OF THIE

F’RANKLZN INSTITUTE

SEPTEi’VIBEK, 1829.

Hcnaadis on the Stowage and Sailing of Ships and Vessels. By Commander JOHN PEARSE, R. N.

THIS following remarks have sprung from ideas formed during and after a practical experience, as a seaman, of upwards of twenty years’ active sea service. solely with the intention of

I commit them to paper as a seaman; and endeavouring to show, by a plain state-

ment, what appear to me as errors in the system of stowing and sail- ing our ships. Perhaps I may venture to assert, that, generally speaking, there is no regular system followed, or that the subject is not sufficiently considered on mathematical principles.

Chapman, in the preface to his Treatise on Sti@ Building, ob- serves, that, ‘6 in the construction of ships, people usually make at- tempts, at different times, to improve the form, each person accordin to his ‘own experience; thus, after the construction of one ship, whit i? has been tried and found to possess such or such a bad quality, it seems possible to remedy this defect in another. to sa.y generalIy,) ha

But it often (not

equally as great, an f.Y pens, that the new ship possesses some f&It , frequently, even that the former defect, in-

stead of being removed, is increased. And we are unable to deter- mine whether this fault proceeds from the form of the ship, or from other unknown circumstances.

It thus appears, that the construction of a ship with more or less good qualibes, is a matter of chance, and not of previous design. ,4nd it; hence follows, that as long as we are without a good theory on ship building, and have nothing to trust to beyond bare cxperi-

VOL. IV.-No. ~~.--$KP~sMR~~, 1829+ 18

1 4 G t/11 t/d<, ~wciL4J/rfgc~ 1llLlk ~wifirr.g (jj xy/dips ii,tU! k’iSSCs!S.-

ilbe~~ts nnd trials, this art cannot be expected to acquire a*ry g*-eatcr. pcr.fection than it possesses at present.

;L At the same time, the construction of ships and their equipment are attended with too great expense, not to endeavour, bcCorehant& tc3 enh~ro ttrcir good qualities, and their suitableness for what they ;rrc iutentletl firr. T’lra theory thcu which elucidates tIE Causes of their d iff’erent qmkl ities, which determines whether the defects of a ship proGect1 fro01 its form, or Krotn other causes, is truly important; hut as the tlreory is unlimited, practice must determine its limits. We may, COI-rsequentIy, further conclude, that the art of ship builcl- in!$ can t1evel‘ be carried to the last degree of perfkction, mr all possible _goorl clualities be given to ships, before we at t.he same time pssess, in the most pert‘ect degree possible, a knowledge both of the theory and practice.

‘6 lAastlv, it is evident, from all that has been said, that o ship ot’ the best f&n wifl not show its good qualities, except it is at the sallle time: well rigged, well stowed, arrd well workecl by those who command it.”

I have qut)terJi the authority of Chapman, to S~IOW that rnnd~ de- perrds on the stowage and management ol’a ship.

Many esperiments have, of late years, been tried, many improve ments rnadc, and much, no doubt, yet remains to be done. But al- though naval architects appear still to diflFit- respecting the formation of the body, it a]J~mIrS to lnc them is less 1‘00111 for imprOVcment iI1

the structure, than in the system of stowage and sailing, which ap- pears to rcqurre considerable alteration, before it can reach perfection.

It has been very generally observed how well our own ships, after an action, and those captured from the enemy, have appeared to sail under jut-y-masts, or, comparatively speaking, they have appeared to sail better in proportion under jury-masts, than with their proper olleS-- a strong proof in support of- which occurred a few years since,

The Essex, late American frigate, sailed from Plymouth, under very low jury-masts, attended by the Dwarf cutter, of two hundred and ten tons, for Dublin, there to remain as a depot. At the en- trance of the Bristol Channel, they fell in with a large smuggling lugger, to which they gave chace off’ the wind; the Essex, after a cousiderabie run, capturing the lugger, and leaving the Dwarf out of sight, or nearly so -a proof she must have salled as fast as if properly masted.

I shall mention one more circumstance. It will be recollected, the Vanguard, iord Nelson’s flag-ship, lost her fore-mast O-K’ “Poulon, previous to his fleet joining him, and his pursuit of the French fleet to Egypt. His lordship proceeded in the Vanguard, under a jury fore-mast, to Egypt, back to Sicily, and to Egypt again, 3vlleI-e he found the enemy; and I do not recollect the Vanguard causing the least delay or impediment to the fleet. Had his lordship considered it likely, or that the Vanguard would not have been able to keep her station in chase, in the event of falling in with the ellenly at sea, he Would, no doubt, have shifted his flag to sornc other shiy: ant1 the

01~ ihe Buwct~~e ct& Suiliq of SKJN nnd Vesseb. 147

~ol.ld knows well his 1ordsIliy was too anxious to be first ,in action to risk any thin g that might disappoint him.

~~Jhl tlJWe and similar circumstances, an opinion that many of our ships are overmasted, may have partly or*iginatcd.

ships are supposed to be constructed agreeable to plans mafhe- Itlatically arranged, varying in their formation according to the ideas of difhent architects,*and intended to be immersed to a certain dq?tlj in the water, when complete and tearly f’or SCB. To which floatation, it appears to me, tlley should be brought to, and kept as near as possible, except there sl~ould be any material deviation in a. ship ftwn the plan about the load water-line; in that case it is bet- ter, and as a general thin, m it is as well, to observe the formation 04’ the bottom about the load water-line; arid be guided accordingly.

If a ship is built strictly agreeable to tile $:*n, and is inlmerserl tlrtepcr than tl~c buil~lcr intends, his views arc frustrated, and the object of coristructin_g ;t ship ;~dapled fur fiisI. sailing lost sight of.

Professor fnman, IPL Iris general remarks on the constructiou 01’ ships of war, obse(.ves,-

Cc It may be observed, generally, that it is advantageous to give the projected ship the requisite stability with as little ballast as p.os- sible, by which means a constructor is enabled to reduce the dis- placement or magnitude of the body under water, a circumstance very favourable to a ship in sailing and workitlg. With a similar view, every weight put on board, and reckoned in .getting the dis- placement, should be kept as low as possible. No useless baggage or weight of any kind shouIt1 be put on board on any account what- cver.s’

1 have quotec! the above auihoril_v as bearing a little on the point, and in corroboration of what I allege.

I-must also observe, that, by too deep an immersion, the TullesL part of the body would be carried below the surface; consequently, the displacement would be considerably increased, and also the re- sistance of the water on the lower part of the bottom. It, therefore, appears to me, when a ship, immersed to a certain depth, has not sufflcicnt stability under sail, that the masts should be reduced, in preference to immersing it deeper in the water.

That it is most natural a ship should have masts in proportion to tile body, below the surface, when immersed to what is eonsid.ered a proper depth, must appear very evident; and also that, with such masts, she would sail equally well, as with a deeper immersion alld proportional add ition to the masts. Rut it must be expected the ship would be more uneasy under the increased masts ill bad weather; and as the masts and rigging may be considered as back sail on a \vind, the incre:tsetl masts and rigging tkluSt also idd t0 the impedi- nlent of her sailing. Conse.quently, the advantage must evidently appear in favour ol.+ the lesser masts and immersion.

‘The case of the Essex must appea.r as stronp p~‘ot*f in favour of tl,~. priuciptc in sailing OK tile wind; beiilg, liu doubt, ballasted in l)r0porlioli to her masts. A i tile sillily: l.i~nt’, it iriust be allowed no j{JSt ClJl1t;lIlsiOll CXJlilll \Ia\‘t* IJt-rt~ rll.rivr!l 11-{1n1 :\ 1 l.ial \>f l:cr o11 a

wind; BY on that point, aIthough the sail mlg ilt be COnSided i-11 fair

proportion to the body immersed, yet, fl-om the body floating h&l,

above the surface, the resistance of the wind on it WUUld have beea

much greater than with a deeper immersion and masts in_pro Ortiorl_

Neither would the immersion have been su*cient to resist t f: e late-

ml impulse. Chapman, in Iris TreaGse on SGp Build%, O_bservesy that, cc to

determine the surface proper to be given to the sails, from the know_ led e which we have of the effect of the wind on Planes or sails, wit a different velocities in different directions, it Would be necessary to enter upon long calculations OC great dificulty:, and Ye! of little importance. We may compare plans of ships, and of tl!elr rigging, which are tried and known, and nothing will be required further than to be guided by those ships which have the best proportion of canvass, with respect to the centre of eEort of the wind on the sails and the. stability.;’

And professor Inman, in his gneral remarks on the construction of ships of war, observes, that, ~6 after all the pains the constructor Inay take, from the imperfection of the theory of resistances, Or from sOme other unknown causes, it is possible that a ShiPv on going to sea, will not be found to have the point Of Sail exactly adjusted to the mean resistance. In this case, nothinv can be done, except by altering the masting, for electing which, ifpossible, every practical facility should, in the first place, be left ia the building, or by bring- ing the ship more by the head or stern; thus adjusting the seat oC the ship in the water to the masting, as it is.‘”

By which it appears there is no rule which can be strictly de- pended on, to calculate a correct proportion for the masts “or their positions.

Many of our ships of the same class and computed tonnage, JiKer in the formation of their bottoms; it also frequently happens that one ship shows greater stability under sail than another; and that, with the same quantity of provisions and stores, one is deeper immersed in the water than another. The only supposition to be drawn from it, is, that they have the same proportion of masts and ballast.

If the supposition be admitted, it appears to me very erroneous, and that ships, though of the same computed tonnage, differing in the formation of their bottoms, ought not, as an estabiished rule, to have the same proportion of masts and ballast,

If one has less displacement than another, she will have less ca- pacity in the hold; cqnsequently, will not stow ~0 Inu,-h, or require so great a weight to immerse her so deep in the water, It, there- fore, appears most natural she should +~ve a less proportion of niasts.

As welt as what Chapman a_x’I? professor InnIan observe, respect- ing the proportions for,_ and porjltlous of, the masts, it m aY be supposed, from the many alteratlons_whrch have bee11 made in the masts of ouL’ experimental ships, there is no rule to be depencled o,l. Chapman observes,

And a3

rigging, kc.. ,” ” we may compare plans of silips at-ld ol- their

which I have ciuoted befor.e. That such would be the most CO~WC~ method co iIsccrta,-l, in true

t31 LA2 SLoWuge ctnd Suiling of 2?hips and Vessels. 149 proportion, there can be little doubt; hut it appears to me no just conclusion can be made as to the proper proportion of masts, till the system of stowage has undergone considerable alterations.

I have ventured to assert that, generally speaking, there is no regular system followed in stowin our ships.

7 In roof of which, I

think it is only necessary to recol ect the many a terations in the P stowage of our experimental ships, and the various alterations in the trim of them at sea, and which appear to have made considerable alterations in their sailing qualities.

It is a very common practice to trim ships, by making each man carry a shot or two aft; removing the foremost guns aft, and which 1s frequently done to ease a ship in a head sea. I3ut it should be recollected when a ship is in chase, the foremost guns are those ge- nerally first wanted, and require to be in their places, and the men frequently required in their stations. It must, therefore, a pear eviclent, that but few of our ships are properly stowed; and t lat it r is most essential an attempt should be made to itnprovc the system, to obviate the necessity of such alterations at sea, by a better arrangc- ment of the ballast, stores, and provisions.

I am of opinion that perfection in the stowage should be made a primary object; when that is attained, there will be a sure founda- tion to work from, in finding a true proportion for the masts. It appears to me perfectly easy, and I hope to see it reduced to a regu- lar and perfect system.

I am also of opinion that, after viewing the formation of a vessel’s bottom, very little consideration is requfred to determine how she ought to be stowed. Naval architects recommend the weight to be kept as near the centre as possible; to me the formation of the bot- tom points it out, and that the extremities should be kept as Ii&t as possible, to ease the pitching and sending motion in a head sea. That all has not been done to effect that object, and which appears to me easily may, I shall endeavour to explain.

Much cannot be said, and very little need be, as to the most pro- per place for stowing the ballast alone, or its arrangement: it is the distribution of, the other weights which can most- contribute to it; and the great weights, at present in the fore extremity, stand op- posed to it.

A fact well worthy of notice may be introduced here;- It is universally known how well, the Kent&h and Sussex smu -

gling vessels have atways sailed. The fact is, there is very litt e P but the cargo to stow, and that is placed in the centre of the vessel. A small quantity of provisions, a few sails, and their anchors and cables, is the only weight beside, and which is also kept clear of the extremities. And this method’appears to be derived more from a sort of established knowledge or practice, which descends from father to son, than an acquired system, as perhaps there are no men possessed of less scientific knowledge.

1 shall, therefore, only observe, with respc”t to the ballast, that it, sl~oulrl be winged ill l)rrrpoYtiou to tllc SL~~[JOSC~ 01‘ ascertained in. c:linntitrn ~,f the shill !(I ro\lin~q L .tticl 011 110 &cc~flllIki t.0 CXtClld if. fo tlhc*

finer parts; as without it, there is suflicicnt longitiidinal Space in z+ large ship to trim the bailast, so as to bring her to a prOper draught OF rvater, provided the stores and provisions are also properly ar- ranged, and those of the least weight selected for stowing nearest the extremities. To contribute towards which, I propose removing the rat-heads, and stowing the anchors further aft; which may be effected! in my opinion, with little or no difiicnlty.

Viewmg it on lever principIe, the weight is now at the very CX- treme end, and the Iever in. the position cc horizontal” of its greatest power.

Chapman observes, c( the reason of the pitctling and sending IT)O- tion is easily seen. When a wave has passed the fore-part of tfke ship, and is got near the middle, there is a great void space under the bows, where the ship is not supported. It precipitates itself, therefore, with a certain momentum, which is the product of the weights xn the for-e-part, multiplied by their distance from the point where the ship is sufficiently supported.

~4 This kind 0f motion is greater in ships which arc very full near the load-water-line, fore and aft, and very lean below; but ii‘ the weights in the fore-part are carried nearer the middie, the moinc11- turn with which the ship pIurges itself in this part, will be less; and not oniy this motion becomes less quick, but, moreover, the follow- ing waves which meet the fore-part of the ship, have less dificully in raising it again. ‘l‘he same observation may be made on the af’t- part. ”

The prececlin, * observations ought to be suficient to convince all but lhc most prejudiced, that I am justified in what I propose; and naval architects must concur with me in its utility, although they have never put itin practice. I Shdl, thWdbIY, lXJtb%VUU~ t0 ShOtV

that it is practicable. By removing the cat-heads aft, there would be a few fathr)nrs nlq)re

of cat-fall to run up, but which, considering the very short time take11 to cat the anchor, does riot appear to me can bc considerelI an O!J- jection : and the anchors being brought abaft the round of’ the 1)ow, would fish clearer of the side than at present, aad stow neater, anti similar to the spare and sheet anchors. .

From observations which I have made on several frigates, it a!~- peat-s to me, if the cat-heads were removed to the fore-part of the channels, which, in the several ships, would be from eight to ten [vet further aft than where now placed, that both stock and fluke would Slow perfectly clear of the ports. And when it is cotisirleretl that :L forty-six gun frigate’s two bower anchors weigh four tons and a hii1 t; which, together with the stocks, cat-heads, knees, fastenings, &c,, cannot be estimated at less than six or seven tons, there can be nu doubt the removal aft of so much weight would give considerable relief to a ship in a head sea ; contribute to a better arrangement in stowing the ship, an& in many cases, obviate the necessity of stow- ing ballast too near the after extremity. It would also be retk,oving fifty per cent. mere weight than the two foreml,st guns.

There are no vessels which rcquirc casing in a sea more l)lan ~ltl

tfj~ thrr: 14’/ouwye uxtG Suili’zc,g oJ’ ShYps c-rnd V&se&. 1st

hip ‘1’lle Wci$t of an eighteen gun brig’s tW0 bower anchors, stlwAc4, rat-heads, knees, fastenings, &c., cannot be estimated at much less than four tons; and which, by a littie alteration in the arrangement of the chain-plates, to admit the fluke of the an&or in between two shrouds, I am of opinion ma be removed aft seven or eight feet, and the anchors stow clear.of t e ports: as the spare an- { &Or Stows cIC;\r, \vhiclt is placed abaft the channels, I can see no reasoll why the boWc~L.R should not.

fn cutters I have had the cat-heads so far aft, that the crown of the amhor has stowed ~14~s~. to the fore shroud; they have stowed pet-fectly ch:tsy, nnd II observed that the copper about the bows has been Iess injured, than in vessels which had their cat-heads further filrward.

It is in our smaller. and sharpest vessels its eflect would be great- est, but t1lcr.c cau hc IIO doubt of its advantage in all ships; and ShoUltf tlic c!xpt:~.illl~nt be tried, 1 have no doubt it will be extended to all.

In many ships, ant1 illt our smaller vessels, the COaLhole is also very far fo1’1Viircl j at~l as the coals are a considernble weight, and not speedily consumed, I should recommend Stowing them further aft, and water where they are now, and to use this water first.

There is also a very great weight in the fore extrqrnity of a line- of-battle ship; the gunner’s, boatswain’s, and carpenter’s stores, which it appears to me may be stowed nearer the centre of the ship, by the following arrangements.

Where those stores are now stowed, to build a room to receive part of the bread from aft, keeping a clear wing passage round the bows, by which tneans the bread would be as well preserved as if in the a’fter bread-room. The bread forward can be used first., or it can be taken from forward and aft, alternately, as the trim of the ship may appear to require. The remaining space to be divided into store-rooms for marine clothing, slops, beds, and such light weights as are at present stowed in the after cock-p&

AI1 the mates, midshipmen, and assistant-surgeons, to mess in the gun-room, a much more healthy and airy situation than the tack-pit, and to have a store-room in the cock-pit for the mess-utensils and sea-stores.

By the removal of bread forward, the after bread-room may be considerably reduced, and the surgeon’s and purser’s cabins removed further aft. By such an arrangement there would be sufficient space abaft the cable-tiers for the -reception of the gunner’s, boatswain’s, and carpenter’s stores ; and which would not be mu& abaft the cell- tre of the ship.

Tn frigates, atso, and smaller vessels, similar arrangements shoulc\ be made as far as possible ; and if those were carried into e*ect+ there would be no necessity for extending the stowage OT the balfaSt t0 the after extremity, as is too often the case.

In the Crui-/.er, ~6 eightecn gun brig,” we were obliged to stow bn\last in t\\e bread-tonm- the ease, 1 believe, in most ol’ the brigs; \r[lici> ~\,oultl r10f I>n\*cl Ilc~Pn rerluisitc, had the :tnchors anti roal-h(jlC’s

152 (lj4 d/Le ,s’&??&‘1~i’ LlIZtJ .s’uihg- &g’ .w4ip and YW.WlA.

been tcmovcd trrrtllcl- at-t. Since: which, I believe, some alteratiOri has been made in the store-rooms; but if weight has been reduced 5~3 the fbre extremity, by that means, it has been increased again by the addition of a heavy forecastle, which also considerably increases the top weight. Poops and quarter boats have followed the forecastles 5 and to the little ten-gun brigs, all this additional top weight has beer+ added --even a cutter of one htindretl and twenty tons, follows the rage for carrying quarter boats.

I must repeat an observation of professor Inman’s, as it is most applicable to the point in question:--

66 It may be observed , generally, that it is advantageous to give the prqjected ship the requisite stability with as little ballast as pos- sible, by which means a constructor is enabled to reduce the dis- placement or magnitude of the body under water, a circumstance very favourable to a ship in sailing and working: With a similar view, every wei ht put on board, and reckoned In getting the dis- placement, shou d be kept as low as possible. No useless baggage 4 or weights of any kind should be put on board on any account what- ever. ”

Every one who can agree with professor Inman, must condetrxra the system of adding so much top and overhanging weight.

Forecastles were first fitted by the captains, were very fight, anal could not have caused much impediment to the vessel’s sailing; btrt the heavy way they are now fitted, many with heavy bulwarks above them, and other additions which have succeeded, must be material 1>- felt.

I may be told the quarter boats are of a Ii ht description; but when every common sailor will admit a jacket a ung in the rigging to be an impediment to sailing on a wind, I say it is inconsistent to carry quarter boats in such small vessels. But, aHowing them #ID be of a Eight description, the weight of the irondavits is to be added, and it should be remembered that when a vessel is launching, al- though its actual weight is not, yet its power is, considerably in- creased by the action of the vessel.

I was four years and a haIf first lieutenant of an eighteen-gun brig3 they were then in their original state, and no vessels sailed better, I afterwards commancled a Iarg_e cutter four years, and had many oppwtunities of sailing with brigs, in their original state. Subse- quent to which I commanded a large cutter three years, and under the orders of several of the finest brigs in their present state; and 1 am convinced they neither sail nor work so well as formerly; and that it is attributable to the alterations which have been made.

I am also of opinion, that by taking away the poops and quarter boats, building the forecastles as light as possible, with only a low wash-stroke of three-quarter inch elm dr oak board above it, which would be quite suficient, and removing the anchor and coal-holes further aft, they would be superior in their sailing qualities, and as sea boats, to what they were in their original state.

Masts are frequently raked, by some to ease a ship in a head sea, by others to improve hcc sailing.

()a dhe A'towage uud Skzili~~g qJShips and Vessels. 153

It does not, however, occur to me, that it can give much relief to a ship: for, supposing it to be the overhanging weight of the mast, acting on lever principle, which contributes to the pitching. hotion, the mast must be considerably beyond a perpendicular before it can have much effect; and admitting the supposition, it may naturally be supposed that a raking mast will act dlametritialiy, and increase the sending motion aft.

But there appears to me a great objection to raking masts, in ships and Square-rigged vessels.

If masts are raked, the yards are not at right angles with them, when a ship is on a wind, The consequence is, the sails are put Out Of their proper form, and drswtl, or I may say forced, towards a dialnond shape. TIN main-sail shows it in the diagonal girt across the sail from the tack to the lee-earing; the leeches of the sails are quite slack, and bag to Iceward.

II! is atlowed the wind acts on the snmc principle when striking the sails obliquely, as if perpct~diculnr-, or at right angles-its power decreasing its the obliquity inctcnscs. IF, therefore, the lee leeches of sails are slack; and bag to leeward, the obliquity of the wind must be increased, and its power lessened. It, therefore, appears much preferable to give a ship relief, by removing weight from the fore extremity, than by raking the masts.

I have frequently heard of various alterations having been tried in ships, to improve their sailing, and that raking the masts was the only one which proved successful. This is a circumstance which, it appears to me, may be considered as arising from some of those unknown causes alluded to by professor Inman in the following ob- servation:-

66 After all the pains the constructor may take, from the imper- fection of the theory of resistances, or from some other unknown causes, it is possible that a sllip, on going to sea, will not be found to have the point of sail exactly adjusted to the mean resistance. In this case, nothing can be done except by altering the masting; for cff’ccting which, if possible, eirery practical facility sho$d, in th& first place, be left in the building, or by bringing the ship more by the head or stern, thus adjustin, w the seat of the ship irr.the water to the masting as it is.”

The circumsta.nce, however, proves an error; but where, it ‘is dif- ficult to determine ,-and without being in possession Of partidui#r$, it were useleSs to attempt it. The ships might not have &ad their proper seats In the water; the point of sail might not be correctly adjtjusterl, or it might arise from som,c other cause.

It is evident, homeve’r, that, seated in the water as they were, they required more after-sail -conse.quently could not have steered well; and it geucrally happens when a ship steers badly she does not sail well. The conclusion, therefore, may very naturally be, illat raking the masts improved both steering and sailing qualities.

It, however, appears to me, when a ship 1s properly seated in the lvater, and requires more after-sail, that it is preferable to remove ,l,;fo;p~;;st a$;tle i‘urthcr aft I!KI~ 10 rake the masts, as it would

r T(, . . .- . r,,---_, Cirwr:.v s:ic L<! I SO!>. 5%

On l/w /‘hem~~2em-~ 0J’ IWcc4~2oes. #y Sir IIUMI’1IR.Y I)AvY? Bal*t-

F. K. S.”

WIIEN it-r the y~r?~-s 1807 ad 1808, I tliscovcred that the alkalies and the earths wet-e compchsccl of inflammable matter united to oXy- gctt, id riurnber of inquiries suggested themselves with respect to various parts of chemical science, some of which were capable of being immediately assisted by experiment, and others required for their solution a long series of otrservations, and circwnstances ub- hined only with d&culty. Of the last kind were the inferences concerning the gcofogical appearances connected with these dis- coveries.

The met& of tfle nlknfies, and those of such of the earths as I had clacomposetl, were found to be highly combustible, and altered by air and water even at tfle usual temperatures of the atmosphere; it was not possible, consequently, that they’ shouM be found at the SUP- face of the globe, but probable that they might exist in the interior: and allowing this hypothesis, it became easy to account for volcanic fires, by-exposure of the metals of earths and alkalies to air and water; and to explain, not only the formation of lavas, but likewise that of basalts and many other crystalline rocks, from the sIow cool- ing of the products of combustion or oxidation of the newly-discover- ed substances.

I developed this opinion in a paper on the decomposition oftIre earths, published in 1808; and since 1812, I have endeavoured to gain evidence respectin g it b*y examining volcanic phenomena of ancient and recent occurrence 111 various parts of Europe.

In this communication 1 sf~afl have the honour of laying before the Koyal Society some results of my inquiries. If they do not solve the problem respecting the cause of vofcanic fires, they will, I trust, be found to off’cr some elucidations of the subject, and may serve as the foundation of future Iabours.

The active volcano on which I have made my observations is Ve- suvius; and there probably does not exist another so admirably fitted for the purpose: its vicinity to a great city; the facility with which it may be ascended in every season of the year; and the nature of

??From the Philosophical Transactions, for 1828. Part I.