceptualizedto
includebothmaterialandnon‐materialculturalitems.AccordingtoYasso(2005),
CriticalRaceTheorydefinesculturalwealthasasetofassetsratherthanaplatform
ofdeprivation.Yossodescribesformsofculturalcapitaltoinclude,“aspirational,
navigational,social,linguistic,familialandresistantcapital”(2005:69).Fromthese,
studentscandrawstrengtheningresourcesbasedontheirlifeexperiences,familial
bonds,andculturaltraditionsthatwillservetheminthecollegeclassroom.
Toovercomeeducationalobstaclesandcreateopportunitiesforminority
studentstoachievewithoutfeelingdisloyaltotheirgroup,educationalprograms
needtoincorporatewaysofinstillingculturalprideandtherecognitionofthe
groups’contributionstosocietyingeneral(Fordham1988;Tierney1992;Carney
1999).Thisrequiresanewwayofthinkingbothonthepartofeducatorsand
students.AsOgbu(1985:868)suggests,“Atthelevelofpractice,teachersand
54
schoolscandevelopprogramstohelpminoritystudentslearnhownottoequate
masteryofschoolcultureandlanguagewithalossofgroupidentityandsecurity”.
Tierney(2000)arguesthatthosewhoworkwithlow‐incomeorminority
studentsneedtoreorienthowtheythinkaboutandworkwithsuchstudents.
Programsthatenhancethestudents’culturalawarenesscanexpandtheirassets
allowingthemtoenvisionandenactapositiveachievementoutcome.From
Tierney’s(2000)view,studentswhoareencouragedtoembracetheiridentitymay
beempowered.Thisempowermentmayleadtoincreasedefficacyinschool
performanceandretentionforsomeminoritystudents.Tierney’swork(2000)
pointstotheneedformainstreamuniversitiestonurturestudents’ethnicidentity
asastrengthandassetforallmembersofthecampuscommunity.
Bybuildingapositiveracial/ethnicidentity,alongwithskillsin
understandingandnavigatingmainstreaminstitutions,studentefficacyisincreased.
ThishasbeenshowntobeeffectiveintheexampleoftheSouthCentralLosAngeles
interventionknownastheNeighborhoodAcademicInitiative(Lee2006).
Truebastressestheimportanceofcultureasafactorinschoolachievement.
AccordingtoTrueba(1988),cultureisimportantatthecollectivelevel,(i.e.ethnic
groupinamacrostructure),andatthemicro,(contextspecific)levelofthestudent.
Trueba(1988)supportsanemphasisontheuniquerolecultureplaysinthe
entireprocessoflearning.ForTrueba,cultureisparamounttotheacquisitionand
processingofinformation.Whencultureisaccountedforintheschoolexperienceit
allowsstudentstoovercomehegemonicforcesineducationbuiltuponahistoryof
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colonialismandimperialism.AccordingtoTrueba,“Thereisagreatneedforthe
developmentofatheoryofacademicachievementthattakesintoconsiderationthe
homecultureofthestudents”(1988:279).
Theinclusionofcultureintotheeducationalprocessisachievedthroughthe
useof‘activitysettings’(Trueba1988)duringthelearningprocess.Whenculturally
appropriateactivitiesareincludedinthecurriculumthestudentisabletointegrate
themainstreamculturethroughtheeducationprocessbylinkingitwithculturally
specificexperiencesasheorshehasbeensocializedwith.Lee’sworkwithethnic
minoritystudentsinChina(2001)andinexaminingmodelprogramsinsupportof
studentsofcolorinpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsintheU.S.(2006)isfurther
evidenceofhowethnicitymattersregardingminoritystudentacademicsuccess.
GuajardoandGuajardo(2002)describetheLlanoGrandeprograminElsa,
Texasasaprojectdesignedtocapitalizeonminoritystudents’culturalassets.The
LlanoGrandeprojectwashighlysuccessfulinhelpingstudentsconceptualize
culturalassetssuchasfamilialbonds,oralhistory,andNativelanguageasabasisfor
culturalprideandempowerment.Bygivingthestudentsavoicetheywereableto
seethewealthoftheirethnichistoryandapplyittopossiblefutureoutcomes
towardpositivechange.(GuajardoandGuajardo2002).Thepositiveimpactsofthe
Llanoprojectincludethirty‐sixstudentsfromthecommunityattendingcollegeat
IvyLeagueschools.Otherstudentsattendlocaluniversities.Thereisatrendtoward
thesestudentsreturningtothecommunityafterreceivingtheiruniversity
educationstogivebacktothecommunity.
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GuilloryandWolverton(2008:59)citeseveralstudies(Belgarde1992;
BrownandRobinsonKurpius1997;Carney1999;CibikandChambers1991;Lin,
LaCounteandEder1988;PavelandPadilla1993;Wright1985”),showingthat
“...participationatAmericanIndianstudentcenterscanleadtoacademicand
socialengagementforAmericanIndianstudentsand,subsequently,cancontribute
toretainingthisparticulargroup”.ThesestudiesindicatesuchNativeAmerican
‘Houses’orstudentcentersacrossthecountrymayprovideculturallyappropriate
activitysettingsthatnurturethesalienceofethnicidentityandempowerstudents
forsuccessintheuniversityenvironment.
AccordingtoErickson(1963),thedevelopmentoftheindividual’ssenseof
selfbeginsasachildisabletodifferentiateitselfasanobjectseparatefromfamily.
Thissenseofselfasameaningfulobjectisdevelopedthroughtheprocessoffirst
takingtheroleofafewsignificantothers,mostlikelyparentsandsiblings,andthen
takingtheroleofthegeneralizedother(Mead1934).AccordingtoHewitt
(1994:90),referencegroupsare“socialgroupsthatprovidegeneralizedothersto
whomtheindividualrefers.”Singer(1981)explainsreferencegroupsasthose
groupsthatprovideanorientationforsocialcomparisonofone’sself.Reference
groupsprovideaframeworkfromwhichtheindividualisabletoshapehisorher
evaluations,attitudesandbehavior(Singer1981).
Referencegroupshavebeenconceivedofascomparativeandnormative.
“Theconsequenceofnormativereferenceorientationisconformity”whetheritbe
conformitytoabelief,attitude,avalueorabehavior(Singer1981:69).A
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comparativereferencegroupservesasa“standardofcomparisonforanappraisalof
eithertheselforother”(Singer1981:77).Stouffer’s(1949)theoryholdsthat
individualsusemultiplereferencegroupsinordertomakeevaluations.
Thisstudyexamineswhether,andtowhatextent,theformationofculturally
basedreferencegroupshelpAmericanIndianstudentsnavigatetheirwaythrough
predominantlyWhiteinstitutionsthatarebasedinmainstreamnorms,values,and
experiences;thusactingtofacilitatetheireducationalattainment.
Inaclassicstudyofnormativereferencegroupsperformedinthe1930s,
Newcomb(1958)notesageneraltrendofattitudechangefrom“freshman
conservatives”to“seniorneoconservativesamongBenningtoncollegestudents”
Newcomb(1958:275)concludesthatsuchattitudes“arenotacquiredinasocial
vacuum.Theiracquisitionisafunctionofrelatingoneselftosomegrouporgroups
positivelyornegatively.”
Oldenburg(1989)makesastrongcaseforwhatheterms‘thethirdplace’as
aplacewhereinformalpublicassociationservestofacilitateasenseofcommunity
wellbeingandsolidaritybasedonsharedvaluesandcommonlifeexperienceatthe
localcommunitylevel.‘Thethirdplace’,accordingtoOldenburg,isneitherhomenor
work,butoffersthefamiliarcomfortofbothwithouttheirincumbent
responsibilitiesorsocialrestrictions.Inthe‘thirdplace’isfound,throughinformal
associationwithothers,thesourceofrecreation,recuperationandrejuvenationas
wellasvalidationandsocialsupportforindividualsagainsttheoppressivegrindof
thedailylifeinthedominantsocialstructure.Inaddition,itprovidesasafeand
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nurturingenvironmentthroughassociationwithlikemindedindividuals.Like
mindedindividuals,sharingcommonvalues,commonlifeexperiencesandcommon
lifegoalswillformreferencegroupsforcomparisontoothers,bothinsideand
outsideoftheirgroupwhilealsoformingnormativereferencegroupsforthe
validationandcontinuationofsharednormsandvalues(Singer1981).American
Indianstudentsonmainstreamcampusesmayseeksuchaspecial‘thirdplace’.
TheMulticulturalStudentAffairsOfficeatPSUmayoffersuchaplaceforthe
developmentofasocialsupportnetworkthatservestoempowerstudentsthrough
thestrengtheningofacommonAmericanIndianidentity.Onepointofexploratory
interestinthisstudyiswhetherPSU’sOfficeofMulticulturalAffairs,whichutilizesa
‘Global’definitionofdiversity,whereinallminoritygroupsonthePSUcampusare
seenasaunified,‘non‐dominant’groupprovidessuchanenvironmentfor
developmentofacademicempowermentthroughaffiliationwithaculturallybased
normativereferencegroup,orwhetherthe‘GlobalDiversity’conceptfailsto
accountforeachminoritygroup’sculturalcapitalasuniquelyempoweringbasedon
eachgroup’sindividualculturalcharacteristicsratherthanbasedonthegroup’s
collectivestatus’asnon‐dominant.
Criticaltheorysuggeststhevaluesandstructuresofthedominant
mainstreamsocietyserveasbarrierstoeducationalattainmentofminoritystudents
intheU.S.(Bottomore1984).Culturalhegemonydescribeshowthoseinpower
manipulateculturalsymbolssothatotherclassesorculturalgroupseffectively
contributetotheirownsubordination(Gramsci1932).Thisformofsocial
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dominationisevidentthroughoutthehistoryofAmericanIndianhighereducation
(Meriam1928;Collier1947;Hertzberg1971;Berkhofer1978;McBeth1983;Oppelt
1990;DeloriaJr.1994;Boyer1997;Calloway1999Pewewardy2002).
Ogbu(1978,1985)illustrateshowstructuralbarrierssuchasprejudice,
inadequatefinances,andacademicpreparationarerealitiesforoppressed,
‘castelike’minorities.AccordingtoOgbu,thesestructuralfactorseffectivelylimitthe
opportunitiesforacademicadvancementandlifeingeneral.
Feagin(1996),reportsthatprejudicialattitudesarestillprevalenton
predominantlyWhitecampuses.Suchinstitutionalizeddiscriminationworksatboth
thestructuralandculturallevelstocreatebarrierstoacademicattainmentfor
AmericanIndianstudents.Additionally,Tierney(1992,2000)showsthewaysin
whichpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsofhighereducationarecreated,
implementedandmaintainedaccordingtoEuro‐Americanmainstreamvalues,goals
andperspectives.Thisorientationholdsthattheresponsibilityforacademicsuccess
restsexclusivelyuponthestudentwhoisviewedasdeficient.Conversely,the
criticalperspective(Tierney1992,2000)placesresponsibilityontheinstitutionto
adaptprogramsandapproachesthatbuildonstudents’ethnicidentityandcultural
backgroundasassetsthatcanleadtotheirempowermentandeducational
attainment(Tierney1992;Trueba1988;GuajardoandGuajardo2002;Lee2006).
Newcomb(1958)andSinger(1981)describetheformationofreference
groupsthatservetoprovideindividualswithaframeworkofsocialcomparisonand
fromwhichtogaugeandformulatepersonalnormsandvalues.Oldenburg(1989)
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describeshowthe‘thirdplace’servesasagatheringplacewhereindividualsmay
sharecommonsnorms,values,lifecircumstancesandconcerns.
Builtonacriticalconceptualframework,thisstudyexamineswhetherthe
formationofnormativereferencegroupsthroughprograms,supportstructuresand
a‘thirdplace’,suchasa‘NativeAmericanCulturalCenter’mayservetomitigatethe
structuralandculturalbarrierstosuccessthatAmericanIndianstudentsencounter
atpredominantlyWhiteinstitutions.Inaddition,otherfactorsthatcombineto
hinderorfacilitatestudentretentionandgraduationforNativeAmericanstudents
atPSUareexplored.
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CHAPTERFOUR
METHODOLOGY
Thisprojectemploysaninductiveresearchapproachtoexplorefactors
influencingsecondaryeducationalattainmentofAmericanIndians.Inkeepingwith
thecriticaltheoreticaltradition,themethodsofqualitativeethnographyprovidethe
frameworkfortheexplorationintotheresearchquestionsthatyieldthick,rich
descriptionfromtheinsider’sperspective.Theconceptof‘praxis’asintroducedby
Marx,remainsaguidingprincipleinthedesignandimplementationofthisstudy.
Praxishasasitsgoaltoameliorateoppressivesocialconditionsthroughthe
applicationofpragmaticactionthatisbasedintheoreticallygeneratedideas.This
studyisdirectedatenhancingunderstandingsothatmoreAmericanIndian
studentsareabletoattaintheirhighereducationaspirations.
Datacollectionincludedfocusgroups,intensiveinterviews,field
observations,anddocumentarydataanalysisincludingquantitativedataon
enrollmentandretentionofNativeAmericanstudents.Analysisofdatawasuseful
ingainingnewinsightandanenhancedunderstandingoftheresearchquestions
thatfollow.
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ResearchQuestions
Basedinthecriticaltheoreticaltradition,thisprojectinvestigatesthe
followingresearchquestionstodevelopanenhancedunderstandingofAmerican
IndianeducationalattainmentatPlainsStateUniversity.
1. WhatfactorsfacilitateorenhanceeducationalattainmentforAmerican
Indianstudents?
2. Whatfactorsactasbarrierstoeducationalattainment?
Basedonareviewoftheliterature,thisresearchincludestheexaminationof
issuesrelatingto:
a.Financialresources b.Campusenvironmentc.Familyrelationsd.Pre‐collegeacademicpreparatione.Facultyexpectationsf.Faculty,staffandstudentattitudesg.Curriculumh.Culturaltraditionsi.CulturallybasedReferencegroupsj.Culturalfactorsk.The3rdplacel.Supportprogramsm.Individual(personal)drivetowardacademicattainment
Themajorresearchfocusofthisstudyis:whatfactorscombinetofacilitate
orhindereducationalattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatamajor,
predominantlyWhite,universityinPrairieState?Themeasureofeducational
attainmentisdeterminedthroughcomparativeratesofretentionandgraduationfor
AmericanIndianstudentsandallotherstudentsatPlainsStateUniversity.
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Totalstudentenrollmentinthefallof2009,was12,376.Ofthose,8.4percent
werelistedasminoritystudents.AmericanIndianstudentsenrolledatPSU
comprisethesecondlargestofminoritygroupsenrolledat2.1percentofall
studentsenrolled.RecordsavailablethroughtheofficeoftheNativeAmerican
StudentAdvisorshow249studentsidentifiedasAmericanIndiansenrolledatPSU.
ThereisnobreakdownofthenumberofstudentsattendingtheRailtowncampusas
separatefromUniversityCenterorfacilitiesinanyotherpartofthestate.Forty‐four
Nativestudentsarelistedasfreshmen.Thirty‐ninestudentswereassignedrooms
oncampusinresidencehalls.
StudyInstitution
Students,AdministratorsandfacultyatPlainsStateUniversityprovidedthe
multiplevoicesandviewpointscontributingtothisstudy.ThehistoryofPSUhas
unfoldedconcurrentwith,andparalleltothehistoryofAmericanIndiansstateand
nationwide.
StudyParticipants
ThesamplepopulationforthisstudyincludesNativeAmericanstudents
currentlyenrolledatPSU.Inadditiontostudents,facultyandstaffwhoareinvolved
inprograms,servicesorcurriculathataredesignedspecificallyforNativeAmerican
studentsorthatarefrequentedbyNativeAmericanstudentsareincludedin
intensiveinterviewsandfieldobservations.Universityadministratorsare
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interviewedinordertogainaninsider’sperspectivefromthemainstream
institutionalpointofviewregardingtheissueofAmericanIndianstudentretention
andgraduation.Methodologicalapproachestoeachofthesegroupsaredescribed
below.
NativeAmericanStudents
PSUhasaNativeAmericanstudentpopulationlargelyfromtheplainsstates
oftheUpperMidwest.Assuch,thetribalaffiliationsofstudentsatPSUaremore
similarthanmaybeseenatsomeuniversitiesinpartsofthecountryfurther
removed,andwithamorediverseNativepopulation.Evengiventhesimilarityof
AmericanIndianstudentsattendingPrairieStateuniversities,thediversityamong
tribalgroupsandindividualstudentsmustbeacknowledged.Forthisreasonthe
term‘AmericanIndianstudent’willbehomogenizedintoamore‘pan‐Indian’
(Hertzburg1971)conceptofIndiannessbasedonsimilaritiessharedasPrairieState
AmericanIndianuniversitystudents.Thisiskeepingwiththeapproachusedby
GuilloryandWolverton(2008).
ThesampleofNativestudentsforthisstudywasdevelopedwiththehelpof
theNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwhoseofficeiscurrentlyhousedwithinPSU’s
MulticulturalAffairsOffice(OMA).HisfamiliaritywiththeAmericanIndianstudents
enrolledatPSUhelpedensureinterviewsandfocusgroupsincludedstudentswitha
diversityofages,genders,familystatus(whetherornotoneisaparent),yearin
college,majors,andfinancialresources.
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Giventhesimilaritiesanddifferencesofstudentswhenconceptualizedalong
culturaldimensionsitmuststillberecognizedthatIndiannessaside,therestill
remainindividualdifferencesamongAmericanIndianstudents.Becauseofhis
familiaritywiththeAmericanIndianstudentsandtheirpersonalandlife
circumstances,theNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwasofimmeasurablevaluein
developingthesamplepopulation.
UniversityAdministrators,TeachingandNonteachingFaculty
IndividualinterviewswithtwoUniversityVicePresidents,theDirectorfor
DiversityEnhancement,PSUAdmissionsOfficeMinorityStudentRecruiter,and
threefacultymembers,includingoneNativefacultymember,wereconductedonthe
campusofPSU.UniversityVicePresidentswereinterviewedbecausetheywere
consideredtobethe“voice”oftheinstitution,andthosemostdirectlyholdingthe
powertoshapetheinstitutionalculture(GuilloryandWolverton2008:68).
UniversityVicePresidentsatPSUaretheinstitutionalleadersresponsiblefor
implementingpolicythatdirectlyinfluencestheenvironmentinwhichAmerican
Indianstudentsexist.
TheDirectorforDiversityEnhancementprovidedadetailedhistoryofefforts
madetowardprovidingservicesforthewiderangeofstudentsfromdiverseracial,
ethnic,andculturalbackgrounds,aswellasformembersofPSU’smainstream
populationincludingfaculty,staff,andcommunitymembers.
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Thefacultymemberswereinterviewedbecauseoftheirabilitytodirectly
impacttheexperienceofthestudentsthattheyencounterthroughteachingand
advisement,(Astin1982;CibikandChambers1991;Hornett1989Pascarellaand
Terenzini1991).
TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwasinterviewed.Heprovidedan
invaluableinsightintothedailymilieuofthePSUNativestudentpopulation.In
additiontothisinsight,healsoprovedtobeavaluableliaisonbetweenPSU
administration,facultyandstudents.
IndepthinterviewswerealsoconductedwithUniversityStudentSupport
StaffhousedintheGrassrootsCenteronthecampusofPSU.Theseprogram
directorsprovidedadetaileddescriptionofstudentsupportservicesavailableto
Nativestudentsandtheextenttowhichthoseservicesareutilized.
Adigitalaudiorecorderandhandwrittennoteswereusedtorecord
responsesandobservationsineachinterview.Inallcases,interviewswereheldat
theofficesofthepersonsbeinginterviewed.Fieldnotesweretranscribedwithin24
hoursoftheinterviews.Audiorecordingsweretranscribedverbatimwithin1‐2
weeksfollowingtheinterviews.
ResearchDesign
ThisstudyisdesignedasacriticalethnographyfocusingonNativeAmerican
studentsuccessatPlainsStateUniversity(PSU).Organizationalcasestudy(Denzin
andLincoln1994)providesthemethodologicalframeworkforacriticaldetailed
67
description.Embeddedwithintheorganizationalcasestudyareindividualcase
studiesofstudents,staff,facultyandprograms.Documentarydatarelevanttothe
researchquestionswereinvestigatedtoprovideafuller,richerdescriptionof
comparativecases.
Fortheimplementationofthisstudy,contactwasmadewiththefaculty,
staff,andstudentsatPSUandarrangementsweremadetosecureparticipationin
carryingoutthemethodologicalstrategies.Inkeepingwiththetenetsofthecritical
perspective,thisstudyutilizedqualitativeethnographictechniquesinordertogain
aninsider’sviewthroughtheuseofindepthinterviews,observations,and
participantobservationsofinstitution,students,supportprogramsandgathering
placesonthecampusofPSU(BogdanandBiklen1982).Theultimategoalofthis
criticalqualitativeethnographywasanenhancedunderstandingofvariousfactors
thatworkindependentlyorincombinationtocreateacampusenvironmentand
universityexperiencethateitherfacilitatesorimpedessuccessforNativeAmerican
students,asmeasuredbyretentionandgraduationrates.
Methods
Researcher’sPlaceintheResearch
IamapersonofancestraldescentfromtheMeskwakipeopleofIowaandthe
CherokeepeopletheSoutheasternUnitedStates.IhavebeenaroundNativepeople
andcommunitiesallofmylife.Ihaveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunities
inMinnesotaandWisconsin.IhaveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPow
68
Wowsacrossthecountry.Ihavelongbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacing
AmericanIndianpeople,particularlyhowtoimprovetheconditionsforeducational
successforAmericanIndianstudents.IhavebeeninvolvedwithPSUfor
approximately12yearsoverwhichtimeIhavebecomeveryfamiliarwiththesocial
realityoflifeonthiscampus.DuringthistimeIhavebeenacasualobserverof
AmericanIndianstudentlifeandofthesocialstructureoncampusandinthe
Railtowncommunity.
FocusGroups
Focusgroupinterviewswereemployedasadatagatheringmethodinorder
tocreateanenvironmentinwhichtheNativestudentparticipantscouldfeel
comfortable.Thesestudentswerefamiliartoeachotherandprovidedmutual
supportinasituationwheretrustwasnotimmediatelyestablishedbetweenthem
asparticipantsandmyselfasresearcher.
Inordertoestablishrapportandbuildtrustearlyinthefocusgroup
interview,IimmediatelyintroducedmyselfinthecontextofmyownNative
AmericanfamilyheritageandmypersonalinvolvementwithAmericanIndian
peopleandcommunitiesthroughoutmylifeexperiences.Towardthisend,I
providedthegroupwithanintroductoryletterattachedtoagroupintroductionand
demographicinformationformthateachparticipantcompletedattheoutset.See
AppendixFforintroductoryletter.
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ThreefocusgroupinterviewswereconductedwithNativeAmerican
students.ThefirstfocusgroupwasheldinlateAprilof2009andtookplaceatthe
PSUStudentUnion.Thenumberofintervieweesforthefirstgroupwasnine.The
secondtwofocusgroupswereconductedearlyinthefallsemesterof2009atthe
conferenceroomintheofficeoftheDeanofHonorsCollege/InterimDirectorof
DiversityEnhancement.Thesecondgroupincludedsixinterviewees.Thethird
groupalsoincludedsixinterviewees.Thetotalnumberoffocusgroupparticipants
was21.Threegroupswereconductedinordertoinvolveanumberofparticipants
usefulingainingadetailedpictureoftheNativestudentexperienceatPSU.The
greatestchallengeinconductingthesefocusgroupswasinschedulingtimesthat
wouldworkconsideringthevariousschedulesofstudentparticipants.
Sessionslastedbetween90to180minutes.Oneachoccasion,oneormore
studentsstayedlatertofurtherdiscusstheseissues.Anaudiorecorderand
handwrittennoteswereusedtorecordthestudentresponsesandobservations
duringthefocusgroupinterviews.Inaddition,personalbackgroundinformation
wasobtainedthroughabriefquestionnairedistributedatthebeginningofthefocus
groupsessions.Betweenthethreegroups,anadequatenumberofparticipantswere
includedtoensureasamplerepresentativeofthediversityofAmericanIndians
enrolledatPSU(Berg1984).
Thestudentschosenforthestudywerepurposivelyselectedbasedon
availabilityandexperience.Everyeffortwasmadetoensurethatwithinthe
populationofstudentsavailabletoparticipate,asamplewasobtainedthatreflected
70
thediversityofAmericanIndianstudentsandtheirexperiences.Towardthisend,a
cross‐sectionrangingfromfreshmentograduatestudents;traditionallyandnon‐
traditionallyagedstudents;genderrepresentationproportionatetotheAmerican
IndianpopulationatPSU;studentshighlyinvolvedintheuniversitymilieu,suchas
NativeAmericanclubpresidents;andstudentcommuterswithlittlecampus
involvementwaspurposivelysought.Studentswereinvitedtoparticipatebya
primarycontactfromthePSUNativeAmericanStudentAdvisor.
Intensiveinterviews
Anin‐depthpersonalinterview(DenzinandLincoln1994)wasconducted
withPSU’sNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorattheOfficeofMulticulturalAffairson
thecampusofPlainsStateUniversity.InterviewswerealsoconductedwithNative
AmericanstudentsandfacultyandadministratorsonthePSUcampus.Among
administratorsinterviewedweretwoUniversityVicePresidents,theDirectorof
DiversityEnhancement,twoDirectorsofStudentSupportServiceprogramsandthe
AdmissionsOfficeMinorityStudentRecruiter.Also,fourindividualNativeAmerican
studentswereinterviewedapartfromthethreefocusgroupsconductedwithNative
students.Theseindividualstudentinterviewsprovidedforanin‐depthexploration
oftheNativestudentexperienceatPSUonamuchmorepersonallevelallowingfor
anevengreateremicperspective.Thesestudentswereextremelyeloquentand
articulateinthedescriptionoftheirhistory,andtheirlifeexperiencesinRailtown
andatPSU.
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FacultymembersinterviewedincludeoneNativeAmericanprofessorand
threeprofessorshighlyinvolvedwithNativeAmericanstudents.Thesefour
dedicatedprofessorshavedemonstratedextraordinarycommitmenttoNative
studentsthroughtheircontinueddedicationandserviceatPSU.Eachinterviewwas
conductedindividuallyandprovidesaninsider’sperspectivefromthestandpointof
Nativestudents,PSUfaculty,andstaffand,fromuniversityadministrators,an
institutionalvoice.
Aninterviewprotocol(Berg1989;Babbie2007)wasusedtoguide
questionsregardingactivitiesandservicesprovidedbythestaffoftheorganization.
Thegoaloftheinterviewswastoprovideanenricheddescriptiveexplanationofthe
socialprocessesinherentwithmainstreamuniversitylifethatservetofacilitateor
hindereducationalattainmentofNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU.Theinterview
guideusedwasmodeledafterthatusedbyGuilloryandWolverton(2008)with
permissiongrantedbyDr.RaphaelGuilloryofEasternWashingtonUniversity.The
interviewprotocolfocusedonthesensitizingconceptspreviouslydiscussedas
derivedfromareviewofrelevantliteratureandwasdesignedtogainanemic
understandingfromstudents,facultyandadministratorsoffactorsfacilitatingor
hinderingeducationalattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Avigilant
eyewaskeptfortheemergenceofnewmeanings,concepts,andthemesthroughout
theinterviewprocess.Follow‐upinterviewsand/oradditionalinterviewswere
conductedwithkeyinformantstoclarifyinformationandgainadeeper
understandingofmeaningfromtheinsider’sperspective.
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Observation
Fieldobservations(Berg1989;DenzinandLincoln1994;Babbie2007)were
conductedasanongoingprocessthroughoutthespringandfallsemestersof2009
PSU.Observationsfocusedonmanyareasoforganizationalstructureandsocial
interactionsuchasthephysicalenvironmentofthecampus,theeconomic,social,
andculturalenvironment,thesemanticenvironment,andthehumanenvironment
ofteachers,students,andstaff.
ParticipantObservation
Myinvolvementwiththestudents,officers,andactivitiesoftheNative
AmericanClubwasinvaluableingainingthehighestpossibledegreeofemic
understanding.ClosecontactandcooperationwiththeNativeAmericanStudent
Advisormadeitpossibleformetobewelcomedandacceptedbytheclubmembers.
Whileitisalwaysaconcernforthesocialresearchertomaintaintheappropriate
distancefromtheresearchsubject,IbelieveIhaveaccomplishedthiswhilealso
developingmanyfriendshipsbasedonagenuinefondnessofandcommitmentto
thepeoplewhoarethefocusofthisstudy.
DocumentaryDataAnalysis
Qualitativedescriptionandinductiveexplorationalsoguidedtheanalysisof
multipledocumentarydatasources(MilesandHuberman1984;Berg1989;Denzin
andLincoln1994;)providedbyeachuniversityentitydealingwithNativeAmerican
73
students.ThesesourcesincludecurriculumofAmericanIndianStudiesprograms
listedinthePSUcoursecatalog,literatureforincomingstudents,NativeAmerican
webpagesonuniversitysites,calendarsofAmericanIndianculturalevents,
testimonialsfromcurrentandformerstudents,andothersourcesthatwere
discoveredthroughouttheresearchprocess.Thiswidearrayofdocumentary
materialsservedasbackgroundtoprovideanenhancedcontextualunderstanding
ofwhatPSUcurrentlyoffersitsNativeAmericanstudentpopulation.University
recordsofretentionandgraduationratesforNativeAmericanstudentswerealso
collected.
DataCollectionandAnalysis
Fromthebeginningofthisproject,theprocessofdatacollectionwas
continuouslyintertwinedwiththeprocessofdataanalysis.
DataCollection
Duringeachinterview,handwrittenfieldnotesweremadeontheinterview
guideandconsistedofthecondensedaccountasdescribedbySpradley(1980).
Immediatelyaftereachinterview,thesecondensednotesweretransferredintoa
moredetailedfieldjournal(Spradley,1980).Thisjournalcontainsdetailed
descriptionsofthetoneoftheinterview,includingmyimpressionofthe
interviewee’slevelofinterestin,andcommitmenttotheinterview,aswellasmy
ownreflexiveinterpretationoftheexperience.Inallcases,fieldnotes,including
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condensednotesandfieldjournalwereattendedtoandcompletedinasmuchdetail
aspossiblewithin24hoursoftheinterview.
Fullfieldnotesconsistedofverbatimtranscriptsofexactcommentsmadeby
eachinterviewee.Thesetranscriptswereaccomplishedthroughtheuseoftwo
redundantsystemsofdigitalrecording.
EachinterviewsessionwasinitiallyrecordedusingtwoOlympusDigital
VoiceRecordersmodelVN‐3100PC.Theserecorderswereplacedinabalanced
positionrelativetoallspeakersinvolvedintheinterviewinordertoensurethebest
possiblesoundquality.Anotherreasonforusingtworecorderswasasaredundant
systemincaseoneoftherecordersmalfunctioned.Freshbatterieswereinstalledin
eachrecorderpriortoeachinterview.
Immediatelyaftereachinterview,Itransferredthedigitalaudiofilesonto
GatewayPClaptopcomputerusingsoftwareprovidedwiththedigitalrecorders.
Eachfilewaslabeledusingindicatorsfordate,time,interviewsubjectorfocus
groupidentifiers.Oncethedigitalaudiofilesweretransferredtothelaptop
computerandwereverifiedtobesound,theoriginalrecordingsweredeletedfrom
theOlympusdigitalrecorders.Thiswasdoneinordertoensurethesafeguardingof
participantconfidentialityasthedigitalrecorderscouldhavebeenmisplaced.The
digitalaudiofilesstoredonthelaptopremainedsecurelylockedinmyoffice.
In‐processmemosreflectedthecontinuallydevelopinginterpretationof
qualitativedataaswellastheunfoldingofmyownreflexiveprocessasthe
collectionandinterpretationdataprogressedthroughoutthetranscriptionprocess
75
andsubsequentinterviewsessions.Thesememosarecontainedwithinthe
interviewtranscripts,as((parentheticalComments)).Theyarealsocontained
withinfieldworkjournalentriesandcondensedfieldnotesontheinterviewguides.
DataAnalysis
Theprocessfortranscribingeachinterviewsessionwasconcurrentwiththe
processofdataanalysisthroughtheformationofcategoriesrelevanttotheresearch
question.Foreachseparateinterview,thatprocessstartedasIlistenedtothe
interviewinitsentirety.Duringthisaudioreview,Imadefurtherdetailednoteson
theinterviewguide.Thesenoteswerefocusedonrelevantpointsandthe
connectionbetweensuchpointsandthosemadebyotherinformantsorinother
interviews.Thesenoteswereaccompaniedbytimemarkerstakenfromthecounter
providedbythedigitalaudiosoftwarethatwasalwaysvisibleonthePClaptop
display.Inthisway,Iwasabletoreferdirectlytoanygivenstatementmade
throughouttheinterviewandquicklyretrieveitifnecessary.Thisinitialaudio
reviewwasveryvaluableinallowingmetobecomeincreasinglyfamiliarwiththe
contentoftheinterviewswhilesimultaneouslyallowingforsomefoundational
categorizingofthesubstantivedata.
Thenextstepinthetranscriptionprocesswasbyfarthemosttime
consumingandlaborintensivestepintheprocess.Thiswastheactualverbatim
transcriptionofeachinterview.Thiswasaccomplishedthroughlisteningtoand
typingeverywordthatwascontainedintheaudiorecordings.Throughoutthis
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processIalsomadenotesregardingmood,toneofvoiceandemotionsthatwere
evident.Thiswasatediousprocessthatrequiredconstantlystoppingandre‐
windingtherecordinginordertoaccuratelytranscribeeachinterview.Greatcare
wastakenthroughoutthisprocessinordertoassurevalidityofthedataby
transcribingtothehighestpossiblelevelofaccuracywhileconstantlysafeguarding
theoriginalmeaningincontextandcontent.Thecompletionofthetranscription
phaseleftmewithahighqualitytextualformofdatagainedintheinterviews.The
nextstepintheanalysisofthedatawouldbethecategorizingofdatainto
meaningfulgroupingsofdatarelevanttotheresearchquestion.
Basedonsensitizingconceptsgleanedfromareviewofcurrentrelevant
literature,acodingschemewasdevelopedallowingforthecategorizationofdata
gainedfromfocusgroupandintensive,in‐depthinterviewtranscripts,andthe
resultantfieldnotesandreflexivememos,intotheoreticallymeaningful‘databins’.
Thesedatabinswerethenfurtherrefinedintoincreasinglydetailedunitsof
meaningcomingdirectlyoutofinterviewtextsanddirectlyrelatedtotheresearch
questionasindicativeoffactorsthatserveaseitherfacilitatorsorbarriersto
AmericanIndianacademicattainmentatPSU.Thecodingschemewascolor‐coded
usingahighlighterfunctionavailableonMicrosoftWordforMac2008.
Thebinlabeled‘Facilitators’wascolor‐codedYELLOW.Thebinlabeled
‘Barriers’wascolor‐codedGRAY.Thebinlabeled‘Culture’wascolor‐codedBLUE.
Thebinlabeled‘Place’wascolor‐codedRED.Thebinlabeled‘ReferenceGroups’was
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color‐codedGREEN.Thebinlabeled‘EmergentThemes’wascolor‐codedPURPLE.
And,thebinlabeled‘NormativeStatements’wascolor‐codedTURQUOISE.
Oncethecodingschemewasdevelopedandtestedagainstthefoundational
categorizationofdataascarriedoutfromthebeginningof,andconcurrentwiththe
processofdatacollectionandanalysis,theprocessofactualcodingcouldbedone.
Towardthisend,Ire‐readeachinterviewtranscriptandappliedthecolor‐coded
highlighttoalltextfallingunderaconceptualcategoryaslabeledinthecoding
scheme.Forexample,inapplyingthecodingschemetoFocusGroup#1interview,I
readthatinterviewtranscriptfromtoptobottomandappliedaYELLOWhighlight
toanyandalltexthavingtodowiththeconceptuallabel‘Facilitators’.Likewise
weredonewiththeconceptuallabel‘Barriers’andtheGRAYhighlight.Andsoon
throughoutthetext.Thisprocesswasappliedtoeachinterviewtextforeachofthe
conceptuallylabeledcategories.Theendresultofthisprocesswastheapplicationof
multiplecoloredhighlightedtextsthroughouttheinterview.
Itshouldbenotedatthispoint,thatinmanyinstances,ablockoftextmight
applytomorethanoneconceptualcategory.Forexampleagivenquotemightbe
dealingwith‘Culture’color‐codedasBLUE,andhowculturecanbeafacilitator,
color‐codedasYELLOW.
Thenextstepinthecodingprocesswastheactualseparatingoutfromeach
interviewofconceptuallycolor‐codedtextsintocategoricalbins.Thisprocesswas
againachievedbyre‐readingeachinterview.Atthisstephowevercodedcategories
weretakenfromwithinthecontextoftheoriginalinterviewandputintoanewbin
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specifictoagivencategory.Forexamplealltextscodedas‘Facilitators’and
highlightedYELLOWwouldbecutandpastedintoabin.Duringthisphase,text
blocksorquoteswerecategorizedbyintervieweeclass.Forexample,afacilitator
binwaspartitionedforallquotesmadebyfacultyoradministrators,orstudentsand
soon.Thisprocesswascarriedoutforeachconceptualcategory.Theresult,atthis
pointwasabineachforfacilitators,barriers,culture,place,referencegroups,
emergentthemesandnormativestatements.Eachoftheseconceptualbinswas
partitionedaccordingtointervieweeclass,i.e.faculty,administration,students,or
staff.
Thefinalphaseincodingthedatainvolvedfurtherrefiningthecategories
intoevenmoredetailedbins.Thecontentsoftheserefinedbinsincluded
subcategorieswithineachconceptuallycategorizedbin.Forexample,thefacilitator
binwasfurtherrefinedtoincludeabreakdownofallfacilitatorsincluding,support,
family,finances,andsoon.Furthermore,thefacilitators/supportbinwasthen
refinedintomoredetailedsubdivisionsincludingfacilitators/support/faculty,or
facilitators/support/peerreferencegroup,orfacilitators/support/family.This
refiningofeachcategoricalbinintomoredetailedsubdivisionswasappliedtoeach
oftheoriginalsevenconceptualcategories.
Throughthecarefulapplicationofthiscodingschemetothepainstakingly
accuratetranscriptionofqualitativeinterviewsIwasabletodeveloptheensuing
richdescriptionoftheAmericanIndianexperienceatPSU.Itistheemerging
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insider’sviewpointthatallowsforilluminationofwhatfactorscombinetofacilitate
orhinderacademicattainmentforthesestudents.
ValidityandReliability
Issuesofvalidityandreliabilityareconcernsinallresearchandespeciallyso
inqualitativeresearchprojectssuchasthis.Whencollectingdataintheformof
narratives,theissuesconcerningvalidityhavetodowithboththeresearcherand
thosesubjectsprovidingthenarrative.Detailingtherelevantcontextofobservation
isofparamountconcerninstrivingtoachievereliability(KirkandMiller1986).
Towardthisend,fourseparatekindsoffieldnoteshavebeenkept.Theseinclude;
condensed,intheformofnotestakenthroughouttheinterviewprocessand
recordeddirectlyontheinterviewguide,anexpanded(verbatim)account,inthe
formofdigitalrecordingskeptonfile,afieldworkjournal,includingnotesand
reflections,andarunningrecordofanalysis(Spradley1980).
Validityisindicatedbytheconstanttestingandretestingofemergingand
repeatedthemesoverthecourseofdatacollectionanddataanalysis.Throughout
thedatacollectionprocessthesamethemesemergedfromnumeroussourcesat
varioustimesandfromunconnectedsources.Thepointwasreachedwherethe
interviewguidesbecamelessusefulasanavigationaltoolandmoreofamile
markerofpredictability.Atthispoint,itcouldbesaidthattheoreticalsaturation
wasreachedandfurthersamplinghadreachedapointofdiminishingreturns.
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Validityisalsoenhancedthroughthetriangulationofqualitativemethods
includingintensiveinterviewing,fieldobservationanddocumentarydataanalysis.
Towardthatend,interviews,focusgroups,observation,anddocumentarydataall
contributedtoaholisticunderstandingoftheAmericanIndianstudentexperience
atPSU.Avalidstudyisonethatstrivestoderivemeaningfromtheperspectiveof
theinformant(KirkandMiller1986).Interviewschedulesandobservationguides
werepre‐testedandre‐tested.Throughoutthedataanalysisphase,acontinuous
processofcodingandre‐codingtheinterviewdatayieldedintra‐raterandinter‐
raterreliability.
Inanadditionalattempttoensurevalidity,draftsofcodeddatawere
submittedtotheCoordinatorofPSU’sAmericanIndianStudiesProgram,andthe
NativeAmericanStudentAdvisorforadoublecodingfromtheNativeperspective.
Bothwereaskedtoreviewmycodingscheme,myapplicationofthatschemetothe
data,andforpossiblealternativeinterpretationsofthedata.Thesetwooutside
codingadvisorshadnodisagreementswiththedataascoded.
ConsiderationofHumanSubjects
Thepurposesandproceduresofthisstudywereclearlystated,informed
consentwasobtained,andallparticipantswereinformedoftheirrighttorefuseto
participate.Allsubjectswereassuredthattheirresponsesaretobeheldinstrict
confidence.Allinformantswereassuredanonymity.Assoonaspossible,all
identifyinginformationwasseparatedfromdata.Copiesofthedissertationwillbe
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madeavailabletothosewithinterestandwillbeprovidedtothosestudy
participants.
Confidentiality
Focusgroupsessionsandpersonalinterviewswererecordedusingadigital
audiorecorder.Noindividualidentificationinformationwasattachedtothese
recordingsexceptforthetime,dateandplaceofthefocusgrouporinterview.
Respondent’sidentifyinginformationandtheirresponseswerekeptstrictly
confidentialwithnopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinany
reportsorarticlesarisingfromthisresearchproject.Interviewtranscriptswere
organizedusingacodingsystemwithidentitycodeskeptseparatefromactual
identification.Allidentifyinglinkstodataweredestroyedoncedatacollectionand
analysiswascompleted.Interviewrecordingswerekept;alongwithoriginal
identificationinformationandconsentformswerekeptinasecurelocation.Any
respondentsmentionedinthefinalresearchreportwereidentifiedusinga
pseudonym,andbirthplaceorplaceofresidencewaskeptconfidential.Anyplace
namesused,suchasspecificreservationcommunities,arereferredtousingonlyby
genericregionalidentifiers.Eachinterviewwastranscribedinthequickestpossible
mannerafterwhichoriginalrecordingsweredeleted.
Aftertranscriptionofpersonalinterviews,respondentsreceivedafull
transcriptfortheirreview.Followupcontactsweremadewitheachparticipantin
ordertoconfirmtheiragreementordisagreementwiththecontentastranscribed.
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Therewerenodisagreements,andinmostcases,participantswantedtoaddmore
information.
Recruitment
StudentswereinvitedtoparticipatethroughprimarycontactbyNative
AmericanStudentAdvisorinPSU’sMulticulturalStudentAffairsOffice(OMA).I,as
theresearcher,madenocoldcontacts.Oncecontactwasmade,studentsinterested
inparticipatingweredirectedtocontactme.Ithenscheduledindividualinterviews
andfocusgroupdates.Pizzaandsoftdrinkswereprovidedfortheparticipants,
facilitatinganinformal,comfortableatmosphere.ANativeAmericanfacultymember
wasalsopresentatthefirstfocusgroupmeeting.Thishelpedcreateanatmosphere
oftrustandfacilitatedmoreopencommunicationamongthegroup.Nosuch
measurewasneededforsubsequentfocusgroups.
Administratorsandfacultymembersweresentaletterofintroductionalong
withadescriptionoftheresearchprojectandaninvitationtoparticipate.
Appointmentswerethenscheduledthroughtheappropriatechannels.
Praxis:thePracticalApplicationofResearch
GiventhecontinuingdisparitybetweengraduationratesofAmericanIndian
andnon‐Indianstudents(Paveletal.2008),theimplicationsofthisstudymayhave
widerangingapplicationsfortheimplementationofculturallyrelevantprograms,
policiesandcurriculafocusedonincreasingretentionandgraduationratesfor
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AmericanIndianstudentsinhighereducation.Towardthisend,Iwillorganizeand
executeseminarswhereverandwheneverpossible,startingatPSU,forall
stakeholdersinterestedinthefindingsofthisresearchandhowthesefindingscan
beimplementedtoenhancetheunderstandingoffactorsthatcombinetohinderor
facilitateretentionandgraduationofAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Inkeeping
withthecriticalperspectiveofthisresearch,myhopeisthatincreased
understandingofsuchfactorswillleadtopolicychangesthatgreatlyincreasethe
chancesforeducationalattainmentforNativestudents.
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CHAPTERFIVE
Findings:Quantitative
AQuantitativePictureofDiversityatPSU
ThePrairieStateBoardofRegentsFactBookforthefiscalyear2010
providesaquantitativesnapshotintimeofthediversityofthePSUstudent
population.Forthefallsemesterof2009thetotalnumberofstudentsenrolledat
PSUwas12,376.At10,577,WhiteNon‐Hispanicstudentsaretheoverwhelming
majorityat83.9percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.At436,thegroupidentified
asAsian/PacificIslandersisthenextlargestgroupandthelargestofallminority
studentgroupsat3.1percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.Accordingtoseveral
administratorsIinterviewed,themajorityofAsianstudentsatPSUaregraduate
student/researchassistants.NativeAmericanstudentsnumber249andcomprise
thesecondlargestethnicgroupatPSUat2.3percent.Thereare168students
identifiedasAfricanAmerican/BlackNon‐HispanicatPSU,comprising1.5percent
ofthetotalstudentpopulation.Thegroupnumberingthefewestofanyidentified
ethnicpopulationisHispanicstudents,at122,or1.3percentofthetotalstudent
population.
RegardingthequantitativecategorizationofPSU’sminoritypopulations,the
caveatmustbemadethatanyaccountingofminoritynumbersisdependentonhow
minoritystudentsplacetheirownethnicidentityinthehierarchyofsalienceatany
giventimeandinanygivensituation.Forpurposesofthisresearch,whileallowing
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forthepossibilitythatthegroupnumbering824studentswhorefusedinformation
orarelistedas‘unknown’mayinfactincludemembersofanyethnicminority
group,includingAmericanIndianstudents.This‘unknown’grouphasbeenexcluded
fromtheaccountingofethnicgroupsexpressedasapercentageofthetotalstudent
populationduetotheunknownnatureofthediversemake‐upofthegroup.This
leavesonlythoseindividualswhoself‐identifyasamemberofthegroupslisted,
includingthosewhoselfidentifyasNativeAmerican.Table5.1displaysthe
diversityofthePSUstudentpopulation:
Table5.1
EthnicOriginPSUStudentPopulation:
Source:PrairieStateBoardofRegentsFactBookFY2010,RegentsInformationSystems.
AmericanIndian/Alaskan 249 2.3percent
Asian/PacificIsland 436 3.1percent
AfricanAm/Black,Non‐Hispanic 168 1.5percent
Hispanic 122 1.3percent
InformationRefused 81 0.7percent
Unknown 743 7.2percent
WhiteNon‐Hispanic 10,577 83.9percent
TotalEthnic/RacialOriginPSUStudentPopulation 12,376 100percent
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AComparisonofRetentionandGraduationRates
StatisticaldataonretentionandgraduationratesforallPSUstudents
categorizedbyethnic/racialgroupisavailablethroughthePSUOfficeof
InstitutionalResearch.Forthepurposesofthisresearch,andinkeepingwiththe
researchquestion,IwillmakecomparisonsonlybetweentheNativeAmerican
studentpopulationandallotherstudents.
Tables5.2and5.3showcomparativeretentionandgraduationratesofthe
first‐time,full‐time,Bachelor’sDegreeseekingstudentpopulationcategorizedas
NativeAmericanstudents(5.3)comparedtothetotalnumberoffirst‐time,full‐time
Bachelor’sDegreeseekingPSUstudents(5.2).Thisdatarangesintimefromthefall
semesterof2000throughthefallof2009.Somestudentsbeginningin2000arestill
continuingintothetenthyear.Dataislimitedforstudentsbeginningin2008and
willbeoffurtherinterestwiththepassingoftime.
Someobservationscanbemadefromthesedata.Firstisthevastdisparityin
cohortsize.Overthecourseoftimedepictedinthetable,someyears,incoming
NativeAmericanfreshmanstudentswereoutnumberedbyover100:1when
comparedtoallotherincomingfreshmen.
Anothersignificantdisparityisquicklyobservableinthenumberofstudents
thatcontinuefromthefirsttothesecondyear.Forthetotalincomingfreshman
studentstheretentionratefromfirsttosecondyearis77percent.Bycomparison,
theretentionratefromfirsttosecondyearforNativeAmericanstudentsis48
percent.
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Thestudynowturnsitsattentiontoenhancingunderstandingoftribal
students’experiencesatPSU.Intheensuingchapters,qualitativedatawillbe
presentedfrominterviewswithadministrators,faculty,staffandstudentsto
developfurtherinsightintofacilitatorsofandbarrierstoeducationalattainmentfor
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.
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CHAPTERSIX
Findings:Facilitators
“Somuchofitisaboutrelationships.It’snotjustthebricksandmortarofaplaceforcommunity...it’sabouttherelationshipsthatpeoplebuild.It’sfromthatcommunity—thoserelationshipsthatpeoplefindthestrengthandthesupporttheyneedtosucceed—inanythingreally.”
Analysisofthedatarevealsthatseveralfactorsactasbothfacilitatorsand
barriersdependingoncontextandthepeopleinvolved.Thischapterwillexplore
thosefactorsthatprimarilyactasfacilitatorstoacademicattainmentforAmerican
IndianstudentsatPSU.
Table6.1liststhosefactorsmostcommonlycitedasfacilitatorsofacademic
attainmentforNativeAmericancollegestudentsatPSU.Facilitatorsarelistedfrom
topdownwiththemostsalientlistedfirst.Thisrankorderwasderivedfroma
compilationofdatafromadministrators,faculty,staffandstudents.Whereasany
onegroupmayrankfacilitatorsdifferently,thistablecombinestheviewpointsofall
groupsforanoverallbestfitofallfactorscitedasfacilitators.
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Table6.1:FacilitatorsofAmericanIndianEducationalAttainmentatPSU.
Facilitator SampleQuotationSupport Itboilsdowntosupport...makingan
environmentwherestudentsfeelsupported.(SupportStaff)
Culture
...Buttheseelders,theyshowedmethatmyreligion...wasimportantwhenIwasgrowingup...Thatwasmystrength,formetofamiliarizemyself....sweat‐‐‐andthat’slikeourchurch....andeventuallytheSunDance.(NativeAmericanStudent)
Financial ...wedohaveseveralNativeAmericanscholarships…theonly[ethnic]grouponcampusthathasspecificscholarshipsgearedtowardthem.(Administrator)
Amongthosefactorsthatactasfacilitators,inthisstudy,offoremost
significanceistheover‐archingthemeofsupport.Containedwithinthesupport
themeareseveralmorespecificareas,orissuesencounteredbyNativestudents
whereinsupport,orlackthereof,isthenumberonefactorimpactingeducational
attainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withoutsupport,thecollegecareer
ofaNativeAmericanstudentatPSUmaybeshortlived.
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Facilitator:Support
SupportiveFamily Amongfacultyandadministratorsinterviewed,therewasuniversal
agreementthatfamilysupportplaysanimportantroleincollegesuccessfor
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Amongthesevoicesisthenon‐NativeDirectorof
arecruitmentandstudentsupportprogram:
Ithinkfamilyishugelyimportantinourstudents’success.Manyofoursuccessfulstudentshavestrongfamilysupport.Familycanbequiteanumberofdifferent‐‐Ilookatfamilyasvery,verybroadsense.Itcouldbeaspouse,itcouldbeapartner,children,itcouldbeparents,itcouldbeguardian,aunts,uncles,grandmothers,whatever,butsomanyofoursuccessfulstudentsdohaveafamilynetworkthatsupportsandbolsterstheireducation...Wearetryingtoincorporatefamilymoreintoourholisticapproachtohelpingstudentssucceed.SoIthinkthat’sahugefactorinAmericanIndianstudentsuccess.
TheWhitemaleCoordinatorofUniversityDiversityEnhancementagreed
withtheimportanceoffamilysupportforNativeAmericanstudents:
Familyisextraordinarily,extremelyimportant.Whileit’simportantforeveryone,it’sespeciallyimportantforNativestudentsbecausetheyhavetraveledfromoneworldtoanotherandwhentheyarrivehere,theyoftenarequiteisolatedfromthekindofemotionalsupportthatafamilycanprovide...Significanceoffamilyfornativestudents,especiallythoseraisedtraditionallyonthereservationsis,inmyopinion,farmoresignificantthanforthetypicalnon‐Indianinthisparticularculture.
ManyPSUNativestudentscitefamilyasamajorsourceofsupport.Family
membersprovideemotional,motivationalandlogisticsupportforstudentswho
oftenfeeloutoftheirelementonamainstreamuniversitycampus.
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SeveralNativestudentscommentedontheimportanceoffamilysupportof
theircollegeexperience.Afemalestudentfromareservationcommunityspokeof
familysupport:
Mymomdidn’tfinishcollegelikea‐‐‐whatdoyoucallit?Traditionally.ThenshewentbacktoSinteGleskaandshegotherdegreeforteachingNativeAmericanStudiessoshe’sreallyexcitedthatI’mgoingtocollegeandgettinganeducationandsheencouragesit,nomatterwhatandshethinksit’sthemostimportantthingbecauseshedidn’tgettodothat.Anotherfemalestudentraisedinareservationbordertownsaid:
Likemyfamilyisthemostimportantthingtome.Weareverycloseandit’sjustashardformetoomoveaway.Athirdfemalestudent,alsofromareservationbordertown,agreed:Personally,Ihave100percentsupportfrommyfamily.Noquestionsaskedinanyaspectofanything.100percentsupportthere.
NotallNativestudentsatPSUarefromtheMidwest.Addingabitofdiversity
amongNativestudents,onegraduatestudentspokeoftheimportanceoffamily
supportofthecollegeexperiencefromtheviewpointofasouthwesternNative
Americanfamilybackground:
Myfamilyhasplayedahugerolethroughoutmyschoolsanddegrees.MysisterwenttoNotreDame.Bothofmyparentsweremigrantfarmworkers.Theydidn’tgetaneducation‐‐‐wellmymotherhadasixthgradeeducation,myfatherhadaneighthgradeeducation.ButhealsogothisGEDat25yearsold.Butatanearlyagetheywouldalwaystellus;education,education,betteryourself,betteryourself.Youknowand—sometimesit’seasiersaidthandone.Alotoftimespeoplewhodon’thavethemeansgointothemilitary.Andthensometimesyougointhereandlearndiscipline.Butmyfatherdidn’twantustogointothemilitary.Onethingthathelpedus,mysisterandI,isthatmymothertookusoutwhenIwas10andmysisterwas9tohelpinthefields.Weworkedoutthereoneday.That’sallittookandIsaid,“nothisisnotforme.”Andthenwhenwegothome,mydadtoldus;“Ifyoudon’tgetaneducation,thefieldswillneversaynotoyou.There’salways
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ajobforyououtthereinthefieldswithoutaneducation.”SoIwouldthinkfamilyisthebest—orthemajorthing.Familymembersoftenprovidelogisticalaswellasemotionalsupport.Thisis
especiallytrueforsingleparentswhorelyonfamilyforhelpwithcaringforyoung
childrenwhileparentsareinschoolorworking,oftenatmorethanonejobwhile
alsotakingafullcreditload.Anon‐traditionalstudentcitedtheimportanceof
familyhelpwithchildcare:
ThereasonI’mstayinghere,thenumberonereasonismyMomandmydaughter.WithoutmymomIwouldn’tbeabletocontinuedoingwellinschool...theonlyreasonIamstayingisbecauseIhavesomeonetohelpmewithmydaughter.
SupportiveFriends Afterfamilysupport,anetworkoffriendswascommonlycitedasan
importantsourceofsupport.OneNativestudentsaid:
Ithinkpeopleareanasset.Youknow?Peoplethataretheretosupportyou,andpeoplethatencourageyouandsay‘youcandoit’.‐‐‐Wekidaroundbutit’sakindofsupportforeachothertogetthroughcollege.
Onefacultymemberpointedtotheformationofsupportiverelationshipsas
ofprimaryimportancetostudentsuccess.Theserelationshipsarenotrestrictedto
friendshipsorfamily,butalsoincludementorshipbyfacultyandstaffinandaround
thecampusenvironment:
Somuchofitisaboutrelationships.Ithinkthatwhenwe’reinourowncommunitywithpeoplewhoarelikeus,that’saloteasiertopulltogetherthanwhenyou’realone.Butsomuchisaboutrelationships.It’snotjustthebricksandmortarofaplaceforcommunity.Thatdefinitelycanhelp,butyoucandoitinatentorwherever‐‐‐it’sabouttherelationshipsthatpeoplebuild.
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It’sfromthatcommunity—thoserelationshipsthatpeoplefindthestrengthandthesupporttheyneedtosucceed—inanythingreally.
NativeCommunity TherewasalmostuniversalagreementamongPSUfaculty,staffand
administratorsontheimportanceofaNativecommunityandpeerreferencegroup.
SeveralNativestudentsspeakopenlyabouthowasupportivegroupofpeersisa
facilitatortocollegesuccess.Anon‐traditionallyagedmalestudentfroma
reservationcommunitycitedtheimportanceofasupportnetwork:
Regardlessand,likeIsaid,ifyouhavethatfamily,awayfromhome—thenwecanmakeit.Youknowlikehere—there’sagroupofalotofus—there’smanyofusbutthenweallsicktogetheranditjustbranchesoutandwealltrytokeepeachotherhereand...Atraditionallyagedfemaleupperclassman,fromabordertown:YouknowIthinkmorethananything,wekeepeachotherhereratherthanPSUkeepsushere.Imean—
And,atraditionallyagedmaletransferstudentfromareservationtown
mentionedtheimportanceofthepeersupportedfoundintheNativeAmericanClub:
Yeah,Ihavealocalnetwork.Imean,IcomeinandImeettheseguys.IseethemmoreasmyfriendsthanthepeopleIknewbeforeIcametoschoolhere.It’sbecausewehavesomuchmoreincommon.Andit’slike;IlovetheNativeAmericanClub.That’smyfavoritethingaboutthisschool.Icome,hangoutwithpeoplewiththesamekindofbackground,thesamesenseofhumor.It’salotmorerelaxingandIthinkifwehadahouseitwouldevenbealotbetter.
SeveralstudentscommentedabouttheimportanceofhumoramongNative
students:
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That’sagoodpointwiththatsenseofhumorpart.Becauseifyoucanimagineyourselfherewithoutthatclub,howoftenwouldyoubelaughing?AndwhatishumortoNativepeople?It’saformofsurvival—Sowhetheryouregisteritthatway,that’swhatoneofthethingsisforyou.Itjusttakesalotofthestressaway—fromeverythingelse.
Manyfacultyandstaffmembersshareanunderstandingequaltothe
studentsthemselvesoftheimportanceofacommunitytoNativestudent
persistence.Onecommented:
WellIthinkthattheyneedtofeelathomehere,andtheprimarywaythattheycanfeelathomeisiftheycanmakeconnectionwithothertribalstudents.SotheNativeAmericanClubisespeciallyimportantforsomeofthem‐‐‐andorsomekindofsupportgroupofotherNativestudents,whichgivesthemsomesenseofcommunity.Ithinkthat’simportantforthemtohavetribalrolemodelshere.SoIthinkit’sveryimportantforthemtohaveaNativeAmericanStudentAdvisor,aNativeAmericanClubAdvisor,andNativeAmericanfaculty,which,wehavesomeofthat—butnotnearlyenoughofit.
AWhitefemalestudentservicesupportprogramdirectordrawsananalogy
tootherpeergroupswhoprovidesupportivecommunityfortheirmembers:
Andthenagainfindingaplacewheretheycanallcongregatetogether,justlikeeverybodyelsedoes.Butlikesstickwiththelikes,andIdon’tknowifthat’sabadthing.Butithappensallover;footballplayers,basketballplayers,Greeks,theaterpeople,studentgovernmentpeople,rodeopeople‐‐‐allofthesepeoplefindagroupofpeoplelikethemselves,withcommoninterestsandcommonbackgrounds.Yougowithwhoyouhavestuffincommonwith.It’sthesamewithcareersandmajors,allthepeoplewithcommoninterestshangtogether…Whatpeoplealwaysgetsohunguponis;‘Whydotheyalwayswanttobetogether?Whyshouldweencouragethatsegregation?ButItrytoexplaintopeople,it’slikethatwhereveryougo.IfIgotoaconference,I’mgoingtositwithagroupofwomen.I’mnotgoingtogotoatablefullofmenandsay;‘Hey,how’sitgoing.’Whereveryouare,youlookforlikepeople.
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SupportiveFaculty AmericanIndianstudentsatPSUpointedtotheimportanceofsupportive
facultymembersincontributingtocollegesuccess.Anon‐traditionallyagedmale
studentfromareservationcommunitysharedhisperceptionsofsomefaculty
members:
Someteacherswilltotallyunderstandwhereyouarecomingfrom—andahh—likeyourfamilyissuesandlike,youknow,yourculture.Anothermalestudentfromareservationcommunityaddedhisthoughts:Thereareprofessorsherethatknowaboutthecultureandthehistoryandtheyteachthesubjectsfromtheheartandfromarealdeep‐seatedinterestinNativeculture,history,andpeople.And,fromatraditionally‐agedfemalefromabordertown:Imeanthegenuinepeople...theyfoughtforus.Theyreallycared.Theywouldbeherehourslaterthantheyhadtobe—doingwhateveritwasthatweneeded....Ithinktherearesomeinstructorsthat,nomatterhowmanystudentstheyhaveintheirclass,they’llgotoanylengthstomakesurethatstudentlearns.Somearereallycommittedandsupportive.
AmongPSUAmericanIndianstudents,andothersinterestedinAmerican
Indianeducationatthisuniversity,itisgenerallyagreedthatthereisacoregroupof
facultyandstaffthataredeeplycommittedtothefosteringofapositiveeducational
experienceforthisuniversity’sNativestudents.Thiscadreofsupportiswellknown
andcommonlymentionedinvariouscirclesandcontextsregardingtheNative
studentexperience.Throughoutmyinterviewsconcernwasrepeatedlymentioned
forthetimewhenthesesupporterswillbegintoretire.Students,administrators
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andfacultyhaveallpointedtotheneedtobringinnewfaculty,staffand
administrationthatwillcarryonthistraditionofsupport.
Onestudentsaiditespeciallywell.“Itmakesyouwonderwhatwillhappen
whenthesepeopleretire.Iftheyarenotreplaced‐‐‐‐thenwe’llhavenoone.Ifit
weren’tforacoupleofthem,thiscampuswouldbethreedecadesback.We’dbe
evenfurtherbehindthanweareifitwasn’tforthem.”
Ahigh‐rankingadministratoralsomentionedaparticularprofessorwhois
seenasachampionofAmericanIndianstudentsandmirroredthissentiment.That
professorspeaksofprogressmadetowardincreasingfacultysupportoncampus:
I’mencouragedthesedaysbythefactthatmoreandmoreofmycolleaguesaretryingtobemoreinclusiveintheirthinkingandintheirteaching.Andadministratorsareshowingsomesignsofwantingtobemoreproactiveandtodothekindsofthingsthatarelongoverdue....They(thestudents)needanunderstandingfaculty—andbythat,Imeanfacultymemberswhohavesomeappreciationoftheirhistoryandculture,wherethey’recomingfromandwhattheyarehopingfor.Wecertainlyhaveimproveddramaticallyinthatareathroughtheyearsandvariousprograms.Iwouldsaythatmostofthetribalstudentswhogiveitachance,findsupportivefacultymembers.
SupportiveAdministration WithoutuniversityadministratorssensitivetoissuesparticulartoAmerican
IndianstudentsandinterestedinprovidingaqualitycollegeexperienceatPSU,
chancesforNativestudentsuccesswouldbelimited.IndicationsarethatPlains
StateUniversitydoeshaveaverysupportiveadministrationdedicatedtocreatinga
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universityenvironmentconducivetoacademicsuccessforitsNativeAmerican
studentpopulation.
InJulyof2009,PSUappointedanewProvostandVicePresidentfor
AcademicAffairs.Onefacultymemberwhohasplayedapivotalroleinhelping
AmericanIndianstudentsmaketheadjustmenttolifeonamainstreamcollege
campusspeaksofthesupportofandcommitmenttoacademicsuccessforNative
students:
OurcurrentProvostisjusthugelysupportive.I’vesaidthismanytimesinmanycontexts‐‐‐theirworkonthe2+2+2program‐‐‐justsetthemodelforAmericanIndiancollaboration,andforthesuccessofAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Andbecauseofthewaytheydidthings,theyweresoinclusive,‐‐theywerenotonlywonderfulmodels,andwonderfulinnovators,‐‐um—andenergeticleaders,butintheprocessof2+2+2,theybroughtinsomanypeople,likeme,whojustlearnedfromthem.SoourProvost,fromtheacademicsideishugelysupportive.
InthewordsoftheProvostherself:
Ithinkprimarily—well,letmestartoutbysayingthatthereareseveraldifferentofficesandgroupsofpeoplewhoreallyhavebeenchargedtofurtherdiversityeffortsoncampus.Thenwehavesomeadvisorygroups.Wehaveadiversityadvisorygroupthat’smadeupofabout16people.ItincludesStudentAffairsandAcademicAffairsfacultyandtheymeet,generallyaboutonceamonth.AndtheyreallytakeondiversityissuesandtrytoprovideadviceandcouncilbacktotheDirectorforDiversityEnhancementwhothenkindofcarriesoutthework.
…Havingsaidthat,thereareawholelotofotheradvisorygroups,andI
won’tbeabletotellyouallofthembut—forexample,Athletics,hasadiversityadvisorygroup.Imeantherearemanyotherthingsoutthereaswell.SoIcan’tjustpointtoonepersonandsay‘theydoit’,butyetwekindofhavethisUniversityDirectorofDiversityEnhancement,andthenwehavealotofotherthingshappening.Wekindofaskthatpersontokeeptheirfingeronthepulseofwhat’shappeningoncampus.Tobringissuesup,totrytodoprogrammingandotherthingssothatwecanbeasdiverseofacampusaswecanpossiblybeatPSU.
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SoIthinkwhatwe’vereallytriedtodoistoprovideveryovertwaysthattheycanhaveavoice.Forexample,oneofthosewaysisintryingtohaveanactiveaspossibleofaNativeAmericanClub.Wheretheycancometogetherandtheycanbeanidentifiablegroupandwheretheydohaveavoice.Where,iftheydohaveaconcern,theyhaveanavenuethattheycantakethatup.Youknow?‐‐throughtheirclub,throughtheiradvisorandsoforth.SoIthinkthat’sawaythatwe’vereallytriedtoenhanceminoritystudentsonthiscampus.Wehaveanumberofprogramsthatwehavetriedtodevelopthatnotonlyrecruitsthemtocomeherebutalsotriestohelpthembesuccessful.
UniversityCommunitySupport TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisordescribedthecampussupportsystem
thisway:
IthinkthereisalotofsupportforNativeAmericanprogramsoncampusindifferentareas.Somehavesuggestedthatit’sthesizeoftheschoolthatcanbeintimidating,butIthinkifyoufindacommunity,it’snotthatbig.Youknow?Spreadoutwise—numberwiseit’sbig.Butnostudenthereknowsall12thousandofthePSUstudents.That’swhycommunityisimportantinprovidingsupportthattheymayhavehadateitherboardingschoolorattheirhomecommunity...likeasortofextendedsurrogatefamily.
SupportServices FromtheviewpointofthePSUAdmissionsOfficeMinorityStudentRecruiter,
supportservicesforminoritystudentsareofutmostimportance:
Theidealsituation‐‐‐‐Youknow,forme,Ijustkeepcomingdowntostudentservices.That’swhatitcomesdownto,forme.Ifstudentsfeelliketheyaresupportedthroughstudentservices,Ifeelliketheycanexcel.Again,thereisnooneanswer,butIdofeelthatstudentservicesmakeabigimpactonhowcomfortableastudentfeels.AndIhadtosay;well,actually,wedohavealittlebitmorethansomeplaces.
SomeNativestudentsareawareofStudentSupportServicesandhavemade
useofthehelpavailable.Onestudentspokeofhisexperiencewithsupportservices:
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Tutoring.TheWritingCenter.Ididn’tknowaparagraphorasentencehadtohaveanounoranadjective.Ijustwrote.WhenIdidadiagnostictestinEnglish1,itwasallmarkedup.So,IwenttotheWritingCenterandthatlastpaperthatIwrote,Iwroteonmyown.IgotanAonmylastpaper.Thathelpedmealot.SodidtheChemistryonetoo.StaffatPSU’sStudentSupportServicesCenteroffersavarietyofservicesfor
qualifiedNativestudentsinterestedingettinghelpinadjustingtocollegelife.The
directorofStudentServicesexplains:
Wetryveryhardtomakethemawareoftheopportunitiesthatareavailable.Whentheyarestillinhighschool,wetrytosendtheminformationbywhatevermeanswecan,aboutthepossibilitiesandwhat’savailable.Wehaveaprettygoodnetworkwithinthisstate,withintheTrioorganizations.ThereareactuallydifferentprogramsthatfallundertheumbrellaofwhatiscalledTrio.Prettymuchallofthemarebasedinhelpingstudentsthatarelowincome,firstgenerationstudentswithorwithoutdisabilities,togaincollegeaccess.Wehaveacoupleofthemhereoncampus,StudentSupportServicesistheoneIworkwithandthenUpwardBoundistheotheronehereoncampuswhichisacollegeaccessprogramthathelpsthestudentstokindofmakethatbridgefromhighschoolintocollege.Andbeyondthat,wealsohavetheacademicprogramsinplacethataddress,atleasttoanextent,theminorityacademictraining.Forexample,wehavetheAmericanIndianStudiesProgram.Wehavearetentionprogramwiththatandit’sopentoallAmericanIndianstudentsandthatinvolvesastudytableforAmericanIndianstudents.ItinvolvesblockschedulingsothatstudentscangetintothesameclassestogethersotheyarenottheonlyIndianinaclasshereatPSU.Italsoinvolvescommunalhousing.
StudentSupportServiceprogrammingisbased,inpart,onthebeliefthat
sociabilityiskeytoafulfillingcollegeexperience:
Ahugepartofwhatwedoinourprogramwithallofourstudentsistohelpthemcometocampusandputdownrootsandfeelcomfortablehere,andfeellikethisishome.Itisabsolutelyimportanttohavethatpersonalcontact.Tryingtofind–evenifit’sjustoneortwopeople—butsomebodywho–maybeasastudent,youlookuptothem,maybenot,maybejustsomebody
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youjustmeetatorientation.Butthey’reafriendlyface,somebodythatknowswhatyournameisandwhyyou’rehereandwhatyou’reupto.Iwillhavestudentstellmethattheyjusthadsomebodytakeaninterestinthemfor30secondsatorientation,butthatmadeadifference.Itreallymadeadifference,becausesomebodycaredwhatmynamewas,whyI’mhere,whereI’mfrom. Ifwecanjustmakethatconnection,thenonthewayhome,theytakeawaythefeelingthatsomeonereallycared.Thatlittlestuffgoessofar.Afriendlyfaceoranoutgoingpersonalitycanbetremendouslyinfluential—itdoesn’thavetobefaculty—itcanbeafoodserviceworkeroracustodianinaresidencehall.Justbecausethatpersonsaid‘goodmorning’asthatstudentwasheadingoutfortheday.Sillylittleinsignificantthingsthatmakepersonalconnectionsaresuchhugedealsforstudents,especiallywhenthey’reinacircumstancewheretheyreallykindoffeelliketheyareanalieninadifferentworld.
StudentsupportservicesandthededicatedstaffatPSUappeartobean
importantfacilitatorofNativestudentcollegesuccess.Ofparticularinteresttome
asIinterviewedsupportstaffwastheirobviouslevelofcommitmenttohelping
Nativestudentssucceed.Asidefromthecommentstheymade,non‐verbal
communications,includingbodylanguage,voiceinflectionsandevenanoccasional
tearyeyewereevidenceofthedeeplyfeltmeaningthattheirjobsasfacilitatorsof
successheldforthem.
Facilitator:FinancialResources
Acrosstheboard,studentscitedfinancialconcernsassignificantlyimportant
regardingcollegesuccess.Interestingly,itwasnotmentionedasthemostsalient
factor.Infact,whilefinancialresourcesareimportanttoallstudents,theNative
studentsIinterviewedgenerallydidnotbringupthetopicunlessaskedspecifically
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aboutit.Thedatarevealsamixtureofviewpointsabouttheamountofand
availabilityofscholarshipsforNativestudents.Forexample,oneadministratorand
oneNativestudentsaidthattherewerenotverymanyscholarshipopportunitiesfor
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Anotheradministratorsaidthattherearean
abundanceofscholarshipsspecificallyforNativestudents.Furthermore,atPSU,
AmericanIndianstudentsaretheonlyminoritygrouptohavescholarshipsdirected
specificallytowardthem.
Itappearsthatthisdiscrepancyismainlyamatterofbeinginformedof
financialaidopportunities.MyinterviewwiththeDirectorofthePlainsState
UniversityOfficeofFinancialAidmadeitabundantlyclearthatfinancialaid
resourcesareavailabletoNativestudents.AlistofscholarshipsavailabletoNative
studentsisincludedintheappendices.
However,evensubsequenttothatinterview,Icontinuedtoheardivergent
opinionsabouttheavailabilityoffinancialaid.Financialrealitiesare,infact,
differentforeachstudent,asarethesourcesofpotentialsupport.Onefinding
relatingtothisistheneedforgreaterawarenessamongNativestudentsofthe
opportunitiesforfinancialassistancethatareavailabletothematPSU.
IaskedthedirectorofFinancialAidaboutthepercentageofNativestudents
whorelyonfinancialaidtoattendPSU:
Ahighpercentage—91percentofallofthestudentsatPSUreceivesometypeoffinancialaid.AndsotheNativestudents,iftheyareenrolledinadegreeprogram,andiftheyapplyforascholarship,andiftheyhaveothereligibility,meaningthattheyareacademicallypreparedinthesenseofhavinga2.0orhigher,theyarereceivingsometypeofascholarship.Sothe
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answerasapercentageis100percentifenrolledfull‐time.Now,thereissomemisunderstandingaboutfinances,becausethereisnofreeridefortheNativestudents.Andascostshaveincreased,otherfundingsourceshavenotkeptupwiththeincreasedcosts—andsomoststudents,includingNativestudentsaretakingoutsignificantstudentloans.It’samisperceptionamongmanypeoplethatNativestudentsaregoingtoschoolforfree.InPrairieState,therearenostateprograms.SomestatesdoallowstudentswhoareNativetotheirstatetogowithnotuitionandfeeexpenses.
Oneadministratorlistedscholarshipsasafacilitatorrelievingfinancial
strain,“Financial...wedohaveseveralNativeAmericanscholarships...morethan
foranyotherminoritygroup.Actually,that’stheonlygrouponcampusthathas
specificscholarshipsgearedtowardthem.”
Thereisanextensivelistofscholarshipopportunitiesavailablespecifically
forNativeAmericanstudents.ManyofthosearespecificallyforPSUwhilemany
othersareavailableforAmericanIndianstudentsregardlessofwheretheyattend
college.
Oneinterestingnoteforconsiderationisthatofallstudentsinterviewed,
nonementionedfinancialaidofanykindasafacilitatortocollegesuccess,rather,it
wascitedbyadministrators.Ihavelearnedfromvariousadministratorsthatseveral
NativestudentsatPSUaretherecipientsofscholarshipawards,someofwhichare
quitegenerousasinthecaseoftheGatesMillenniumScholarship.Onepossible
conclusiontobedrawnmaybethatstudentsseesupportintheformofhuman
interactionssuchasanencouragingwordorawarmgreetingasofprimary
significanceoverfinances.
AppendixGlistsscholarshipsavailabletoNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU.
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Facilitator:Culture
Justasfamilysupportemergesasaprimaryfacilitatorforcollegesuccess,the
issueofcultureemergesasanintegralpartoftheAmericanIndianstudent’s
identity.Culture,familyandidentityareintertwinedandcanprovideastrong
buttressagainstthediscomfortthatcancomewiththeculturaldiscontinuityof
movementfromthereservationcommunitytothemainstreamuniversity.Howthat
culturalidentityisnurturedandexpressedthroughoutthePSUexperiencemayplay
apivotalroleinthesuccessoftheNativestudent’scollegecareer.
NothingdescribesthisexperiencebetterthanthevoiceofanAmerican
IndianPSUstudent:
Iwasthinkingofoneofthethingsthatisimportantfromastudent’sperspective,notonlymyselfasanon‐traditionalstudent,istheirself‐confidence—andbeinginthistypeofsetting.Becauseoneofthethingsthatneedtobeconsideredis,wheretheycomefrom.Whatkindofrelationshiptheyhadwiththeirfamily—theirrespectedelders—evenliketheirteachers,orsomeoneinauthority.So‐‐‐‐youknow—inthatenvironmentathome,ofcoursethere’sconfidence.
FortheNativestudentwhobringsfromhomeandfamilyastrongsenseof
culturalidentity,cultureprovidesasortofempoweringsenseofcomfortina
strangeenvironment.
Oneofthecommonthemescitedasafacilitatorwastheopportunityforthe
NativestudentsatPSUtoexpressorparticipateintraditionalculturalactivities.
WhilesuchanopportunityisuniversallyseenasapositiveexperienceforPSU
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Nativepopulation,itmustbementionedconversely,thatlackofsuchopportunities
presentabarriertocollegesuccess.
Onestudentsharedhisperspectiveofcultureasafacilitatorinthisway:
OnethingIkeepgettingchoppedofffromsayingis‐‐‐‐umm‐‐‐justgrowin’upandcomin’‐‐‐Ihadalotofdeadtimeaftertheservicejustdrinkin’andpackin’onthepoundage‐‐‐Doin’nothin’yaknow?Iwastedthattimebut‐‐.Ididn’thavethatsupportingcast–fromthebeginning.Youknow?Ihadtofinditonmyown.And‐‐‐Istartedgrowin’myhair‐‐‐and‐‐‐notshavin’anymore,notrunnin’anymore(laughterfromeveryone.)Youknow?‐‐‐Buttheseelders,theyshowedmethatmyreligion‐‐‐whatIthoughtwasimportantwhenIwasgrowingup‐‐‐cuzonmydogtagsitsaidRomanCatholic.AndIknowI’mnotRoman,‐‐sowhyamICatholic?Yaknow?SoIreverted,Iconvertedbackto‐‐‐okay‐‐‐Iwatchedallthesehistoricalmovies;RabbitProofFenceandah‐‐‐BuryMyHeartatWoundedKnee,andaTattooonmyHeart,Running’Brave‐‐‐Butthat’swhatIreachedouttowhenIstartedtorealizemyidentityandthatwasmysupportingcast.Thatwasmystrength,formetofamiliarizemyself.Isaid‐‐‐okayum‐‐‐sweat‐‐‐andthat’slikeourchurch.…andeventuallytheSunDance.Ittookme15yearstoquitdrinkingandtosurviveoffthereservation‐‐‐Ilearnedthatintheservice‐‐‐but,tocomebackhometoPrairieState,nothin’changeshere.Imeanstuffdoesbut‐‐‐youknow,asfarasthisIndiansandWhitesthinggoes,it’salwaysgonnabethere.It’slikegangs,drugs,violenceitnevergoesaway.Soforme,thatsupportingcastofhelpingmefind‐‐‐likeare‐birthofmyspirit‐‐‐thathelpedmesoIcanbeheretoday.So‐‐‐nomatterhowmanyscarsIgotonmyface,oronmyknuckles,Idon’tcareanymore.I’llwalkthroughherelikeasorethumbandIdon’tcare‐‐‐People,Ithink,theyjustkindalookatmeandjustkindawalkawayandlookaround.Idon’tcare.I’mheretogotoschoolso‐‐.
WhenI’mdone,Iwanna‐‐‐IthinkIwouldbemore‐‐‐morehelpfuloutside‐‐‐outwithintheNativeAmericancommunitiesratherthanbeontheoutside.ButI’dliketoworkontheoutsidetogetexperience.AndIthinkIwouldprobablyhavealreadywithoutgraduatingrightnow,butIwannagraduatesothatwayIcanatleastgobackandhavethatwithme.‐‐‐Butthat’simportantforme.It’sgonnabeathankyoubacktothekids.Youknow?SomeofourkidsgrowupwiththeirGrandparentsbecausetheirparentsstillwannadrinkandparty.The‘youonlyliveonceattitude.’But,youwasteallthattime.And,Ididthatso‐‐‐Idon’tknow,I’dliketokindahelpbea
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supportingcastforyoungadolescents.Andwhetheritbecoachingor(unintelligible)…Iwantsomethingbetterthanthat,butifIcanrelatetokids‐‐‐youknow?That’simportanttomebecausealotofreservationkidsdon’thavethat.Theydon’thavethatsupportingcast.
ThemostsignificantwayconsistentlycitedbyAmericanIndianstudentsfor
facultytobeapartofthat“supportingcast”wasthroughculturalawareness,
culturalsensitivity,understandingandacceptance.
Conversely,oneofthemosthurtfulbarrierscommonlycitedbyNative
studentsweretheirexperienceswithculturallyinsensitiveorhostilefaculty.Inthe
nextchapterIwilladdresssomeoftheseexperiencesalongwithotherbarriersto
academicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.
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CHAPTERSEVEN
Findings:Barriers
Fromthereviewofliterature,onecanseemanybarriersencounteredby
AmericanIndiancollegestudentsarerootedinthehistoryofeducationasatoolto
forceassimilationandattemptstodestroyindigenouscultures(Berry1969).
Thoughasoutlinedintheprecedingchapter,positiveprogresstowardeducational
attainmenthasbeenmadeintheeducationofAmericanIndians,manybarriersstill
remain.StrideshavebeenmadetowardAmericanIndiancollegesuccessatPSU,
basedoncomparisonofqualitativedatagathered,indicationsarethatforthe
subjectsparticipatinginthisresearch,barriersoutweighfacilitatorsbymorethana
2:1ratio.
Table7.1providesalistofthemostsalientbarrierstoacademicattainment
forAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Barriersarelistedfromtopdownwiththe
mostsalientlistedfirst.Thisrankorderwasderivedfromacompilationofdata
fromadministrators,faculty,staffandstudents.Whereasanyonegroupmayrank
barriersdifferently,thistablecombinestheviewpointsofallgroupsforanoverall
bestfitofallfactorscitedasbarriers.
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Table7.1:BarrierstoAmericanIndianEducationalAttainmentatPSU.
Barriers SampleQuotationInstitutionalBarriers
Ithinkthatinstitutionalchangeisinorder,butisverydifficultbecausethisisthewayit’salwaysbeen.(Faculty)
PoorHighSchoolPreparation
OneofthegreatestshortcomingsIseewithNativeAmericanstudentscomingintoouruniversityispreparation.(SupportStaff)
PrejudiceorRacism
Ithinkabarrierisracismoncampus.Ithinkthatthereisalotofit.(NativeAmericanStudent)
LackofSupport
Butforus‐‐‐wejustwanttohavepeopleonourside...ifsomebodycomesherefromtherezanddoesn’talreadyhavethatconnectionitwouldbeharderforthem...(NativeAmericanStudent)
Family Some…parentshaveactuallyputintheirkidsheadsthattheuniversityisoutto‘makeyouoneofthem.’...Infact,I’vehadmorethanonestudentwhowouldbedoingverywell,academically,butaregettingcallsfromhomethataresaying;‘Youneedtocomehome.Youdon’tbelongthere.’(SupportStaff)
FinancialResources
Sofewofthestudentscomeinwithamplefinancialbacking.Thesestudentscomefromsuchincrediblypoorbackgrounds.(SupportStaff)
Community Well,PrairieStateisactuallytheheartofIndianandWhiteracism.(NativeAmericanStudent)
Culture Yeah,IjustthinkPSUgenerallydoesn’t…theyreallydon’tembraceNativeAmericansatall.(NativeAmericanStudent)
DominantCultureReferenceGroup
OneofthethingsInoticedwasthatalotofthestudentscomefromsituations,which‐‐‐theWhitesociety‐‐‐ormainstreamAmericaviewsdifferently.(SupportStaff)
Place(AIECC)
Firstofall,we’retheonlyschoolforhundredsofmilesaroundwithasignificantNativepopulationthatdoesn’thaveaNativeAmericanHouse.So‐‐‐youknow‐‐there’sahugegapinservicehereandwhatshouldbejustanaturalpartofwhatwedohere.(Faculty/Administrator)
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DatacollectedatPSUforthisresearchsupportspreviousresearchcitedin
theliteratureindicatingthatinstitutionalstructuralbarriersmaybeasignificant
factorhinderingacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.
EveryoneIinterviewedagreedthatsocialchangefocusedonimprovingthe
chancesforAmericanIndianacademicsuccessatPSUmuststartwiththePSU
administration.Somediscusseditintermsoftheinstitutionalmission.
InstitutionalBarriers
AveteranprofessorspeaksofthehistoryoftheAmericanIndiancollege
experienceatPSUspecifically,howthatcollegeexperiencehasbeenaproductofan
institutionalizedstructure:
Ithinkthatinstitutionalchangeisinorder,butisverydifficultbecausethisisthewayit’salwaysbeen.GenerationsworthofIndianpeoplebeingjustabliponthescreen,ornotonthescreenortangentialorperipheral,orsubordinate,orwhateveryouwanttocallit.It’sprettyhardtounlearnthat.There’snomodelforitintheeducationalexperiencesofmostPh.D.s.They’vejustbasicallygonethroughtheirvarioussystemswithoutmuchofaninterestindiversity.Diversityingeneral,letalonediversityofAmericanIndians.Ithink,historically,theuniversityhasbeenreactiveratherthanproactive.Andsothere’sbeenquiteafewthingsinresponsetoaccreditationreportsandaccreditationteamscominghereandevaluatingprograms,andsoforth,NorthCentralandotherwise—evaluatingprogramsandpointingoutthatweneedmorediversityemphasis.So,we’vebeenbehindthecurveforasmanyyearsasI’vebeenhere.Buthistorically,here,likeotherplaces,it’sbeenmostlyreactive.Andtheproblem,ofcourse,withthatisthatyoucan’tinstitutionalizechangethatwaybecauseit’ssomethingthatlooksminimallysatisfactoryonpaperbutitdoesn’tfundamentallychangetheinstitution—andso,ifyou’regoingbeproactive,Ithinkyouhavetore‐thinkthewholesystemandmakechanges
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thataretrulyfoundationalsothatyouarenotonlyaccommodatingdiversity,butwelcomingitandimmersinginitandlearningfromit.
RegardingtheLandGrantMissionoftheuniversity,thesameprofessor
continues:
...It’sbeenaglaringomissionactually,thattribalkidshavebeenunderserved....Universityadministration,asastructurefromthetopdown,doesn’tdirectlytakeresponsibility,asapriority,foraddressingissuesofdiversity,particularlyrelatedtoNativestudents,butrather,thatresponsibilityfallstoindividualpockets,orenclaveswithin.It’ssafetosaythatthroughtheyears,thecentraladministrationhavebeenreactiveratherthanproactive.Sometimesresponsivetowhatsomeofusaredoingandaskingfor,butrarelyareinitiators.Exceptforgivinglipservicetoit,ofcourse.Theyarereally,reallygoodatthat.
OneuniversityadministratoraddressesissuesconcerningthehistoryofPSU
andremainingbarrierstoAmericanIndianacademicattainmentfroman
institutionalperspective:
Idon’tknow,structurally,andI’mtalkingorganizationally,ifwe’vequitelandedonthebestorganizationtoworkwithdiversity.So,Ithinkwe’resiloey,ifthatmakessense.Youknowweliveinourlittlesilos,andIdon’tthinkwehaveenoughcrossintegrationhappeningwithourwork.Letmegiveyouanexample;Idon’tknowhowwellAdmissionsgoesoutandrecruitsNativeAmericanstudents.Idon’tthinktheyaredoing‐‐‐Iprobablyshouldn’tsaythisbut—Ithinkwecouldimprove...Admissionsofficethatisnotdoingverymuch.Sothat’sanexamplewhereImean,Idon’tknoworganizationally,ifwe’rereallyworkingacrossthewayweshouldandifwehaveeverybodyonboard.SometimesIthinkwegetsocomfortableworkinginourlittlerealmofthecampusworld—thatwe’renotdoingenoughtogether...wehavegottodoabetterjobofbringingacademicsandstudentaffairstogether.Theykindofoperateintheirownlittleworldsrightnow.Sothat’sanPSUproblem.Anditimpactshowwellwedoouttherewithrecruitingandactuallyservicingstudentswhentheycomehere.
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TheissueofPSUcommitmenttominorityrecruitingisonethatwas
continuouslyquestionedbyallinterviewees,includingadministrators,facultyand
staff.Oneadministrativestaffmemberspeaksfranklyaboutpriority,historically,
forminoritystudentrecruitment,includingrecruitingNativeAmericanstudents:
Wedon’thaveaveryextensive—(sigh)recruitingprogram.Wedon’thaveveryextensiveinformationforminoritystudents....ButIfeellikeatPSU,wewerenotreallygettingthatfromanywhereelse,youknow?...We’renotreallygettingthatpushfromanywheresowe’renotdoingit.
OnefacultymemberhasworkedtowardenhancingdiversityatPSUfor
decades.Amonghismanypassionswasworkingtowardanenhancedappreciation
forNativeAmericanstudents,andanappreciationforindigenouscultureasanasset
totheuniversity.
I’moftheviewthatwearenotfulfillingourmissionandpurposesverywell.Weneedtoreallyfocusonthatanddoabetterjobofit.Butit’sthere.It’sinthemission.It’swhatwearetobedoing.Wearetobemakingourinstitutionatleastreflectthediversitythat’swithinourownstate,becausewearetoembraceallofthepopulation.Butwealsoneedtorecruitindividualsintohighereducationtoprovidethosediversityexperiences.Forexample,therearehighschoolsthroughoutthereservationsthatarenevervisitedbyPSUeventhoughthenon‐nativeschoolsareallvisitedbyPSU.Theviewthat’sbeenpresentedtomeisthattheyieldofstudentswhoactuallywillcometoPSUissmall,andthatfundsforrecruitmentarebetterspentelsewhere.So—Ithinkthatthereisanimmediateconflicttherewithourmission.Theadmissionsofficeseemstobelookingmoretowardtotalnumbers,whilethemissionoftheuniversityislookingtowardservingallofthepeople.Andthosetwomissions,thosetwoapproacheshavenotyetbeenproperlyintegratedinmyview.Theadministration,inmyopinion,needstobothbetterfundandbetterinsistthatminoritystudentsberecruitedandretained.Thatis,thereneedstobedirectionfromhigheradministrationthatminoritystudentsarerecruited
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andthatfundingbeprovidedforthatpurpose.Wehaveminimalfundsdirectedtothateffortrightnow.So—theadministrationdefinitelywantstoseeithappen—buttheorientationtowardsmakingithappenjustdoesn’tseemtohavematerializedasyet.Theyseeitasaproblem,butnotonethattheywanttospendalotofmoneyon.Orevenverymuchmoneyon.It’saproblemthat’sbeenassignedtootherswhoareunderfundedandhavedifficultymakingithappen...Soitgetscomplicatedmakingthesethingshappen.ButIwouldsaytheadministrationjusthasn’tproperlyfundedordirectedittohappen.Butifyoutalkwithanyadministrator,they’lltellyoudiversityisimportantandthey’dliketoseemoreofit.Theyarejustnotmakingithappen.It’snotaveryhighpriority.Totalnumberssadlyseemstobeahigherprioritythandiversitywithinthosenumbers.
Itquicklybecomesapparentthatoneofthebarrierstoacademicattainment
forAmericanIndianstudentshasitsgenesisinthedivergentviewpointsconcerning
whattheprioritiesareinaddressingdiversityissues.Morespecifically,howthe
officialuniversitypolicyaddressesAmericanIndianstudentswithintheoverall
issueofdiversityhasadirectimpactontheNativeAmericancollegeexperience.
Anotheruniversityadministratordiscussestheirperspectiveondiversity
andeventhedefinitionoftheterm.Clearly,itisabroadissuethatextendsbeyond
theparametersofthisresearch:
Ithinkitwasveryinterestingtome—andIthinkit’sstillastumblingblock,toreallydefine‘what’sdiversity’.Youknow‐somepeopleareverypassionatethatitincludeseverything,ethnicity,sexualpreference,thewholegamut,includinggender.Andthereareotherpeoplethatreallywanttonarrowittojustethnicity,andthatdon’twanttodealspecifically,withsexualpreference—that’ssupposedtobeahotpointforsomepeople.ButIjustfoundthatverycurious.Mysenseandmyapproachisthatdiversityisveryglobal,andthatweneedtoberespectfulofallpeople.Andthatthatincludesnotonlyyouknow,peopletendtofocusonwhat’seasy,whichisthecolorofsomeone’sskin,andweseemtobeable,asasociety,toseewhat’spoliticallycorrectthere.ButIalsothinkthatmyviewisthatweneedtoberespectfulofwomen,andIstillthinkthereareissueswithgender.Nothere,butnation
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wide—Imeaneverywhere.AndIthinksexualpreferenceisamajorissue.AndI’dsaythatwhenyoutalkaboutdiversityinPrairieState,obviouslyworkingwiththeNativeAmericanpopulationisbigforPrairieStatebecauseofthenumberofreservationsandourmakeup.ButIwouldtellyouthatsexualpreferenceisanotherhotbuttoninthisstate.Andthatisanareaofconcernforusworkingwithstudentsbecausethat’sanothermajorprejudicethattendstopopup.Andthatdoesn’tmeanthatyougivepreferencetooneareaoveranother,butthatyouneedtoworkonallareasifwe’regoingtobeacommunity,auniversitythat’srespectfulofalldifference.
FromaDirectorofoneofthestudentsupportservicesoncampuscomes
furthertestimonyregardingtheconfusionofwhatdiversitymeans,whoisdefined
asdiverse,andwhereprioritieslie:
Ithinktherearepeopleonthiscampuswhodon’tincludeNativeAmericankidsaspartoftheiroutlookfordiversity.Whichissilly.Whenyoulookatthepopulationofourstate,Imeantheincrediblewealthofpotentialabilitythat’sthereintheNativekids—howwecannotlookonthatasaresourceisasinine,tome,frankly.Um—buttherearethosewhowanttomakediversityaeuphemismforworldly.Ah‐who‘wantkidsfromKuwaitandwewantkidsfromNepal,andwewantkidsfromwherever.’‐‐ontheothersideoftheglobebecausethatmakesusamoreworldlyuniversity.Andthere’ssometruththere.Imeanthatabsolutelyhassomeworththere.Buttocloseoutonegroupinfavorofanother,kindofdiffusesthewholemeaningoftheworddiverse.
AfacultymemberwhohasremainedveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndian
studentsformanyyears,addressestheissueofdiversityandexpressesdeep
concern:
IguessifyouareaNativeperson,aWhiteinstitutionisnotattractivetoyouespeciallyifthatinstitutiondoesn’thaveagoodreputationasbeingwelcomingandvaluingtheNativeculture.Sometimes,yougetthefeelingthat—wellmaybeit’smorethanafeeling—sometimestheworddiversityisthrownaroundbecauseit’spoliticallycorrectandit’ssomethingthathastobeaddressed,ratherthansomethingthatisaddressedbecauseit’sauniversallyheldvalue‐‐addressedfortherightreasons.
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AfacultymemberwhohasadministeredasuccessfulprogramforNative
studentsdiscussedhowtheuniversitydealswithdiversity:
Inaword,insufficiently,Ithinkwe’vemadealotofprogress,butstill,alotofpeopledonotappreciatethestrengthandthebenefitthatcomesfromhavingdiversefacultyanddiversestudentswhoareapartofthewholebigworldwelivein.Iwouldsaythereislessopenracism,butwestillhavealotofeducationtodowhenyouhavepeoplewhohavebeenhereforeverinleadershippositionsandtheyreallydon’tunderstandit...Andtherearestillalotofpeopleherewhohaveneverbeenexposedto–toknowhowitcanbenefitthisinstitutionandthemastheirownperson.
Oneprofessordiscussedadministrativesupportasfundamentaltotheinstitution’smission:
ThefirstthingthatpopsintomyheadaboutthatistheknowledgethatthisisalandgrantinstitutionandthatTribalCollegeshavethelandgrantstatusaswell.Andthatmeansweshouldallbeinthistogetheraboutusingourresourcestomakepeoplebebetterthrougheducation.
AnotherfacultymemberwhoisprimarilyinvolvedwithNativeAmerican
studentscomments:
ThisisaLandGrantinstitution.Anditissignificanttosaythatinthisstate,wehaveninereservations,andthosereservationsoccupy20percentofourlandmass...Ifourmissionistoservethepeopleofthestate,andwedon’tgetthatthosepeopleintermsof,certainlypeopleofcolorareAmericanIndianpeopleandthatisourcalling,thenwe’vereallysortofmissedtheboat.Ifourmissionisservingthepeopleofthestate,wehaveagiganticunderservedpopulation,righthere,whoare,intermsoftheuniversity,whoareourneighbors...ourfrontyardsjoineachother.Andforalargepartofourhistory,thehistoryofPSU,andthesystemofhighereducation,thegateshavebeenclosedtoourneighbors.Andso,tome,it’satotalno‐brainer.It’stotallyobviousthatcollaborationwithAmericanIndiancommunitiesandservicestoAmericanIndianstudentsisfirstandforemostinthemissionofthisuniversityandwhatwedohere.
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PoorHighSchoolPreparation
Congruentwithfindingsfrompreviousresearch,highschoolpreparation
wasacommonbarriertocollegesuccessmentionedbyadministrators,faculty,staff,
andstudentsatPSU.
ANativeAmericanupperclassman,workingtowardamajorinMathspeaks
ofhisexperienceinhighschoolinareservationtown:
Myparentsbothtaughtandtheysentmeto(Publicschool)justbecausetheeducationtherewas—welltheirmathandscienceprogramsarewaybetterthan(Tribalschool’s).(Tribalschool’s)highestmathclassisgeometry,whichisridiculouslylowifyouhadanyhopesofbecominganengineer.Cuzyouneed‐CalcandTrig—butanywaysImeanum—at(Publicschool),it’slikeanuphillbattle.Whenyougointoaclassroom,you’renoteven‐‐teachersdon’tevenlookatallthestudentsequally.AndI’mnotsayingthatalloftheteachersarelikethis,butmostofthemare.AndbeingNative‐‐youreallyhavetoproveyourselfthere.Imean,onceyouareconsistentlyontheirAorBhonorroll,thentheywillstarttorespectyou,butyouhavetodothateverywhereyougoat(Publicschool)...
AnotherupperclassmanworkingtowardadegreeinRangeSciencerecalls
histribalhighschoolexperienceinadifferentreservationtown:
Icanrememberinmyfouryearsthere,thestaffwouldselectcertainstudentsthatweredoinggoodacademicallyandtheywouldsolelyconcentratetheireffortsonthosestudents.Therestofthemprobablygotleftbehind.Andsowhenthey‐‐‐(pausesandcoughs)Alright,I’llputitthisway.WhenIwasafreshman,wehadabout160studentsinmyclass.Whenwegraduated—therewasonly48ofusthatgraduated.Therestofthemeitherfellbackbecausetheteachersjustweren’tgivingthetimeofthedaytoactuallyhelpthemwiththeirstudies—makingsurethattheylearnedthematerialfortheclasses—allofthat.Ummm—alotofteacherswouldratherhaveoneofthegoodstudents—theonesthatweregettingAsandBscomeinafterschoolanddoextrastuffforclassesandearntheextracreditorwhatever.Soalotofstudents—Ihadacouplefriendswhojustthought;‘what’sthepointofbeinginschool?’‘What’sthepointofgoingtocollege?’Thoseteachersdon’tcareaboutus...andoutofthe48ofusthatgraduated;only12ofuswentontocollege.
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ANativegraduatestudentrecountsherexperienceatatribalreservation
highschool:
Iactuallywentto(Tribalschool),wherethehighestmathwasgeometry.TheyofferedAlgebra2onlinewithlikeallofPrairieState,butitwasridiculousbecausetheteacherwouldalwaysbecalling(TribalSchool)out.They’dbelike;‘(Tribalschool),youaretwochaptersbehind.’Wewerelike;‘We’retryingtoteachourselvesthanks.’SoIwenttocollegeterrifiedofanymathorsciencecourses.
Somestudentsspeculatethatonefactorleadingtosubstandardhighschool
educationatreservationhighschoolsstemsfromabadfitbetweenreservationhigh
schoolsandpersonaltraitsthatsomenon‐Indianteachersbringtothoseschools.
Onesharedhisperspective:
Teachersthereareterrifiedtoteachattribalschools.SometimeswhenIdogoby(Tribalschool)orI’llgoandtalktomymom,theteachers—theyjusthavethehardesttimecommunicatingwithNatives.Theyjusthaveahorribletime.Idon’tknowwheretheinteractionbreaksdown.Idon’tknowwhatthecauseandeffectsare.Idon’tknowifit’sbecauseyouhaveabunchof‐‐‐basically,abunchofWhitepeopleyouknow—it’swhatwe’refightingwithhereatPSU–theyjustreallydon’tknowtheculture.Theyjustreallydon’tknowNativeAmericanpeople.Theyjustdon’tknowhowtodealwiththem.Andtheyhavejusthugeproblemstryingtoteachthemanythingbecausetheydon’tclicklikethat.Alotofteacherswillgothereandjustgettheirtimein.Andthen‘boom’oncetheirtimeisin,they’reoutofthere.Andduringthattime,theydon’ttaketheinitiative—that’salltheyarethereforisjustajob.Theydon’ttakethetimetogettoknowtheculture,orknowthearea.
Agreementamongthestudentsindicatesthatthisisacommonexperience
forstudentsattendingreservationhighschools.Anotherstudentrecallsher
experienceofconflictbetweenNativestudentsandnon‐Nativefaculty:
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Yeah,Ithinkwehadpeoplelikethattoo.Liketheywouldjustbethereforalittlebit.LikeIactuallywentintocollegeknowingthatmyguidancecounselorwrotemycollegealettersaying;‘She’snotgonnamakeit.’‘Idon’tthinkshe’spreparedforthecoursesyou’regoingtobeofferingher—andIdon’tthinkthatyoushouldaccepther.’AndsoIwaslike,‘Okay.’Andmyparentswerelike,‘Ignorethat.’‘She’ssomeWhitewoman—justignoreher,youcandoit.’
Anotherstudentfromaruralreservationcommunityattendedareservation
highschool.HerecalledtheconflictbetweenAmericanIndianstudentsandhigh
schoolfaculty:
Therewerestudentsdownto(Reservationtown)thatwerethesameway,butitwastheattitudeofthestaff—wellforone;theydidn’tliverightin(Reservationtown).Theycamefrom(Bordertown#1),youknow—(Bordertown#1)and(Bordertown#2)areknownfor(pause)the(Bordertown#2)SchoolDistrictisknownforhatingtheirownIndianstudentsintheschooldistrict.Ithinkalotofteachersfrom(Bordertown#2)and(Bordertown#1),bothtowns,don’tlikeIndians.Soobviouslythey’regoingtohavethatattitude.Andit’sweirdforthem,comingfromthosetowns,toteachataschoolonareservation,where98percentofthestudentsareIndian.
Whateverthecause,everystudentIinterviewedagreedthatthereisa
differenceinthequalityofeducationbetweenreservationhighschoolsand
mainstreamhighschools.SomeoftheNativestudentsIinterviewedattended
mainstreamhighschoolsanddidnotexperiencethesameeducationaldeficitupon
enteringcollege.Thismayindicatethattheproblemiswithreservationschoolsand
notwithAmericanIndianstudents.
OneNativeAmericanPSUstudenthadhighschoolexperienceinboth
mainstreamandreservationhighschools.Sherecallsthedifferenceandtheeffects
thatdifferentialqualityhaveonNativestudentsfromreservationschools:
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IwenttoschoolinacityschoolinRapidCity.SoIfinishedthatcitycurriculumsoIwentto(Tribal)HighSchoolonthereservation.And—Iwasinvolvedinactivitiesrangingfromdramatobasketball,torunningandeverythingattheseWhiteschools.AndthenIwentto(Tribal)andIwasinvolvedtheretoo.But,Icouldseeabigdifferenceintheatmosphere—andjustwhattheydosociallyandthewaytheycommunicate,andthewayofdress,ImeaneverythingwasjustsodifferentfromthatWhitesociety.AndthenIthinkwhenkidsgethere,theyfeellikesuchanoutcast...Butum—thereservationschoolswerejustnotuptopar.Andthatisveryhardbecauseyouhavestudentscomingherethatcouldmaybereadokaybutonlyata10thgradelevel.Ornotreadasfastandcomprehendthat.Sotheyhavespeciallearningcircumstances,wheretheseclassesaresohardforthem.Imeanevenjustgeneralclasses.Iwasroomedwithagirlfrom(Tribal)HighSchoolwhoIbecamefriendswith–andshecamehere,butshedidn’tlastthatyearbecauseshecouldbarelydoanything.ItriedtohelpherasbestIcouldandstuff,butitwasjusttoohardandoverwhelmingforher.AndwhenthereweretraditionalWhitestudentsspending10hoursinthelibrarytostudyforthisreallyhardpathologycourse,theseNativesneedlikedaystoprepare.Youknow?Itisjusthardforthem.Theydon’tlearnthosestudyhabits.Theydon’tlearnthat.Theydidn’thavethesameopportunitiesbeforegettingtocollege.Soitisveryhard.Theyareplayingcatchup.
AnotherNativestudentwhoattendedamainstreamcityhighschoolspeaks
oftheexperienceofstudentsfromreservationschools:
Iknowalotofpeoplethatbecauserezschoolsarenotadvancedassomeotherschools,whowereabigdealinhighschoolandthentheycomehereandtheirwritingskillsarebehind,ortheirmathskillsorscienceskillsorwhatever.Andthentheycomehereandit’slikethisdefeatforthemrightaway.Andsothentheythink‘wow,Ican’tdoit.I’mnotassmartasIthoughtIwas.’
AnotherchallengeconcernsNativestudentswhocometoPSUfromboarding
schools.TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwhoworksespeciallycloselywith
incomingfreshmanstudentsmanyofwhomhavebeeninahighlystructured
environmentthroughouttheirentireschoolcareerdetailedthispossiblebarrierfor
me:
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Anotherthingthatmightbeabarrieristhestructure,orthelackofstructureforstudentswhocometocollegefromaboardingschool.Intheboardingschoolseverythingindailylifeishighlystructured.Butthisgoesbothways.Therewasone,whofelt,because(SupportProgram)isveryregimentedandstructured,hefeltuncomfortablebecausehesaiditmadehimfeellikeaspecialneedsstudents.Hefeltcategorizedorseparatedasifhewerein‘SpecialEd’.Sohehadadifficulttimefullyparticipatinginthatprogrambecausehe‐‐‐butyetwithoutit,hewouldn’thavebeenhere.Sothat’sthedifficulty.Andthenalotofthestudentstalkaboutapartofthetroublesgoingbacktothefactthatalotofthestudentscomestraightherefromsomeofthetribalschoolshavebeeninboardingschoolsmostoftheirlivessotheyareusedtothatstructure.Andtheygethereandtheydon’thavethat.Andpartofthatstructureevenincludeshomeworktimeandstudytimeandtutortime.Whereasit’snotquiteasstructuredherethroughtheprogram,butyetatthesametime,thereissomuchmorefreedomthattheyarenotusedto.Andmostofthemhavecomethroughanentiresystemofboardingschools,starting,probablyfromelementary,throughmiddleschoolandhighschoolsothat’swhattheyknow.Andtheyjusthaveahardtimewithithere.
SomeNativestudentscometoPSUunpreparedforcollegelevelwork.There
isextantdetailedliteratureonthissubject.Faculty,administration,admissionsstaff
andthestudentsthemselvesarewellawareoftheeducationalhandicapmany
AmericanIndianstudentsbegintheiruniversitycareerwith.Anadmissions
counselorcommentedonhighschoolpreparation:
Gettingbacktoenrollmentandwantingstudentstosucceedhere;oneofthethingsthatIfoundkindofsurprisingand—well—it’sjustveryinteresting…frombeingonreservationsmyself,‐‐umm‐justseeingwhatkindofschoolstheNativestudentscomefrom‐‐.AndIthinkthat’spartoftheproblemtoointhatsometimestheschoolsdon’tpreparethemtocometocollege.Sowhentheygethere,wecan’talwaysadmitthem—youknow?Ortheycomehereandtheydon’tdowell.
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Amongthosewhomaybemostqualifiedtospeakonthisissuearethosewho
workintheareaofStudentSupportServices.Asupportservicesadministrator
spokeatlengthonthistopic:
OneofthegreatestshortcomingsIseewithNativeAmericanstudentscomingintoouruniversityispreparation.Weneedtogobacktothatpreparationthing,andhelpingourstudentstocomeintothesysteminamannerinwhichtheyhaveanabilitytosucceed.Becausethewaythey’recominginnow,they’restandinginahole3feetdeepthedaytheywalkinthedoor—metaphorically—andtheyjusthavesuchadisadvantage.ThequalityandthedepthofpreparationoftheNativestudents,simplyissofarbelow,I’msorrytosay,thatofthegeneralpopulation.Andonecanlookattheboardingschoolsofcourse,whichwedealwithquiteoften.Um—onecanlookatthesomeoftheprivateschoolsversusjustthegeneralpopulationofthereservationschools,andtherearesomevastvariancesinthequalityofpreparation.Notsurprisingly,moreoftenthannot,theprivateschoolstendtosendthestudentstouswithalittlebitbetterpreparationamongstthosegroups.Butoverall,theacademicpreparationis‐‐wespendsomuchtimetryingto,forlackofabetterphrase,makeupthedifference—catchthoseNativestudentsup,justsothey’reatabasiclevelofunderstandingwithmanyoftheotherstudentscomingin.It’satruedisadvantagetothosekids.Somanyofthemendupcominginandimmediatelygettingpluggedintoremedialclassesinthehopesthat,perhaps,theycandosomecatchingup.And—boyfrankly,sometimestheycan,andsometimesit’sjustsuchacolossaltaskbecausesomanyofthemhave—justdon’thavethebasisofunderstandingtoevenknowwheretostartonalotofthosesubjects.That’sahugedisadvantage.Theystartoutfromabighandicap.YouunderstandthatI’mlookingcomparativelywithotherstudentsthatIamworkingwiththatarealsolowincome,thatarealsofirstgeneration,perhapswithvaryingtypesofdisabilities.Imeanthesearenotjustyoureveryday,walk‐inoffthestreetstudentseither.Imeantheseotherstudentsaredisadvantagedaswell,buteventhough,whenyoucomparethetwogroups,still,theNativekidsarecominginsopoorlyprepared.Anditit’s‐‐‐Ifeelterribleforsomanyofthembecausetheyhave—absolutely,fromanintellectstandpoint,andanabilitystandpointofgeneralknowledge,theyhavethetools—withoutquestion.Manyofthemcomeinwithsomewonderfulscholarshipopportunitiesandsomevarioustypesofbackingfromthetribesandwhatnotthatfinancially;oftentimesgivethemsomegreatopportunities.Buttheyjust,oftentimes,don’thavethebasistoutilizethat.It’sashame.It’sahorribleshame.
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Sooften,thesestudentshavetoldmehowatalotofthesegeneralreservationschools,somanyoftheteachersandtheadministratorsarefocusingsomuchoftheirtimeonjusttryingtokeepthepeace.Andtryingtoholdthephysicalbuildingtogether,thattheopportunityforadvancementisvery,verylow.Andthen,ifastudentdoesexcelinthatenvironment,it’sstillcomparativetolowstandards.I’vebeentoldthatsomestudentscomefromareservationschoolthinkingtheywereanacademicsuperstar,onlytofindthattheyarestillbehind.Hence,ahandicap,evenforastudentwhocameherewithconfidence.Sotheymayfeelthatseparationhappeningveryquickly.Ofcoursewecannotgeneralize.AndIdon’twanttosaythatthecardsarestackedagainstthem—butoverandover,Ihearthestatement;thattheyfeelliketheyareontheoutsideofPSUlookingin‐‐thattheydon’tfeellikePrairieDogfreshman,rathertheyareNativestudentsatPSU.
PrejudiceorRacism
Thevoicetobestdescribeexperiencedracialprejudiceisthatofthe
AmericanIndianstudentsthemselves.Thereisnoshortageofsuchstories.During
thefallsemesterof2009,Iwasmadeawareofacaseofthreateningmessages,
includingdeaththreatsdirectedatanincomingfreshmanlivinginaresidentialhall
oncampus.ThecasewasreportedtotheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorandto
theUniversityPoliceDepartment.Investigationswereconducted,butnopersonor
personswereeverdeterminedtoberesponsibleforthemessagesnorwasanyone
heldaccountable.Whilethestudent’sResidentAssistantandotherstudentsonhis
floorweresupportivethroughouttheordeal,thesourceofthethreatsremains
undeterminedleavingthatstudentwiththelingeringdiscomfortoftheknowledge
thatsomeonecloseenoughtoslipwrittenmessagesunderthedoorofhisroommay
wanttodohimharm.
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AnotherNativestudentrecallshisfirstyearoncampus:
Myfirstyear,myfreshmanyearhereIlivedinaresidencehall.Ilivedonthefourthfloor,theverytopfloor.Iwastheonlypersonofcoloronthefloor.AndtherewastwoincidentswhereIhadtwofloormatescomeuptomeandtellmethey“F’nhateNativeAmericans”.AndI,youknow,Ididn’tgetscaredoranything.Ijustsortofsay‘Okay,thanksforlettingmeknow”.Uhh‐Isaid,“I’lltrynottocreateanduncomfortablesituationforyou”.“I’lltrytoavoidyouatallcosts.”But,thatwasoneincident.Uhm,andthere’sbeensomethingsinafewofmycourses.
Regardlessofwhetheraspecificincidentisrecalled,NativestudentsatPSU
agreethatracismdirectedtowardAmericanIndiansisacommonreality:
Well,PrairieStateisactuallytheheartofIndianandWhiteracism.That’sallitbasicallyis.AlotofpeopleinmyclasshaveevenadmittedthattheycomefromcommunitieswhereitispredominantlyWhite,wheretheyonlyreallyinteractedwitheachother—like...Asmuchaspeoplewillpreachortalkuntiltheyareoutofbreathsayingitdoesn’texistinPrairieState‐‐itdoes.Itdoes.Everywhere.
AnotherNativestudentexpressedherawarenessofracismoncampus
alludingtothecomplexityofNativestudentidentity:
Ithinkabarrierisracismoncampus.Ithinkthatthereisalotofit.IknowalotofotherpeopleI’vetalkedtothatfeltthattherewereracistattitudesinclassroomsthattheywentintoandtheygetlookedat.IknowonegirlwhoisalmostfullbloodOjibwa,andshe’sprettydarkskinned.Shewastellingmethatshegetslookedatallthetime.Peoplelookatherandtheythinkshe’smeanandallthisstuff,andtheyjusthavethisassumedattitudeofherbecauseshe’sdarkskinnedNative.So—andthenthere’stheflipside.Ihaveanotherfriendwhoislighterskinned.Shedoesn’tnecessarilylookNativewhenyoufirstlookatherandshedidn’tgrowupfeelingNativeandsoshehastroublecomingintoherownbeingNativebecauseshealreadysensestheracismoncampus.Andsoshedoesn’t—soit’sabigstressforher.
WhileracismundoubtedlystingstheworstforAmericanIndianstudents
wholiveit,othersarealsoawarethatitdoesexist.OneNativeAmericanfaculty
memberhasseenitfromtheperspectiveofstudentandprofessor:
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Racism.OvertheyearsI’veseenandheardofincidentswhereIknowsomestudentshavereallyhadahardtimeinsomeoftheirclassesbecauseteachershavemaderacistremarks....SoracismisaliveandwellandIknowstudentshaveexperiencedracistattitudes.
LackofSupport
Manyfactorscombinetoaffecttheuniversityexperienceandchancesfor
academicsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Dependingoncontext,many
ofthosefactorsactasfacilitators,barriers,orboth.Asseenabove,itappearsthat
supportmaybethemostsignificantfacilitator.Conversely,thelogicalconclusion
canbedrawnthatalackofsupportmaybethemostsignificantbarriertocollege
successforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Thelackofsupporttakesmanyforms
includingfriends,facultycommunityenvironmentandfamily.
LackofSupport:Friends Onenon‐traditionallyagedNativemalestudentcommented:
HowIcameupheretogotoschoolwasIknewsomepeoplehereandIcameuptovisitthem.Andeventually,Icametoschoolhere.Itwasthesamewaywithmybrother.Butforus‐‐‐wejustwanttohavepeopleonourside...butifsomebodycomesherefromtherezanddoesn’talreadyhavethatconnectionitwouldbeharderforthemiftheydon’tknowaboutthecluborhavesomebodytointroducethemandhelpthemalong.
AnotherNativestudentrecallshisfirstyearatPSUbeforehedevelopeda
supportnetworkoffriends.“Myfreshmanyear,inthefallof03,Ihadnoideathat
theNativeAmericanClubexisted.Honestly,thatfirstyearandahalfwasthehardest
formebecauseIfeltIwastheonlyNativeAmericanstudentoncampus.”
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NonSupportiveFaculty
TotheAmericanIndianstudent,alreadyfeelinglikeastrangerina
potentiallyhostileenvironment,amongthemosthurtfulexperiencesareencounters
withnon‐supportive,culturallyinsensitive,oropenlyhostileprofessors,
administratorsorstaff.ManyofthestudentsIinterviewedwereeagertosharesuch
experiences.Itwasevidentthroughvoiceinflectionandbodylanguage,aswellas
thecontentoftheirstories,thatthesehadbeenhurtfulexperiencesOnenon‐
traditionallyaged,butculturallytraditionalNativestudentrecalledsuchexperience:
Thereareprofessorsthatneedtounderstandthatsometimewedohavetogohomeforsomereason,maybefamilyoradeathorwhatever.Professorsneedtounderstandthatifsomebodyneedsaweektogohomethatthey’renotgoingtofallbehindorgive‘emgriefforit.I’vehadfriendsinthepastthathadtogohomeandtheprofessorjustdidn’twanttogivethemachancetocatchup.Iftheyweren’tsickoriftherewasn’tsomesortofuniversityreasontomissclass—itwas...ifit’safuneral,theyexpectyoutobeanimmediatebrotherorsister.Youcan’tevenbeacousintogobackforit.Imeanbecauseweknowonreservations—likeoutatPineRidgeit’skindofbig,butnormallythey’reprettysmallsoyouknoweverybody.You’repracticallyrelatedtohalfofeverybody.Idon’tknow.Ihadtogohomeandburyacousintoo.AndIwastoldtobringafuneralprogramback,andtheprofessorsaid‘ohwhere’syourname?Wereyouacasketbearerapallbearer?Isaid“no”.
Atraditionallyagedandculturallytraditionalfemalestudentalsorecounted
herexperienceswithculturallyinsensitiveprofessors:
Someteachersaresoclosedmindedthat“no”—youknowtheyholdyoutothatsameWhitestandard‐‐that‐‐‘youshouldbeabletoleaveyourfamily’—thatyouhavenoconnection,thatyourfamily’sdoinggreatwithoutyou.Like,theythinkthatandtheyholdyoutothatstandard.ButasIndianpeople,Imean,thisyear,I’vehadmylittlesister.Youknow,theydon’tunderstandthat.Theyjustthink‐‘ohwell,that’stheirchoice’,orsomething.Butit’sthatclosefamilytie.Theydon’tcaretoknowyourstory.Theydon’tcaretounderstandyou.AndIthinkthat’sreallyhardsometimesforsomeofthesecases.
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Somefacultyactionsreflectedalackofculturalunderstanding:
Iknowofaninstancewherethestudenthadtotalktotheprofessorandtheydidn’tmakeeyecontact‐‐‐outofrespectfortheteacher,theydidn’tlooktheteacherintheeye.Because,backhome,that’swhatyoudo.Wellthatteacherjustblewupaboutnotlookingthemintheeye.Youknow,thatstudentwasouttheredoingsomethingright,anditwasjustabigconfusion.
Othertimes,thislackofculturalunderstandingwasexplicitintheclassroom.
Averyculturallytraditional,non‐traditionallyagedmalestudentspokeofa
professor’shandlingofasacredritualinaclasslecture:
Ithinkthatforthoseinstructors,therearesomeculturalsensitivitiesthattheyjustoverlook.Youknow‐‐‐justterminology‐‐‐youknow‐‐‐brieflyflyingoveradescriptionofaSunDance…And,forme,inmymind‐‐somethinglikethat‐‐that’sapartofourcultureyes.And,it’s‐‐‐theirpurposeistoteach‐‐‐butthat’snotanythingtobe‐‐‐‐spokeofalot‐‐‐especiallyataschoolsettinglikethat.But,whatI’mgettingatisthatsensitivity…
Anothernon‐traditionallyagedmalefromareservationcommunityshared
anexperiencewithinsensitivity:
Iwasinaclasswheretheinstructorsaid‘Indianwrestling’‐‐‐andIsaid;‘what’sIndianwrestling?’andhesaid;‘Well,don’tyouwrestlewithyourlegs?’Youknow‐‐‐nobodycantaketheirdegreesaway.Butthatdoesn’tmeantheycanjustsaywhatevertheywant,iftheydon’tknowwhattheyaretalkingabout.
Insomecases,culturalinsensitivitydoesnotstemfromhostilityto,oralack
ofunderstandingtraditionalculturalpracticesorculturalidentity,butratherfroma
lackofunderstanding,orrecognitionofmoderntriballifeasitrelatestomodern
technology.Theseissuescanbepresentinawiderangeofacademicdisciplines.A
NativeAmericanRangeSciencemajorexplainshowaprofessorcouldtakesuch
socialdifferencesintoaccountinthecurriculum:
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Iknowforme–mostofmyclassesareagriculturebasedsoit’sallintheAnimalRangeSciencedepartment.I’mtheonlyminorityinthoseclassesandsoalotoftimeswhenwe’readdressingissuesaroundagriculture‐‐‐Iconstantlyhavetoraisemyhandandsay‘Well,youknow,I’mfromRosebud‐‐‐fromthataspect,it’salotdifferent.Ialwaysfeltthatforrangeprofessors,orevenanimalscienceprofessorshereatPSU‐‐‐there’snineSiouxtribesinPrairieState.IwouldhavealwaysthoughttheywouldhaveanunderstandingasfarasreservationsandNativeAmericanagricultureproducersandhowtheyoperateaswell.Ihavethatconstantfightthat‐‐‐Idon’tknowwhichisrightandsosometimesIhavetoaddressitwiththeprofessor.Likewe’retalkingaboutthis‐‐‐butIwanttoaddressitfrommyperspectivebutitdoesn’tapplytoyourlecturebecauseifIapplyit,thenyou’renotgoingtounderstand‐‐‐youknow.IcanrelatetoitbutIhavetoputmyself‐‐‐IhavetoputmywayofthinkingasaWhiteperson.Butthensometimes,ifIapplymyperspectiveonsomething,Ialwaysgetweirdlooksfromsomeoneorotherstudentsinclasswillbelike,‘wellwhatdoesthathavetodowiththisclass?’SosometimesIwon’tsayanythinginclassjustbecauseofthat.
Somefacultymembersareawareoftheseissuesandpointtoneededchange.
OneveteranProfessorsaid:
Ithinkthatweneedmuchmorefacultyre‐educationinregardtoNativeAmericanhistoriesandculturessothattheyhaveabetterunderstandingofNativestudents,andarebetterabletoencouragethemandbesupportiveofthem.Youknow,it’snotuncommonfortribalstudentstohavetheexperienceofafacultymembermisrepresentingtribalissues,andmysteriesandsoforth,stereotypingIndiansinvariousways‐‐‐notbeingsensitivetoculturalcontext....Maybeafteraninitialbadexperiencesomestudentsgetdiscouragedandhangitup,orforvariousotherreasons,don’tdowhattheyneedtodotohanginthere.
OneAmericanIndianProfessorsawthefacultyissuethisway:
Thereisindifferenceamongfaculty.Somedon’tcare‐‐‐theydon’tcare.Iknowinmydepartmentthere’sfacultywhowouldn’tdothingsunlesstheywereforcedtodoit‐‐‐soIthinktherearejustsomepeoplewhodon’tcarewhethertheyhaveNativestudentsornot.Andthentherearesomewhocareforthewrongreasons.…Ithinkifyouareanoutstandingstudent,youhaveagoodrelationshipwithyourteachers.Youknow?Andtherearesometeachers,um,‐‐whetheryouareNativeornon‐Native,ifyouhaveproblems,theycouldcareless.
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Inappropriatecommentsfromtheprivilegedpositionoffacultyinthe
universitysystemcanhavelastingnegativeimpacts.Anothercommentfroman
AmericanIndianfaculty:
IknowthatwhenIwasinschoolthereweresomestudentsthatreallyhadahardtimehere.AndonereallyhadahardtimewithprofessorswhowereprejudiceorderogatorytowardsIndians.AndtherewasoneincidentwheresheREALLYhadahardtime;shewasveryupsetonetimeinaclasswhereherprofessorsaidthatgonorrheacamefromIndians.Shewassoupsetthatshedidn’tgotoclassthenexttime‐‐‐andshecried‐‐‐
PSU’sadministrationisalsoawareofthevariousattitudestowarddiversity
ingeneral,andspecificallyAmericanIndianstudentsandthedivergentlevelsof
commitmenttotheircollegesuccess.Accordingtooneadministrator,“Theproblem
stillremainsthatwehavealotoffacultymemberswhojustdonotunderstandor
appreciateNativeAmericanstudentsortheirconcerns.”
OneUniversityVice‐Presidentputitthisway:
Wedon’thavealotofpeopleatPSUwhooutrightsaythingslike‐‐‐Idon’tthinktheyarebigots.Idon’tthinkwehavealotoffolkslikethat.Maybethey’remoresubtle,butthey’renotvocalaboutit.Wehavepeoplewhomaybecouldstepupanddomoreanddon’t.Youknow,we’vegotagrouptoworkon.Oneuniversityadministratorseesdiversityinall‐inclusive(global)terms:So,goingbacktothatglobaldefinitionofdiversity.Arewe,asauniversity,goingtosay;‘weneedtomovetowardrespectforalldifferences.’Wehavefacultywhoputdownstudentsofdifferentsexualpreference.WehavefacultywhomakenegativecommentsaboutHispanicstudentsandHispanicculture...Ithinkacampusthatmakesinappropriatecomments,makesstudentsfeelunwelcome.Nowwe’vetalkedaboutsomeofthat.Ithinkthat(pause)soalackofsensitivity.That’sabetterwaytosaythat‐‐‐alackofsensitivitytoourstudentsofcolor,obviouslyincludingNativeAmericans,sometimeswestilldon’tgetit.
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BarrierstoSupportServices ANativeAmericanupperclassmanrecallsherfeelingsofdiscomfortand
thoseofherfriendsandclassmatesaboutusingtheuniversitystudentsupport
servicesforacademicassistance:
AlotofNativestudentsarealwayskindofscaredtotellsomeonethatthey’renotdoingwell.Theydon’twanttogotoatutoringcenter,theydon’tlikegoingtothosecentersfortutoringhelpbecausetheyfeelliketheymightgetjudgediftheyaskforhelp.Iftheygotothetutoringcenterthey’regonnagointhinkingthatthepeopletherearegonnasay‘OhherecomessomedumbNativestudentwhoneedshelpwithclass.’SoalotofNativepeopledon’twanttoadmitthattheyneedhelpsotheydon’tgothere.Theydon’twannasaythat‘Idon’tknow...
Family
SomeNativestudentsmayexperienceeitherapulltowardthefamiliar
comfortofhomeoraculturalpushbackhomefromtheunfamiliarenvironmentof
themainstreamcommunity.Whetherthestudentfeelsapushorapullisdependent
uponcontext,thedegreetowhichastudentisimmersedintraditionalculture,the
strengthoffamilytiesandtheabilitytoreconcilethosetieswithculturalshockand
thetransitiontothecampusenvironment.Theconceptofaculturalpushbackhome
willbecoveredinmoredetaillaterinthesectiondealingwithculturalbarriers.
Asdiscussedabove,familysupportcanbeapowerfulfacilitatortoAmerican
Indiancollegepersistence.However,itmustbekeptinmindthatgeneralizations
cannotbemaderegardinganyfactorservingasafacilitatororabarrier.Indeed,
whereasforsomestudents,Nativeandnon‐Native,familyactsasafacilitator,
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conversely,forothers,familyfactorscanbebarrierstostudent’seducational
attainment.
FormanyAmericanIndianstudents,theimportanceoffamilyisanintegral
partoftheirculture.ThismaybeespeciallytruewhentheAmericanIndian
student’sfamilyisverymuchanchoredintraditionalNativecultureandis
suspiciousofthemainstreamuniversityasonewhosegoalistheassimilationof
theirNativestudent.Insuchacase,thefamilyactsasapullbackhome.Whetheror
notthestudentadoptsthisperspectivemaybelesssignificantthanthefamily
applyingpressuretothestudenttoreturnhomeoutoffearbasedinseeingthegoal
oftheuniversityasassimilationtomainstreamcultureandawayfromthe
traditionalworldviewbywhichthefamilybackhomestilllives.
ForsomeNativestudents,theirfamilyisadamantlyopposedtotheirstudent
attendingamainstreamuniversityawayfromhome.Suchcasescanbe
heartbreakingasdescribedbyaDirectorofStudentSupportServiceswhohasoften
seenstudents’hopesforacollegeeducationoverriddenbyfamilypressure:
There’safeelingonthepartofmanyoftheNativestudentsthatIdealwith,thatastheycomeinthedoor,theyareexpectingustobeanadversary.Thedaytheywalkinthedoor,theyareexpectinganadversarialrelationship.Itcouldpossiblybenotfromanythingofourdoing.Itcouldbefromanyoneofahundredthings.Itcouldbefromsomethingtheypickedupintheirhomeschools.Itcouldbeparental.I’vecertainlyhadNativekidsthatIhaveworkedwith,thatIhavecounseledinmyprogram,wherewe’vereallyhadtoworkonundoingalotoftheattitudesthatweregivenbytheirparents.AndI’mcertainlynotsayingthatwearetheallknowing,ortryingtodestroybeliefsystems,butwehavekidswhocomeinwhohaveessentiallybeen,eitherpurposefully,ornon‐purposefullybeeninstructedbytheirparentsthatCaucasianpeopleare‘againstyou’,thatthey’re‘workingagainstyou’andthattheyaregoingto‘keepyoufromsucceeding’,‘assimilateyourcultureout
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ofyou’.Someoftheseparentshaveactuallyputintheirkidsheadsthattheuniversityisoutto‘makeyouoneofthem.’I’veheardthatphrasebefore.Infact,I’vehadmorethanonestudentwhowouldbedoingverywell,academically,butaregettingcallsfromhomethataresaying;‘Youneedtocomehome.Youdon’tbelongthere.’Icanthinkspecificallyaboutoneyoungladythat,itjustbrokemyheart,wasaGatesscholarum‐‐‐waspursuingahealthcaredegree,incrediblybrightanddoingwellacademically,andjusthadsuchabrightfutureandsomeoneIwasluckyenoughtoworkwithindividually.Andthatwasoneofthoseconversationswehadjustabouteverytimewemeet.Which,attimes,wasonceaweek.Andthatwas;‘Ijustgotoffthephonewithmydad.Ijustgotoffthephonewithmymom.Shetoldmetogetmyasshome.’‘Idon’tbelongthere.Idon’tknowwhatyou’redoingthere.’‘Weneedyouhere.’Andmyfirstquestionwasalways;‘Whatdotheyneedyoutherefor?’‘Whydotheyneedyouthere?’Anditwasusuallyjustamatterof;‘Because,yournotbeingherebreaksupthefamilyunit.’Herparentsworkedonhersoconstantly.Andtheydid,theycompletelyunderminedit,anditwaslike2½semestersandshewasgone.Shewenthome.She’sneverbeenbacktoschool.
Ithinkthisispartofthatperceptionofsomepeopleonthereservations–thosewhopersuadetheirkidstodropoutandreturnhome‐‐‐theperceptionisthat‘thisisusandwearen’tgonnagoanywhere.’WhenNativestudentscomehere,theycarrythatlabel‐‐‐they’renotjuststudents,they’reNativestudents,andtheyknowthat.Andsoeverythingthattheydo,orareseentodohappensthroughthatlensorthatidentityasaNativestudent.Weneedtodoawaywiththatfilter.
Otherstudentsfindthesupportnormallyofferedbyfamilyinsubstitute
placeswhileattheuniversitybutstillfeelapullbackhome.Thispullmaybeoutof
responsibilityforhelpingwithvariousfamilyresponsibilitiesthatmayinclude
contributingtofamilysupportorcaringforyoungersiblings.Atraditionallyaged
femalestudentfromabordertownsharedherthoughts:
Ithinkpeopleareanasset.Youknow?Peoplethataretheretosupportyou,andpeoplethatencourageyouandsay‘youcandoit’.Because,sometimeswedon’tgetthatawayfromhome.Youneedtobeincollegebutsomefamiliesdon’tsupportthat.Theywantyouhometohelptakecareoftheiryoungeronesorsomething.
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Financial
FinancialResources
AmongallthoseIintervieweditappearsthatthemajorityofAmerican
Indianstudentsdonotcomefromabackgroundoffinancialwealth,or,inmany
cases,evenfinancialstability.Again,itmustbereiteratedthatsweeping
generalizationscannotbeappliedacrosstheboardregardingthePSUAmerican
Indianpopulationasawhole.HoweverwhenlookingspecificallyatPrairieState’s
Nativepopulation,itisrelevanttonotethatnoneoftheninereservationsinthe
statearewealthyascomparedtosomeofthewealthiestinthenationwithsmall
tribalenrollmentsandhugegamingprofits.
Faculty,staffandadministratorsareallwellawareoffinancialneedasa
significantbarriertocollegepersistence.Aprofessorcommented:
Andyouknow,anotherobviousobstacleisfinancial.Alotofthesestudentscomefrompovertyregions.Andtheydon’thavethefallbackfundsthatalotofnon‐Nativestudentshave.Theycan’tnecessarilycountonfamilyfinancialsupportwhencomingfromareaswhereunemploymentis60,70,80percent.Andthat’soneofthebigmythsaboutNativestudents‐‐‐‘thattheygetallthismoneytocometoschool’andthat’syetanotheruntruth‐racistassumptionatworst.So‐‐‐youknow‐‐‐finances‐‐‐gettinghereandstayinghere‐‐‐that’sabigpartofit.
Anadministratorofferedthisview:
Thetypicalstudentsthatcomeherehavebackupinavarietyofwaysthat’softenunrecognized.Moststudentscanaskafriend,afamilymember,aparentforextrafundingiftheyneedtosay‐‐‐suddenlymakeatriphome.ANativestudentoftendoesn’thavethatkindofbackup.Theirfamiliesdonothaveextramoney.
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BeyondthegenerallackoffinancialresourcesheldbyNativestudentsand
theirfamilies,somePSUsupportstaffIinterviewedpointedtothelackofmoney
managementskillsthatAmericanIndianstudentspossessupontheirarrivalas
incomingcollegestudents.Asaprimarysupportperson,theNativeAmerican
StudentAdvisorhasseenthisasasignificantissue:
OneofthebarriersthatIhaveseenthroughmypositionwiththestudentsisalackoffinancialunderstanding,financialpreparedness.Theyhaven’thadthekindofinstructionalbackgroundinfinancingtomanagetheiraffairs.Ithinktherewereacoupleofstudentsfromafewyearsagothatleftbecausetheygothookedintosomeofthequickloantypethingsorcreditcards.Iknowonegirlthatleftbecauseshetookasemesteroff,andsheleftingoodstandingwiththeschoolbutshewasjustdrowningincreditcarddebt.
TheDirectorofStudentSupportalsodealswiththemoneymanagement
challenge:
Sofewofthestudentscomeinwithamplefinancialbacking.Thesestudentscomefromsuchincrediblypoorbackgrounds,thatnotonlydotheynothaveanymoney,buttheyhavenoconceptofthemoney,ifthereissomedroppedintotheirhands.It’sjustanentireeducationthathastogoon.
PerhapsnooneIinterviewedismorequalifiedtocommentonfinancial
resourcesasabarriertocollegesuccessthantheDirectorofthePSUFinancialAid
Office:
Well,thebarrierswouldbefinancesintheoverallpicture.Lookingatitfrommyperspectiveisthattheyaretakingloans—theyarereluctanttotakeloansbecause,culturallyit’ssomethingthattheyhaven’thadexposureto.Andtofillouttheformsit’s‐‐‐it’snoteasyforthem.Sometimes,youhavetodoitforthesestudents;otherwiseit’snotgoingtogetdone.Andthenwheredoyoustopandsay;‘Well,eventually,you’regonnahavetodoityourself.’That’sthehardpartofit.Howdoyoutell—wheneachpersonisdifferent—doyoucontinuetokindadoitforthem?Ordoyouletthemmissout?
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Thereseemstobesomedifferenceofunderstandingamongsome
administrators,faculty,staffandstudentswithregardtoavailabilityoffinancialaid
intheformsofstudentloansandscholarshipsandgrantsforAmericanIndian
students.Onecampusadministratortoldmethattherearenotmanyscholarships
available.“Wehaven’ttalkedaboutitbutfundingisanissue.Thecost‐‐‐andwe
don’thaveverymanyscholarshipstoofferthem.SoIthinkcostisanissue,much
moreforthatpopulationthanwegiveitcreditfor.”
ANativeAmericanupperclassmanwasadamantaboutthelackoffundingfor
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU,“ThepurelackofscholarshipsforNativestudents
isaproblem.AmericanIndianStudiesonlyhasonescholarshipandit’sfor$500.00
forthefullyear.Ithinkthat’sridiculous.”
Thisstudentfurtherrecountshowherdealingswiththefinancialaidoffice
hasbeen,fromherperspective,lessthanrewarding:
FinancialaidisanightmareherebecausethereisnoonewhoiseitherwillingorabletohelpNativestudentswithallofthethingstheyneedtoknowbutdon’tevenknowthattheydon’tknoworneedtoknow...IwentintotheFinancialAidOfficeonetimeandIleftcrying.IcalledmymomrightafterwardsandIwasbawlingupsetbecauseIcouldn’tgotosummerschoolbecauseeverythinghadgottensoscrewedupandnoonetoldmeIhadtotake12creditstogetfinancialaid...AndthenIhadtore‐doallofmyfinancialaidandIhadtoverify‐‐‐Iwasjustcompletelyupset.IwalkedoutcryingIwasjustlike‘Ican’tbelievethis!’andhowitallsetmeback.ThenIplannedongraduatinginDecemberof2010‐‐‐andnowIcan’tbecauseIgetsetbackawholesemesterbecauseofthepeopleinFinancialAid...Sothisisthekindofthingthatmakespeoplefeelfrustrated.Becausenoone‐‐‐there’snot‐‐‐thereneedstobesomeonespecificjustforNativestudentsonthingslikefinancialaidandallthesethings.Someonewhocantellthemthethingsthattheyneedtodo‐‐‐insteadofgoingintothatoffice…
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Asafollowuptothesecomments,IaskedtheDirectorofFinancialAid
questionsspecificallyaboutfinancialaidtoAmericanIndianstudents.
Whilethereisculturalawarenesstrainingforfinancialaidstaff,accordingto
itsdirector,manyNativestudentsdonottakefulladvantageofitsservices:
Moststudentsdonottimelycompleteapplications,includingformsneededfortribalhighereducationawards.ThePSUNativeAmericanscholarshipsareawardedafterstudentscompleteascholarshipapplicationthatiseithermailedoremailedtothem.Thetribalgrantsvaryamongthevarioustribesdependingonavailabilityoffundsandwhetherthereisareservationbasedpostsecondaryschool.
Hecontinuedwithamoreindepthdiscussionofissuesfacedwhendealing
withsomeNativestudentsinaddressingfinancialneed:
ThefinancialawarenessismorelimitedforNativestudents,especiallytheFISandotherboardingschoolstudents.It’struethatsomeofthestudentswhoarefromtheFISorsomeotherboardingschoolarrangement,wheretheyhavethathighdegreeofoversight,orinothersituationswheretheyhavebeenusedtoahighlevelofstructure,donotdowellwiththeirmanagingoffinancesortheirdiningplanorwhateverthingstheymighthavetodooutsideoftheacademicclassroom.Thereservationstudentsalsohavemoredifficultyinfinancialawarenessinbudgetingtheirdiningplansandmoney.Culturalchange,financialchange,iftheyhavesomeresourcesandtheyjustdon’tbudgetwellascomparedtootherstudentswhomaybudgettothinkaboutwhathappensafterwards,theyareprobablytoogenerousinasenseofsharing,iftheyhaveamealplan,withsomebodyelse,orinafamilysituationwheretheymaybewillingtohelpsomeoneout.Andtheymaynotunderstandsomeofthethingsbecausetheyarenotusetohavingtopayforitemsormeals‐‐andtheymaynotchoosetherightamountsofthingsthattheybuy.
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Community
Localcommunity ThebestwaytounderstandwhatitislikecomingtoapredominantlyWhite
mainstreamcitylikeRailtown,PrairieState,fromareservationcommunityor
reservationbordertownisthroughtheexperiencesofthoseAmericanIndian
studentswhohavelivedthetransition.Itisthroughthesensesofthosestudents
thatwemaybegintogainaninsider’sperspectiveofcultureshockandadjustment
theyexperiencewhentheycometoPSU.
OneNativestudentcomparesthemovetoRailtowntothesafetyand
confidenceofthehomecommunity:
Cuzalotofthethingsthatneedtobeconsideredis;wheretheycomefrom.Whatkindofrelationshiptheyhadwiththeirfamily—theirrespectedelders—evenliketheirteachers,orsomeoneinauthority.So‐‐youknow—inthatenvironmentathome,ofcoursethere’sconfidence.Sowhentheygethere—youknow‐‐‐Where’sthatconfidencego?Whydoesitdropoff—rightthen?
AnotherNativestudentrecallstheexperienceofgrowingupinRailtownand
beingeducatedasaminoritystudentintheRailtownschoolsystem:
Wegottreatedlikecraphere.Wegotteasedallthetime.Wegotthepeyotejokes.Wegotallkindsofstuff.Youknow,weweretheonlyNativestudentsinourhighschool.Andgrowingupmeandmybrotherwereconstantlyteased.Wegotteasedbeyondbelief.Fromelementaryschoolup,wegotteased.Ididn’tevenwantMomtocomeonNativeAmericanDay,toourclass.Becausethatonlymadeitmoreobviousthatweweredifferent.LikeIjustfeltsoooo—Youwerejusttryingtofitin.Anditwasallthetimethatpeoplewouldjustknowthatyouaresomethingdifferentandtheywouldteaseyouandhurtyou.SoIjustdidn’twannabe—Ididn’twannabeIndian.Iwasso‐‐‐andthenmydadwasinourtextbooksinhighschool.Wewouldwatchvideosinourclassandthenmyunclewouldbeonit.Iwaslikeohhhhmorecraptoremindmethat‐‐‐youknow?Andso,Ididn’twannabeanIndian.
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Oneveteranprofessorcommented:
PSUisinaveryseriouscircumstance,inmyview,inthatitisbothgeographically,socially,andtoalargedegree,politicallyisolatedandourcurrentcompositionisoverwhelminglyWhite.Wearenotaverydiverseuniversity.Weareabout95percent—94percentWhite.
IfthelocalRailtowncommunityisperceivedasgenerallyuncomfortablefor
AmericanIndianstudents,howdoestheuniversitycommunityenvironmentcreate
afeelingofcohesivewelcomeorisolationfortheNativestudent?
Universitycommunity
Afaculty/administratorwhoisveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndianstudent
successspeakscandidlyaboutthecampusclimate:
Ithinkwehavesomesignificantissueshereintermsofthecampusclimate.Youknowwecancreateaveryprotective,loving,supportiveenvironmentforourstudents,thatnurturestheirsuccess,butthatdoesnotnecessarilyalwaysprotectthemfromtheslingsandarrowsthattheyfaceinthelargeruniversitycommunityortheRailtowncommunity.Thatprejudice,racism,discriminationareallverypainful,verydamagingtoidentity,verydamagingtosuccess,verydamagingtoone’sselfconfidence,selfesteem,senseofself.SoIthinkthat’ssomethingthat’sreallyabarrier.
AnAmericanIndianstudentcommentsonthefeelingofstandingoutas
differentinacrowdofuniformity:“Forme,itwouldallgobacktotheconfidence
andcomfort.HowcomfortableandconfidentisanyonesittingintheStudentUnion
likethedarkspotinthemiddleofapieceofpaper?”
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Astudentsupportstaffmemberspeaksthroughonevoicethethoughtsthat
wererepeatedthroughoutallofmyinterviewsregardingthelackofanyvisiblesign
thattheNativeAmericancultureisvaluedandcelebratedonthecampusofPSU:
Idon’tthinkwehaveanythingoncampuslikeaplaqueorastatueoranythinglikethatthatsignifiesthatthiswasIndianland,youknow?‐‐‐Anythinglikethat.ImeanthereisnoacknowledgementanywherethatthiswasonceYanktonSiouxland.It’snottaughtintheclassesandnoonehasaclue.Indianpeoplearenotevenreallyrecognizedletalonecelebrated.PSUcoulddosomuchtobringitselfuptodateandreallyembracethecultureofthepeoplewhowereherelongbeforetheuniversityorevenWhitepeople.NativestudentsandNativeculturecouldbe,shouldbeseenasaresourceforthisuniversity.
Arecentlyretiredadministratormirroredthesamethoughts:
Weneedtohaveacampusthatiswarmandwelcomingandhasthekindofdécorexhibitedthatletsthestudentsknowthattheircultureisrecognized,thatitiscelebrated,thatit’sunderstoodthatthelandthatthisinstitutionisonislandthatwascededbytheNativeAmericanpopulationatsomepointinthepast.ThatwearealandgrantinstitutionandthelandthatwasgrantedtofundthisinstitutionwasoriginallyNativeland.Sowedoneedtodothat.Wedon’thave,inmyopinion,anyexternaldécoronthiscampusthatwouldindicatethatnativecultureiscelebratedandappreciated.Andwedoneedtodothat.
Culture CultureShock Cultureshockcanmakeforatraumatictransitionforanyoneentering
college.Manyfaculty,staff,andadministratorsIinterviewedwerequicktomake
thispointregardinghowmostincomingfreshmenmustmakethisadjustment.For
manyAmericanIndianstudents,however,thisadjustmentiscompoundedbymany
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factors.NotonlymusttheNativestudentdealwiththeadjustmenttocollegelevel
work,andlivinginanewenvironmentamongstrangers,butformanyNative
studentsthesechallengesareismagnifiedthroughdifferencesinphysical
appearance,culturaltraditions,beliefs,andpracticesandthegeneraldisconnected
feelingonehasas‘notfittingin’.Thisisespeciallysignificantsincethemajorityof
AmericanIndianstudentsattendingPSUarefromPrairieStateorneighboring
states.Foranunderstandingofwhatitfeelsliketobeastrangerinone’sownhome
state,thebestvoicesarethoseofthestudentswhohavelivedtheexperience.Here,
twostudentvoicesspeakformany.
Atraditionallyagedmalefromaveryruralreservationcommunityrecalled
hisfirstexperienceatPSU:
SometimesIfeellikeIhavemoreincommonwiththeforeignstudentsthanIdowiththelocalWhitekids,whichshouldn’tbehappening.Somepeoplelookatuslikewe’resomesortofcartoonthing.Theythinkstereotypes,thescaryIndians.Ithinkthethingswetouchedonbefore,comingoffofthereservation,thecultureshockisabigpartofit.Myfreshmanyear,IhadnoideathattheNativeAmericanClubexisted.Ialsodidn’tknowthattheMulticulturalAffairsOfficeexisted...honestly,thatfirstyearandahalfwasthehardestformebecauseIfeltIwastheonlyNativeAmericanstudentoncampus.SoIhadtoadjustfrombeing‐‐‐tocomingfromthereservationtobeingmyownindividualselfinapredominantlyWhiteuniversity.Ihadtolearnhowtoliveintwoworlds.IntheWhiteworld—hereattheuniversityandthen—convertwhenIgobackhometobeingonthereservation.So—thatformewasachallenge.Ihadtolearnhowtobalancethat.OtherwiseifIdidn’t—aftermyfirstyear,Iprobablywouldhavequit.ButIsawthechallengeandIhadtoaddressit.ThankfullyIadaptedtoit.Sothatconnectiontothecommunityisanimportantthing.Otherwiseyoumightfeellikeyouarealoneontheoutsidelookingin.
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Anon‐traditionallyagedbutculturallytraditionalmalefromanother
reservationcommunityalsocommented:
Youknow,whenaNativeAmericancomesfromhome,uptoagreatbigschoollikethis,youtakehimoutofthatcomfortzone—andinstantaneously,whenthey’rejusttryingtoblendinthey’llfeeltoobuckytoevenasksomebodyfordirections—likewhereisthisbuildingorwheredoyoudothis?They’lljusttrytodoitallontheirown.CuzIdidthatso...
Somecampusadministratorsareawareofthisdifficulttransitionforthe
Nativestudent:
Thefactthatyou’rebringingsomebodyhowmanyhundredsofmilesawayfromhomeandoffthereservation,whichhasbeenhome,andthat’stheircomfortlevel,andyou’rebringingthemtothisplace,which,youandIthinkisjustfine,butthisisahugeplacetosomebodycomingfromaPineRidgeorRosebudorwherever.SoIthinktherearesomerealculturalissuestoo.And,they’recomingtoapredominantlyWhitefaculty,whodon’tnecessarilyunderstandtheircultureortheirbackground—sotherearemorebarriersthere.
CulturalPushBackHome
Thisdynamicmaybeatworkforthestudentwhoisstronglyanchoredinthe
Nativeculturebutseestheuniversityenvironmentasathreattothatculturalwayof
life.Inthiscase,theuniversityenvironmentcreatesapushtowardthesafetyand
comfortofhomeandfamilyasarefugefromtheperceivedthreat.Ineverycase,
contextisanimportantconsideration.SomeNativestudentsmayhaveadifficult
timeadjustingtolifeatPSUforavarietyofreasons,whetherconcerningcultural
differencesornot,theescapefromwhichcanleadtoseekingcomfortathomewith
thefamilyoneisusedto.
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Studentswhoarelessassimilatedtothemainstreamculturewillexperience
morecultureshockuponarrivalatcollegeandwillbemorelikelytodropoutand
returnhomewithoutsomesupportorservicesdesignedtofacilitatethetransition
fromthefamiliar,moretraditionalenvironmenttothemainstreamcollege
environment.
TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorrecallsaverytraditionalstudentfor
whomthemainstreamcultureofthecampusenvironmentwasnotacomfortablefit:
Ihadthatverysamediscussionwithayoungmanlastyear.Hecameinveryquick.Hesawnoconnectionbetweenwhathewasdoinghereandwhathegrewupdoing,culturally.Andhisdesirewastobemoreofaleaderinthatcommunity.Tobemoreofa–ah‐‐,prettymuchhewasonaspiritualjourney‐‐‐tobealeaderamonghispeople‐‐culturalleader,aspiritualleader‐‐‐andhejusthadnoconnectionwithwhathewasdoinghere....Ithinkpartofittoowasculturalinsensitivity,becauseonedaywhenhecamein‐‐‐hehadreallylonghairandhehadcut‐‐‐oh,I’msure,10inchesoff.And,youknow,foryouandI,weunderstandthat’sasign,that’stellingusthathe’sgoingthroughsomething.Something’shappened,therewasareason.Itwasn’tforthelook.Itwasn’tastyledecision.Atthetime,thereweresomeotherstaffmembershereandtheywerelike“Ohmygosh!Why’dyoucutyourhair?Ican’tbelieveyoudidthat!”Youknow,therewasnoconsiderationof‐‐‐Hejustkepttryingtoshrugitoff.Andatthesametime,Iknowthatmadehimveryuncomfortable.Icouldseeitinhisface.Icouldseeitinhisposture.Andthatmademeconsiderthedifference,theculturaldifferenceofbecomingaman‐‐‐ofgrowingupinaman’scultureandthisculture.Andallofasuddenyouareinaplacewherewomenareprofessors,orwomenarestaffthatdirectwhatyoudo.Youknowthosearetwothingsthatareindirectcontrastofwhattodo.AndsoIthinkthatwasapartofhisstruggleof;‘whatdoIdowiththat?’‘HowdoIhandleit?’Ultimately,hedidleave.Hejusthadadifficulttimecomingtothatbalance.AndIdo,Iunderstandthattoo.There’salotoftimeswhereIfacesituationswhere,youknow,okay,I’mhereandtheydon’tunderstandwhat’shappeningsoIkindofgowithit.Butatthesametime,Ireallyidentifywithwhathewasstrugglingwithandhejustsawnoconnectionbetweenbeinginschoolhereandwhathereallydesired,inhisheart,tobeathomewithhispeople.
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Lackoftraditionalcultureopportunity Priorresearchindicatesthatthemaintenanceofculturalidentityand
traditionswasfoundtobeinstrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthe
postsecondarylevel.ThevastmajorityofNativestudentsIinterviewedcitedthe
lackofsuchopportunitiesasamajordrawbacktolifeatPSU.Oneveteranprofessor
citedtheimportanceforopportunitiesforthepracticeofculturaltraditions:
Inthiscommunitywehave—Idon’tknowhowmanychurches.Itseemsthere’sachurcharoundeverycorner.WehavefourorfiveLutheranchurches...wehaveaCatholicchurchofcourse,andBaptistchurchesandsoon,justalotofchurches.WehaveamosqueforIslamicah‐Muslimstudents.WedonothaveanyfacilitiesforNativestudents.AsweatlodgeissomethingthataNativeAmericanCentercouldprovide,butwedon’thavethat.Studentswhoarefeelingaspiritualneedandarenativereallyhavetoogobacktothereservation.SothatisanotherareainwhichIthinkthereisabarriertostudentsbeingcomfortablehere.Unlesstheyhaveasetoffriendsandcolleagueswhoaresupportiveofthatparticularneed,theyaregoingtofeelveryaloneandisolatedhere.
Onceagain,thestudents’ownvoicesgiveusthebestideaofwhatitislikefor
themtoseetheirculturediscountedorignored.Amalestudentfromareservation
townspokewithdiscernablefrustrationaboutheseesNativestudentsreceivedat
PSU:
Yeah,IjustthinkPSUgenerallydoesn’t—Imeanifyoubreakitdownandreallyanalyzeitlikewehaverightnow—theyreallydon’tembraceNativeAmericansatall.Consideringthelocation—we’reinthenorthernplains.AndsinceI’vebeenatPSUI’vehadpeoplewho’vesaid‘WellwhatdotheNativeAmericansdo?”‘Welltheyhaveabigpowwowinthespring.’Andthat’sasfarasitgoes.Anditstops.TheonlywayNativeAmericanstudentsherearegoingtobeabletoembracetheircultureoutsideofthatoneweekendisiftheygotoaNativeAmericanClubmeetingandmeetotherNativeAmericanswhoarefromPrairieStateandthenmaybegohomewiththemovertheweekend.Ouruniversitydoesnotprovideanyoutletforculturalthingswhatsoever.None.SoImean—youcanalmosttellthatbylookingattheoutside—
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Imean—samething.Dowehaveourownfacilityforus?No.Dowehave‐‐‐wedon’tevenhaveamajor.Thosearetwobigflagsrighttherethatalotofotheruniversitiesdohave.WhichIjustthink,inmyopinion,makesPSUlooklikecrap.Imeanreally.Imeanwe’rethebiggestuniversityinthestate—butyetwehavethesecoupleofmajorindicationsthattheycompletelyshunus.
ThisstudentvoicedthefeelingsofmanyNativestudentsIspokewithabout
howtheyfeelshunnedanddiscountedbythemainstreamcommunitybothatPSU
andRailtowningeneral.
DominantCultureReferenceGroup
TheAmericanIndianstudentthatcomestoPSUmayquicklyfindoneself
feelingaloneinaforeignenvironment.Asdiscussedabove,theimportanceofa
supportivecommunityformedofpeersissignificant.Withoutareferencegroupof
peerstoprovidethecomfortandsecuritythatoneleftbehindwithfamilyand
friends,thestudentisleftsurroundedbyadominant,mainstreamsocietyinwhich
onemayfeel,asoneNativestudentdescribed,“likeadarkspeckonapieceof
paper.”ThisdominantgroupthenservesastheNativestudent’sreferencegroup.It
isincomparisontothisgroupthattheNativestudentwillmakeself‐appraisalsof
one’sfitintothePSUandlocalRailtownenvironment.
Theunderlyingsourceofthefeelingofisolationthaterodesself‐confidence
isalackofculturalunderstandingamongthedominantsociety.Studentsrepeatedly
commentedthattheyhavelearnedfromnon‐Indianclassmatesthatmanymembers
ofthemainstreamhavenevermetanyNativeAmericansandknownothingofwhat
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lifemaybelikeformanystudentscomingfromreservations,reservationborder
towns,orevenaNativesubculturewithinlargercities.
Thedominantmainstreamsocietyservesasareferencegroupagainstwhich
theNativestudentcomparesoneselfinattemptingtofindwaystofitintothelocal
communityandtheoverwhelminglyWhitecampusenvironment.Allofthestudents
Iinterviewedcitedthisculturaldiscontinuityasabarriertocollegesuccess.The
followingsectionsdetailsomeofthechallengesNativestudentsfaceinmaking
adjustmentstofitintoorliveamongthedominantgroup.
CulturalConflict:Culturalawarenessanddiversityexperiencelacking
TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorisinapositiontowitnesstheeffectsof
thisculturaldisconnectonaregularbasis:
OneofthethingsInoticedwasthatalotofthestudentscomefromsituations,which‐‐‐theWhitesociety‐‐‐ormainstreamAmericaviewsdifferently.Soif‘achildcomesfromabrokenhome’,thenrightaway,themajorityofAmericanswouldsay,‘okay,theparentsaredivorcedandthechildisdecidingwhichparenttolivewith’.ForalotofthestudentsIdealtwith,itwasn’tthatway.Alotoftimes,Dadwasneverinthepicturetobeginwith.AndtheywerecompetingwithMomtostayatAunties’houseortostayatGrandma’shouse.Itwasn’t‘Momisgonnatakecareofme’,itwas‘I’mcompetingwithMomforspace’.Sotosayinreports‐‐‐ifit’sonpaperthattheycamefromabrokenhome‐‐‐youknow,whoeverisgoingtoseethatreportisgoingtoseeitoneway,buttherealitymaybetotallydifferent.
Itmustbeacknowledgedthatnoteveryculturalmisunderstandingisonthe
partofthenon‐NativedirectedtotheNativeAmerican.Therealityisthatmany
NativeAmericanslackexperiencewithdiversityjustasdomanyWhites.One
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studentwhoattendedmainstreamandreservationhighschoolsrecallsbeingwith
someNativestudentsthefirsttimetheywereeveroffthereservation:
Thebigdifferenceiscultural.Likehowyouarebroughtup.ManyIndiankidsdon’tevenevergetoffthereservation.IknowIwenttomysenioryearat(TribalHighSchool),andforourseniortrip,halfthekidshadn’tevenbeenoffthereservation,andwewenttoMinneapolis.AndwewenttoValleyFair,andwewenttotheMallofAmericaandtheywerejustamazedbecausenoneofthemhaveevenbeenofftherez,letalonebeeninawholeplacethatwaspredominantlyWhitesociety.AndIthinkthat’sscaryforthem.Youknow,soitdoesn’thavetodowith‐‐‐everyonedoesgethomesickforotherkids,whethertheyareBlack,White,whatevertheyare.Weallagreeonthat.ButIthinkthat—justculturally,wearesodifferent—
TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorrecallsastudentwhowasunableto
reconcilehisownsenseofselfwiththedominantreferencegroupinwhichhewas
embeddedatPSU:
Ithinksometimes,asNatives,wetendtothinkourexperienceisunique.Andmaybeit’sjustaculturaldifferenceofhowwegoaboutexpressingourpersonalspiritualbeliefsorourculturalbeliefs.Noteveryonewearsitontheirsleevessoitisn’ttransparent.Ifwelookonlyamongstourpeers,it’seasytosee.Butisitsoeasyforotherslookingintoourpeers.Solike,forasNativeswemaybeabletorecognizeotherswhoSunDanceandwhosweatandpracticetraditionalnativereligion.AsNatives,wecanquicklyassessthatjustthroughconversation,throughmannerisms,throughbehaviors.Buttootherculturalgroups,cantheyidentifythatwithinus?Theymightreadthosethingsdifferently.SotheNativeswithinthatgroupmightthink‘yeah,thisissomethinguniquetous.’Butyetinanotherculturalsense,theymightbeabletoidentifyeachotherbysomeotherconnectingforce.Ithinkit’samatterofbeingopentoseethateachgroupisabletohavethesamekindofexperiencesbutjustmaybeinslightlydifferentvariations.
Afinalexampleofculturalconflictstemmingfromalackofexperienceor
understandingoccurredwhentheNativeAmericanClubparticipatedinthe2009
HoboDayParade.AgroupofNativestudentsrecallsthereactionsofsomeofthe
mainstreamcrowdliningthestreetsastheNativeAmericanClubfloatpassedby:
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Theparade‐Idon’tknow—didanyofyoufeellike‐youwereondisplay?Itgotquietlikeeverytimewecame.Yeahitwouldeitherbelikedeadsilent,orpeoplewouldbecheering.I’mlike‘whatareyoucheeringfor?’WellIthinktheywereapplauding.Andthenlikeherewecomeandwegetcloserandwegetcloserandthenwhenwe’dgetthereitwouldbelike‐‐‐silence.Itneverusedtobelikethatthough.Itusedtobewaybadyearsago.Like,myfirstyearthatIwasintheparade.Likethere’dbeguysthrowin’beercansatus—or—ummlikedoingthosewarwhoopsorlikejumponthestreetandstartdancingaroundorwhatever.Andyou’dhearpeoplehollering“F’nprairieniggers!”andstufflikethat.Itwasbad‐‐Justrealbad.NobodyhereknowsanythingaboutIndians.NobodycarestoknowanythingaboutIndians.
ToofewNativeAmericanfaculty/staff Alladministrators,faculty,staff,andstudentsIintervieweduniversally
agreedthatPSUwouldbenefitfrommoreAmericanIndianeducators.
FromtheperspectiveofauniversityVicePresident,“Ithinkthatoneofthe
issueswehaveisthatweareveryleanstaffing.Andthat’sanissueforus.Weneed
morepeopletoworkwithminorityandNativeAmericanstudentsandwedon’t
havealot.”
Arepresentativefromtheuniversityofferedthisperspective:
Ithinktherereallyneedstobeastrongpush,astrongerpushtosay‘weneedmoreminorityfacultyandstaff....It’snotapriorityoftheadministration,oroftheadministrativeleadership....Someofthepositionsaren’tfilled...Ihaven’theardofanypush,outsideofthepositionsthatwereopenhere,tohireanymoreminorityfacultymembersorstaffmembers.Idon’tthinkthattheuniversityhassaidthat‘weneedtomakethiscommitment.’
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FromtheNativestudentviewpoint:“Onethingthat’swrongisthattheydon’t
reallyhaveanyNativefacultyreally.SoIthinknothavingNativestaffaroundisa
realshortcoming.”
AnAmericanIndianfemalegraduatestudentdescribesthefrustrationthat
manyNativestudentsexperiencefromhavingtheirownculture,includingreligion,
taughttothembyanon‐Indianinstructor,fromaEuro‐centricacademic
perspective:
It’dbenicetohaveanacademicIndianpointofview—like‘okay,theysaythis—butasaculture,webelievethis—youknow?—AndtotellthattoWhitepeople,becausetheybelievewhatevertheteacherisdirectingtowardsthemwhenwe’re‐‐‐‐wellyouknow—Imeaninthatclass—onethingIwasmadaboutwashowtheyjusttriedtotakeouridentityawaybysayingwewerelikeSiberianorChinese‐‐‐andI’mlikeWHAT???YouknowwhatImean?...IthinkweneedmoreNativeprofessors.Likehowmanyarethere?Aretheretwo?...CauselikeIknowthatthestudentsIworkwith—theywentintoaNativereligionsclassandtheywerelikecompletelytakenabackbecauseit’ssomeWhitedudeteachingitand—hedoesn’tknowwhathe’steaching.Andsothosegirlswerelike‘HowaretheygonnahaveaWhiteguyteachusaboutreligion?’—LikeourNativereligion?
Anon‐traditionallyagedmalegraduatestudentshareshisreactiontoanon‐
Indianprofessorteachingaboutthemostsacredofrituals:
Ithinkthatforthoseinstructorstherearesomeculturalsensitivitiesthattheyjustoverlook...Youknow—brieflyflyingoveradescriptionofaSunDance.‐‐‐And,forme,inmymind—somethinglikethat—that’sapartofourcultureyes.Andit’s—theirpurposeistoteach‐‐‐butthat’snotanythingtobe‐‐‐‐spokeofalot‐‐‐especiallyataschoolsettinglikethat.But,whatI’mgettingatisthatsensitivityis‐‐‐thewayshedescribedcertainthingsataSunDance—andthecertaintimeofyear.‐‐‐Shedidn’tgivethat.Shedidn’tgivethosedescriptions,orreasons,oranything.Itwasjustapoleinthemiddleanditwasdoneonceayear.So—itwasjustverybroadandgeneral.Tosomebodyontheoutsidethatdoesn’tunderstandit—that’senough,that’salltheyneedfortheirinstruction.Butforsomebodythatgoesthroughitand–
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it’sapartoftheirlife,that’swholedifferentthing.That’sbeingveryinsensitive.
ItwasuniversallyagreeduponbyeveryoneIinterviewedthatPSUshould
makeitaprioritytorecruitandretainmoreNativeAmericanfaculty,staffand
administrators.
PlaceHardFeelingsatOMA EarlyoninthefirstofthreefocusgroupsIconductedwithAmericanIndian
studentsitbecameclearthattherewasadiscernabletensionwhenthetopicofthe
OfficeofMulticulturalAffairs(OMA)wasthefocusofconversation.Somestudents
inthefirstgroupreadilypointedtothewaysinwhichtheOMAwasseenasa
facilitatortocollegesuccess.Asdiscussedabove,thataspectseenasafacilitatorhad
todowiththeOMAservingasaplaceforcongregationasaNativecommunity,the
onlysuchplaceoncampustoservethatpurpose.Beyondthatpoint,wasamuch
moresignificantdynamicatwork.Ipursuedthispointinthefirstgroup.In
subsequentfocusgroupsthetopicof‘Place’becamethefirstandmostsalienttothe
NativeAmericanstudents.
AmongalloftheAmericanIndianstudentsIinterviewed,theconsensuswas
bestsummedupbyonestudentwhosaid:“I’dratherbesomeplacewhereIknow
it’scomfortable—theatmosphereiscomfortable,wherewefeel,asstudents,thatwe
belongthere—youknow?”
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AnotherNativestudentcommentedontheissue:
Ikindofmisshangingoutdowntherewithallofusthatcomfortzonehasbeentakenfromusandwewantanewspot.Evenifit’sahouse—ifyoulookatUSD,they’vegotahouserightacrossfromcampus.Ifwecouldhavesomethinglikethat—youknow?Hey,wecouldhaveourmeetingsthere.Wecouldcookourmealsthere.Wecouldhaveoursocials—youknoweverythingthatyoucouldthinkof,wecoulddorightthere.
Thisentireconversationwasfilledwithanemotionaltonesignifyinghurt
feelings,anger,resentment,andafeelingoffrustrationandpowerlessness.Itisvery
apparentthatthePSUAmericanIndianstudentsdonotfeelcomfortableinthespace
thatwasdesignedtoaccommodatethemandallotherminoritystudents.
Collectively,theNativestudentsofPSUinterviewedforthisresearch
conveyedalevelofdiscomfortandfrustrationbornofthefeelingofbeing
marginalizedasagroup:
Idon’tknowifwe,asagroup,areheardhear—Imean‐‐‐doesanybodyhearourconcerns?Doesanybodycare?Ireallydon’tknow‐‐‐Ifwedidhaveavoice—youknow—consideringthatourgrouphasthebiggeststudentorganizedeventoncampus—andthenwhentheyputitinthenewspaper—weareputonthebackpage‐‐justalittleblurbhereandthere.Howstrongofavoiceisthat?Ourspace—whichwesharewithothergroups,allputtogetherandlabeledasdiversitygroupsisinthebasementandourbiggesteventisputonthebackpage.Whatdoesthatsayabouthowweareseenonthiscampus?
TheconceptofaNativeAmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforthePSU
AmericanIndianpopulationhasbeenconsideredatPSUforseveralyears.Both
sidesoftheargumentinthisdebateadmitthatitisapointofcontentionthathas
lingeredwithoutresolution.
Ahighrankinguniversityadministratorcomments:
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Oneofthethingsthatwe’vetalkedaboutistryingtohaveaphysicalstructureforminoritystudentsandparticularlyNativeAmericanstudents.There’sbeenalittlebitofdebateoncampusintermsofwhetheritshouldbeaMulticulturalCenterorwhetheritshouldbeaNativeAmericanCenter.Andtobehonest,we’vegottenalittlehunguponthatissue.Butthatisanotherissuehangingouttherethatwehavenotbeenabletoresolveyet.Anditneedstobe‐‐‐weneedtomoveforwardonthattoo.
TheideaofaNativeAmericanCenteralsohasfacultysupport.Oneveteran
Professorisparticularlyoutspokenonthesubject.AsisthecasewiththestudentsI
interviewed,thisprofessor’ssinglevoicerepresentsthepositionofmanypeopleI
spokewith:
Collegeisenoughofanadjustmentforallstudents,andthat’swhyanumberofstudentsdon’tcontinue—butforatleastsomeofourNativestudents,it’sagreateradjustment.It’slikecomingfromoneworldtoanother.Andsothatcanbeasignificantproblemandasignificantobstacle.Ithinkthatwe’redisadvantagedinthatwedon’thaveaNativeAmericanCenter,aNativeAmericanStudentCenter.Ithinkthatweneedmuchmorefacultyre‐educationinregardtoNativeAmericanhistoriesandculturessothattheyhaveabetterunderstandingofNativestudents,andarebetterabletoencouragethemandbesupportiveofthem.
FromtheexperiencedperspectiveofoneformerstudentandAmerican
Indianfacultymember,theissueofplacecomesdowntotheneedforaNative
AmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforNativestudentsratherthanasharedspace
withalldiversestudents:
IthinkthatitwouldgoodiftheyhadaNativeAmericanCenterwheretheycouldcongregateandfeellikeacommunity,ratherthanscatteredaroundthecampus.Um‐‐‐‐whenIwasastudent,IlookedforotherNativestudents—andthisisabigcampusandifyoulookaround,youdon’talwaysseethem.AndIthinkitwouldhelpthemfeelliketheybelonghere,thatthey’renotjustbeingusedasdiversitystatistics,thattheuniversitywouldreallyprovideaplaceforthem,letthemknowthattheyarevalued.Andyouknowtherearesomeprogramsthatthestudents‐‐‐youknowweshouldbeeducatingourstudentstobecomeleadersandIthinkiftheyhadaCenterandtheycouldfeedoffof
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eachotherandelevatetheirstatusandhelpthemtofeelbetteraboutthemselvesandincreasetheirculturalvalues.Youknow,alotoftimesstudentsdon’twanttostandoutandbenoticedalone‐‐‐butifyou’reasagroup‐‐‐thereiscomfortandconfidence.IthinkaCenterwouldhelpthembuildcommunity.
Anotherfaculty/administratoroffersherviewsontheimportanceofaNative
AmericanCultureCenterwherenonecurrentlyexists:
Firstofall,we’retheonlyschoolforhundredsofmilesaroundwithasignificantNativepopulationthatdoesn’thaveaNativeAmericanHouse.So‐‐‐youknow‐‐there’sahugegapinservicehereandwhatshouldbejustanaturalpartofwhatwedohere.Ifstudentsareconstantlystressedaboutsomethingorfeelingunderstress,understrain,thendothosestudentshavealloftheirenergytoreachtheirfullpotentialasscholars,ashumanbeings,aswhatever?Well,wecoulddothisforourstudentsinsuchasimplewayasprovidingahouse.Ifwecoulddothatandwipeawayagoodpartofthisuneasiness,thisstressfulness—ifthisiswhatthey’resayingtheyneedtohelpmaketheireducationmorecomplete,thenIjustthinkit’sano‐brainerthatwereallyhavetohavethathere.SoImeanthehousewouldprovidethat.
Anadministratorwithpreviousinvolvementintheareaofuniversity
diversityenhancementhasbeenalongtimeproponentofaNativeAmericanCenter.
“Ithinkthestateshouldmakeitarequirementthateveryuniversityshouldhavea
NativeAmericanCulturalCenter.Ithinkthatshouldbejustagiven.”
SupportfortheNativeAmericanCulturalCenterisnotunanimous.Some
believethereisnota‘criticalmass’ofNativeAmericanstudentstojustifyaCenter,
andassuchtheissuesimplyboilsdowntonumbersandthebestwaytoallocate
resourcessuchthatthegreatestnumberofminoritystudentsbenefitfromalimited
poolofresources.
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Oneuniversityadministratorvoicedconcern:
TheNativeAmericanCulturalCenter,Istrugglewith.Whenwelookedatoneseveralyearsago,theresearchdonewithourstudentsatthatpointreallypointedtowardamulticulturalcenter,‐‐where,aswetalkedaboutearlier,wecouldbuildsynergybecausewedon’thavecriticalmass.Whenwedidtheresearch,campusesencouragedustocreateamulticulturalcenter,andtobuildoffofthat.AndatonepointwehadtalkedaboutaMulticulturalCenterandaswegrew,youcouldhavewingsforthedifferentgroupsbutstillhaveacenter,andthecenter‐‐‐um—andweseemtohavegoneawayfromthat.And‐‐andifwe’rereadytodothatandthereisalotofcampussupport,maybeweneedtodothat,Idon’tknow.Idon’tknowhowyougetyourarmsaroundthat.I’mstilltryingtogetmyarmsaroundthat.
CommentsofNativestudentsandothersinvolvedintribalstudent
programmingandstudentsupportsuggestthatthetimehascomefortheinstitution
tobuildoffitscurrentmulticulturalconceptandtogetitscollectivearmsaround
theconceptofaNativeAmericanCulturalCenter.Themainpointtobemade
regardingaplaceforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUandhowthatbecomesa
barriertocollegesuccessissimplythatnosuchplacecurrentlyexists.
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CHAPTEREIGHT
Discussion
Inthischapter,Iwillturnmyattentiontoadiscussionoftheimplicationsof
findingsasoutlinedinchapterssixandseven.Inordertoprovidethemost
comprehensivepossiblecoverage,Iwillincludethevoicesofthosewhohave
offeredtheiropinions,oftenpassionately,intheformoftheirownnormative
statements,andwillintegratethesevoiceswithsignificantrelatedfindingsfromthe
literature.
Overthecourseofconductinginterviewsforthisresearch,thereemergeda
categoryofdatathatIhavelabeled‘NormativeStatements’.NormativeStatements
isacategoryofemergentthemesthatincludes‘shouldsandoughts’aswellas
opinions,demands,andspecific,subjectiveviewpointsrelatingtotheAmerican
Indiancollegeexperience.
Withoutexception,thoseinterviewedwerequicktooffertheirviewpointson
everyaspectofthetopicofAmericanIndianacademicsuccessatPSU.Whilethese
statementsdonotfitneatlyintocategoriesaseitherfacilitatorsorbarriers,theyare
ofsignificantimportanceincreatingadetailedpicturefromtheperspectiveofthose
participantsinterestedinacademicattainmentforNativestudentsatPSU.The
omissionoftheseviewpointswouldcreateaseriousgapinrepresentationofthe
currentreality.
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AsoutlinedinCHAPTERSIX,amongthosefactorsthatactasfacilitators,of
foremostsignificanceappeartobetheover‐archingthemeofsupport.Contained
withinthesupportthemeareseveralmorespecificareas,orissuesencounteredby
Nativestudentswhereinsupport,orlackthereofisthenumberoneconsiderationin
collegesuccess.Withoutsupport,thecollegecareerofaNativeAmericanstudentat
PSUmaybeshortlived.
Facilitators
SupportiveFamily Familysupportandencouragementplayanimportantroleinstudent
retentionandacademicsuccessincollege(Wilson1983;Rindone1988;Huffman,
SillandBrokenleg1986;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994).Theeducationleveland
occupationofparentsarefoundtobeimportantpredictorsofstudentsuccessin
college(Brown1993).
Amongfacultyandadministratorsinterviewed,therewasuniversal
agreementthatfamilysupportplaysanimportantroleincollegesuccessfor
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.TheDirectorofoneNativestudentsupport
programcommentedonhowPSUcouldimprovethelevelofservicetostudentsasa
waytocompensateforthelossofsupportprovidedbythefamilywhenthestudent
isawayfromhome:
IthinktheimplicationsoftheimportanceoffamilysupportarethatweneedtoincorporatefamilymuchmoreinourworkwithAmericanIndianstudents.Ithinkanareathatwecanreallygrowalotinisbringinginfamilybecause
154
weknowthatthatisahugely—again—nottoovergeneralizebutformanyofourstudentsit’sahugelyimportantpartofwhotheyare.
Familymembersoftenprovidelogisticalaswellasemotionalsupport.Thisis
especiallytrueforsingleparentswhorelyonfamilyforhelpwithcaringforyoung
childrenwhileparentsareinschoolorworking,oftenatmorethanonejobwhile
alsotakingafullcreditload.ManyPSUNativestudentscitefamilyasamajorsource
ofsupport.Familymembersprovideemotional,motivationalandlogisticsupport
forstudentswhooftenfeeloutoftheirelementonamainstreamuniversitycampus.
RegardingtheimportanceoffamilysupportcitedbyNativestudentsatPSU
andpreviousresearch,fromotheruniversities,supportingthesamefindings,
indicationsarethatAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUwouldbenefitfroman
enhancedinstitutionalfocusonprovidingsupportbasedonfamilycenteredmodels
inplaceatothertribalandmainstreaminstitutions,inadditiontocultural,financial,
andacademicneeds.Familybasedprogramsmodeledafterpriorresearchwillbe
discussedintheBarrierssectionbelow.Relevanttothecurrentdiscussionisthefact
thatrecognition,bycampusadministrators,oftheimportanceofincorporating
familyintothetotalsupportpackagefortheNativePSUstudent,isinandofitself,a
potentialfacilitator.
SupportiveFriends Afterfamilysupport,anetworkoffriendswascommonlycitedasan
importantsourceofsupport.Administrators,faculty,staff,andstudentsallpointed
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totheformationofsupportiverelationshipsasofprimaryimportancetostudent
success.TherewasalmostuniversalagreementamongPSUfaculty,staffand
administratorsontheimportanceofaNativecommunityandpeerreferencegroup.
Theserelationshipsarenotnecessarilyrestrictedtofriendshipsorfamily,butalso
includementorshipbyfacultyandstaffinandaroundthecampusenvironment.
CampusclimatewasmentionedasanimportantfactorintheabilityofNative
studentstocometogetherinacommunityofpeersthatwouldofferthecomfortand
supportoftencitedasofprimaryimportancetopersistenceandacademicsuccess
forAmericanIndianstudents.Oneelementofthatclimateoftenmentionedwasa
placeforNativestudentstocometogetherasacommunityofpeersinsupportof
eachother.
ThetopicofsuchaplaceforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUwillbe
discussedinfurtherdetailinChapterNine.Relevanttothecurrentdiscussionisthe
needforsuchaplaceatPSUwherenonecurrentlyexistedatthetimeIconducted
interviews.Giventhesignificanceofasupportivenetworkoffriendsascited
unanimouslybyparticipantsinthisresearch,itcouldbeconcludedthatofutmost
importancefortheformationofsuchasupportgroup,isaplaceforthatcommunity
toexistsafelyandcomfortably.Beginninginthefallof2010,thenewlyformed
AmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenterwilloffersuchaplace.
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SupportiveFaculty
Inpriorresearch,NativestudentsinAlaskareportedaccessibility,
approachability,genuinenessandcaringbycollegeoruniversityfacultyas
necessaryforlearningsuccess(Wilson1997).AmericanIndianstudentsatPSUalso
pointedtotheimportanceofsupportivefacultymembersincontributingtocollege
success.
OneofthemostimportantfacilitatorsIfoundatPSUfortheeducational
successforAmericanIndianstudentsistheexistenceofacoregroupofpeoplewho
areproventobeextremelydedicatedandeternallycommittedtofosteringa
positiveacademicexperienceforNativestudentsatPSU.Itiswidelyagreedthatthis
coregroupoffacultyandstaffaredeeplycommittedtothefosteringofapositive
educationalexperienceforthisuniversity’sNativestudents.
ThestudentsIspoketorecognizethepresenceofthisgroupandare
appreciativeofallthatthesepeopledo.Throughoutmyinterviewsconcernwas
repeatedlymentionedforthetimewhenthesesupporterswillbegintoretire.
Students,administratorsandfacultyhaveallpointedtotheneedtobringinnew
faculty,staffandadministrationthatwillcarryonthistraditionofsupport.
Themembersofthiscoregrouphavebeenthepillarsofsupporttothe
AmericanIndianstudentatPSUformanyyearsandremainsotothepresentday.
However,asmentionedbymany,ifnewpeoplewithasimilarcommitmenttoNative
studentsuccessarenotbroughtintotheuniversityasothersretire,thesupport
thesepeopleprovidewillmostassuredlybemissed.
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SupportiveAdministration WithoutuniversityadministratorssensitivetoissuesparticulartoAmerican
IndianstudentsandinterestedinprovidingaqualitycollegeexperienceatPSU,
chancesforNativestudentsuccesswouldbelimited.IndicationsarethatPlains
StateUniversitydoeshaveaverysupportiveadministrationdedicatedtocreatinga
universityenvironmentconducivetoacademicsuccessforitsNativeAmerican
studentpopulation.
InJanuaryof2007,theuniversitycameundernewleadershipwiththe
inaugurationoftheits19thPresident,analumnusofPSU.Duringthe20thAnnual
PSUWacipi(powwow)thePresidentannouncedthecomingofanewlyformed
AmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenteropeninginthefallof2010.
InJulyof2009,PSUappointedanewProvostandVicePresidentfor
AcademicAffairs.DuringmyinterviewwiththeProvostshediscussedtheforward
movingvisionsheholdsforsupportofNativestudentsincludinganenhanced
curriculumintheformofamajorfieldofstudyinAmericanIndianStudies.
Bothoftheseuniversityleadershavedemonstratedacommitmentto
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSUbothinthepresentandthroughavisionforthe
futurethatwillleadtothattopdowninstitutionalchangementionedbyseveralof
thoseIinterviewed.
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UniversityCommunitySupport OfsignificancetoNativestudentsonthePSUcampusistheexperienceofone
oftheirpeers,afirstyeargraduatestudentwhowasa2009graduateofDartmouth
College.DartmouthiswellknownforitsAmericanIndianStudiesprogramand
NativeAmericanHouse(GarrodandLarimore1997),andmightserveasamodelof
successforPSU.Thatstudentdescribesherexperience,“Inmyundergrad
experienceweweregreetedrightawaybytheNativecommunity...thatconnection
tothecommunityisanimportantthing.Otherwise,everyday,youfeellikeyouare
aloneontheoutsidelookingin.”
TheimportanceofsupportfortheAmericanIndianstudentcannotbe
overstated.Itmustalsoberecognizedthatsupportisalreadyinplaceinmany
instancesandthatbymodelingthesuccessesatplacessuchasDartmouth,PSUcan
moveingreatstridestowardanenhancedsystemofsupportiveelements
throughoutawiderangeofservicesandfacilities,andpersonnel.
NativeAmericanfaculty/staff Onesignificantmovetowardanenhancedenvironmentofsupportisinthe
hiringofadditionalAmericanIndianFaculty.Thisadditionnearlydoubledthe
numberofAmericanIndiansworkinginfacultyorstaffpositionsbringingthetotal
numbertofive.
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In2009,PSUappointedanAmericanIndianfacultytothepositionof
CoordinatorofAmericanIndianStudies.Heiscurrentlyworkingonthe
developmentofanAmericanIndianStudiesmajor.
AlsoofsignificantvaluetoPSUistheadditiontotheathleticsdepartmentof
oneofjustafewNativeAmericanwomentoplayandcoachDivision1athletics.
Together,thesevaluableadditionsbringwiththemimpressiveacademicaswellas
experientialcredentials.
ThroughoutmydatacollectionIbothobserved,andheardtestimonialsofthe
importantinfluencetheyhavehadontheNativestudentcommunityinproviding
valuablementoringsupportandleadershipwhileservingasthebestpossiblerole
models.
SupportServices Studentsupportservicesrespectfuloftheneedsandinterestsofculturally
diversestudentsareseenasanimportantfactorsleadingtosuccess(Barnhardt
1994).
AmongallthoseIinterviewedforthisresearch,itdidnotescapemy
attentionthatwhilemanyareextremelydevotedtoNativestudentsuccess,those
workingintheareaofstudentsupportserviceswereamongthemostoutwardly
passionateandvisiblymovedastheyspokeonthetopic.Toputitsuccinctly,these
peoplearefacilitatorstoNativestudentsuccessfirstandforemostintheir
understandingoftheroletheyplayandwhattheystrivetoaccomplish.
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If,assuggested,theoverarchingthemeinthefacilitationofacademicsuccess
forAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUisstudentsupport,thenthesestudentsupport
professionalsmustberecognizedasessential.Onceagain,itbecomesapparentthat
humanrelationshipsarethekeytocreatingasupportiveenvironmentforNative
studentsatPSU.
FinancialResources
Throughoutmyinterviews,regardlessofwhomIspokewith,Iwasstruckby
thefactthateveryoneknowsthedirectoroftheFinancialAidOfficeatPSU.Some
studentsaffectionatelyreferredtohimasDad,orasSantaClaus,saying,“Ifyouneed
somemoneytostayafloat,he’swhereyouturn.”Noonecouldspeaknegatively
aboutthismanandwhathehasdoneforallstudentsatPSUtofacilitatetheircollege
experience.AsIinterviewedhim,Iwascognizantofmyownexperiencewithhimas
agraduatestudentoverthelastseveralyearsanditwasclearaswespokethatheis
unwaveringlycommittedtofosteringeducationalattainmentforNativestudents
throughanyandallmeansathisdisposal.Duringthe20thAnnualPSUWacipiin
FebruaryIobservedhimvisitwithNativestudentsthroughouttheeveningandtake
agenuineinterestintheeventandthepeopleinattendance.Themanisinaword,a
“facilitator”.
Interestingly,whilesomeofthestudentsIinterviewedcomplainedaboutthe
perceivedlackoffinancialaidopportunitiesavailable,andtheFinancialAidOffice,
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ormoreaccurately,thepersonnelintheofficewithwhomfirstcontactismostoften
made,nonecomplainedaboutthedirectorofthatofficeorquestionedhislevelof
commitmentanddedicationtoeitherthemortheirfinancialneeds.Thisreaffirms
thenotionofthesignificanceofrelationshipsbetweenpeople.Perhapsthemost
significantfindinghereistheneedforimprovedlinesofcommunicationthrough
whichhealthyrelationshipscanbebuilt.Suchcommunicationwouldnecessarilybe
achievedthroughamutuallackofpreconceivednotionsleadingtocultural
discontinuity.
TraditionalCulture Themaintenanceofculturalidentityandtraditionswasfoundtobe
instrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthepostsecondarylevel(Huffman,
SillandBrokenleg1986).
Justasfamilysupportemergesasaprimaryfacilitatorforcollegesuccess,the
issueofcultureemergesasanintegralpartoftheAmericanIndianstudent’s
identity.Culture,familyandidentityareintertwinedandcanprovideastrong
buttressagainstthediscomfortthatcancomewiththeculturaldiscontinuityof
movementfromthereservationcommunitytothemainstreamuniversity.(Waxet
al.1964,Berry1969;Hertzburg1971;Oppelt1991;Tierney1992,2000;Carney
1999).HowthatculturalidentityisnurturedandexpressedthroughoutthePSU
experiencemayplayapivotalroleinthesuccessoftheNativestudent’scollege
career(Fordham1988;Feagin1996).
162
Oneofthecommonthemescitedasafacilitatorwastheopportunityforthe
NativestudentsatPSUtoexpressorparticipateintraditionalculturalactivities.In
orderforNativeAmericanstudentsatPSUtomakefulluseofthebenefitsderived
fromparticipationinculturalactivitiesasafacilitatortoacademicsuccess,there
needstobemoreopportunitiesforthepracticeofsuchactivities.Theprovisionof
thoseopportunitiesmaybeaccomplishedinlargepartinthenewlypromised,and
longawaitedAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter.Suchwasthe
experienceofaNativegraduatestudentassherecalledherundergraduateyearsat
Dartmouth:
Wehadahouseatmyundergradwhereyouactuallycouldlive.Thereweretwofloors.Thetopfloorhadthreebedsandthenthebottomfloorandthemiddlefloor.Andthestudentscouldlivethereifyouappliedtolivethere.Andlikeeverybodywantedtolivethereandeverybodywasalwaysthere.LikeIdon’tknowifitwasbecausewehadahugecommunity—Idon’tknowwhatitwasbut—everybodywasalwaysthere.Wewerelike—duringtheafternoonswewouldbeintheNAHallcrowdedonthecouchjusteatingtogetherandthenintheevenings,we’dbeinthediningroomattwobiglongtables.We’dbejuststudyingorlaughing.Andthentherewasabasementwherewe’dwatchmovies....ButthatwashowIkeptmyconnectionwithhome.Andtherewasadrumgroup‐‐‐wehadalotofguysfromtheSouthwest,soitwaskindofasoutherndrumgroup.They’dcomeinandtheywouldlikesingandthey’dbeintheNativeAmericanHouse—they’dbeinthebasementandthey’dsing.Anditfeltsogoodtohearthat…that’swhatwe’lldosometimes.Likepeoplewilljuststartplayinghanddrumsongsandwe’lljustsitthereandlistentoit.It’snicethough.
ItmakessensetoacknowledgethosefactorsalreadyinplaceatPSUthatact
asfacilitatorstoacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.Ithasbeen
demonstratedthattheuniversityhasmanyassetstoitscredit.Theseassetsarein
theshapeandformofpeoplededicatedtothesuccessofNativestudentsandthe
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programsthatthosepeopleadminister.Oneprofessorsaidthat‘bricksandmortar
canonlyallowforsomuch,andthatthemostimportantthingisrelationships
betweenpeople.’Ithasalsobeendemonstratedthatthemostvaluableofallassets
atPSUarethosepeoplededicatedtothesuccessofNativestudentsandthe
relationshipstheyfoster.
Theseassetsworkingasfacilitatorsmayserveasastartingpointfromwhich
tobuildandstrengthentheopportunitiesforNativeAmericancollegesuccess.
PerhapsifPSUbuildsonitsstrengths,theweaknesseswilltakecareofthemselves.I
willnowturnthefocustoadiscussionofbarrierstoacademicattainmentforNative
students.
Barriers
Inhis1999book,FirstPeoples:ADocumentarySurveyofAmericanIndian
History,CallowayprovidesatimelineforAmericanIndiansthatcanbeintertwined
withthehistoryofPlainsStateUniversity,asprovidedintheuniversity’sofficially
publishedBulletin(PlainsStateUniversityBulletinQuarterly,Volume99,Number2,
May2008).Together,thesehistoriescreateapictureofPrairieState’smainstream
educationalinstitutionandtheNativepeopleofPrairieState.WhilePSUhasgrown
andcontinuestogrowintoapremierresearchandteachinguniversity,there
remainsthirdworldlikeconditionsonmanyofthestatesreservations.Itisclear
thatthisisahistoryinwhichthedevelopmentofoneisnotinsynchwiththe
developmentoftheother.
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Thishistorybegsthequestions;howhasthemissionofPSUasan1862Land
GrantinstitutionbeenappliedtotheNativepeopleofthestate?Towhatextenthave
AmericanIndiansgainedaccesstohighereducationatPSU?And,wheredoes
responsibilitylieforthelevelofacademicattainmentreachedbyNativeAmericans,
bothhistoricallyandpresently?
Onceagain,cautionmustbetakenagainstbroad,sweepinggeneralizations.
Qualitativedatagatheredthroughoutthisresearchsuggestsawidevarietyoffactors
actingaseitherfacilitators,orbarriers,orbothdependingoncontextandthose
individualsandgroupsinvolved.Amongthosefactorsareindividualpersonal
characteristicssuchasdriveanddetermination,andstructuralcharacteristics
includingracismatvaryinglevels,availabilityoffacilitiesforNativestudentsand
culturaldiscontinuitybetweenNativestudentsandthemainstreamcommunity
(Berry1969;Kerbo1981;Wilson1983;Huffman,SillandBrokenleg1986;Rindone
1988;WrightandTierney1991;Tierney1992;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994;
Barnhardt1994;Carney1999;Huffman1999).
Togetherthesefactorsintertwineandoverlaptocreateacomplicatedmatrix
thatisdifficulttosortoutordisplaygraphicallyorevennarratively.Theone
constantisthattheonlyaccurateunderstandingofthiscomplexissuecanbegained
throughthevoicesdescribingtheworldviewsandexperiencesofallthoseinvolved,
whethertheybestudent,faculty,stafforadministrator.Fromthesevarious
standpoints,nounilateralresponsibilitycanbeassignedforsuchavagueconceptas
NativeAmericancollegesuccess,orlackthereof.Aswithallthingsinthesocial
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world,itisacombinationoffactorsinanygivencontextthatresultsinwhatwe
perceiveasrealityatanygivenmoment.Whatweperceiveasrealisaproductof
ourownsociallyconstructedreality.AsW.I.Thomasstated,“Ifmendefine
situationsasreal,theyarerealintheirconsequences”(ThomasandThomas,1928:
572).
Thisresearchrepresentsonlyasmallsliceintimeconsideringtheentire
historyofPSU,thecompletehistoryofAmericanIndianhighereducationtothe
presentday,andperhapsmostimportantly,thehistoryofcontactbetweenthe
indigenouspeopleofthiscontinentandallthosewhocamelater.Itmustbenoted
thatthecomplexityofallaspectsrelativetothisissuemustbekeptsalientinour
attemptstounderstand.Itisalsoimperativethatweunderstandandremainaware
thathowweassignmeaningtothecomponentpartsofthiscomplexissueis
dependentuponthevaluesweasindividualsholdthemostdear.
Historian,andeducatorHowardZinncautionsontheuseandapplicationof
historyinhis1990bookDeclarationsofIndependence:
Wecan...decideforourselves,basedonourownvalues,whichaccountsaremostimportantandmostuseful.Anyonereadinghistoryshouldunderstandfromthestartthatthereisnosuchthingasimpartialhistory.Allwrittenhistoryispartialintwosenses.Itispartialinthatitisonlyatinypartofwhatreallyhappened.Thisisalimitationthatcanneverbeovercome.Anditispartialinthatitinevitablytakessides,bywhatitincludesoromits,whatitemphasizesordeemphasizes.Itmaydothisopenlyordeceptively,consciouslyorsubconsciously.
166
Thechiefprobleminhistoricalhonestyisnotoutrightlying.Itisomissionorde‐emphasisofimportantdata.Thedefinitionofimportant,ofcourse,dependsonone’svalues.(P.51)
Oneprofessorcommentedontheimportanceofknowingwherewemust
startinaddressingbarrierstocollegesuccessforNativestudents:
Soweneedtobesincereaboutthepresent,butwealsohavetoberealisticthatwehavealotofthingstoovercome.Wehaveatroubled,troubledhistory,andthefolksweservenowarepartofthathistory.WearepartofthathistorysoIthinkwearejustattheverybeginning.
AthoroughunderstandingofthebarrierstoAmericanIndianacademic
attainmentatPSUmustbeginfromanacknowledgementofthehistoriesofthe
institutionandoftheNativepopulation.ThroughtheuseofwhatMills(1959)called
theSociologicalImaginationwecanattempttolookbackintime,throughtheeyes
ofAmericanIndiansinPrairieState,andnationwide,toseehowlifepossibilities,
includingthepossibilitiesforacademicattainment,wereinfluencedwithinthe
contextofsocialclimateofthetimes.
InFebruaryof1881theTerritorialLegislaturegranted120,000acresat
Railtown,PrairieStatefortheestablishmentofan‘AgricultureCollege’.Lessthan
tenyearslater,between200‐300people,mostlyelders,women,andchildrenofSi
Tanka’sbandofMinniconjouOyateweregunneddownbytheSeventhCavalryat
WoundedKneeCreek(Calloway,1999).
167
By1923,instructionalprogramswereorganizedintofivedivisionsincluding:
Agriculture,Engineering,GeneralScience,HomeEconomics,andPharmacy.The
futurePSUwasbeginningtotakeshape.
Thefollowingyear,1924,allAmericanIndiansweregrantedU.S.citizenship.
TheJohnson‐O’MalleyActandtheIndianReorganizationActwerepassedin1934.
ThroughJohnson‐O’Malley,thefederalgovernmentprovidedfundstoschool
districtsforAmericanIndianchildrenattendingpublicschools(Calloway,1999).
TheIndianReorganizationActprovidedforIndianself‐determinationthroughthe
developmentoftribalgovernments(Calloway,1999).
1956Broughtasixthundergraduatedivisioninthefieldofnursing.Alsoin
1956,thefederalgovernmentpassedtheRelocationActtoencourageNative
Americanstoleavethereservationandmovetourbancenters.Thiswasbelievedto
beawaytoassimilateNativepeopleintotheEuro‐centricmainstreamculture
(Calloway,1999).In1957,theGraduateDivisionwascreatedatthecurrentPSU
whileAmericanIndiansmovedtoChicago,Minneapolis,SanFrancisco,Cleveland
andotherlargecitiesinsearchofmainstreamopportunities.
1961sawthefoundingoftheNationalIndianyouthCouncilandthe
emergingdevelopmentofaPan‐IndianidentityamongIndiansrelocatedtourban
centers(Hertzberg,1971).In1964,thenameoftheAgricultureCollegeatRailtown
waschangedtoPlainsStateUniversityatwhichtimethecollegesofAgricultureand
BiologicalSciences,ArtsandScience,Engineering,HomeEconomics,Nursing,and
GraduateStudieswerecreated.
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1973sawtheSiegeofWoundedKnee,orwhathasbeencalledWounded
KneeII,whenmembersoftheAmericanIndianMovementgatherednationwide
supportfromtheburgeoningPanIndian,RedPowermovementinprotestofpoor
livingconditionsandmismanagementbytheOglalaSiouxTribalgovernment.This
protestquicklyturnedintoafull‐scaleconflictbetweengovernmentforces,
includingStatePatrol,NationalGuardunits,andtheFBIononesideagainstAIM
membersatitssupportersontheother.
In1989,theDivisionofEducationwasofficiallynamedPSU’sCollegeof
CounselingandEducation.Alsoin1989,TheNationalMuseumoftheAmerican
Indianwasestablishedbyanactofcongressasthe16thmuseumoftheSmithsonian
InstitutioninWashingtonD.C.Themuseumopenedin2004.
Inthe2003‐2004schoolyear,PSUbegantheprocessofmovingtoNCAA
Division1athletics,withfullDivision1statusachievedin2008.Inthefallof2008,
studentenrollmentwas11,995.Bythefallof2009,totalstudentenrollmentwas12,
376.Ofthose,8.4percentwerelistedasminoritystudents.AmericanIndian
studentsenrolledatPSUcomprisethesecondlargestofminoritygroupsenrolledat
2.3percentofallstudentsenrolled.Inwhatcanonlybedescribedasan
overwhelminglyWhite,mainstreamuniversity,2.3percentisdisproportionate
whentakingintoaccountthetotalNativeAmericanpopulationinPrairieState,
whichiscitedbytheU.S.CensusBureau,asbetweeneightandninepercent.
ThroughouttheparallelhistoriesofPSUandtheNativeAmericanpopulation
ofthestateandoftheUnitedStates,AmericanIndianstudentshavenotbeen
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proportionatelyrepresentedregardingacademicattainment.Thereasonsforthis
disproportionatecollegesuccesscannotbeseparatedfromthathistory.
InstitutionalBarriers/Administration
DataIcollectedatPSUforthisresearchsupportspreviousresearchcitedin
theliteratureindicatingthatinstitutionalstructuralbarriersmaybeasignificant
factorhinderingacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.
WhilestrideshavebeenmadetowardAmericanIndiancollegesuccessatPSU,
basedoncomparisonofqualitativedatagathered,indicationsarethatforthe
subjectsparticipatinginthisresearch,barriersoutweighfacilitatorsbymorethana
2:1ratio.
EveryoneIinterviewedagreedthatsocialchangefocusedonimprovingthe
chancesforAmericanIndianacademicsuccessatPSUmuststartwiththePSU
administration.Somediscusseditintermsoftheinstitutionalmission.
AveteranprofessorspeaksofthehistoryoftheAmericanIndiancollege
experienceatPSUspecifically,howthatcollegeexperiencehasbeenaproductofan
institutionalizedstructure:
Ithinkthatinstitutionalchangeisinorder,butisverydifficultbecausethisisthewayit’salwaysbeen.GenerationsworthofIndianpeoplebeingjustabliponthescreen,ornotonthescreenortangentialorperipheral,orsubordinate,orwhateveryouwanttocallit.It’sprettyhardtounlearnthat.AsItoldthePresidentinameetingnottoolongago,‘We’reprogressing,insomeways,academically,butanAmericanIndianCulturalCenteris–youknow—50yearsoverdue.((laughs))Ifyoulookatcomparableinstitutionseverywhere,wearesuckingwindcomparedtothembecausewehaven’t
170
beenproactiveenoughtounderstandthatyoucan’treallybeofmuchappealtotribalstudentsifyoudon’thaveaplace.
RegardingtheLandGrantMissionoftheuniversity,thesameprofessorcontinues:
...It’sbeenaglaringomissionactually,thattribalkidshavebeenunderserved....Universityadministration,asastructurefromthetopdown,doesn’tdirectlytakeresponsibility,asapriority,foraddressingissuesofdiversity,particularlyrelatedtoNativestudents,butrather,thatresponsibilityfallstoindividualpockets,orenclaveswithin.It’ssafetosaythatthroughtheyears,thecentraladministrationhavebeenreactiveratherthanproactive.Sometimesresponsivetowhatsomeofusaredoingandaskingfor,butrarelyareinitiators.Exceptforgivinglipservicetoit,ofcourse.Theyarereally,reallygoodatthat.
Ahigh‐rankinguniversityadministratoraddressesissuesconcerningthe
historyofPSUandremainingbarrierstoAmericanIndianacademicattainment
fromaninstitutionalperspective,“Idon’tknow,structurally,andI’mtalking
organizationally,ifwe’vequitelandedonthebestorganizationtoworkwith
diversity.”
OnefacultymemberhasworkedtowardenhancingdiversityatPSUfor
decades.Amonghismanypassionsisworkingtowardanenhancedappreciationfor
NativeAmericanstudents,andanappreciationforindigenouscultureasanassetto
theuniversity.“I’moftheviewthatwearenotfulfillingourmissionandpurposes
verywell.Weneedtoreallyfocusonthatanddoabetterjobofit.”
Itquicklybecomesapparentthatoneofthebarrierstoacademicattainment
forAmericanIndianstudentshasitsgenesisinthedivergentviewpointsconcerning
whattheprioritiesareinaddressingdiversityissues.Morespecifically,howthe
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officialuniversitypolicyaddressesAmericanIndianstudentswithintheoverall
issueofdiversityhasadirectimpactontheNativeAmericancollegeexperience.
FromaDirectorofoneofthestudentsupportservicesoncampuscomesfurther
testimonyregardingtheconfusionofwhatdiversitymeans,whoisdefinedas
diverse,andwhereprioritieslie,“Ithinktherearepeopleonthiscampuswhodon’t
includeNativeAmericankidsaspartoftheiroutlookfordiversity.”
AfacultymemberwhohasremainedveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndian
studentsformanyyears,andwhoisawellknownasamentor,addressestheissue
ofdiversityandwhereNativestudentsfall,asamatterofpriorityinthediversity
issueexpresseddeepconcern,“IguessifyouareaNativeperson,aWhiteinstitution
isnotattractivetoyouespeciallyifthatinstitutiondoesn’thaveagoodreputationas
beingwelcomingandvaluingtheNativeculture.”
Anotherfacultymemberwhohasadministeredasuccessfulprogramfor
Nativestudentsdiscussedhowtheuniversitydealswithdiversity,“...alotof
peopledonotappreciatethestrengthandthebenefitthatcomesfromhaving
diversefacultyanddiversestudentswhoareapartofthewholebigworldwelive
in.”
AnotherfacultymemberwhoisprimarilyinvolvedwithNativeAmerican
studentscomments,“Ifourmissionisservingthepeopleofthestate,wehavea
giganticunderservedpopulation,righthere,whoare,intermsoftheuniversity,who
areourneighbors...ourfrontyardsjoineachother.Andforalargepartofour
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history,thehistoryofPSU,andthesystemofhighereducation,thegateshavebeen
closedtoourneighbors.”
TheissueofPSUcommitmenttominorityrecruitingisonethatwas
continuouslyquestionedbyallinterviewees,includingadministrators,facultyand
staff.
PoorHighSchoolPreparation
Goodacademicperformancepriortocollegehasbeenlinkedtogood
academicperformanceincollege(Brown1993).
Whateverthecause,everystudentIinterviewedagreedthatthereisa
differenceinthequalityofeducationbetweenreservationhighschoolsand
mainstreamhighschools.SomeoftheNativestudentsIinterviewedattended
mainstreamhighschoolsanddidnotexperiencethesameeducationaldeficitupon
enteringcollege.Thismayindicatethattheproblemiswithreservationschoolsand
notwithAmericanIndianstudents.
NativestudentsoftencometoPSUunpreparedforcollegelevelwork.There
isextantdetailedliteratureonthissubject.Faculty,administration,admissionsstaff
andthestudentsthemselvesarewellawareoftheeducationalhandicapwithwhich
manyAmericanIndianstudentsbegintheiruniversitycareer.
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PrejudiceorRacism
Feagin(2000),reportingonthecollegeexperienceofBlackstudentsat
predominantlyWhitecollegecampuses,statesthatprejudicialattitudesaboundon
WhitecampusesamongWhitestudents,facultyandadministrators.Ifracial
insensitivityhasbeeninstitutionalizedonmainstreamcollegecampusesintheform
ofEuro‐centriccurriculum,lackofinterestinAfricanAmericanstudents,andthe
expectationbyfacultythatindividualBlackstudentsarerepresentativeoftheentire
race,asFeagin(2000)suggests,thesameappearstoholdtrueforNativeAmerican
studentsonmajorityWhite,mainstreamcampusofPSU.
Oneveteranprofessorofferedhisperspectiveonaddressingracismthrough
curriculumreform:
Andso,weneedqualitycontrol.Weneedprogramdevelopment.Weneedthesecoursesauthoredbypeoplewhoarepassionateaboutthem,whocareaboutthemintheheartaswellasinthehead—andwhocanpersuadeaspiringteachersoftheimportanceofthemandhowtheycanbeusedinavarietyofcircumstancesinourschoolsystems.Because,ofcourse,that’stheproblemhere‐youcanstillgetauniversity‐anPSUdegreewithouthavingyourmostfoundationalandfundamentalsuperficialracismsaddressed.Youdon’thavetoprocessanyofthis.Youcancomeherearacist—youcanleaveherearacist.YoucanweaveyourwaythroughtheprogramandstillnotknowthefirstthingaboutAmericanIndianhistoriesandcultures.
Regardlessofwhetheraspecificincidentisrecalled,NativestudentsatPSU
agreethatracismdirectedtowardAmericanIndiansisacommonreality,one
studentrelateshisperspective“Well,PrairieStateisactuallytheheartofIndianand
Whiteracism.That’sallitbasicallyis...”
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TheuglytruthisthatracismhasbeenapartofU.S.societyfromits
beginning.Greatpeoplehavespenttheirlivesattemptingtoovercomeracism,
othershavelosttheirsinpursuitofthesamegoal.Whetherornotitiscomfortable
toadmit,racismdoesexistatPSU.Whilehistoryhasshownthatthereisnosimple
cure,perhapsthestartingpointwithinreachisforeachofus,asindividuals,to
becomeawareofthoseidealswehavebeensocializedwithandofthosewithwhich
wehavenot,andofthethingswetakeforgranted,andofthosethingsthathave
becomeinstitutionalizedtothepointofbecominginvisibly,subconsciouslytaken
forgranted.RecallthoseIinterviewedwhosaid,“Somuchofitisabout
relationships...It’sfromthatcommunity—thoserelationshipsthatpeoplefindthe
strengthandthesupporttheyneedtosucceed—inanythingreally.”
LackofSupport
Manyfactorscombinetoaffecttheuniversityexperienceandchancesfor
academicsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Dependingoncontext,many
ofthosefactorsactasfacilitators,barriers,orboth.Asseenabove,itappearsthat
supportmaybethemostsignificantfacilitator.Conversely,thelogicalconclusion
canbedrawnthatalackofsupportmaybethemostsignificantbarriertocollege
successforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Thelackofsupporttakesmanyforms
includingfriends,facultycommunityenvironmentandfamily.
ANativestudentrecallshisfirstyearatPSUbeforehedevelopedasupport
networkoffriends.“Myfreshmanyear,inthefallof2003,Ihadnoideathatthe
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NativeAmericanClubexisted.Honestly,thatfirstyearandahalfwasthehardestfor
mebecauseIfeltIwastheonlyNativeAmericanstudentoncampus.”
HelenKellerisquotedaspointingouthowlittlewecandoaloneandhow
muchwecandotogether.Again,relationshipsmaybethekeytostudentsuccess.
NonSupportiveFaculty
TotheAmericanIndianstudent,alreadyfeelinglikeastrangerina
potentiallyhostileenvironment,amongthemosthurtfulexperiencesareencounters
withnon‐supportive,culturallyinsensitive,oropenlyhostileprofessors,
administratorsorstaff.AlmosteverystudentIinterviewedhadastoryregarding
hurtfulbehaviordirectedtowardhimorherbyinsensitivefaculty.Somefaculty
actionsreflectedalackofculturalunderstandingsimplymanifestedthrough
ignorantorethnocentricbehaviororremarks.Othertimes,thislackofcultural
understandingwasexplicitintheclassroomasevidencedagainbyinappropriate
curriculumorthewayinwhichlecturematerialwasdelivered.Somefaculty
membersareawareoftheseissuesandpointtoneededchange.Oneprofessorsaid:
Ithinkthatweneedmuchmorefacultyre‐educationinregardtoNativeAmericanhistoriesandculturessothattheyhaveabetterunderstandingofNativestudents,andarebetterabletoencouragethemandbesupportiveofthem.Youknow,it’snotuncommonfortribalstudentstohavetheexperienceofafacultymembermisrepresentingtribalissues,andmysteriesandsoforth,stereotypingIndiansinvariousways‐‐‐notbeingsensitivetoculturalcontext.
OneAmericanIndianProfessorsawthefacultyissuethisway:
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Thereisindifferenceamongfaculty.Somedon’tcare‐‐‐theydon’tcare.Iknowinmydepartmentthere’sfacultywhowouldn’tdothingsunlesstheywereforcedtodoit‐‐‐soIthinktherearejustsomepeoplewhodon’tcarewhethertheyhaveNativestudentsornot.Andthentherearesomewhocareforthewrongreasons....Ithinkifyouareanoutstandingstudent,youhaveagoodrelationshipwithyourteachers.Youknow?Andtherearesometeachers,um,‐‐whetheryouareNativeornon‐Native,ifyouhaveproblems,theycouldcareless.
Inappropriatecommentsfromtheprivilegedpositionoffacultyinthe
universitysystemcanhavelastingnegativeimpacts.PSU’sadministrationisalso
awareofthevariousattitudestowardAmericanIndianstudentsanddivergent
levelsofcommitmenttotheircollegesuccess.Accordingtoone
faculty/administrator,“Theproblemstillremainsthatwehavealotoffaculty
memberswhojustdonotunderstandorappreciateNativeAmericanstudentsor
theirconcerns.”
ThroughmyownexperienceatPSU,throughobservationsI’vemade,and
conversationswithNativestudentsandinstructorsofaparticularcoursedealing
withtheIndigenousPeopleoftheNorthAmericancontinent,Imustpointouta
lingeringrealityofacoursespecificallyrequiredforEducationmajorsinorderto
completeadiversityrequirement.Aprofessorwhotaughtthiscourseforyears
describedherfrustrationwiththefactthateducationmajorswereinthecoursefor
noreasonotherthantofulfillthatrequirement;thisistosaytheywerethere
begrudgingly.Someofthesestudentssawnovalueinlearningabouttheindigenous
peopleofthestateintowhichtheywereabouttoembarkonacareerinteaching.As
aresultofthisdisinterest,manystudentsinthecoursewereonlyminimally
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interestedorinvolvedwhileotherswereoutrightdisruptive.Thisisanexampleof
theculturaldiscontinuitydescribedby(Berry1969;Wax,WaxandDumont1964,
andHuffman1999).Italsoprovidessomepossibleexplanationtotheaccounts,
offeredbystudentsinthefocusgroupsIconducted,oftheattitudesandbehaviors
ofsomenon‐Indianteacherstheyhadencounteredinreservationhighschools.
Granted,adirectcorrelationbetweenPSUstudentsfulfillingadiversity
requirement,teachersinreservationhighschoolsandinsensitivecollegeprofessors
maynotbepossible.However,theremaybeacommonthreadinthecharacteristics
ofeducatorsintrainingandthoseveteraneducatorsinhighschoolsoratPSU.That
commonthreadmaybedescribedasinsensitivity,culturaldiscontinuityoroutright
racism.Howeveritislabeled,andtowhomeverthatlabelmightbeapplied,theend
resultisthatitishurtfultoNativestudentsandcounterproductivetocollege
successatPSU.
BarrierstoSupportServices Studentsupportservicesrespectfuloftheneedsandinterestsofculturally
diversestudentsareseenasanimportantfactorsleadingtosuccess(Barnhardt
1994).
ANativeAmericanupperclassmandescribedherfeelingsandthoseofher
friendsandclassmatesaboutusingtheuniversitystudentsupportservicesfor
academicassistance.ShedescribedareluctanceonthepartofsomeNativestudents
toreachoutforhelpforfearthattheywillbelookeddownonorlabeledas
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unworthy.Thesefeelingswerebasedinthebeliefthattheywereseenasless
capable,orlessvaluablethanmainstreamstudents.Inmanycasesthesefeelings
fromwithinwerethebarriertobeovercome.
Myinterviewswithstudentsupportserviceprofessionalsindicatethatthis
inaccurateviewheldbysomeNativestudents,isunfortunateandis,initself,a
barriertoNativestudentsgettingthevaluablehelpthattheymayneedandthatis
availablefrompeopleeagertoprovideit.Irecallthepassionexhibitedbythe
supportstaffIinterviewed.BarrierstoNativestudentsreceivingacademicsupport
maybeovercomebyaddressingthesefeelingswhetheraccurateornot.Itmaybe
thatsimplyimprovingcommunicationbetweenStudentSupportServicesand
AmericanIndianstudentscouldgoalongwayinovercomingthisbarrier.
Family FormanyAmericanIndianstudents,theimportanceoffamilyisanintegral
partoftheirculture.ThismaybeespeciallytruewhentheAmericanIndian
student’sfamilyisverymuchanchoredintraditionalNativecultureandis
suspiciousofthemainstreamuniversityasonewhosegoalistheassimilationof
theirNativestudent.Insuchacase,thefamilyactsasapullbackhome(Tierney
1992;Carney1999).
Thisdynamicmayalsobeatworkforthestudentwhoisstronglyanchored
intheNativeculturebutseestheuniversityenvironmentasathreattothatcultural
wayoflife.Inthiscase,theuniversityenvironmentcreatesapushtowardthesafety
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andcomfortofhomeandfamilyasarefugefromtheperceivedthreat(Tierney
1992;Carney1999).Ineverycase,contextisanimportantconsideration.Some
NativestudentsmayhaveadifficulttimeadjustingtolifeatPSUforavarietyof
reasons,whetherconcerningculturaldifferencesornot,theescapefromwhichcan
leadtoseekingcomfortathomewiththefamilyoneisusedto.
ForsomeNativestudents,familyismorethanjustacommonbarrier,but
ratherisadamantlyopposedtotheirstudentattendingamainstreamuniversity
awayfromhome.
Huffman(1999)hascreatedtaxonomyforclassifyingNativeAmerican
studentsalongacontinuumofculturaltraditionallifestylerangingfromAssimilated
atoneendandEstrangedattheotherend.Huffmanexplainshow,whileforthe
Assimilatedstudent,transitiontocollegeandthemainstreamcultureposeslittle,if
any,challengeorthreat;theEstrangedstudentwillbemostlikelytodropoutof
collegequicklybecausethatstudentwillfeelthreatenedbythemainstreamcampus
environmentandseetheuniversityasaninstitutionwhosesolepurposeisoneof
totalassimilationandtheeradicationoftraditionalNativevaluesandlifestyle.
Whetherornotthestudentadoptsthisperspectivemaybelesssignificant
thanthefamilyapplyingpressuretothestudenttoreturnhomeoutoffearbasedin
seeingthegoaloftheuniversityasassimilationtomainstreamcultureandaway
fromthetraditionalworldviewbywhichthefamilybackhomestilllives.
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Regardlessofthecombinationoffamilialfactorsatwork,previousstudies
discussedabovepointtothevalueofprogramsincorporatingfamilymembersinto
themilieuofthestudentandcampuslife.
HeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)describeaprogramdevelopedby
AmericanIndianeducators,socialworkprofessionalsanduniversityadvisorsfrom
fourMontanaTribalcollegesincooperationwiththeUniversityofMontanathat
theyhavecalled,‘TheFamilyEducationModel’(FEM).FEMwasbasedonthree
assumptionsrelevanttoAmericanIndianstudents.Amongtheseassumptionsare
thatTribalcollegesmustfacilitatetheabilityoffamilymemberstosupporttheir
student’sefforts,andthatTribalcollegesneedtoengagefamilymembersinthelife
ofthecollegecommunitythroughbuildingpartnershipsandinvolvingthemin
socialandculturalactivities.ThebenefitsoftheFEMareexplainedbyHeavyRunner
andDeCelles(2002)throughtheexamplesofsocialandculturalactivitiessuchas
dances,socials,sportsandoutdooractivitiestowhichfamilies,spousesandchildren
areregularlyinvitedtojoin.Throughtheirparticipationintheseactivities,the
familymembersdevelopasenseofbelongingtothecampusenvironmentandare
nolongerresentfulofthetimespentoncampusbytheirstudentfamilymember.
AccordingtoHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)“Establishingandmaintaininga
senseof‘family’bothathomeandatcollegefortifiesAmericanIndianstudents’
academicpersistence.”
GuilloryandWolverton(2008)appliedtheFamilyEducationModel(FEM)as
describedbyHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002)inastudyofNativeAmerican
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studentsatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsinWashington,IdahoandMontana.
AmericanIndianstudentsinthestudyidentifiedfamilyandstudentsocialsupport
andthedesiretogivebacktotheircommunityasimportantpersistencefactors.
Theseresearcherssuggest“...creatingwaysinwhichNativeAmericanstudents
canconnectwithboththeuniversityandtheirhomecommunities”(Guilloryand
Wolverton2008:81).Theysuggestcollaborativeprogramswithtribes,supporting
daycare,andbringinghighereducationtoNativeAmericancommunities(Guillory
andWolverton2008).
ThecreationoftheplannedAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter
(AIECC)atPSUmayprovideaplacewherefamilycancometobewiththeirstudents
whilevisitingRailtownandbuildthatpartnershipofsupportbetweenfamily,home
anduniversity.Throughplanning,programmingandstaffingattheAIECCfamilycan
beincorporatedintothesupportstructureavailableatPSU.
FinancialResources
AmericanIndianstudentscommonlyidentifiedfinancialsupportasan
importantfactorforstayingincollege(Wilson1983).
AmongallthoseIintervieweditappearsthatthemajorityofAmerican
Indianstudentsdonotcomefromabackgroundoffinancialwealth,or,inmany
cases,evenfinancialstability.Again,itmustbereiteratedthatsweeping
generalizationscannotbeappliedacrosstheboardregardingthePSUAmerican
Indianpopulationasawhole.HoweverwhenlookingspecificallyatPrairieState’s
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Nativepopulation,itisrelevanttonotethatnoneoftheninereservationsinthe
statearewealthycomparedtosomeofthewealthiestinthenationwithsmalltribal
enrollmentsandhugegamingprofits.
BeyondthegenerallackoffinancialresourcesheldbyNativestudentsand
theirfamilies,somePSUsupportstaffIinterviewedpointedtothelackofmoney
managementskillsthatAmericanIndianstudentspossessupontheirarrivalas
incomingcollegestudents.Severalrespondentshavementionednewstudent
orientationprogramsdesignedtohelpincomingstudentsadjusttocollegelife.It
maybeusefultoincludesomebasictraininginfinancialmanagementforthosein
needofit.
Thereseemstobesomedifferenceofunderstandingamongsome
administrators,faculty,staffandstudentswithregardtoavailabilityoffinancialaid
intheformsofstudentloansandscholarshipsandgrantsforAmericanIndian
students.Onecampusadministratortoldmethattherearenotmanyscholarships
available.ANativeAmericanupperclassmanwasadamantaboutthelackoffunding
forAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU,“ThepurelackofscholarshipsforNative
studentsisaproblem...”
Asafollowuptothesecomments,IaskedtheDirectorofFinancialAid
specificallyaboutfinancialaidtoAmericanIndianstudents.Heprovideddetailed
informationofscholarshipsavailabletoNativestudentsintheformofalist.See
appendixGforalistofscholarshipopportunities.
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AccordingtotheDirector,“Moststudentsdonottimelycomplete
applications,includingformsneededfortribalhighereducationawards.”
ItappearsthatthisisacaseofeitheralackofinformationavailabletoNative
studentsregardingscholarshipopportunities,orabreakdownincommunications
betweenNativestudentsandwhomevermightbeadvisingthem,oritmaybethe
casethatNativestudentssimplyarenottakingthestepstofillouttheappropriate
formsandapplicationsintimetotakeadvantageofthosefinancialopportunities
thatonecampusadministratorpointedoutareinfact,morenumerousforAmerican
Indianstudentsthanforanyotherminoritygroup.“...wedohaveseveralNative
Americanscholarships...morethananyotherminoritygroup.Actually,that’sthe
onlygrouponcampusthathasspecificscholarshipsgearedtowardthem.Thereare
noscholarshipsforHispanicstudentsorAfricanAmericanorAsianAmerican
students.There’snone.There’snone.”
Aswiththecaseoffinancialmanagementskills,improvedprogramming
providingincreasedawarenessofscholarshipopportunitiesandstructuredhelpin
securingthataidmayberequired.
OneNativestudentcommentedonherdiscomfortindealingwithinitial
contactpeopleorgatekeepersintheFinancialAidoffice.
Whilethisstudentattributesthedifficultytoculturallyinsensitivebehavior
bytheFinancialAidofficestaff,theDirectorassuredmethathisstaffdoesreceive
culturalsensitivitytraining.
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InkeepingwithexperiencesdescribedbyseveralNativestudentsIspoke
with,thereappearstobeacommonthemeofNativestudentsreportingthatthey
weretreatedrudelyinmainstreamofficesthroughoutthecampus.Thisismight
verywellbesimplyamatterofperceptionandviewpoint,forwhichwemightonce
againinvoketheThomastheorem,whichaspreviouslymentionedstates,“Ifmen
defineasituationasreal,itisrealinit’sconsequences”(ThomasandThomas1928).
RegardlessofthedifferencesinperceptionsbetweenofficepersonnelandNative
students,ifstudentsfeeltheyhavebeentreatedpoorly,thentheconsequencesare
asiftheyhave,infactbeentreatedpoorly.Thesolution,asmentionedinseveral
examplesabove,mightcomeintheformofimprovedcommunicationleadingto
improvedrelationships.
Local community ThebestwaytounderstandwhatitislikecomingtoapredominantlyWhite
mainstreamcitylikeRailtown,PrairieStatefromareservationcommunityor
reservationbordertownisthroughtheexperiencesofthoseAmericanIndian
studentswhohavelivedthetransition.Itisthroughthesensesofthosestudents
thatwemaybegintogainaninsider’sperspectiveofcultureshockandadjustment
theyexperiencewhentheycometoPSU.Itmustbereiteratedthatwecannotmake
sweepinggeneralizationstoincludeallofPrairieStateorallofRailtown.Still,the
bestunderstandingofthePSUexperiencecomesfromseeingthatexperiencefrom
theperspectiveofthestudentsthemselves.
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EventhoughNativestudentsmayfeeloutoftheircomfortzone,andmaylive
someharshexperiencesinRailtown,therearesomepeopleinthecommunitywho
orareempathetic.AgroupofpeoplecomprisedofRailtownresidentsandbusiness
peopletogetherwithuniversityfacultyandstaff,bothcurrentandretired,meet
regularlytoaddressissuesrelevanttoNativeAmericans,themainstream
community,bothlocalandstatewideandthehistoryofinteractionbetweenthetwo
groups.TheRailtownReconciliationCouncilworks,throughcontinueddedication
andcommitment,towardtheameliorationofhistoricaldiscordandmistreatmentof
theNativepopulationbymainstreamsociety.Anongoinginterestofthegroupis
thefacilitationofsuccessfuluniversityexperienceforAmericanIndianPSU
students.Towardthatend,theRRCcontinuesworkingforincreasedawarenessof
andappreciationforNativeAmericanpeopleandcultureinRailtown.Onepossible
shortcomingoftheseeffortsisthelimitedexposureofthegrouptoNativeAmerican
PSUstudentsandviceversa.ItishighlylikelythatthemajorityofPSUAmerican
IndianstudentsareunawareoftheRRCanditscommitmenttoreconciliation,
includingthefacilitationofacademicsuccessforNativestudents.
EvengiventhesupportofsomewithintheRailtowncommunity,ifthelocal
RailtowncommunityisperceivedasgenerallyuncomfortableforAmericanIndian
students,howdoestheuniversitycommunityenvironmentcreateafeelingof
cohesivewelcomeorisolationfortheNativestudent?
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Universitycommunity OneofthegreatestbarrierstobeovercomeinorderforPSUtofacilitate
collegesuccessforNativestudentsisthelackofawelcomingenvironmentinwhich
Nativestudentsandculturearevaluedandappreciated.Afaculty/administrator
whoisveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndianstudentsuccessspeakscandidlyabout
thecampusclimate:
Ithinkwehavesomesignificantissueshereintermsofthecampusclimate....Youknowwecancreateaveryprotective,loving,supportiveenvironmentforourstudents,onethatnurturestheirsuccess,butthatdoesnotnecessarilyalwaysprotectthemfromtheslingsandarrowsthattheyfaceinthelargeruniversitycommunityortheRailtowncommunity.Thatprejudice,racism,discriminationareallverypainful,verydamagingtoidentity,verydamagingtosuccess,verydamagingtoone’sselfconfidence,selfesteem,senseofself.SoIthinkthat’ssomethingthat’sreallyabarrier.
AnAmericanIndianstudentcommentsonthefeelingofstandingoutas
differentinacrowdofuniformity:“Forme,itwouldallgobacktotheconfidence
andcomfort.HowcomfortableandconfidentisanyonesittingintheStudentUnion
likethedarkspotinthemiddleofapieceofpaper?”
Aswithprejudice,racism,discrimination,andanymeasureofintolerance,
dealingwiththeharmfuleffectsofthenarrow‐mindednessthatpermeatessome
peoples’entireworldviewremainsachallengethroughoutallofsociety.Onceagain,
‘It’sallaboutrelationships.’
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Culture Cultureshockcanmakeforatraumatictransitionforanyoneentering
college.Manyfaculty,staff,andadministratorsIinterviewedwerequicktomake
thispointregardinghowmostincomingfreshmenmustmakethisadjustment.For
AmericanIndianstudents,however,thisadjustmentiscompoundedbymany
factors.NotonlymusttheNativestudentdealwiththeadjustmenttocollegelevel
work,andlivinginanewenvironmentamongstrangers,butformanyNative
studentsthesechallengesaremagnifiedthroughdifferencesinphysicalappearance,
culturaltraditions,beliefs,andpracticesandthegeneraldisconnectedfeelingone
hasas‘notfittingin.’
Indeed,someNativestudentscomefrommonoculturalenvironmentswhere
communityneighborhoodsandschoolsarepopulatedwithrelatives,tribal
members,andamajorityofNativepeoplelikethemselves,sharingacommon
history,cultureandworldview;whereNativeartandceremonyareomni‐present,
whereradiostationsplaytraditionalandmodernNativemusic,includingpowwow
songs,wheretribalprogramsandculturalresourcesarereadilyavailable,where
theirtiospaye(extendedfamily)isallaroundthemofferingsupport.Toleavethe
comfortandsafetyofthehomeplaceandcometoaplacesuchasPSU,wherenone
ofthatexists,isahugeandsometimesoverwhelmingadjustment.Withoutthe
properpeopleandsupportservicesinplacetoassiststudentswiththetransitionto
thisverydifferentenvironment,theirchancesforsuccessfuleducationalattainment
arediminished.
188
Themaintenanceofculturalidentityandtraditionswasfoundtobe
instrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthepostsecondarylevel(Huffman,
SillandBrokenleg1986).
OnePSUOfficeofadministratorspeakstotheimportanceforopportunities
forthepracticeofculturaltraditions:
WedonothaveanyfacilitiesforNativestudents.AsweatlodgeissomethingthataNativeAmericanCentercouldprovide,butwedon’thavethat.StudentswhoarefeelingaspiritualneedandareNativereallyhavetoogobacktothereservation.SothatisanotherareainwhichIthinkthereisabarriertostudentsbeingcomfortablehere.Unlesstheyhaveasetoffriendsandcolleagueswhoaresupportiveofthatparticularneed,theyaregoingtofeelveryaloneandisolatedhere.
In1978,congresspassedtheAmericanIndianReligiousFreedomActwith
intent.“...toprotectandpreserveforAmericanIndianstheirinherentrightof
freedomtobelieveexpress,andexercisetheirtraditionalreligions,includingbutnot
limitedtoaccesstosite,useandpossessionofsacredobjects,andthefreedomto
worshipthroughceremonialsandtraditionalrights.”(Calloway1999:491)
MyinterviewdataunequivocallydemonstratesthevaluesomeNative
studentsplaceontheadherencetoandpracticeoftribalculture.Themaintenance
anduseofasweatlodgewasrepeatedlymentionedinconnectionwithstudents’
hopesforaplaceoftheirown.Suchaplacewouldprovideopportunitiesfor
culturallyspecificpracticesthatcannotbeaccomplishedintheOMA.
Anon‐Nativeadministratorpointedout,“Inthiscommunitywehave—Idon’t
knowhowmanychurches.Itseemsthere’sachurcharoundeverycorner.Wehave
fourorfiveLutheranchurches(henamesseveral)...wehaveaCatholicchurchof
189
course,andBaptistchurchesandsoon‐‐‐justalotofchurches.Wehaveamosque
forIslamicah‐Muslimstudents.”Also,onoradjacenttothePSUcampusarethe
CatholicCampusParishandtheUniversityLutheranCenter,yetasmentioned
above,nosuchfacilitycurrentlyexistsforPSUNativestudentsforthenurturanceof
atraditionalspiritualbase.
Thereareotheraspectsofculture,asidefromreligionthatmainstream
studentsmaytakeforgranted,butthatarereadilyavailable.Whetherthose
traditionsareexpressedthroughactivities,socialclubs,sportingevents,orany
numberofpossibleculturalactivities,theopportunitiesforNativeAmerican
culturalactivityhasfocusedprimarilyontheannualWacipi,alsocalled‘thepow
wow.’
Overthecourseofayear,IattendedseveralNativeAmericanClubmeetings
andhadcountlessconversationswithNativestudentsandtheNativeAmerican
StudentAdvisorregardingthepossibilityforsocialgatherings,duringwhich
culturalactivitieslikesocialdances,orworkingoncraftssuchaspowwowregalia,
quilting,oreventheformationofadrumgroupcouldhavebeendone.Forone
reasonoranother,thesegatheringsnevermaterialized.Whetherresponsibilityfor
thelimitedexpressionofculturerestswhollywiththeuniversity,orwiththeNative
studentsthemselvesisprobablynotimportant.Whatisofsignificanceisthatthe
newlypromised,andsoontobeforthcomingAIECCmayprovideaplacewheresuch
activitiescanoccur.Itwillbeinterestingtoseetheeffectssuchanopportunitywill
haveonboththeNativecommunityandtheRailtowncommunityingeneral.One
190
possiblepositiveoutcomemightbethatincreasedexpressionofNativeculturewill
leadtoanincreasedawarenessandappreciationforNativeAmericanstudentsand
theircultureacrossthelocalcommunityandtheregion.Suchadevelopmentwould
goalongwaytowardovercomingthediscomfortmanyNativestudentsfeelasthey
findthemselvesfeelingaloneandontheoutsideofthedominantculture.
DominantCultureReferenceGroup
AccordingtoHewitt(1994:90),referencegroupsare“socialgroupsthat
providegeneralizedotherstowhomtheindividualrefers”.Singer(1981)explains
referencegroupsasthosegroupsthatprovideanorientationforsocialcomparison
ofone’sself.Referencegroupsprovideaframeworkfromwhichtheindividualis
abletoshapehisorherevaluations,attitudesandbehavior(Singer1981).A
comparativereferencegroupservesasa“standardofcomparisonforanappraisalof
eithertheselforother”(Singer1981:77).
TheAmericanIndianstudentthatcomestoPSUmayquicklyfindoneself
feelingaloneinaforeignenvironment.Asdiscussedabove,theimportanceofa
supportivecommunityformedofpeersissignificant.Withoutareferencegroupof
peerstoprovidethecomfortandsecuritythatoneleftbehindwithfamilyand
friends,thestudentisleftsurroundedbyadominant,mainstreamsocietyinwhich
onemayfeel,asoneNativestudentdescribes,“likeadarkspeckonapieceof
paper.”ThisdominantgroupthenservesastheNativestudent’sreferencegroup.It
191
isincomparisontothisgroupthattheNativestudentwillmakeself‐appraisalsof
one’sfitintothePSUandlocalRailtownenvironment.
Theunderlyingsourceofthefeelingofisolationthaterodesself‐confidence
isalackofculturalunderstandingamongthedominantsociety(Berry1969;Carney
1999;Huffman1999).Studentsrepeatedlycommentedthattheyhavelearnedfrom
non‐Indianclassmatesthatmanymembersofthemainstreamhavenevermetany
NativeAmericansandknownothingofwhatlifemaybelikeformanystudents
comingfromreservations,reservationbordertowns,orevenaNativesubculture
withinlargercities.
Thedominantmainstreamsocietyservesasareferencegroupagainstwhich
theNativestudentcomparesoneselfinattemptingtofindwaystofitintothelocal
communityandtheoverwhelminglyWhitecampusenvironment.Allofthestudents
Iinterviewedcitedthisculturaldiscontinuity(Carney1999)asabarriertocollege
success.
Culturaldifference:Lackofdiversityexperience Itmustbeacknowledgedthatnoteveryculturalmisunderstandingisonthe
partofthenon‐NativedirectedtotheNativeAmerican.Therealityisthatmany
NativeAmericanslackexperiencewithdiversityjustasdomanyWhites.
TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorrecallsastudentwhowasunableto
reconcilehisownsenseofselfwiththedominantreferencegroupinwhichhewas
embeddedatPSU,“Ithinksometimes,asNatives,wetendtothinkourexperienceis
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unique.Andmaybeit’sjustaculturaldifferenceofhowwegoaboutexpressingour
personalspiritualbeliefsorourculturalbeliefs.”
ToofewNativeAmericanfaculty/staff Fox,LoweandMcClellan(2005)compiledalistofrecommendationsfor
collegeadministratorstomeettheneedsofAmericanIndianstudents.These
recommendationsareofparticularvalueastheycomedirectlyfromAmerican
Indianeducators.Amongthoserecommendationsistherecruitmentandretention
ofAmericanIndianfaculty.Alladministrators,faculty,staff,andstudentsI
intervieweduniversallyagreedthatPSUwouldbenefitfrommoreAmericanIndian
educators.
FromtheperspectiveofauniversityVicePresident,“Ithinkthatoneofthe
issueswehaveisthatweareveryleanstaffing.Andthat’sanissueforus.Weneed
morepeopletoworkwithminorityandNativeAmericanstudentsandwedon’t
havealot.”
FromtheNativestudentviewpoint:“Onethingthat’swrongisthattheydon’t
reallyhaveanyNativefacultyreally.SoIthinknothavingNativestaffaroundisa
realshortcoming.”
Asmentionedabove,PSUhasrecentlymadepositivestridesinthisdirection
withtheadditionoftwoNativefacultymembers.Thesepeoplehavequicklyproven
themselvestobeofgreatvaluetoNativestudentsandtotheuniversityasawhole
193
throughtheirleadership,scholarshipandunwaveringsupportandenhancementof
thePSUAmericanIndiancollegeexperience.
Place EarlyoninthefirstofthreefocusgroupsIconductedwithAmericanIndian
studentsitbecameclearthattherewasadiscernabletensionwhenthetopicofthe
OfficeofMulticulturalAffairswasthefocusofconversation.Somestudentsinthe
firstgroupreadilypointedtothewaysinwhichtheOMAwasseenasafacilitatorto
collegesuccess.Asdiscussedabove,thataspectseenasafacilitatorhadtodowith
theOMAservingasaplaceforcongregationasaNativecommunity,theonlysuch
placeoncampustoservethatpurpose.Beyondthatpoint,wasamuchmore
significantdynamicatwork.Ipursuedthispointinthefirstgroup.Insubsequent
focusgroupsthetopicof‘Place’becamethefirstandmostsalienttotheNative
Americanstudents.
AmongalloftheAmericanIndianstudentsIinterviewed,theconsensuswas
bestsummedupbyonestudentwhosaid:“I’dratherbesomeplacewhereIknow
it’scomfortable—theatmosphereiscomfortable,wherewefeel,asstudents,thatwe
belongthere—youknow?”
Collectively,theNativestudentsofPSUinterviewedforthisresearch
conveyedalevelofdiscomfortandfrustrationwiththestatusquoandtheirplacein
theOMA:
194
Idon’tknowifwe,asagroup,areheardhear‐‐Imean‐‐‐doesanybodyhearourconcerns?Doesanybodycare?Ireallydon’tknow‐‐‐Ifwedidhaveavoice‐‐youknow‐‐consideringthatourgrouphasthebiggeststudentorganizedeventoncampus(annualwacipi)‐‐andthenwhentheyputitinthenewspaper‐‐weareputonthebackpage‐‐justalittleblurbhereandthere.Howstrongofavoiceisthat?Ourspace‐‐whichwesharewithothergroups,allputtogetherandlabeledasdiversitygroupsisinthebasementandourbiggesteventisputonthebackpage.Whatdoesthatsayabouthowweareseenonthiscampus?
Throughoutthecourseofconductinginterviewsforthisresearch,Native
studentsatPSUrepeatedlytoldmethattheydonotfeelthattheirvoiceisvalued.
Thesestudentsdemonstratedtomethatoneofthemostdevastatingeffectsof
belongingtoamarginalizedgroupisthefeelingofpowerlessness,thefeelingof
beinginvisibleandinaudible.TheNativestudentswhoreachedoutthemosttome
werethosethatlingeredafterafocusgroupmeetingtovoicetheirconcernthat
nothingpositivewouldcomeofmyresearch.Theywerecertainthattheirvoice
countedfornothingandwerequicktopointtoalonghistoryofbrokenpromises.
Theirfrustrationwaspalpable.Thetopicmostoftencitedasasourceoftheir
frustrationwastheissueofaspecialplacefortheNativecommunity.
NativeAmericanHouse
GarrodandLarimore(1997)compilednarrativesfromAmericanIndian
studentsatDartmouthandfoundthatthegroupknownas“TheNativeAmericansat
Dartmouth”providedachanceforsupportandsolidarityforNativestudentsinthe
foreignworldofanIvyLeaguecampusintheNortheasternUnitedStates.
ContributorscitedtheexistenceoftheNativeAmericanHousealongwiththeNative
195
AmericanStudiesprogramandthesupportofNativeAmericanfacultyasprimary
factorsintheircollegesuccess.TheNativeAmericanHouseatDartmouthprovided
asafeplaceforstudentswhowereexperiencingatypeofcultureshockarisingfrom
conflictbetweenacademicandtraditionalAmericanIndianvalues(Garrodand
Larimore1997).
TheUniversityofMinnesotarecentlyheldacelebrationinhonorofthefifth
yearofoperationoftheAmericanIndianCulturalHouse(AICH).AICHisa
“UniversityefforttohelpAmericanIndianstudentsadjusttocampuslife”(San
2008:1).AstestimonytotheeffectivenessoftheUniversityofMinnesota’sNative
AmericanCulturalHouse,oneAmericanIndianalumnaestated,“Asafreshman,itis
oftenhardtotransitionintolifeonyourown...TheCulturalHousegavemean
informaleducationabouthowtosurviveandhowtoincorporateNativetraditional
ways.Thehousegavemeahome;acommunityinwhichIbelonged...thebest
thingisthatbeingapartoftheCulturalHousewaslikehavingyourownfamily.It
wasagoodsteppingstonetothecampusforfirstyearstudents”(San2008:1).
TheUniversityofMontanaisalsorecognizedasaprogressiveleaderinthe
fieldofAmericanIndianhighereducation.ThefirstofitskindintheUnitedStates,
the$8.6milliondollar30,000squarefootNativeAmericanCenterattheUniversity
ofMontanawasbuiltfortheexpresspurposeofhousingtheNativeAmerican
StudiesDepartment,AmericanIndianStudentServicesandotherrelatedcampus
programming.OneNativegraduatestudentexplainsthevalueofthenewNAC,“It’s
reallyimportanttohaveaplacewherewecandevelopourextendedfamiliesaway
196
fromhome.Oncewegettoknoweachother,thenwedothesamethingsforeach
otheraswedoathome”(Baynham2010:16).
SomeNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU,includingmanyofthosewho
participatedinthisresearch,arewellawareoffacilitiessuchastheNativeAmerican
HouseatDartmouthandtheAmericanIndianCulturalHouseattheUniversityof
Minnesota,andthenewNativeAmericanCenterattheUniversityofMontana.For
manyupperclassmenstillinattendanceandformanymore,decadesremovedfrom
theirdaysonthecampusofPSU,ithasbeenadreamforsuchahousetoexist.Such
ahousewheretherecoulddevelopaNativecommunityofpeoplewithsimilar
worldviews,andpridefultraditions,andsimilarfearsandconcerns.Atitsbest,this
wouldbeacommunitynotsegregatedfrommainstreamcampusorstudentsbut
servingasanenhancementtotheuniversitycommunitythroughthecelebrationofa
culturalidentitythathas,foryears,keptmanyNativestudentsfromtrulyfeeling
likeapartofPSUcampuslifeandcommunity.
ADartmouthgraduateandcurrentPSUgraduatestudenthasexperienced
bothworlds:
Itwaslike‐‐‐like‐‐‐Idon’tknow—inmyundergradwehadaspace.ItwasintheNativeAmericanProgramOffice.Itwasjustlikealittleloungewithlikethreecouchesinit.Andall–liketheNativeswouldpileonthosecouchesandwewouldeatlunchtogether.Andwewouldbelaughinganditwouldbeloud.Anditwouldjustbearealcoolspace.Wehadahouseatmyundergradwhereyouactuallycouldlive.Thereweretwofloors.Thetopfloorhadthreebedsandthenthebottomfloorandthemiddlefloor.Andthestudentscouldlivethereifyouappliedtolivethere.Andlikeeverybodywantedtolivethereandeverybodywasalwaysthere.Idon’tifitwasbecausewehadahugecommunity—Idon’tknowwhatitwas
197
but—everybodywasalwaysthere.Wewerelike—duringtheafternoonswewouldbeintheNAHallcrowdedonthecouchjusteatingtogetherandthenintheevenings,we’dbeinthediningroomattwobiglongtables.We’dbejuststudyingorlaughing.Andthentherewasabasementwherewe’dwatchmoviesand…ButthatwashowIkeptmyconnectionwithhome.Andtherewasadrumgroup‐‐‐wehadalotofguysfromtheSouthwest,soitwaskindofasoutherndrumgroup.They’dcomeinandtheywouldlikesingandthey’dbeintheNativeAmericanHouse—they’dbeinthebasementandthey’dsing.Anditfeltsogoodtohearthat.Idon’tknowifwecouldgetlikethatsameplaceherethen...
AreviewoftheliteraturecoupledwiththevoiceofPSUNativestudents
revealstheunderlyingvalueofsuchplacesastheNativeAmericanHouseat
Dartmouth,theAmericanIndianCulturalHouseattheUniversityofMinnesota,the
NativeAmericanCenterattheUniversityofMontana,andthefuturePSUAmerican
IndianEducationandCulturalCenter.ThatvalueisinwhatOldenburg(1989)
termedthethirdplace.Thethirdplaceisnotworkorhome,butrather,aplacefor
congregation,aplaceforfellowship.Inshort,thethirdplaceisaplaceforthe
formationofasupportivecommunityofpeers.Suchaplacemayprovidean
environmentthatwouldfosterastrongAmericanIndianidentityasanassetrather
thanadeficit(Yasso2005).Thiscouldbeafacilitatortocollegesuccess.
TheconceptofaNativeAmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforthePSU
AmericanIndianpopulationhasbeenconsideredatPSUforseveralyears.Both
sidesoftheargumentinthisdebateadmitthatitisapointofcontentionthathas
lingeredwithoutresolution.
TheideaofaNativeAmericanCenteralsohasfacultysupport.Oneveteran
professorisparticularlyoutspokenonthesubject.AsisthecasewiththestudentsI
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interviewed,thisprofessor’ssinglevoicerepresentsthepositionofmanypeopleI
spokewith:
AsItoldthePresidentinameetingnottoolongago,‘We’reprogressing,insomeways,academically,butanAmericanIndianCulturalCenteris–youknow—50yearsoverdue.(Laughs)Ifyoulookatcomparableinstitutionseverywhere,wearesuckingwindcomparedtothembecausewehaven’tbeenproactiveenoughtounderstandthatyoucan’treallybeofmuchappealtotribalstudentsifyoudon’thaveaplace...Ithinkthatwe’redisadvantagedinthatwedon’thaveaNativeAmericanCenter,aNativeAmericanStudentCenter.
FromtheexperiencedperspectiveofoneformerstudentandAmerican
Indianfacultymember,theissueofplacecomesdowntotheneedforaNative
AmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforNativestudentsratherthanasharedspace
withalldiversestudents:
IthinkthatitwouldgoodiftheyhadaNativeAmericanCenterwheretheycouldahcongregateandfeellikeacommunity,ratherthanscatteredaroundthecampus...AndIthinkitwouldhelpthemfeelliketheybelonghere,thatthey’renotjustbeingusedasdiversitystatistics,thattheuniversitywouldreallyprovideaplaceforthem,letthemknowthattheyarevalued…Youknow,alotoftimesstudentsdon’twanttostandoutandbenoticedalone‐‐‐butifyou’reasagroup‐‐‐thereiscomfortandconfidence.IthinkaCenterwouldhelpthembuildcommunity.
TherecentlyretiredadministratorwasalongtimeproponentofaNative
AmericanCulturalCenter:
Ifwecouldhavea‘Center’,a‘place’whereNativestudentswouldfeelwelcomeandcomfortableandathome,aplacewheretheycouldmeetwiththeirfriends,families,peerswhoareNative,engageinsocialevents,engageinceremony,beabletostudyandworktogether...wouldbeanenormouslypositivedevelopmentforthiscampus,forservingstudents.SoIthinkthatisanimportantelementthatneedstobedeveloped.
199
SupportfortheNativeAmericanCulturalCenterisnotunanimous.Some
believethereisnota‘criticalmass’ofNativeAmericanstudentstojustifyaCenter,
andassuchtheissuesimplyboilsdowntonumbersandthebestwaytoallocate
resourcessuchthatthegreatestnumberofminoritystudentsbenefitfromalimited
poolofresources.
Oneuniversityadministratorvoicedconcern:
TheNativeAmericanCulturalCenter,Istrugglewith.Whenwelookedatoneseveralyearsago,theresearchdonewithourstudentsatthatpointreallypointedtowardamulticulturalcenter,‐‐where,aswetalkedaboutearlier,wecouldbuildsynergybecausewedon’thavecriticalmass.Whenwedidtheresearch,campusesencouragedustocreateamulticulturalcenter,andtobuildoffofthat.AndatonepointwehadtalkedaboutaMulticulturalCenterandaswegrew,youcouldhavewingsforthedifferentgroupsbutstillhaveacenter,—andweseemtohavegoneawayfromthat.And‐‐andifwe’rereadytodothatandthereisalotofcampussupport,maybeweneedtodothat,Idon’tknow.Idon’tknowhowyougetyourarmsaroundthat.I’mstilltryingtogetmyarmsaroundthat.
CommentsofNativestudentsandothersinvolvedintribalstudent
programmingandstudentsupportsuggestthatthetimehascomefortheinstitution
tobuildoffitscurrentmulticulturalconceptandtogetitscollectivearmsaround
theconceptofaNativeAmericanCulturalCenter.
FromtheperspectiveoftheAmericanIndianstudent,whileincorporating
culture,buildingasupportivecommunity,andenhancingthedevelopmentofNative
Americanidentityasanassetratherthanadeficit(Yasso2005),thedebatecanbe
reducedtothewordsofonestudentwhorepeatedlysaidtome,“Iamnot
Multicultural,IamNativeAmerican.”
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ThemainpointtobemaderegardingaplaceforAmericanIndianstudentsat
PSUandhowthatbecomesabarriertocollegesuccessissimplythatnosuchplace
currentlyexistsatthetimeofthisresearch.Butthereisgreathopeandenthusiasm
forthefuturewiththecomingoftheAmericanIndianEducationandCultureCenter
cominginthefallof2010.
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CHAPTERNINE
Summary,Conclusions,RecommendationsandLimitations
Thischapterincludesasummaryoffindingsdisplayedasalistoffacilitators
andbarrierstoacademicattainmentatPSU.Ineachcategory,Ihavelistedfactorsin
ahierarchyofsaliencefromhightolowwiththosefactorslistedfirstrankingasthe
mostimportantasseenfromtheperspectiveofallparticipantsincludedinthis
research.
Aftersummarizingthefindings,Ihaveoutlinedconclusionsdrawnfromthe
data,andmaderecommendationsbasedonthoseconclusionsforimprovingthe
qualityofthecollegeexperienceforAmericanIndiansatPSU,andforincreasingthe
likelihoodofstudentpersistenceandacademicattainment.
Finally,Idiscussthelimitationsofthisresearchandrecommendationsfor
futureresearchthatmaypossiblyexpandtheparametersofthisstudytoincludeall
ofPrairieState’sinstitutionsofhighereducation,withafocusoncollaborative
effortstowardenhancingthechancesforacademicattainmentforAmericanIndian
students.
Summary/Conclusions
Quantitative
ThePrairieStateBoardofRegentsFactBookforthefiscalyear2010
providesaquantitativesnapshotintimeofthediversityofthePSUstudent
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population.Forthefallsemesterof2009thetotalnumberofstudentsenrolledat
PSUwas12,376.At10,577,WhiteNon‐Hispanicstudentsaretheoverwhelming
majorityat83.9percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.Thereisanequally
significantgapbetweentheWhitenumericalmajorityandthenextlargestethnic
group.At436,thegroupidentifiedasAsian/PacificIslandersisthenextlargest
groupandthelargestofallminoritystudentgroupsat3.1percentofthetotal
studentpopulation.AccordingtoseveraladministratorsIinterviewed,themajority
ofAsianstudentsatPSUaregraduatestudent/researchassistants.NativeAmerican
studentsnumber249andcomprisethesecondlargestethnicgroupatPSUat2.3
percent.Thereare168studentsidentifiedasAfricanAmerican/BlackNon‐Hispanic
atPSU,comprising1.5percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.Thegroupnumbering
thefewestofanyidentifiedethnicpopulationisHispanicstudents,withat122,
approximatelyonehalfthenumberidentifyingasNativeAmericanat1.3percentof
thetotalstudentpopulation.
DataoncomparativeretentionandgraduationratesforNativeAmerican
studentsrelativetothetotalstudentpopulationshowtwosignificantdifferences.
1.IncomingNativeAmericanfreshmenareoverwhelminglyoutnumbered
comparedtototalincomingfreshmenofallracial/ethnicgroups.Manyyears
between2000and2009,theratiowasroughly100:1.
2.ThereissignificantdisparitybetweenNativeAmericanfreshmenandall
otherfreshmenthatreturnforasecondyear.Retentionfromfirsttosecond
yearforNativeAmericanstudentsaveragedroughly48percentbetween
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2000and2009.Retentionoftotalincomingfreshmenfromfirsttosecond
yearaveragedroughly77percent.
Facilitators
Thefollowingfactorsemergedinorderasthemostsignificant
facilitatorsofAmericanIndianeducationalattainmentatPSU.
• SupportiveFamily
• SupportiveFriends
• SupportiveFaculty
• SupportiveAdministration
• SupportiveUniversityEnvironment
• NativeAmericanFaculty/Staff
• StudentSupportServices
• TraditionalCulturalOpportunities
• FinancialSupport
SupportiveFamily
OfallthefacilitatorscitedbyAmericanIndianstudents,supportisclearlythe
mostsalient.Allfactorsconsideredthesupportoffamilyisclearlythemost
importantfromtheperspectiveoftheNativestudent.
SupportiveFriends
Intheabsenceoffamily,asupportivenetworkoffriendsisthemostlikely
facilitatortoNativestudents’persistenceincollege.Withoutasupportivenetwork
offriends,Nativestudentsreportedfeelingaloneinaforeignenvironment,asifto
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be‘anoutsiderlookingin’ataplaceandpeopleoverwhelminglydifferentfrom
one’sself.
SupportiveFaculty
Facultysupportintheformofculturalsensitivity,willingnesstounderstand
andembracethecollegeexperiencefromtheNativestudent’sperspectiveandsome
flexibilityfromthemainstreamnorm,isofvitalimportancetotheNativestudent’s
makingacomfortableadjustmenttothemainstreaminstitution.
SupportiveAdministration
InstitutionalbarriersarewithinthedomainofPSUadministration.
OvercomingthehistoryofstructuralbarrierstoacademicattainmentforAmerican
IndianstudentsatPSUbeginswithastrongcommitment,byuniversity
administration,tofulfillingthemissionofPSUasalandgrantinstitution.PSU
administratorshavedemonstratedsuchcommitment,andstepstowardthatend
havealreadybegunwiththeannouncementofthecomingoftheAmericanIndian
EducationandCulturalCenterandtheplanningofanenhancedcurriculumin
AmericanIndianStudiestoincludeamajorinthatareaofstudy.
SupportiveUniversityEnvironment
Leadershipbyuniversityadministrationtowardthegoalofanenhanced
academicsuccessforNativestudentscancreateauniversityenvironmentthatis
builtonafoundationofembracingAmericanIndianstudents,faculty,staff,and
administrators,andtheirculture,asanassettotheuniversityandthelocal,state
andregionalcommunities.
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NativeAmericanFaculty/Staff
NativeAmericanstudentsplacegreatvalueonthepresenceofAmerican
Indianfacultyandstaff.Theseindividualsserveassupportivementorsandrole
modelstoNativestudentsatPSU.
StudentSupportServices
StudentsupportservicesarevitalresourcesforsomeAmericanIndian
students.Thismaybeparticularlytrueforincomingfreshmanstudentswhoare
statisticallyreportedtobelesslikelytoreturntoPSUforasecondyear.Increased
useofstudentsupportservicesmayincreasethelikelihoodofpersistence.Student
supportstaffisdedicatedintheircommitmenttohelpingNativestudentsbe
successful.
TraditionalCulturalOpportunities
OpportunitiestoengageinthepracticeofNativetraditionalactivitieswere
citedbystudentsasanimportantfacilitatorallowingthemtomaintainalinkto
theirlifeathomeandwithfamilywhileatPSU.TheNativeAmericanClubandthe
communityformedbythoseactiveintheclubwereabouttheonlyopportunityto
engageinsuchactivitiesdiscussedbyparticipants.
FinancialSupport
TheNativestudentsIinterviewedwereallawareofthenecessityof,andthe
availabilityoffinancialaid.Interestingly,andinkeepingwithmyreviewofthe
literature,financialconcernswereconsistentlymentionedonlywhenaskeddirectly.
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Thissupportspriorresearchfindingsthatfinancialconcernsarelowinahierarchy
ofsalientfactorseitherasfacilitatorsorbarriers.
Barriers
Thefollowingfactorsemergedasthemostpowerfulbarrierstoeducational
attainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.
• InstitutionalBarriers
• LackofSupport
• InadequateHighSchoolPreparation
• Non‐supportivefaculty
• LackofTraditionalCulturalOpportunities
• LackofSpecialPlaceforDevelopmentofSupportiveCommunity
• Prejudice/Racism
• CulturalDiscontinuity
• CultureShock
• DiscomfortinLocalCommunity
• DiscomfortinUniversityCommunity
• TooFewNativeAmericanFaculty/Staff
• FamilyDiscouragement
• InadequateFinancialResources
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InstitutionalBarriers
Throughoutthe130‐yearhistorytherehavebeenseveralsignificantly
successfulNativeAmericanstudentsgraduatedfromPSU.However,datagathered
throughthisresearchindicatelimitedemphasisonrecruitmentorretentionof
NativeAmericanstudents.ManyrespondentsmentionedthatPSUisalandgrant
university,butthatithashistoricallyfailedtoincludetheNativeAmerican
populationofPrairieStateasafocusinprovidingeducationalopportunities.
Additionally,campusclimate,intermsofembracingdiversity,andNativeAmerican
cultureshasbeenlessthanoptimal.
LackofSupport
ThedatashowthatsupportforNativeAmericanstudentscomesinavariety
offorms.Aweakeningofanyofthepossiblecomponentsofsupportmayleadtoan
apparentoveralllackofsupport.Whilestudentsupportstaffisdedicatedintheir
commitmenttohelpingNativestudentsbesuccessful,itappearsthatsomeofthose
studentsmayunderutilizesuchservices.Possiblereasonsforunderutilization
include,lackofawarenessoftheavailabilityofservices.SomeNativestudentsare
hesitanttoseekouthelpandutilizeexistingsupportservices,eitherforlackoftrust,
culturaldiscomfort,orfearofbeingseenaslesscapablethanmainstreamstudents.
InadequateHighSchoolPreparation
Poorhighschoolpreparationiswelldocumentedintheliteratureasa
significantbarriertoacademicattainmentforNativeAmericanstudents.Data
revealedinthisstudyiscongruentwithfindingscitedinpriorresearch.Remedial
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needsofsomeNativestudentscanbeaddressedatPSUthroughstudentsupport
servicesandunderstandingfaculty.However,inmanycasestheacademichandicaps
withwhichmanystudentsarriveatPSUmaybedifficultorimpossibletoovercome.
SomeNativestudentsIinterviewedhaveexperiencedbothtribalandpublichigh
schoolsandwerequicktodescribethedifferencesbetweenthemintermsofthe
qualityofpreparationforcollege.
Ofparticularsignificancerelativetostudentswithinadequatehighschool
preparation,asmentionedabove,arefacultymembersunwillingtomake
adjustmentsforstudentsneedingremedialhelp.Studentsneedingremedialhelp
canquicklybecomelostiffacultyareinflexibleorinsensitivetothatstudent’sneeds.
Suchneedshowever,maybedifficultforindividualfacultytoaccommodate,and
thusrequireamoreintentional,systemicremediationprogram.
Nonsupportivefaculty
Facultymembersareinapositiontoactaseitherfacilitatororbarrierto
collegesuccess.Attimesthisinfluencecanbeextremeineitherdirection.Many
studentstoldofinstancesofextremeinsensitivityandinflexibilityofprofessorsto
culturaldifferences,familyobligations,andavarietyofotherissues.Manystudents
toldofhighlyinappropriateremarksmadebyfaculty.
LackofTraditionalCulturalOpportunities
AllofthestudentsIinterviewedmentionedthelackofopportunitiesto
participateinculturalactivitiesasabarriertofeelingcomfortableatPSU.Many
citedsuchactivitiesastheironlylinktothecomfortofhomeandfamily.TheNative
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AmericanClubprovidestheonlyavailableoutletforculturalexpressionforNative
studentsatPSU.ItappearsthatthemainfocusoftheNativeAmericanClub
throughouttheyearwastheplanningoftheannualPSUWacipi,heldinFebruary.
Otherthantheplanningofthatevent,Iwitnessednootherculturallyspecific
activities,eventhoughsuchactivitiesweresometimesmentioned.Datagatheredin
focusgroupsandpersonalinterviewsindicatethatthereisahighlevelofinterestin
participatinginculturaleventsandactivities.
LackofSpecialPlaceforDevelopmentofSupportiveCommunity
Eventhoughthelackofaspecialplaceisnotatthetopofthesalience
hierarchyasa‘makeorbreakfactor’,itisundoubtedlytheoneissueaboutwhich
everyoneIinterviewedwasmostpassionate.ThelackofaNativeAmericanCulture
Centerhasanimpactoneveryothercategory.Itcouldprovideaplaceforthe
formationandmeetingofasupportivecommunityofNativestudents,facultyandall
thosewhoembraceNativepeopleandcultureasavaluableasset.Itcouldprovidea
placewherestudentsfeelsecureinaskingforhelp.Itcouldprovideaplaceforthe
organizationofandparticipationinculturalactivities.Itcouldprovideaplace
wherefamilymemberscouldcometoPSUtobesupportiveoftheircollegestudent.
Itcouldprovideaplacefortheinterfaceofthelocalmainstreamcommunitywith
thePSUandlocalNativeAmericancommunity.This,inturncouldleadtoan
increasedappreciationofNativeculturewithintheRailtowncommunity.TheCenter
couldprovideasafeandcomfortableenvironmentforNativeAmericanstudents.
Perhapsmostimportantly,itcouldprovideaplaceforanetworkofsupportto
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empowerNativestudentsinsuchawaythattheycouldbetterdealwithallofthe
factorsthatcombinetoworkasbarrierstoacademicattainmentforNativestudents
atPSU.
TheconclusionIdrawonthispointisthataplacespecificallyforNative
Americansandtheirsupportersisofkeystonesignificancetothefacilitationof
academicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Relevanttoallofthe
pointslistedabove,theAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCentercan
potentiallyserveintheameliorationofthedetrimentaleffectsofthosefactorslisted
immediatelybelowthatworkasbarrierstocollegepersistence.
Prejudice/Racism
Eventhoughprejudiceandracismarenottopicsmostpeoplespeakabout
comfortably,everyoneIinterviewedcitedtheexistenceofsuchattitudes,beliefsand
behaviorsasabarriertoacademicattainmentforNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU.
PrejudiceattitudesandracistbeliefsdoexistacrosstheU.S.,PrairieState,in
Railtown,andatPSU.
CulturalDiscontinuity
Thereisagapintheexperienceswith,thelevelofexposureto,andthe
understandingofculturaldifferencesbetweenboththemainstreamandtheNative
AmericanpopulationsatPSU,andinthelocalcommunity.ManyNativestudentsI
interviewedhavehadlimitedexperienceoffthereservationandcanspeakofothers
theyknowwiththesamelimitedexposuretothemainstream,dominantculture.
Likewise,Nativestudentsgavenumerousaccountsoftheirinteractionswith
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classmateswhohadnevermetaNativeAmericanorbeentoareservation.This
culturaldiscontinuityleavesavoideasilyfilledwiththenarrowmindednessof
prejudiceandracism.
CultureShock
Thelackofexposuretoaworlddifferentfromthatwhichoneisaccustomed
tocaneasilyleadtodisorientationforsomeNativestudentscomingfromthe
reservationhomecommunitytoPSU.Thisismostsignificantforthosestudents
comingfromculturallytraditionalhomeenvironmentstoRailtownandthe
overwhelminglymainstreamcultureoftheuniversityenvironment.
DiscomfortinLocalCommunity
HavingcitedthepossibilityofhavingracistencountersinPrairieStateand
Railtown,manyNativestudentsIinterviewedgaveaccountsoffeeling
uncomfortableinthemainstreamcommunity.Itcannotbeassumedthateveryone
feelsathomeinmainstreamestablishmentssuchasrestaurants,grocerystores,etc.
DiscomfortinUniversityCommunity
QuantitativedatashowthatforeveryincomingNativeAmericanfreshmanin
anygivensemestertheremaybe100ormorenon‐Nativefreshman.Withouta
networkofsupport,andwithoutareferencegroupofpeers,manyNativestudents
retainaninitialfeelingofdiscomfortthroughouttheirentirefirstyearatPSU.This
becameevidentduringmyresearchasseveralNativestudentsleftPSUevenaslate
asApriloftheirfreshmanyear.
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TooFewNativeAmericanFaculty/Staff
NativeAmericanfacultyandstaffaresignificantfacilitatorstoNativestudent
success.WithonlyfivetotalcurrentlyatPSU,therearetoofewtobeaseffectiveas
couldbethecasewithmoresuchindividualstoserveasmentors,rolemodelsand
anenhancednetworkofsupport.Commitmenttotherecruitmentandretentionof
NativeAmericanfaculty,staff,andadministratorsisvitaltothecreationofa
supportiveuniversitycommunityandenvironmentthatembracesNativepeople
andcultureasanasset.
FamilyDiscouragement
Itappearsthatthemostdevastatingtypeofalackofsupportisthenon‐
supportive,oractivelydiscouragingfamily.Informationconveyedbysupport
professionalsindicatethatalackoffamilysupporthasbeenacommonbarrierfor
someAmericanIndianstudents,particularlythosecomingfromreservation
communitieswheretheirfamiliesaretraditionalandfeelthreatenedbythe
universityasaninstitutionwhosegoalistoassimilatethecultureoutoftheir
student.Suchfamilialpressurehasproven,overtime,tobenearlyinsurmountable
formanyNativestudents.
InadequateFinancialResources
Asmentionedintheconclusions/facilitatorssectionabove,noneofthe
NativestudentsIinterviewedlistedfinancialneedswithoutdirectprompting.This
indicatesthatwhilefinancialneedsareanissuethatmustnecessarilybeaddressed,
thoseneedsarerankedasmuchlesssalientamongallofthebarrierslisted.Thisis
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congruentwithfindingsfrompreviousstudies,includingGuilloryandWolverton
(2008)whofoundthatNativestudentsconsistentlylistfamily,friends,and
communityasmoreimportanttotheircollegesuccessthanfinancialconcerns.
Limitations
Thegoalofqualitativeresearchistoprovidearichdescriptivepictureof
peopleorgroupsofpeopleinagivencontextandmostimportantly,tocreatethat
picture,ascloselyaspossible,fromtheperspectiveofthosebeingdescribed.I
believethatthisgoalhasbeenaccomplishedthankstotheeagercooperationofthe
Nativestudentsalongwithfaculty,staff,andadministratorsofPSU.However,the
study’slimitationsmustbekeptinmind.
Asisthecasewithallqualitativeresearch,thisstudyprovidesapictureof
theNativeAmericanstudentexperienceatPSUasonlyasinglesliceintime,almost
asortofphotographicmoment,consideringtheentirehistoryofPSU,ofAmerican
Indianeducation,andofcontactbetweenWhitemainstreamEuro‐centricsociety
andtheindigenouspeopleofthecontinent.Eventhoughtheplanning,preparation
andcompletionofthisprojectspannedalittleovertwoyears,thecollectionofdata
thatprovidesthatpicturewasaccomplishedduringthefinalweeksofthespring
2009semesterandmostlyoverthecourseofthefall2009semester.Therehave
beensomedevelopmentsduringthecourseofthisresearchthatmaychangethe
natureoftheNativestudentexperienceatPSUinthefuture.Twosuch
developmentsincludetheannouncementandplanningoftheAmericanIndian
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EducationandCulturalCentertobeginserviceinthefallof2010,andtheproposal
andplanningofamajorinAmericanIndianStudies.
Anotherlimitationliesinthefactthatwhilethisresearchattemptstoprovide
athoroughdescriptionoftheNativecollegeexperienceatPSU,itisonlyone
university,atonepointintimeandcannotbegeneralizedacrossotheruniversities
inPrairieStateortheMidwest.
ArelatedlimitationisthatonlyasmallproportionofallAmericanIndian
studentsregisteredatPSUparticipatedinthestudy.Theparticipantsinthis
researchrepresentapurposivesample,chosenlargelyfortheiravailabilityand
willingnesstoparticipate.Theywerenotrandomlyselected,andtherefore
generalizabilityislimited.Whilestudentparticipantsincludedfreshmenthrough
graduatestudents,traditionalandnon‐traditionalagedstudents,malesandfemales,
mostweremembersoftheNativeAmericanCluborwereotherwiseactivein
campuseventsandthus,theperspectivessharedinthisresearchmayrepresentthe
biasesofthatgroup.Relatedtothislimitationisthepossibilitythatthosewho
participatedinthefocusgroupsmayhavebeensomewhatguardedintheir
responsesasaresultofsocialpressuretoconformtothegroup’sviewpoint.WhileI
wenttogreatlengths,withthehelpoftheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisor,togeta
samplepopulationrepresentativeofthewiderangingdiversityamongAmerican
IndianstudentsatPSU,onesignificantroadblockisthatthe249NativeAmerican
studentslistedasregisteredatPSUarethosewhoselfidentifyasAmericanIndian.
ItislikelythatthereareNativestudentsunaccountedforiftheychosenotto
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provideinformation,possiblybecausetheirNativeidentityisnothighinsaliencefor
them.
Anotherlimitationinsamplingis,perhapsmoresignificant,andcouldin
itselfbeconsideredafindingoftheresearch.IfweconsiderthetotalNativestudent
populationatPSUtobeat249,itisinterestingtonotethatthevastmajorityofthose
studentsgounnoticedandlargelyunaccountedthroughouttheschoolyear.Inthe
fallof2009IattendedseveralmeetingsoftheNativeAmericanClub.Interestwas
highatthattimeoftheyearandattendancewastypicallyrightaround20students.
Astheschoolyearprogressed,studentsbecamebusywithstudiesorotherwise
distracted,leavingattendanceatNACmeetingsfluctuating,withalowofsix,but
normallyintheteens.ThehighestnumberofstudentsinvolvedwithNACactivities
wasduringtheweekendofthe20thannualWacipi,duringwhichmanystudentsthat
Ihadneverseenbeforeturnedout.Thisisfurthertestimonytotheimportanceof
theopportunityforculturalexpression.Thelownumberofregularparticipantsin
NACactivitiesbegsthequestion:wherearetheothertwohundredandtwentysome
Nativestudents,andwhydotheynotparticipate?Thismightbeaquestionfor
futureresearch.
ThisresearchisbaseduponthetheoreticalperspectiveofCriticalSociology.
Asacriticalethnography,thisresearchisadmittedlyvalueladenandopenlyfocused
ontheemancipatoryameliorationofoppressivesocialconditionsforthepopulation
beingresearched.Thepoliticalnatureofcriticalsociologicalresearchmakesthe
reportingoffindingspotentiallyuncomfortable,controversialandpotentially
216
invalidatedifnotsafeguarded.IhavebeeninvolvedwithAmericanIndianstudents,
facultyandstaffthroughoutmyentiretimeatPSU.AttimesIfounditnecessaryto
pullbackandengageinareflexivere‐evaluationofmylevelofparticipationin,and
thedegreetowhichIwasembeddedinmyownresearch.Ibecameawareofthe
dangerof‘goingnative’andpotentiallydamagingthevalidityofmydatabylosing
focusonthegoaloftheresearchasacademicratherthanactivist.Fortunately,I
recognizedthisdangerearlyonandwasabletokeepitincheckbyprocessingit
withmyadvisorandotherswhoseopinions,andadviceIvalueandrespect.Among
thosewerebothNativeandnon‐Nativepeople.
Recommendations
Summer,2010,isacriticalmomentinthehistoryofPlainsStateUniversity
anditsworkwithAmericanIndianstudents.Giventheinstitution’srecentHigher
LearningCommissionvisit,anditsrenewedcommitmenttodiversity,thefindings
fromthisresearcharepresentedatanopportunetimeforPSUtoconsiderthese
datainitsstrategicplanningintheareasofdiversity,academicandstudentaffairs,
andcampusmasterplanning.Buildingonthisstudy’sbaseincriticaltheoryand
praxis,itsultimategoalistoputtousetherelevanttheoryanddatathathas
emergedfromtheresearchtoovercomebarriersandenhancefacilitatorsinorder
toenhanceacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.Basedonthedata
presentedinthisdissertation,Imakethefollowingresearchbased
recommendations:
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1. Beginninginfall,2010,thenewlyannouncedAmericanIndianEducation
andCulturalCenter(AIECC)shouldincludeprogramsreachingouttoNative
studentswhohavepreviouslybeennon‐participantsintheNativestudent
communityatPSU.AdditionalprogrammingshouldbebasedontheFamily
EducationModel(FEM),asdescribedbyHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002).
Acadreofcurrent,successfulAmericanIndianstudentleadersmaybebest
positionedtoconductthisoutreach.
2. TheAIECCshouldreceivestrongsupportandbackingfromthe
administration,faculty,staff,students,familiesandallstakeholders
concernedwithAmericanIndianstudenteducationalattainment.Such
supportisparamounttotheCenter’ssuccessasafacilitatortocollege
successforNativestudents.Thedangerofnothavingsuchcollaborativeand
cooperativesupportisthatpersonalities,opinions,andstrugglesforthe
dominantinfluencecouldmaketheCenterapointofpoliticalcontentionto
thedetrimentofprogrammingandpersonnelwhoseprimarygoalshould
remainthebenefitofAmericanIndiancollegestudentsandtheirfamiliesas
theyseektoimprovetheirchancesinlifethroughacademicattainment.
3. ProgrammingprovidedthroughtheCenterandthroughoutcampusshould
addressthesalientfacilitatorsandbarrierspresentedinthisresearch.For
example,inbuildingonthefindingregardingsupport(orlackthereof)asa
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facilitator(orbarrier)tostudentsuccess,modelsthatbringtogether
multiplesupportservicesshouldbeadvanced.Suchintegratedservicesmay
includeacademic,social,familyneeds(e.g.childcare,healthcare),financial,
andculturalcomponents.
4. PSUshouldmoveforwardaggressivelywithitsplansforanew,permanent
AmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter.Centerssuchasthoseatthe
UniversityofMontanaandDartmouthmaybeparticularlyimpressive
models.ImportantcomponentsofthenewCenterincludesupportprograms,
officesforkeycontactpeople,tutoring,study,meetingandloungespace,
computerlaboratory,kitchen,spaceforculturalactivitiesandaclassroom
forAmericanIndianStudiescourses.Spacefortribalartandculturalartifacts
shouldalsobeavailable.
5.PSUshouldsponsorcontinuingeducationandfaculty/staffdevelopment
programmingthatsharesthefindingsofthisresearch,alongwithsuggested
interventionstrategiesandbestpracticesforenhancingNativeAmerican
studentacademicattainmentatalllevels.Suchprogrammingmayinclude
moreinformalbrownbagdiscussionsormoreformalworkshopsand/or
trainingsessionsthatarerequiredorstronglyencouragedforallfaculty.
Withoutsuchanapproach,manyparticipantswhomostneedorwould
benefitmostfromsuchtrainingmaynotparticipate.Materialsshouldinclude
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specificinformationdesignedwitheachtargetaudienceinmind.
6. PSUshouldfosterrelationshipsacrosscampusandintheRailtown
communitythatcontributetoNativeAmericanstudentcollegesuccess.This
shouldincludeadministration,teachingfacultyinallacademicunits,student
servicesstaff,andmembersoftheRailtownReconciliationCouncilinits
effortstobridgethediscontinuitybetweenthemainstreamRailtown
populationandthePSUandPrairieStateAmericanIndianpopulations.
Theserelationshipscanstrengthenthenetworkofsupportavailablefor
NativeAmericanstudentsatPSU,andultimately,theiracademicattainment.
7. WiththenewAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter(AIECC)asa
focalpoint,PSUshouldexpandthepresenceofNativeAmericanmaterial
cultureoncampus.Thepresenceoftribalartandculturalartifactsin
prominentplacescampuswide(i.e.notonlyattheAIECC)–onthegrounds
andinadministrativeandacademicbuildings–willhelpeasethetransition
fortribalstudentsandmakethemfeelthattheircultureisindeedpresent
andvaluedatPSU.Inarelatedrecommendation,PSUshouldbuildonthe
successofitscurrentseriesofculturalevents(e.g.speakers,powwow,
musicians,etc.)andworktoexpandstudentandfacultyparticipation.
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8. PSUshouldtakeaggressiveactiontowardenhancingthesocialclimatefor
AmericanIndianstudentsandprofessionals.Theissuesofmaterialculture
andculturalprogrammingdescribedaboveshouldbecomplementedwith
educationaleffortstocombatracismandculturalinsensitivitythatoccuron
campus.CurrentNativeAmericanstudents,facultyandstaffshouldhave
inputintodesigningtheseprograms.
9. PSUshouldincreaseitsfocusonAmericanIndianstudentrecruitment
throughoutthestate,andregion.Thisshouldincludetheallocationof
necessaryresourcestoachievea‘criticalmass’ofNativestudentsatPSU.
Effortsshouldincludearegularpresenceattribalhighschoolsandcolleges,
campusvisits,familyinvolvement,andstrategiesforovercoming
shortcomingsinprospectivestudents’academicpreparation.Onceagain,the
activeinvolvementofcurrentNativeAmericanstudentsandstaffin
designingandimplementingsuchprogrammingwillbecriticaltoitssuccess.
10. PSUmustdevelopanimprovedsystemofaccountingforitsNative
Americanstudents,includingaccuratecontactinformation,wherethey
attendandhowtheyareprogressingtowardtheiracademicandprofessional
goals.CarefulmonitoringwillhelpalertfacultyandstafftobarriersNative
studentsmaybeexperiencingintimetohelpthemovercomethesebarriers
andfacilitatethestudents’academicattainment.Anearlyalertsystemcanbe
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implementedthatwillincludetheNativeAmericanAdvisor,academic
advisor,teachingfacultyandresidentiallifestaffandmakethemallmore
awareofandresponsivetoeachstudents’strengthsandchallenges.This
supportnetworkthenbecomesa‘safetynet’whenproblemsoccurand
otherwiseencouragesthestudents’collegesuccessandacademicattainment.
11. PSUshouldincreaseitsemphasisonrecruitingandretainingAmerican
Indianfacultyandstaffinordertoreachnumbersproportionaltoand
representativeofthestate’sAmericanIndianpopulation.Recruitmentefforts
mustbeintentionalandcouldbetargetedateitherPSUNativegraduatesor
otherprogramswithlargenumbersofAmericanIndiangraduates.Onceon
campus,Nativefacultyandstaffshouldhaveamentortoassistthemwith
adjustmenttothecampusandcommunityandwhocanhelpthemfind
comfortandsuccessatPSU.Thisshouldincludeintroductionand
networkingwiththeothertribalpeople.
12. PSUshoulddevelopanenhancedAmericanIndianStudiescurriculumto
includeamajorintheareaattheBachelor’slevel,alongwiththe
developmentofgraduatedegrees.Thisimpliesrecruitmentofadditional
NativefacultyandpromotionoftheprogramtobothNativeandnon‐Native
students.
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13. AcollaborativeorganizationcomposedofstakeholdersinPrairieState
AmericanIndianHigherEducationshouldbeformed.Thiscouldincludea
cooperativeboardofeducators,fromRegentalandnon‐Regentalinstitutions,
togetherwiththestate’stribalcollegesanduniversities.Thegroup’sprimary
goalshouldbeworkingtogethertoaddresscommonbarriers,enhance
facilitators,sharebestpractices,andworktowardimprovedrecruitment,
retention,andgraduationofAmericanIndiancollegestudentsinthestate.
SuggestionsforFurtherResearch
1. FurtherresearchatPSUshouldcollectsurveydatafromabroadercross‐
sectionofthecampusNativestudentcommunity.Inaddition,majority
studentandfacultyattitudesandexperiencesmightbeexaminedtobetter
understandtheirattitudestowardAmericanIndiansandthebroadercontext
oftheNativestudentexperienceoncampus.
2. Carefulevaluationresearchthatdocumentstheeffectivenessandbest
practicesofcurrentcampusdiversityinitiativesshouldbeundertaken.
Currently,whilethereexistsanarrayofprogrammingaimedatrecruiting
andretainingNativestudents,thereisnotaclearunderstandingofwhat
aboutthoseprogramsisandisnotworkingtoenhanceAmericanIndian
studentacademicattainment.DifferentialgraduationratesbetweenNative
223
andNon‐Nativestudentssuggestthereisroomforimprovement.More
intentionalprogramassessmentshouldbeconductedandresultsshared
widelysothatsuccessescanbebuiltupon,commonmisstepsavoided,and
limitedresourcesmaybestrategicallydirectedtosuccessfulprograms.
3. Theapproachexecutedinthisresearchcouldbesimilarlyappliedto
enhanceunderstandingofbarriersandfacilitatorsofeducationalattainment
forotherstudentsofcolor,includingAfricanAmericans,Latino/as,
Asian/PacificIslanders,andthediversearrayofinternationalstudents
attendingPSU.Whilecommonthemesmayemerge,additional,unique
insightswouldbegainedfromthisbroaderfocus.
4. FurtherresearchfocusedonsimilaruniversitiesinPrairieStateandthe
Midwest,andanyothercomparablysizeinstitutionwithasubstantialNative
Americanstudentpopulationshouldbeconducted.Suchresearchshould
includemoreintensiveindividualinterviewswithNativestudentsinaddition
tothefocusgroupinterviewtechnique.Theuseofadditionalintensive
interviewswillprovideasafeguardagainstpossibleinhibitionsresulting
fromsociallyconstructedgroupviewpoints.Suchinvestigationswillenhance
theunderstandingofbothcommonanduniquebarriersencounteredby
NativeAmericanstudentsandbestinstitutionalpracticesforfacilitating
studentattainment.
224
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APPENDIXA:
InterviewGuideforAdministratorsandFaculty
IamScottFlemingoftheSociologyDepartmentatPlainsStateUniversity.
Thankyoufortakingthetimetospeakwithme.Iamapersonofancestraldescent
fromtheMeskwakipeopleofIowaandtheCherokeepeopletheSoutheastern
UnitedStates.Ihavebeenaroundnativepeopleandcommunitiesallofmylife.I
haveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunitiesinMinnesotaandWisconsin.I
haveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPowWowsacrossthecountry.Ihave
longbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacingAmericanIndianpeople,particularly
howtoimprovetheconditionsforeducationalsuccessforAmericanIndian
students.
IamdoingmydoctoraldissertationintheareaofIndianhighereducation,
specifically,whatfactorscombinetofacilitateorhindereducationalattainmentfor
AmericanIndiancollegestudents.
Aspartofthisstudy,thefollowinginterviewisdesignedtoenhanceour
understandingofwhatfactorsworktowardthefacilitationorhindranceof
educationalsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withyourpermission,I
willrecordourconversationonadigitalaudiorecorder.AsItranscribethe
interviewallidentifyinginformationwillberemovedthuskeepingyour
participationinthestudyanonymous.
236
Iwillalsoprovideyouwithcontactinformationincaseyouwouldliketo
furtherdiscussanyinformationorissuesyoumayhaveaftertheinterviewis
completed.
DoyouagreetoparticipateinthisinterviewasIhaveexplainedittoyou?
Doyouhaveanyquestionsformebeforewebegin?
ToAdministratorsandFaculty:
• Describehowtheuniversityaddressesissuesofdiversity?
• Howdoestheuniversityaddressissuesrelatingtominoritystudents,specificallyNativeAmericans?
• WhatthreeorfourfactorsdoyoubelievehelpNativeAmericanstudentspersistthroughcollege?
• Whatdoyouperceiveasthethreeorfourgreatestbarrierstocompletingcollege?
• HowdoeshelpingAmericanIndianstudentssucceedfitwiththemissionandstrategicplanoftheuniversity?
237
• WhataresomeoftheproblemsadministrationseesinrecruitingandretainingNativeAmericanstudent?
• WhatistherelationshipbetweenNativeAmericansstudentsandfaculty?
• Whatcanthestatedotoensuretheuniversityissupportingdiversity,especiallyNativeAmericanstudents?
• DescribeidealsituationforNativeAmericanstudentstoflourishattheuniversity.
• CouldPSUbetterserveitsAmericanIndianstudents?
238
APPENDIXB:
InterviewGuideforStudents
IamScottFlemingoftheSociologyDepartmentatPlainsStateUniversity.
Thankyoufortakingthetimetospeakwithme.Iamapersonofancestraldescent
fromtheMeskwakipeopleofIowaandtheCherokeepeopletheSoutheastern
UnitedStates.Ihavebeenaroundnativepeopleandcommunitiesallofmylife.I
haveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunitiesinMinnesotaandWisconsin.I
haveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPowWowsacrossthecountry.Ihave
longbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacingAmericanIndianpeople,particularly
howtoimprovetheconditionsforeducationalsuccessforAmericanIndian
students.
IamdoingmydoctoraldissertationintheareaofIndianhighereducation,
specifically,whatfactorscombinetofacilitateorhindereducationalattainmentfor
AmericanIndiancollegestudents.
Aspartofthisstudythefollowinginterviewisdesignedtoenhanceour
understandingwhatfactorsworktowardthefacilitationorhindranceofeducational
successforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withyourpermission,Iwillrecordour
conversationonadigitalaudiorecorder.AsItranscribetheinterviewallidentifying
informationwillberemovedthuskeepingyourparticipationinthestudy
anonymous.
239
Iwillalsoprovideyouwithcontactinformationincaseyouwouldliketo
furtherdiscussanyinformationorissuesyoumayhaveaftertheinterviewis
completed.
DoyouagreetoparticipateinthisinterviewasIhaveexplainedittoyou?
Doyouhaveanyquestionsformebeforewebegin?
Tobeginwith,I’dliketolearnalittleaboutyou:
DemographicCharacteristics:
1. Yourage:
2. Gender:
3. TribalAffiliation:
4. Placeofbirth:
5. Maritalstatus:
6. Numberofchildren(ifany):
7. Yearinschool:CollegeMajor
240
ToStudents:
• Describehowyouperceivehowtheuniversityaddressesissuesofdiversity?
1. Haveyouexperiencedanyinstancesofprejudiceonthiscampus?2. Ifso,willyoutellmeaboutthat?
• Howdoestheuniversityaddressissuesrelatingtominoritystudents,specificallyNativeAmericans?
1. Doyoufeelthattherearechallenges,asanAmericanIndianstudent,hereatamainstreamcollegethatdonotexistfornon‐Indianstudents?Explain
2. Whatwaysdoyouhavefordealingwiththat?3. DoyouspendtimeattheNACC/MAO?Howmuch?When?4. Doyoufindithelpful?Comfortable?5. Howso?6. Ifnot,why?
• Whatwouldyouconsidertobethreeorfourfactorsthathaveledyoutopersistthroughyouruniversitysofar?
1. Inwhatwayswouldyousayyourfamilyhasbeensupportiveofyourcollegeexperience?
2. Inwhatways,ifany,doyoudrawontraditionalnativeculturetohelpdealwiththechallengesofcollegelife?
3. Doyouhaveasupportivenetwork?Friends,FacultyFamily?4. Tellmewhatsupportservicesprovidedbytheuniversityyoutakeadvantageof?
• Whathavebeenthethreeorfourbarrierstoovercomeintryingtocompleteyoureducation?
1. Howdoyoucopewith__________asabarrier?2. Ifrespondentmentionedmoneyasaproblem.Doyouwork?Doyoureceive
financialaid?Inwhatspecificwaysdofinancialconcernscauseyouproblems?3. Hasyourfamilybeennon‐supportiveinanyway?Explain.
241
4. WheredidyougotoHighSchool?DescribeyourH.S.experience.Didyougetgoodgrades?Didyouhaveafavoritesubject?Wereyourteachershelpful?
5. DoyouthinkH.S.preparedyouforcollegelevelcourses?
• Ifyouthinkaboutfriendsthathavestartedcollegebutnotfinished‐whatdoyouthinkkeptthemfromdoingso?
• Whatwouldbeyouridealinstitution?
• CouldPSUbetterserveitsAmericanIndianstudents?
242
APPENDIXC:
PARTICIPANTCONSENTFORM
(Tobesignedinthepresenceoftheresearcher/participantcopyprovided)
PARTICIPATIONINPERSONALINTERVIEW
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
Pleasereadthefollowingpoints,andfeelfreetoaskanyquestionsthatariseasyoudoso.
ThisisaninvitationforyoutoparticipateinaresearchprojectunderthedirectionofScottFleming.Thenameofthisprojectis“AmericanIndianEducationalAttainment:AComparativeAnalysisofFactorsthatHinderorFacilitateEducationalSuccessforAmericanIndianStudentsatPSU”.
ThepurposeofthisprojecttogainanincreasedunderstandingofthefactorsthatcombinetohinderorfacilitateeducationalsuccessattwopredominantlyWhite,mainstreamcollegesinPrairieState.Theproposedstudywillusethequalitativeresearchmethodsincluding;focusgroups,personalinterviews,fieldobservationsanddocumentarydataanalysis.ParticipantsinthestudywillincludeAmericanIndiancollegestudentsatbothPlainsStateUniversityandtheUniversityofPrairieState.Additionally,UniversityPresidents,DiversityCoordinators,facultymembersandProgramCoordinatorswillbeinterviewedinordertogainasenhancedunderstandingofthosefactorsoutlinedintheresearchquestionsfromaninstitutionalperspective.
Thisportionofthestudyconsistsofaoneononepersonalinterview,thetotalnumberofwhichwillbe10to12AmericanIndiancollegestudents.Thisprocesswillincludeatapedgroupinterview,andwillprobablylast1to2hours.Your
243
identifyinginformationandresponseswillbekeptstrictlyconfidential.Everyeffortwillbemadetoensurethattherewillbenopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinanyreportsorsubsequentworksarisingfromthisresearchproject.Yourtranscriptwillnotbeidentifiedbyeithernameorlocation.OriginalcontactsheetswillbekeptinalockedcabinetintheofficeoftheDeanoftheHonorsCollegeatPlainsStateUniversity.Thisinterviewwillbetranscribedontoahardcopyformatatwhichtimethedigitalrecordingswillbedeleted.Pleasenotethatallinformationdiscussedduringthissessionisconfidential,andthatwithyoursignatureandparticipationyouagreetokeepallinformationinthisdiscussionconfidential.
Therearenoknownriskstoyouforparticipatinginthisstudy.Pleasebeawarethatyourparticipationisvoluntaryandthatyouhavetherighttowithdrawatanytimeinthecourseofthestudy.
Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcernsrelatingtoyourparticipationinthisfocusgroupyoumaycontactmebyphoneore‐mailaslistedabove.YoumayalsocontactmyresearchsupervisorDr.XXXXXXXXXXat(605)XXX‐XXXX,orbye‐mailat....
Inaddition,ifyouhavequestionsregardingyourrightsasaparticipantinthisstudy,pleasecontact.
Dr.Ph.D.
ChairpersonoftheHumanSubjectsCommittee
Box2115,Library
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
Office:(605)XXX‐XXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
ThePSUInstitutionalReviewBoardhasapprovedthisproject.
ApprovalNo.:__________________
244
Asaresearchparticipant,Ihavereadtheabove,havehadanyquestionsanswered,andagreetoparticipateintheresearchproject.Iwillreceiveacopyofthisformformyinformation.
Participant’sSignature________________________________________________Date______________
ProjectDirector’sSignature__________________________________________Date______________
245
APPENDIXD:
PARTICIPANTCONSENTFORM
(Tobesignedinthepresenceoftheresearcher/participantcopyprovided)
PARTICIPATIONINFOCUSGROUPINTERVIEW
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
Pleasereadthefollowingpoints,andfeelfreetoaskanyquestionsthatariseasyoudoso.
ThisisaninvitationforyoutoparticipateinaresearchprojectunderthedirectionofScottFleming.Thenameofthisprojectis“AmericanIndianEducationalAttainment:AComparativeAnalysisofFactorsthatHinderorFacilitateEducationalSuccessforAmericanIndianStudentsatPSU”.
ThepurposeofthisprojecttogainanincreasedunderstandingofthefactorsthatcombinetohinderorfacilitateeducationalsuccessattwopredominantlyWhite,mainstreamcollegesinPrairieState.Theproposedstudywillusethequalitativeresearchmethodsincluding;focusgroups,personalinterviews,fieldobservationsanddocumentarydataanalysis.ParticipantsinthestudywillincludeAmericanIndiancollegestudentsatbothPlainsStateUniversityandtheUniversityofPrairieState.Additionally,UniversityPresidents,DiversityCoordinators,facultymembersandProgramCoordinatorswillbeinterviewedinordertogainasenhancedunderstandingofthosefactorsoutlinedintheresearchquestionsfromaninstitutionalperspective.
246
Thisportionofthestudyconsistsofafocusgroupincluding10to12AmericanIndiancollegestudents.Thisprocesswillincludeatapedgroupinterview,andwillprobablylast1to2hours.Youridentifyinginformationandresponseswillbekeptstrictlyconfidential.Everyeffortwillbemadetoensurethattherewillbenopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinanyreportsorsubsequentworksarisingfromthisresearchproject.Yourtranscriptwillnotbeidentifiedbyeithernameorlocation.OriginalcontactsheetswillbekeptinalockedcabinetintheofficeoftheDeanoftheHonorsCollegeatPlainsStateUniversity.Thisinterviewwillbetranscribedontoahardcopyformatatwhichtimethedigitalrecordingswillbedeleted.Pleasenotethatallinformationdiscussedduringthissessionisconfidential,andthatwithyoursignatureandparticipationyouagreetokeepallinformationinthisdiscussionconfidential.
Therearenoknownriskstoyouforparticipatinginthisstudy.Pleasebeawarethatyourparticipationisvoluntaryandthatyouhavetherighttowithdrawatanytimeinthecourseofthestudy.
Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcernsrelatingtoyourparticipationinthisfocusgroupyoumaycontactmebyphoneore‐mailaslistedabove.YoumayalsocontactmyresearchsupervisorDr.XXXXXXXXXXat(605)XXX‐XXXX.Inaddition,ifyouhavequestionsregardingyourrightsasaparticipantinthisstudy,pleasecontact.
Dr.Ph.D.
ChairpersonoftheHumanSubjectsCommittee
Box2115,Library
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
Office:(605)XXX‐XXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
247
ThePSUInstitutionalReviewBoardhasapprovedthisproject.
ApprovalNo.:__________________
Asaresearchparticipant,Ihavereadtheabove,havehadanyquestionsanswered,andagreetoparticipateintheresearchproject.Iwillreceiveacopyofthisformformyinformation.
Participant’sSignature________________________________________________Date______________
ProjectDirector’sSignature__________________________________________Date_____________
248
APPENDIXE:
PARTICIPANTCONSENTFORM
(Tobesignedinthepresenceoftheresearcher/participantcopyprovided)
PARTICIPATIONINPERSONALINTERVIEWADMINSTRATOR/FACULTY
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
Pleasereadthefollowingpoints,andfeelfreetoaskanyquestionsthatariseasyoudoso.
ThisisaninvitationforyoutoparticipateinaresearchprojectunderthedirectionofScottFleming.Thenameofthisprojectis“AmericanIndianEducationalAttainment:AnAnalysisofFactorsthatHinderorFacilitateEducationalSuccessforAmericanIndianStudentsatPSU”.
ThepurposeofthisprojecttogainanincreasedunderstandingofthefactorsthatcombinetohinderorfacilitateeducationalsuccessattwopredominantlyWhite,mainstreamcollegesinPrairieState.Theproposedstudywillusethequalitativeresearchmethodsincluding;focusgroups,personalinterviews,fieldobservationsanddocumentarydataanalysis.ParticipantsinthestudywillincludeAmericanIndiancollegestudentsatbothPlainsStateUniversityandtheUniversityofPrairieState.Additionally,UniversityPresidents,DiversityCoordinators,facultymembersandProgramCoordinatorswillbeinterviewedinordertogainasenhancedunderstandingofthosefactorsoutlinedintheresearchquestionsfromaninstitutionalperspective.
249
Thisportionofthestudyconsistsofaoneononepersonalinterviewwithamemberofadministrationorfaculty.Thisprocesswillincludeatapedgroupinterview,andwillprobablylast1to2hours.Youridentifyinginformationandresponseswillbekeptstrictlyconfidential.Everyeffortwillbemadetoensurethattherewillbenopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinanyreportsorsubsequentworksarisingfromthisresearchproject.Yourtranscriptwillnotbeidentifiedbyeithernameorlocation.OriginalcontactsheetswillbekeptinalockedcabinetintheofficeoftheDeanoftheHonorsCollegeatPlainsStateUniversity.Thisinterviewwillbetranscribedontoahardcopyformatatwhichtimethedigitalrecordingswillbedeleted.Pleasenotethatallinformationdiscussedduringthissessionisconfidential,andthatwithyoursignatureandparticipationyouagreetokeepallinformationinthisdiscussionconfidential.
Therearenoknownriskstoyouforparticipatinginthisstudy.Pleasebeawarethatyourparticipationisvoluntaryandthatyouhavetherighttowithdrawatanytimeinthecourseofthestudy.
Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcernsrelatingtoyourparticipationinthisfocusgroupyoumaycontactmebyphoneore‐mailaslistedabove.YoumayalsocontactmyresearchsupervisorDr.XXXXXXXXXXat(605)XXX‐XXXX.Inaddition,ifyouhavequestionsregardingyourrightsasaparticipantinthisstudy,pleasecontact.
Dr.Ph.D.
ChairpersonoftheHumanSubjectsCommittee
Box2115,Library
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
Office:(605)XXX‐XXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
250
ThePSUInstitutionalReviewBoardhasapprovedthisproject.
ApprovalNo.:__________________
Asaresearchparticipant,Ihavereadtheabove,havehadanyquestionsanswered,andagreetoparticipateintheresearchproject.Iwillreceiveacopyofthisformformyinformation.
Participant’sSignature________________________________________________Date______________
ProjectDirector’sSignature__________________________________________Date______________
251
APPENDIXF:
IntroductiontoFocusGroupandDemographicQuestionnaire
IamScottFlemingoftheSociologyDepartmentatPlainsStateUniversity.
Thankyoufortalkingwithme.Iamapersonofancestraldescentfromthe
MeskwakipeopleofIowaandtheCherokeepeopletheSoutheasternUnitedStates.
WhileIamnotanenrolledmemberofanytribe,Ihavebeenaroundnativepeople
andcommunitiesallofmylife.Ihaveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunities
inMinnesotaandWisconsin.IhaveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPow
Wowsacrossthecountry.Ihavelongbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacing
AmericanIndianpeople,particularlyhowtoimprovetheconditionsforeducational
successforAmericanIndianstudents.
IamdoingmydoctoraldissertationintheareaofIndianhighereducation,
specifically,whatfactorscombinetofacilitateorhindereducationalattainmentfor
AmericanIndiancollegestudents.
Aspartofthisstudy,thefollowinginterviewisdesignedtoenhanceour
understandingofwhatfactorsworktowardthefacilitationorhindranceof
educationalsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withyourpermission,I
willrecordourconversationonadigitalaudiorecorder.AsItranscribethe
interviewallidentifyinginformationwillberemovedthuskeepingyour
participationinthestudyanonymous.
252
Iwillalsoprovideyouwithcontactinformationincaseyouwouldliketo
furtherdiscussanyfurtherinformationorissuesyoumayhaveaftertheinterviewis
completed.
DoyouagreetoparticipateinthisinterviewasIhaveexplainedittoyou?Do
youhaveanyquestionsformebeforewebegin?
DemographicInformation
Tobeginwith,I’dliketolearnalittleaboutyou:
DemographicCharacteristics:
1. Yourage:
2. Gender:
3. TribalAffiliation:
4. Placeofbirth:
5. Didyougrowuponornearareservation?
6. Wheredidyougotohighschool?
7. Maritalstatus:
8. Numberofchildren(ifany):
9. Yearinschool:
10. CollegeMajor:
253
APPENDIXG:
NativeAmericanStudentScholarships:SpecifictoPSU.
Abbott,Kasey&Karla‐Jr.andSr.S.D.studentsinsciencemajors.
Berg,Sherwood&Elizabeth‐Preferenceforhealthcaremajors.Leadership
qualitiesexhibitedinNativeAmericanculture/communityservices.
CrazyHorseMemorialScholarships‐Anymajorwithfinancialneed.
CrazyHorseHealthMajorsScholarship.
Daktronics‐Engineeringmajor.
France,William‐PrairieStatetribalaffiliation.
Houda,Eugene&MaryMilner‐Preferenceforscience,health,economics,and
familyservicemajors.
ManAfraidofHisHorses‐PreferenceforCollegeofAgricultureandBiological
Sciencesmajors.
MassachusettsIndianAssociation‐Forfulltimeundergraduateorgraduate
students.
Marken,Jack&Marty‐PreferenceforEnglishorcommunicationstudiesmajors.
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NativeAmericanScholarship‐PrairieStateTribalEnrollment.
Nichols,Henrietta‐Mustbeenrolled(orhaveaparentenrolled)withtheYankton
SiouxTribe.
Reifel,Ben‐PrairieStatetribalenrollment.
Roberti,HelenTrust‐PreferenceforEducation,Science,andHealthmajors.
Sander,Brede&Siri‐Engineeringmajors.
NativeAmericanScholarships:NonPSUspecific.
AmericanIndianCollegeFund.TheAmericanIndianCollegeFund(AICF)awards
severaldesignatedscholarshipseachyear.
FordMotorCompanyTribalScholarship.FordMotorCompanywillawardupto
$5,000annually,basedonfinancialneed.Thescholarshipisforstudentsstudying
math,science,engineering,business,teachertraining,orenvironmentalscience.
AmericanIndianEducationFoundation.MustbeNativeAmericanorAlaskanNative
descent;full‐timestudent;attendinganaccredited2or4‐yearcollegeoruniversity
oravocationaltechnicalschool.Threetypesofscholarshipsareavailable:freshman
scholarships;undergraduatescholarships;continuingstudentscholarships.
AmericanIndianFellowshipinBusinessScholarship.Eachyear,theNationalCenter
forAmericanIndianEnterpriseDevelopmentawardsfivescholarshipstoAmerican
Indiancollegeorgraduatestudentsmajoringinbusiness.
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AmericanIndianScholarshipFundAssociation.Providesscholarshipsandloansto
NativeAmericanstudents.
AmericanIndianScience&EngineeringSociety(AISES).TheAISESmissionis“To
substantiallyincreasetherepresentationofAmericanIndianandAlaskanNativesin
engineering,science,andotherrelatedtechnologydisciplines.”
BurlingtonNorthern/SantaFeFoundationScholarship.Thisscholarshipisavailable
to5newAmericanIndianhighschoolseniorseveryyear,whoresideinstates
servicedbytheBurlingtonNorthernandSantaFePacificCorporationandits
affiliatedcompanies:Arizona,California,Colorado,Kansas,Minnesota,Montana,
NewMexico,NorthDakota,Oklahoma,Oregon,PrairieState,andWashington.The
awardisfor4academicyears(8semesters)oruntilbaccalaureatedegreeis
obtained(whicheveroccursfirst).
A.T.AndersonMemorialScholarship.Thisscholarshipisawardedtomembersof
AISESwhoareAmericanIndian/AlaskanNativecollegestudentspursuingacademic
programsinthesciences,engineering,medical,naturalresources,andmath.
AmericanIndianServicesScholarship(AIS).AISofUtahhasfundsavailabletoassist
NativeAmericanstudents
AssociationofAmericanIndianAffairs(AAIA).TheAAIAhasseveralscholarships
available.Thevariousscholarshipsarebasedonfinancialneedandmerit.Grantsare
paiddirectlytoaccreditededucationalinstitutions.Themoniescanbeusedfor
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tuition,books,andotheracademic‐relatedexpenses.Studentsarechosenonthe
basisoftheirapplication,anessay,transcripts,andtwolettersofrecommendation
aswellasproofofNativeAmericanheritage.Thebloodquantumrequirementisa
conditionsetdownbythedonorofthisscholarship.
AlloganSlagleMemorialScholarship.TheAlloganSlagleMemorialScholarshipsin
theamountof$1,500areavailabletoundergraduatestudentswhoaremembersof
StateRecognizedtribesthatarenotfederallyrecognized.
AdolphVanPeltScholarship.Thisscholarshipisavailabletoundergraduateand
graduatestudentsinamountsrangingfrom$500to$800.Agrantisrenewablefor
uptofouryearsofsupporttowardsanyonedegree.Eachyearthegrantisrenewed,
$100isaddedtothestudent'sscholarship.
DisplacedHomemakerScholarship.Thisscholarship($1.500)isbasedonfinancial
need.ItisdesignedtoassistNativeAmericanstudentswithchildcare,
transportation,andsomebasiclivingexpenses.
ElizabethandShermanAscheMemorialScholarship.This$3,000scholarshipis
availabletoundergraduateandgraduatestudentspursuingamajorinPublicHealth.
DavidRislingEmergencyAidScholarship.Thisscholarshipisavailableinamounts
usuallyrangingfrom$50to$400duringtheacademicschoolyear.Theprogramis
forfull‐timeundergraduatestudentsonly;isbasedonfinancialneed;andislimited
bytheavailabilityofscholarshipfunds.Studentsmayonlyreceiveonescholarship
257
peracademicyear.Applicantsmusthaveacritical/suddenneedduetoachangein
circumstances(deathinfamily,medicalemergency,caremergency,lossofjob,etc.)
–aneedthatwasn’texpectedorwouldpreventthestudentfromattendingschool.
Therearenodeadlines.
EmilieHesemeyerMemorialScholarship.Thisscholarshipisforfull‐timestudents
withpreferencetostudentsmajoringinEducation.Thescholarshipamountis
$1,500andmayberenewedupto4yearsbasedonacademicgrades.
CatchingtheDream.ProvidesfinancialassistanceforAmericanIndiansinfieldsthat
arecriticalforthepolitical,social,andbusinessdevelopmentofIndiantribes.
Scholarshipsarenotneed‐basedbutareawardedonmeritandonthestudent's
abilitytoimprovethelivesofIndianpeople.
MESBEC(Math,Engineering,Science,Business,Education,andComputers)isa
programforhighpotentialNativeAmericansplanningtostudyinthesefields.
Maximumawardis$5,000peryear.
NALE(NativeAmericanLeadershipEducation)isforhighpotentialpara‐
professionalNativeAmericanswhoplantocompletetheirdegreesandobtain
credentialsasteachers,counselors,oradministrators.
TribalBusinessManagementProgramManagement.Isforstudentsinbusiness,
finance,management,economics,banking,hotelmanagement,andrelatedfields
whoplantoworkineconomicdevelopmentfortribes.
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ContinentalSocietyDaughtersofIndianWarsScholarship.A$500awardisavailable
tocertifiedtribalmembersenrolledinanundergraduateeducationorsocial
servicesprogram;studentmustplantoworkonareservation.
DakotaIndianFoundationScholarship(DIFS).TheDIFSwasestablishedtofurther
educationaladvancementofaspiringAmericanIndianstudentswithprioritygiven
tothoseofSiouxheritage.Thisisa$500pertermscholarshipforundergraduateor
graduate.
GatesMillenniumScholarship.Thisscholarshipisintendedtoincreasethenumber
ofAfrican‐Americans,AmericanIndians/AlaskaNatives,AsianPacificAmericans,
andHispanicAmericansenrollinginandcompletingundergraduateandgraduate
degreeprogramsindisciplineswhereethnicandracialgroupsarecurrently
underrepresented.
IndianFellowshipProgram.Fellowshipgrantsareawardedtostudentstopursue
coursesofstudyleadingtoundergraduatedegreesinbusinessoradministration,
naturalresources,engineering,andrelatedfields.
IndianHealthServicesScholarshipProgram(IHSSP).TheIHSSPisavailableto
conductthreeinter‐relatedscholarshipprogramstotrainthehealthprofessional
personnelnecessarytostaffIHShealthprogramsandotherhealthprogramsserving
theIndianpeople.
InternationalOrderoftheKing’sDaughtersandSons,Inc.Providesa$500grantto
259
NativeAmericanstudentsenrolledinatechnical,vocational,orundergraduatelevel
courseofstudy.
MassachusettsIndianAssociation.Thisisascholarshipforundergraduateor
graduatestudents
NationalSocietyDaughtersoftheAmericanRevolution.Providesaone‐timeaward
of$500toNativeAmericansbasedonfinancialneed,academicachievement,and
ambition.
NativeAmericanEducationGrants.Scholarships($200to$2,000)areavailableto
studentswhomeetthefollowingcriteria:preferencetomembersofPresbyterian
Church(membershipnotrequired);UScitizenorpermanentresident;enrolledfull‐
timeatanaccreditedinstitutionintheUnitedStates;makingsatisfactoryacademic
progresstowardadegree;demonstratefinancialneed;photocopyoftribal
identificationcard.
NativeAmericanScholarshipProgram.Upto$2,500peryearisawardedtoNative
Americanhighschoolseniorswhohaveatleast1/4Indianblood.
NativeVisionScholarships.TheguidingprincipleforNativeVisionistocultivatethe
corestrengths,values,andpositiverelationshipsforAmericanIndianyouththat
willmakethemresilienttotheprevailingrisksandhelpthemtransitiontohealthy,
productiveandfulfillingadulthood.NativeVisionhopestofosterschoolcompletion,
self‐esteem,culturalattachmentandpersonalidentity,andhealthylifestyles.Two
260
$4,000scholarshipsareavailable.
Udall(MorrisK.)Scholarship.Upto6studentseachyearfortheMorrisK.Udall
Scholarship.TheawardswillbemadeonthebasisofmerittoTWOgroupsof
Students:1)thosewhoarecollegesophomoresorjuniorsinthecurrentacademic
year,haveoutstandingpotential,andwhostudytheenvironmentandrelatedfields.
2)NativeAmericanandAlaskaNativestudentswhoarecollegesophomoresor
juniorsinthecurrentacademicyear,haveoutstandingpotential,andareinfields
relatedtohealthcareortribalpublicpolicy.
USDepartmentofAgriculture:NaturalResourceConservationService(NRCS)
Scholarship.TheaimoftheTribalScholarsProgramistostrengthenapartnership
betweenNRCSand1994Land‐Grantinstitutions;increasethenumberofstudents
studyinginagricultureandagencyrelateddisciplines;andtoofferemployment
opportunities.TribalscholarshipsareawardedtoU.S.citizenswhoarepursuinga
degreeinagricultureorrelatednaturalresourcesciencesata1994triballand‐grant
institution.Thescholarshipprovidesfulltuition,fees,books,useofapersonal
computerandsoftwarewhileonscholarships,roomandboardeachyearforupto
fouryearsaswellasemploymentandemployeebenefits.
AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeEmployeeAssociationforNRCS.Scholarshipswill
beawardedtoanAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudentpursuingadegreeina
naturalresourcesfield.Thescholarshipamountis$200.Therearetwocategories:
oneformembersoftheAI/ANEAandoneforanAmericanIndianorAlaskaNative
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studentinthenaturalresourcesfield.
USDepartmentofEducation.Fellowshipsof$600to$24,000areavailablefor
AmericanIndianorNativeAlaskanundergraduateorgraduatestudentsstudying
education,psychology,guidancecounseling,orarelatedfield.
PresbyterianNativeAmericanScholarships.ForAlaskaNativesandNative
Americanspursuingfull‐timepost‐secondaryeducation.Criteria:preferencegiven
tomembersofthePresbyterianChurch(USA);behighschoolgraduatedorGED
recipients;beUScitizensorpermanentresidentsortheUS.Demonstratefinancial
need.Preferencewillbegiventostudentswhohavecompletedatleastone
semesterofworkatanaccreditedinstitutionofhighereducation.