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SEMINAR TOPICS-PROJECTS-PAPER PRESENTATIONS

ALTERNATIVE FUELS

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ABSTRACT

Since the early seventies of the last century caused by the upcoming exhaust gas legislation

and the energy crisis of that decade. With the necessity to reduce the CO2-output of the

transportation sector a third extremely important reason entered the scene in the nineties

especially in Europe. Under these aspects only those alternatives are sustainable which can make

not only a positive contribution to clean air and energy security but also to global warming.

So the challenge for the future will be to bring renewable fuels to the transportation

sector. The options we have are hydrogen, which on account of technical and economical

barriers won’t have the maturity for market penetration within the next 2 decades and liquid

biomass-based fuels. Biofuels of the first generation are Ethanol and Biodiesel. Both can be

blended to gasoline or to diesel. But these fuels if used in their pure form not only need a new

engine application but also a new distribution infrastructure. Disadvantages of the 1st generation

are the low CO2 reduction potential for CO2 emissions and the relatively little yield of fuel

amount per hectare arable land.












INTRODUCTION

Alternative fuels, known as non-

conventional or advanced fuels, are any

materials or substances that can be used as

fuels, other than conventional fuels.

Conventional fuels include: fossil fuels

(petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural

gas), as well as nuclear materials such as

uranium and thorium, as well as artificial

radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear

reactors, and store their energy.

Biodiesel, bioalcohol (methanol,

ethanol, butanol), chemically stored

electricity (batteries and fuel cells),

hydrogen, non-fossil methane, non-fossil

natural gas, vegetable oil, and other biomass

sources.

A fuel other than gasoline or diesel

for powering motor vehicles, often with

improved energy efficiency and pollution

reduction features

Example: Electricity, natural gas,

hydrogen, and fuel cells are examples of

alternative fuel.

Contents

Ammonia

Biodiesel

Hydrogen fuel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_oil_used_as_fuel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Butanol

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioalcohol

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuels

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_substance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material













Ammonia

Ammonia (NH3) releases H2 in an

appropriate catalytic reformer. Ammonia

provides high hydrogen storage densities as

a liquid with mild pressurization and

cryogenic constraints: It can also be stored

as a liquid at room temperature and pressure

when mixed with water. Ammonia is the

second most commonly produced chemical

in the world and a large infrastructure for

making, transporting, and distributing

ammonia exists. Ammonia can be reformed

to produce hydrogen with no harmful waste,

or can mix with existing fuels and under the

right conditions burn efficiently. Pure

ammonia burns poorly at the atmospheric

pressures found in natural gas fired water

heaters and stoves. Under compression in an

automobile engine it is a suitable fuel for

slightly modified gasoline engines.

Ammonia is a toxic gas at normal

temperature and pressure and has a potent

odor.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia












Biodiesel

Biodiesel is made from animal fats or

vegetable oils, renewable resources that

come from plants such as, soybean,

sunflowers, corn, olive, peanut, palm,

coconut, safflower, canola, sesame,

cottonseed, etc. Once these fats or oils are

filtered from their hydrocarbons and then

combined with alcohol like methanol,

biodiesel is brought to life from this

chemical reaction. These raw materials can

either be mixed with pure diesel to make

various proportions, or used alone. Despite

one’s mixture preference, biodiesel will

release a smaller number of its pollutants

(carbon monoxide particulates and

hydrocarbons) than conventional diesel,

because biodiesel burns both cleaner and

more efficiently. Even with regular diesel’s

reduced quantity of sulfur from the ULSD

(ultra-low sulfur diesel) invention, biodiesel

exceeds those levels because it is sulfur-free.

Hydrogen fuel












Hydrogen fuel is an eco-friendly fuel

which uses electrochemical cells, or

combustion in internal engines, to power

vehicles and electric devices. It is also used

in the propulsion of spacecraft and can

potentially be mass produced and

commercialized for passenger vehicles and

aircraft.

Contents

Chemistry

Manufacturing

Energy

Uses

Advantages

Disadvantages

Chemistry

Hydrogen is the first element on the

periodic table, making it the lightest element

on earth. It is also the most abundant

element on the planet, although not usually

found in its pure form, H2. This is due to the

fact that it is so light, it rises into the

atmosphere.[1] In a flame of pure hydrogen

gas, burning in air, the hydrogen (H2) reacts

with oxygen (O2) to form water (H2O) and

releases heat. This heat is what will be used












as a fuel; therefore hydrogen is an energy

carrier, not an energy source.

Manufacturing

There are different ways to

manufacture it, such as, electrolysis and

steam-methane reforming process. In

electrolysis, electricity is run through water

to separate the hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

This method can be used by using wind,

solar, geothermal, hydro, fossil fuels,

biomass, and many other resources. The

more natural methods of making electricity

(wind, solar, hydro, geothermal, biomass),

rather than fossil fuels, would be better used

as to continue the environment-friendly

process of the fuel. Obtaining hydrogen

from this process is being studied as a viable

way to produce it domestically at a low cost.

Steam-methane reforming process extracts

the hydrogen from methane. However, this

reaction causes a side production of carbon

dioxide and carbon monoxide which are

greenhouse gases and contribute to global

warming. Even so, the current leading

technology for producing hydrogen in large

quantities is steam reforming of methane gas

(CH4).

Hydrogen production

Hydrogen production is the family of

industrial methods for generating hydrogen.

Currently the dominant technology for direct

production is steam reforming from

hydrocarbons. Many other methods are

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_reforming












known including electrolysis and

thermolysis.

Steam reforming

Fossil fuels are the dominant source

of industrial hydrogen.[2] Hydrogen can be

generated from natural gas with

approximately 80% efficiency, or from other

hydrocarbons to a varying degree of

efficiency. Specifically, bulk hydrogen is

usually produced by the steam reforming of

methane or natural gas. At high

temperatures (700–1100 °C), steam (H2O)

reacts with methane (CH4) to yield gas.

CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2 + 191.7 kJ/mol

Gasification

In a second stage, further hydrogen

is generated through the lower-temperature

water gas shift reaction, performed at about

130 °C:

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 - 40.4 kJ/mol

Essentially, the oxygen (O) atom is stripped

from the additional water (steam) to oxidize

CO to CO2. This oxidation also provides

energy to maintain the reaction. Additional

heat required to drive the process is

generally supplied by burning some portion

of the methane.

Water

Many technologies have been

explored but it should be noted that as of

2007 "Thermal, thermo chemical,

biochemical and photochemical processes

have so far not found industrial

applications."[2] Only high temperature

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_production#cite_note-Ullmann-1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_gas_shift_reaction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syngas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_reforming

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocarbon


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_production#cite_note-Ullmann-1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermolysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis












electrolysis of alkaline solutions finds some

applications.

Electrolysis

Approximately 5% of industrial

hydrogen is produced by electrolysis. Two

types of cells are popular, solid oxide

electrolysis cells (SOEC's) and alkaline

electrolysis cells (AEC's). These cells

optimally operate at high concentrations

electrolyte (KOH or potassium carbonate)

and at high temperatures, often near 200 °C.

Typical catalysts are yttrium-stabilized

zirconium together with nickel.

Thermolysis

Water spontaneously dissociates at

around 2500 C, but this thermolysis occurs

at temperatures too high for usual process

piping and equipment. Catalysts are required

to reduce the dissociation temperature.

Energy

Once manufactured, hydrogen is an

energy carrier (i.e. a store for energy first

generated by other means). The energy is

eventually delivered as heat when the

hydrogen is burned. The heat in a hydrogen

flame is a radiant emission from the newly

formed water molecules. The water

molecules are in an excited state on initial

formation and then transition to a ground

state; the transition unleashing thermal

radiation. When burning in air, the

temperature is roughly 2000°C.

Contents

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermolysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium












Hydrogen fuel

Hydrogen storage

Hydrogen technologies

Hydrogen vehicle

Fuel cell vehicle

Hydrogen fuel

Hydrogen fuel requires the

development of a specific infrastructure for

processing, transport and storage.

Main article: Hydrogen economy

Hydrogen fuel refers to the use of

hydrogen gas (H2) as an energy carrier.

Broadly speaking, the production of

renewable hydrogen fuel can be divided into

two general categories: biologically derived

production, and chemical production.[10] This

is an area of current research, and new

developments and technologies are causing

this field to evolve rapidly.

Fuel Cells

Hydrogen is a versatile energy

carrier that can be used to power nearly

every end-use energy need. The fuel cell an

energy conversion device that can efficiently

capture and use the power of hydrogen is the

key to making it happen.

Stationary fuel cells can be used for

backup power, power for remote locations,

distributed power generation, and

cogeneration (in which excess heat released

during electricity generation is used for

other applications). Fuel cells can power

almost any portable application that

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_fuels#cite_note-nrelH2production-9

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_economy












typically uses batteries, from hand-held

devices to portable generators.

Fuel cells can also power our

transportation, including personal vehicles,

trucks, buses, marine vessels, and other

specialty vehicles such as lift trucks and

ground support equipment, as well as

provide auxiliary power to traditional

transportation technologies. Hydrogen can

play a particularly important role in the

future by replacing the imported petroleum

we currently use in our cars and trucks.

Hydrogen storage

Although molecular hydrogen has

very high energy density on a mass basis,

partly because of its low molecular weight,

as a gas at ambient conditions it has very

low energy density by volume. If it is to be

used as fuel stored on board the vehicle,

pure hydrogen gas must be pressurized or

liquefied to provide sufficient driving range.

Increasing gas pressure improves the energy

density by volume, making for smaller, but

not lighter container tanks.

Achieving higher pressures

necessitates greater use of external energy to

power the compression. Alternatively,

higher volumetric energy density liquid

hydrogen or slush hydrogen may be used.

However, liquid hydrogen is cryogenic and

boils at 20.268 K (–252.882 °C or –

423.188 °F).

Cryogenic storage cuts weight but

requires large liquification energies. The

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquification

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slush_hydrogen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_weight

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_storage












liquefaction process, involving pressurizing

and cooling steps, is energy intensive. The

liquefied hydrogen has lower energy density

by volume than gasoline by approximately a

factor of four, because of the low density of

liquid hydrogen — there is actually more

hydrogen in a liter of gasoline (116 grams)

than there is in a liter of pure liquid

hydrogen (71 grams). Liquid hydrogen

storage tanks must also be well insulated to

minimize boil off. Ice may form around the

tank and help corrode it further if the liquid

hydrogen tank insulation fails.

The mass of the tanks needed for

compressed hydrogen reduces the fuel

economy of the vehicle. Because it is a

small molecule, hydrogen tends to diffuse

through any liner material intended to

contain it, leading to the embrittlement, or

weakening, of its container.

The most common method of on

board hydrogen storage in today's

demonstration vehicles is as a compressed

gas at pressures of roughly 700 bar

(70 MPa).

Alternative storage proposal

It has been proposed in a

hypothetical renewable energy dominated

energy system to use the excess electricity

generated by wind, solar photovoltaic,

hydro, marine currents and others to make

methane (natural gas) by electrolysis of

water. The methane could then be injected

into the existing gas network to generate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_embrittlement

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_hydrogen

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_tank

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_tank












electricity and heat on demand to overcome

low points of renewable energy production.

The process described would be to create

hydrogen (which could partly be used

directly in fuel cells) and the addition of

carbon dioxide CO2 (Sabatier process) to

create methane as follows: CO2 + 4H2 →

CH4 + 2H2O

Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engine is an

engine in which the combustion of a fuel

(normally a fossil fuel) occurs with an

oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion

chamber. In an internal combustion engine,

the expansion of the high-temperature and

high -pressure gases produced by

combustion apply direct force to some

component of the engine. This force is

applied typically to pistons, turbine blades,

or a nozzle. This force moves the component

over a distance, transforming chemical

energy into useful mechanical energy. The

first internal combustion engine was created

by Etienne Lenoir.

The term internal combustion engine

usually refers to an engine in which

combustion is intermittent, such as the more

familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston

engines, along with variants, such as the six-

stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary

engine.

A second class of internal

combustion engines use continuous

combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wankel_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wankel_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-stroke_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-stroke_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-stroke

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-stroke

http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/internal_combustion_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propulsive_nozzle

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine_blade

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamber

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamber

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine












most rocket engines, each of which are

internal combustion engines on the same

principle as previously described.

Animation of two-stroke engine in

operation

The internal combustion engine (or

ICE) is quite different from external

combustion engines, such as steam or

Stirling engines, in which the energy is

delivered to a working fluid not consisting

of, mixed with, or contaminated by

combustion products. Working fluids can be

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_combustion_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_combustion_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine






http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arbeitsweise_Zweitakt.gif







air, hot water, pressurized water or even

liquid sodium, heated in some kind of boiler.

A large number of different designs for ICEs

have been developed and built, with a

variety of different strengths and

weaknesses. Powered by an energy-dense

fuel (which is very frequently gasoline, a

liquid derived from fossil fuels). While there

have been and still are many stationary

applications, the real strength of internal

combustion engines is in mobile

applications and they dominate as a power

supply for cars, aircraft, and boats.

4 Stroke Engine Ortho 3D Small.gif

No higher resolution available.

As their name implies, four-stroke

internal combustion engines have four basic

steps that repeat with every two revolutions

of the engine:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawing_board

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor






http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/4StrokeEngine_Ortho_3D_Small.gif

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:4StrokeEngine_Ortho_3D_Small.gif







(1) Intake stroke

(2) Compression stroke

(3) Power stroke and

(4) Exhaust stroke

1. Intake stroke: The first stroke of the

internal combustion engine is also known as

the suction stroke because the piston moves

to the maximum volume position

(downward direction in the cylinder). The

inlet valve opens as a result of piston

movement, and the vaporized fuel mixture

enters the combustion chamber. The inlet

valve closes at the end of this stroke.

2. Compression stroke: In this stroke, both

valves are closed and the piston starts its

movement to the minimum volume position

(upward direction in the cylinder) and

compresses the fuel mixture. During the

compression process, pressure, temperature

and the density of the fuel mixture increases.

3. Power stroke: When the piston reaches

the minimum volume position, the spark

plug ignites the fuel mixture and burns. The

fuel produces power that is transmitted to

the crank shaft mechanism.

4. Exhaust stroke: In the end of the power

stroke, the exhaust valve opens. During this

stroke, the piston starts its movement in the

minimum volume position. The open

exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to

escape the cylinder. At the end of this

stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the inlet

valve opens, and the sequence repeats in the












next cycle. Four-stroke engines require two

revolutions.

Many engines overlap these steps in

time; jet engines do all steps simultaneously

at different parts of the engines.

Four-strokecycle

Idealised Pressure/volume diagram

of the Otto cycle showing combustion heat

input Qp and waste exhaust output Qo, the

power stroke is the top curved line, the

bottom is the compression stroke

Hydrogen vehicle

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that

uses hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive

power. Hydrogen vehicles include hydrogen

fueled space rockets, as well as automobiles

and other transportation vehicles. The power

plants of such vehicles convert the chemical

energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy

either by burning hydrogen in an internal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_energy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_rocket


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_volume_diagram

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-stroke_cycle






http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T_cycle_otto.png







combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen

with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric

motors. Widespread use of hydrogen for

fueling transportation is a key element of a

proposed hydrogen economy.

The drawbacks of hydrogen use are

low energy content per unit volume, high

tankage weights, very high storage vessel

pressures, the storage, transportation and

filling of gaseous or liquid hydrogen in

vehicles, the large investment in

infrastructure that would be required to fuel

vehicles, and the inefficiency of production

process

Airplanes

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen

planes.

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator

powered by a hydrogen fuel cell.

Companies such as Boeing, Lange

Aviation, and the German Aerospace Center

pursue hydrogen as fuel for manned and

unmanned airplanes. In February 2008

Boeing tested a manned flight of a small

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Aerospace_Center

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lange_Aviation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lange_Aviation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_planes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_planes


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_economy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine






http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boeing_Fuel_Cell_Demonstrator_AB1.JPG







aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell.

Unmanned hydrogen planes have also been

tested. For large passenger airplanes

however, The Times reported that "Boeing

said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely

to power the engines of large passenger jet

airplanes but could be used as backup or

auxiliary power units onboard.

In Europe, the Reaction Engines A2

has been proposed to use the thermodynamic

properties of liquid hydrogen to achieve

very high speed, long distance (antipodal)

flight by burning it in a precooled jet engine.

Rockets

Many large rockets use liquified

cryogenic hydrogen as a propellant. In

addition they use liquified cryogenic

oxygen, and liquified cryogenic hydrogen in

the space shuttle, to charge the fuel cells that

power the electrical systems. The biproduct

of the fuel cell is water, and is used for

drinking, and any other application that

requires water in space. The oxygen is also

used to provide the rocket engines with

oxygen for better thrust in space, due to the

lack of oxygen in space. Just prior to a

launch, the rocket fuel tanks are filled and

chilled. Particularly when used for upper

stages this permits a lighter rocket for any

given payload. The main disadvantage of

hydrogen in this application is the low

density and deeply cryogenic nature,

requiring insulation; this makes the

hydrogen tanks relatively heavy, which

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precooled_jet_engine


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_Engines_A2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times












offsets the advantages for this application,

but these disadvantages could be overcome

through the advent of better on board

hydrogen refrigeration, and liquifier

technology to produce fuel needed for long

distance space travel to a destination where

salt water is available, such as possibly

comets, moons, and planets. But another

advantage of using cryogenic fuel is that the

fuel system is able to be routed in specific

paths to act as a cooling system for the

rocket, which is crucial for temperature

regulation in extended use of rocket

propulsion.

Uses

Hydrogen fuel can provide motive

power for cars, boats and airplanes, portable

fuel cell applications or stationary fuel cell

applications, which can power an electric

motor. Main article: Hydrogen economy

With regard to safety from unwanted

explosions, hydrogen fuel in automotive

vehicles is at least as safe as gasoline.

Californiahydrogen highway

As of July 2007, twenty five stations

were in operation, and ten more stations












have been planned for vehicle refueling in

California. However, three hydrogen fueling

stations have completed the terms of their

government funded research demonstration

project and have been decommissioned.[2]

As of July 2007 the state of California had

179 Fuel Cell Vehicles.

Advantages

1. Hydrogen has the highest energy content.

Energy content of hydrogen is the highest

per unit of weight of any fuel. Therefore it

offers the most "bang for the buck". When

water is broken down into HHO, otherwise

known as oxyhydrogen or Brown's Gas, it

becomes a very, very efficient fuel. The

flame is cool to the touch but will still cut

tungsten steel like butter.

2. Hydrogen is non-polluting. Along with

it's effectiveness as a fuel, hydrogen is non-

polluting. The only byproduct of hydrogen

when it burns is heat and water.

3. Hydrogen is a renewable fuel source.

Again, think of where you can find

hydrogen. I have a glass of it on my desk

right now. A glass of water. I can get a few

gallons of it out of my faucet in my sink

right now. And just a few miles to then East

of me is the Atlantic Ocean.

Disadvantages

1. The Hydrogen Hazard Stereotype. By its

very nature, hydrogen is very powerful.

Who has not heard of the hydrogen bomb? I

have even had my HHO generator explode

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Hydrogen_Highway#cite_note-1












when I tried to ignite the gas coming from

the generator without the check valve

attached to the tubing. It sounded like a 12

gauge shotgun and only blew the cap off the

device

2. Costly to convert to liquid. Because

hydrogen is a gas, it cannot be compressed

into a liquid form without intensive cost and

energy input. Hydrogen is the lightest

element on earth. As a gas, it dissipates

rapidly. To compress this gas is very, very

difficult .For that matter, the cost to even

produce hydrogen gas is expensive. Even

the electrolysis units of the HHO generators

used in the hydrogen boost apparatus such

as in Water4Gas come at the expense of

horsepower. It takes electricity to generate

the HHO gas..

http://cdbrosius.water4gas.hop.clickbank.net/












CONCLUSION

In the long term, it is to be expected that the persisting problems of hydrogen storage and

infrastructure will be solved. The green light for the hydrogen economy can then be given

subject to a sufficiently positive overall evaluation. However, that is unlikely to happen in the

next 20 years.

The search for alternative fuels is ongoing. Hydrogen production continues to be

researched as a feasible solution. One way scientists are trying to overcome the obstacle of costly

hydrogen production is by harnessing the hydrogen released by cyanobacteria. Certain types of

bacteria contain the enzymes hydrogenase and nitrogenase, which catalyze the production of

hydrogen. Still, major obstacles must be overcome if this method is to become an economically

viable source of energy.

One is creating a strain of bacteria that does not simultaneously produce and consume

H2. This will allow production to be increased. The other problem is that cyanobacteia are

anaerobic, but also produce O2. Therefore, a way must be found to remove the O2 produced to

http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181fp/bioenergy/glossary/anerobic.htm

http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181fp/bioenergy/glossary/cyanobacteria.htm

http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181fp/bioenergy/glossary/catalyst.htm

http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181fp/bioenergy/glossary/nitrogenase.htm

http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181fp/bioenergy/glossary/nitrogenase.htm

http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181fp/bioenergy/glossary/enzyme.htm













enable constant production of H2. Though there are hindrances, potential solutions do exist. For

example, the next steps in overcoming these problems may include optimizing cyanobacteria, to

more effieiently produce hydrogen, and using nanotechnology to create semi-permeable

membrane to expell and block O2 from the cell.

http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181fp/bioenergy/glossary/semipermeable.htm

http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181fp/bioenergy/glossary/nanotechnology.htm













References:

1. Altork, L.N. & Busby, J. R. (2010 Oct). Hydrogen fuel cells: part of the solution.

Technology & Engineering Teacher, 70(2), 22-27.

2. Florida Solar Energy Center. (n.d.). Hydrogen Basics. Retrieved from:

http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/hydrogen/basics/index.htm

3. Altork, L.N. & Busby, J. R. (2010 Oct). Hydrogen fuel cells: part of the solution.

Technology & Engineering Teacher, 70(2), 22-27.

4. U.S. Department of Energy. (2007 Feb). Potential for hydrogen production from key

renewable resources in the Unites States. (Technical Report NREL/TP-640-41134).

National Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden, CO: Milbrandt, A. & Mann, M.

http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/hydrogen/basics/index.htm






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