Aggression, Sports, and Aggression, Sports, and the Moral Development of the Moral Development of

Italian AdolescentsItalian Adolescents

Franco ZengaroFranco ZengaroMiddle Tennessee State University Middle Tennessee State University

Sally Zengaro Sally Zengaro University of Alabama University of Alabama

Marcello MalfiMarcello MalfiICT, Castrolibero, ItalyICT, Castrolibero, Italy

Fan Violence—Catania-Fan Violence—Catania-PalermoPalermo

Team Violence—InterTeam Violence—Inter

World Cup: Argentina-World Cup: Argentina-GermanyGermany

Banned Substances Banned Substances

RugbyRugby

Rioting after Univ. of MN Rioting after Univ. of MN Hockey gameHockey game

Research ProblemResearch Problem

Cox (2002) wrote that part of the Cox (2002) wrote that part of the problem surrounding sports and problem surrounding sports and moral behavior is that many sports, moral behavior is that many sports, particularly high contact sports, often particularly high contact sports, often seem to encourage aggressive seem to encourage aggressive behavior that would normally be behavior that would normally be unacceptable outside of the sports unacceptable outside of the sports context. context.

Bracketed MoralityBracketed Morality

Sports legitimize acts of aggression Sports legitimize acts of aggression that would normally be considered that would normally be considered against one’s moral standards.against one’s moral standards.

In order to participate in sports In order to participate in sports competitions, athletes must suspend competitions, athletes must suspend the level of morality that they would the level of morality that they would normally use in every day life normally use in every day life (Bredemeier, 1994; Cox, 2002). (Bredemeier, 1994; Cox, 2002).

QuestionQuestion

How does aggression in sports How does aggression in sports influence the moral development of influence the moral development of youth?youth?

Purpose of the StudyPurpose of the Study

The purpose of this research is to The purpose of this research is to investigate the relationship between investigate the relationship between sports participation and the moral sports participation and the moral development of Italian adolescents. development of Italian adolescents.

LiteratureLiterature

Bredemeier (1983, 1985) has linked Bredemeier (1983, 1985) has linked aggressive tendencies in sport aggressive tendencies in sport participants to lower levels of moral participants to lower levels of moral reasoning. reasoning.

Bredemeier (1994) found that Bredemeier (1994) found that children who had higher levels of children who had higher levels of moral reasoning showed lower levels moral reasoning showed lower levels of aggression in response to conflict.of aggression in response to conflict.

LiteratureLiterature

Telama & Liukkonen (1999) found Telama & Liukkonen (1999) found that boys who played organized that boys who played organized sports were more prone to sports were more prone to aggression than boys who didn’t.aggression than boys who didn’t.

Segrave, Hastad, and colleagues Segrave, Hastad, and colleagues have found a negative relationship have found a negative relationship between sports participation and between sports participation and acts of delinquency.acts of delinquency.

Sports and Ethical ConductSports and Ethical ConductSilva (1983)Silva (1983) Females—Females—those who hadn’t played sports those who hadn’t played sports

and those who had played more than 11 years and those who had played more than 11 years approved of more fouls. approved of more fouls. Males—Males—those who those who had participated in sports in high school or had participated in sports in high school or college approved of more fouls than those college approved of more fouls than those who hadn’t played sports or who played in who hadn’t played sports or who played in

only youth sports.only youth sports. Kavussanu and Kavussanu and Roberts (2001) Roberts (2001)

A relationship between ego orientation and A relationship between ego orientation and moral judgments about of fouls and cheating moral judgments about of fouls and cheating

in sport.in sport. Ommundsen, Ommundsen, Roberts, Lemyre, Roberts, Lemyre, and Treasure and Treasure (2003) (2003)

A performance orientation was associated A performance orientation was associated with lower levels of moral functioning, lower with lower levels of moral functioning, lower sportspersonship, and a higher rate of sportspersonship, and a higher rate of

approval of inappropriate sports behavior.approval of inappropriate sports behavior. Kavussanu and Kavussanu and

Ntoumanis (2003)Ntoumanis (2003) An ego orientation mediated the relationship An ego orientation mediated the relationship between sports participation and moral between sports participation and moral

functioning.functioning.

Romand, Pantaleon, and Romand, Pantaleon, and Cabagno (2009) Cabagno (2009)

While moral reasoning While moral reasoning increased with age, soccer increased with age, soccer players also became more players also became more approving of inappropriate approving of inappropriate

behavior.behavior. Proios and Doganis Proios and Doganis (2006)(2006)

Moral reasoning increased Moral reasoning increased steadily across age groups. steadily across age groups. Education plays a significant Education plays a significant role in moral reasoning role in moral reasoning development. development.

Long, Pantaleon, and Long, Pantaleon, and Bruant (2008) Bruant (2008)

Organized sports players felt a Organized sports players felt a greater responsibility toward greater responsibility toward their team and obedience to their team and obedience to their coach. Self-organized their coach. Self-organized players expressed a moral players expressed a moral responsibility for each others’ responsibility for each others’ safety and the need for a safety and the need for a

mature attitude.mature attitude.

Theoretical FrameworkTheoretical Framework Kohlberg’s stages of moral development:Kohlberg’s stages of moral development:

Pre-Conventional, Conventional, Post-Pre-Conventional, Conventional, Post-Conventional thinkingConventional thinking

Cognitive-Developmental Framework:Cognitive-Developmental Framework:

Maturity is dependent on physiological, Maturity is dependent on physiological, cognitive and affective development.cognitive and affective development.

Moral Disengagement, based on social Moral Disengagement, based on social cognitive theory, as motivation for moral cognitive theory, as motivation for moral decisions. People who behave inhumanely decisions. People who behave inhumanely have found a way to disengage their have found a way to disengage their morals.morals.

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

1) Do younger adolescents report a difference in 1) Do younger adolescents report a difference in the acceptance of cheating or of sportspersonship the acceptance of cheating or of sportspersonship than older adolescents? than older adolescents?

2) Is there a difference in the way older vs. 2) Is there a difference in the way older vs. younger participants report an ability to keep younger participants report an ability to keep winning in proportion? winning in proportion?

3) Does an acceptance of cheating or 3) Does an acceptance of cheating or sportspersonship or keeping winning in proportion sportspersonship or keeping winning in proportion have a relationship to prosocial behavior? have a relationship to prosocial behavior?

4) Does an acceptance of cheating or 4) Does an acceptance of cheating or sportspersonship or keeping winning in proportion sportspersonship or keeping winning in proportion have a relationship to moral disengagement? have a relationship to moral disengagement?

DefinitionsDefinitions Aggression—cheating, Aggression—cheating,

sportspersonship, and the inability to sportspersonship, and the inability to keep winning in proportion.keep winning in proportion.

Sportspersonship—actions that Sportspersonship—actions that aren’t against the rules but violate aren’t against the rules but violate the spirit of fair playthe spirit of fair play

Keeping winning in proportion—Keeping winning in proportion—winning at all costs vs. accepting winning at all costs vs. accepting winning and losing as a part of life.winning and losing as a part of life.

MethodMethod

Participants: 314 adolescents ages Participants: 314 adolescents ages 13-19 attending high school in 13-19 attending high school in southern Italy. 117 females and 197 southern Italy. 117 females and 197 males.males.

ParticipantsParticipants

13-1413-14 2626

15-1615-16 124124

17-1817-18 111111

18+18+ 5353

0-20-2 8080

3-43-4 6666

5-65-6 5454

7-87-8 3737

8+8+ 7777

Ages-n Years Playing-n

Data CollectionData Collection

The participants completed The participants completed demographic data, the Attitudes demographic data, the Attitudes about Moral Decision-making in about Moral Decision-making in Youth Sport Questionnaire Youth Sport Questionnaire (AMDYSQ), a Questionnaire on (AMDYSQ), a Questionnaire on Prosocial Behavior, and a Prosocial Behavior, and a Questionnaire on Moral Questionnaire on Moral Disengagement. Disengagement.

Data AnalysisData Analysis

2 (gender) x 4 (age) x 5 2 (gender) x 4 (age) x 5 (participation) MANOVA and Pearson (participation) MANOVA and Pearson correlation correlation

Results Results

Significant positive correlations were found Significant positive correlations were found between moral disengagement and the between moral disengagement and the acceptance of cheating (r=.395, p=.01)acceptance of cheating (r=.395, p=.01)

Moral disengagement and the acceptance Moral disengagement and the acceptance of sportspersonship (r=.351, p=.01)of sportspersonship (r=.351, p=.01)

Prosocial behavior and keeping winning in Prosocial behavior and keeping winning in proportion (r=.276, p=.01)proportion (r=.276, p=.01)

Cheating and sportspersonship (r=.481, Cheating and sportspersonship (r=.481, p=.01)p=.01)

Significant Negative Significant Negative Correlations Correlations

Prosocial behavior and cheating (r=-.137, Prosocial behavior and cheating (r=-.137, p=.05)p=.05)

Prosocial behavior and sportspersonship Prosocial behavior and sportspersonship (r=-.193, p=.01)(r=-.193, p=.01)

Age and sportspersonship (r=-.121, p=.05)Age and sportspersonship (r=-.121, p=.05) Moral disengagement and keeping winning Moral disengagement and keeping winning

in proportion (r=-.15, p=.01)in proportion (r=-.15, p=.01) Cheating and keeping winning in Cheating and keeping winning in

proportion (r=-.262, p=.01)proportion (r=-.262, p=.01)

MANOVAMANOVA

Significant interaction with all 3 independent Significant interaction with all 3 independent variables, F (60, 1268.03) = 1.578, p = .004 variables, F (60, 1268.03) = 1.578, p = .004

Cheating, F (39)=1.879, p=.002Cheating, F (39)=1.879, p=.002 Sportspersonship, F (39) = 1.721, p = .007) Sportspersonship, F (39) = 1.721, p = .007) Age x sportspersonship, F (3)=3.128, p=.026 Age x sportspersonship, F (3)=3.128, p=.026 Years playing x gender x sportspersonship, F Years playing x gender x sportspersonship, F

(4) = 2.556, p = .039 (4) = 2.556, p = .039

Research Question 1Research Question 1

Overall, younger adolescents were Overall, younger adolescents were less accepting of cheating than older less accepting of cheating than older adolescents. Younger females are adolescents. Younger females are less accepting of sportspersonship less accepting of sportspersonship than older females.than older females.

Graph 1—Acceptance of Graph 1—Acceptance of CheatingCheating

Graph 2—Acceptance of Rule-Graph 2—Acceptance of Rule-BendingBending

Acceptance of Acceptance of Sportspersonship by gender Sportspersonship by gender

and years playing sportsand years playing sports

30

35

40

45

50

55

0 to 2 3 to 4 5 to 6 7 to 8 Over 8

Years

Mea

ns

Males

Females

It appears that playing sports It appears that playing sports moderates the relationship between moderates the relationship between age and gender and acceptance of age and gender and acceptance of sportspersonship. Age and gender sportspersonship. Age and gender alone do not have a significant alone do not have a significant relationship with sportspersonship.relationship with sportspersonship.

Research Question 2Research Question 2

There was no significant difference in There was no significant difference in keeping winning in proportion across keeping winning in proportion across age groups.age groups.

Graph 3—Keeping Winning in Graph 3—Keeping Winning in Proportion Proportion

Research Question 3Research Question 3

Negative and significant correlation Negative and significant correlation between cheating and prosocial between cheating and prosocial behavior.behavior.

Negative and significant correlation Negative and significant correlation between sportspersonship and between sportspersonship and prosocial behavior.prosocial behavior.

There was a positive and significant There was a positive and significant relationship between keeping winning relationship between keeping winning in proportion and prosocial behavior.in proportion and prosocial behavior.

Graph 4—Prosocial Behavior Graph 4—Prosocial Behavior

Research Question 4 Research Question 4

There was a positive and significant There was a positive and significant relationship between cheating and moral relationship between cheating and moral disengagement.disengagement.

There was a positive and significant There was a positive and significant relationship between sportspersonship and relationship between sportspersonship and moral disengagement.moral disengagement.

There was a negative and significant There was a negative and significant relationship between moral disengagement relationship between moral disengagement and keeping winning in proportion.and keeping winning in proportion.

Graph 5—Moral Graph 5—Moral Disengagement Disengagement

DiscussionDiscussion From the interaction of age, gender, and From the interaction of age, gender, and

sports participation, we can see there is a sports participation, we can see there is a complex relationship between moral complex relationship between moral development and sports.development and sports.

While past research has found that older While past research has found that older adolescents score higher on moral adolescents score higher on moral disengagement, this study did not.disengagement, this study did not.

Past research has also found that prosocial Past research has also found that prosocial scores were higher in females than males, scores were higher in females than males, but this study did not.but this study did not.

Males who play sports seem to be Males who play sports seem to be less accepting of cheating and rule-less accepting of cheating and rule-bending the older they are and the bending the older they are and the more they play sports.more they play sports.

Females who are older and those Females who are older and those who don’t play sports seem to be the who don’t play sports seem to be the most accepting of rule-breaking and most accepting of rule-breaking and rule-bending as well as females who rule-bending as well as females who play the most sports.play the most sports.

15-16 year-olds are the most 15-16 year-olds are the most accepting of aggression.accepting of aggression.

Questions for DiscussionQuestions for Discussion

What is different between males’ and What is different between males’ and females’ experiences with sports?females’ experiences with sports?

Are female adolescents coached Are female adolescents coached differently than males?differently than males?

What is the qualitative difference in What is the qualitative difference in playing some sports and playing playing some sports and playing many years of sports?many years of sports?

Future Directions for Future Directions for ResearchResearch

Examining the role of identity formation in Examining the role of identity formation in adolescents—How does identity influence adolescents—How does identity influence sports participation? How does identity sports participation? How does identity influence adolescents’ views of the world for influence adolescents’ views of the world for those who don’t play sports, especially for those who don’t play sports, especially for females?females?

When girls do not develop an adequate When girls do not develop an adequate sense of identity, they become more cynical sense of identity, they become more cynical towards life, themselves and others, and towards life, themselves and others, and they put a greater emphasis on pleasing they put a greater emphasis on pleasing others rather than themselves (Hamacheck, others rather than themselves (Hamacheck, 1988). 1988).