After completing this topic, you should be able to:• Understand the development of quality movement• Define the rationales for quality management• Explain the various purposes of quality management• Describe the implications of quality management in

Higher Education Institutions

Readings: • Chapter 2, B. Janakiraman & R.K. Gopal, 2007• Lee Harvey & Berit Askling, 2003, Quality in Higher Education• G. Srikanthan & J. Dalrymple, 2002, Developing a holistic model for quality in

higher education

QUALITY DEVELOPMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Evolution of Quality Hierarchy

Inspection

Quality Control

Quality Assurance

Total Quality Management

Inspect products

Operational techniques to make inspection more efficient and to reduce the cost of quality

Planned and systematic actions to ensure that products or services conform to company requirements.

Incorporates QC/QA activities into a company-wide system aimed at satisfying the customer (involves all organizational function).

Detection

(Reactive)

Prevention

(Proactive)

Mengimbas beberapa definisi kualiti:• Exceptional – kecemerlangan dan mempunyai

standard yang tinggi (Harvard / Cambridge)• Perfection – kecacatan sifar dan fokus kepada

proses.• Value for money – pulangan pelaburan.• Transformation – berkualiti apabila dapat mengubah

pelajar secara berterusan dan memberi tambah nilai.• Fit for purpose – memenuhi keperluan pelanggan.(Harvey & Green, 1993)

Definisi kualiti dalam pendidikan tinggi

Industrial effectiveness of graduates

Reputation

Quality of graduates

Quality of entering students

Market share

Quality of teaching

Equipment and support service

Financial power

Staff selectivity

Staff capability

Quality of researchGrants and funding absorption

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN

HIGHER EDUCATION

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Rationales for emphasis on quality:• Higher education for the masses• Growing climate on accountability• Greater expectations on HEI • Diversity of students as consumers• Increasing levels of competition within and across

national borders• Role of HE in stimulating economic growth• Value of international students to national economies

Innovators of Modern Quality Thinking

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U.S quality innovators:• Walter Shewhart (1920s – 1940s)• W. Edwards Deming (Post WWII until 1980s)• Joseph M. Juran (post WWII until 1980s)• Philip Crosby (1980s)• Armand Feigenbaum (1970s – 1980s)

Japanese quality innovators:• Kaoru Ishikawa (post WWII until 1980s)• Genichi Taguchi (1960s – 1980s)• Shigeo Shingo (post WWII until 1980s)

Walter Shewhart Quality Thinking

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Defined quality in terms of objective and subjective quality:• Objective quality – quality of a thing is independent of people.• Subjective quality – quality is relative to how people perceive it

(value) • Originator of the plan-do-check-act cycle.• May be the first to successfully integrate statistics, engineering,

and economics.• Founder of control chart

Deming Quality Development

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Quality as a result of redefinition of management:• “The people work in a system. The job of the manager is to work

on the system, to improve it continuously, with their help” (W. Edwards Deming).

• The reason – quality efforts failed because many managers unable to carry out their responsibilities because they have not been trained in how to improve the quality system.

• Quality is viewed as total quality because it covers every process, every job, and every person.

• For Higher education it is viewed as a system, utilizing systematic, scheduled and focused strategies on the control of quality.

Overview of Quality Development - Deming

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Focus on ten management actions:

1.Recognize quality improvement as a system.

2.Define it so that others can recognize it too.

3.Analyze its behavior.

4.Work with subordinates in improving the system.

5.Measure the quality of the system.

6.Develop improvements in the quality of the system.

7.Measure the gains in quality, if any, and link them to customer delight and quality improvement.

8.Take steps to guarantee holding the gains.

9.Attempt to replicate the improvements in other areas of the system.

10.Tell others about the lessons learn.

Dr. W. Edwards Deming

• Born on October 14, 1900 and his Ph.D in Physics at Yale University in 1927.

• He was a statistician, professor, author, lecturer and consultant. • While working at Western Hawthorne Electric Plant in Chicago he

noticed the poor working conditions and environment for the workers.• Scientific management system was at fault due to the objectives and

advocated the System of Profound Knowledge emphasizing on understanding the overall process of goods and services, the range and causes of variation in quality (use of statistical methods), the concepts of explaining knowledge, and the concepts of human nature (knowledge of psychology).

• Was credited with improving production in the USA.• His best work was in Japan in the 1950s where he taught the basic

“Elementary Principles of Statistical Control of Quality”.• Known for Deming’s 14 points and Seven Deadly Diseases. • He is often viewed as a visionary of quality.

Dr. W. Edwards Deming – 14 points

1. Create constancy of purpose towards improvement of products and services.

2. Adopt the new philosophy

3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality.

4. End the practice of awarding business on price tag alone. Minimize total cost.

5. Improve constantly the system of production and service.

6. Institute modern methods of training on the job.

7. Institute leadership – modern methods of supervising.

Dr. W. Edwards Deming – 14 points

8. Drive out fear – by encouraging everybody to ask questions, to report problems, or to express ideas.

9. Break down barriers between departments.

10. Eliminate numerical goals for the work force – targets, slogans, pictures and posters urging people to increase productivity must be eliminated. The goal is never ending improvement.

11. Eliminate work standards and numerical quotas.

12. Remove the barriers that affect the pride of workmanship.

13. Institute a vigorous program of education and training.

14. Create a structure in top management that will push everyday the above 13 points – transformation is everyone’s work.

(see chapter 5 in Janakiraman & Gopal, 2007)

Deming – Seven Deadly Diseases

1. Lack of constancy of purpose.

2. Emphasis on short-term profits.

3. Evaluation by performance, merit rating, or annual review of performance.

4. Mobility of management.

5. Running a company on visible figures alone.

6. Excessive medical costs.

7. Excessive costs of warranty.

Joseph Juran

• Son of an immigrant shoemaker from Romania and began his industrial career at Western Electric’s Hawthorne plant before World War II.

• Worked as a government administrator, university professor, labor arbitrator, and corporate director.

• Juran’s impact on quality in Japan was second after Deming. • Juran defined quality as fitness for use meaning that users of a

product or service should be able to count on it what they needed or wanted to do with it.

• Juran’s theory of fitness for use has five major dimensions; quality of design, quality of conformance, availability, safety, and field use (product’s conformance and condition after it reaches customers’ hands).

Kaoru Ishikawa

• Ishikawa identified seven critical success factors for the success of total quality control in Japan:

• Company wide total quality control and participation by all members.• Education and training in all aspects of total quality.• Use of quality circles to update standards and regulations.• Quality audits.• Widespread use of statistical methods and focus on problem

prevention.• Nationwide quality control promotion activities.• Revolutionary mental attitude on the part of both management and

workers towards one another and the customers.

Philip Crosby

• Known for his motivational talks and style of presentation in the 1960s.

• Developed the concept of zero defects while working as a quality manager at Martin Marietta Corporation in Orlando, Florida.

• Zero defects to turn out perfect products.

Introduced total quality management philosophy / absolutes of quality:• Definition of quality is conformance to requirements.• The system of quality is prevention of problems.• The performance standard of quality is zero defects.• The measurement of quality is the price of nonconformance, or the

cost of quality.• Has 14 points program for quality improvement.

Philip Crosby’s 14 point program

1. Management commitment – top mgmt must be convinced of the need for quality improvement.

2. Quality improvement team – mgmt must form a team of department heads to oversee quality improvement.

3. Quality measurement – quality measures appropriate to every activity must be established to identify areas need for improvement.

4. Cost of quality evaluation – estimate the cost of quality to identify areas where quality improvements would be profitable.

5. Quality awareness – must be raised among employees.

6. Corrective action – opportunities for correction should be pushed.

7. Zero defects planning – ad hoc zero defects committee should be formed from members of the quality improvement team.

Philip Crosby’s 14 point program

8. Supervisor training – all levels of management must be trained to implement quality improvement program.

9. Zero defects day – should be scheduled so that everybody aware.

10. Goal setting – individuals must establish improvement goals.

11. Error cause removal – employees be encouraged to inform management of any problems that prevent them from performing error-free work.

12. Recognition – public, non-financial appreciation must be given to those who meet their quality goals.

13. Quality councils – quality professionals and team should meet regularly to share experiences, problems, and ideas.

14. Do it all over again – the program involving the 13 steps above must be repeated to emphasize the never-ending process of quality improvement.

Armand Feigenbaum

• Best known for total quality control in the 1960s.• His teachings focus on the integration of people-machine-information

structures to achieve economically and effectively control quality as well as customer satisfaction.

• Advocates two requirements to establish quality – establishing customer satisfaction must be central and quality/cost objectives must drive the total quality system.

His systems theory of total quality control has four principles:• Total quality is a continuous work process.• Documentation allows visualization and communication of work

assignments.• Quality system provides greater flexibility because of a greater use of

alternatives provided.• Systematic re-engineering of major quality activities leads to greater

levels of continuous improvement.

Genichi Taguchi (1960s – 1980s)

• Developed quality loss function (deviation from target is a loss to society).

• Prompted the use of parameter design (application of design of experiments) or robust engineering.

Shigeo Shingo (post WWII – 1980s)

• Replaced statistical process control with source inspection (control quality at source rather than through sampling inspections).

• Referred to his system as a zero defect approach because it is the ultimate goal.

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN

HIGHER EDUCATION

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Previous research on quality in HE reveals that:• No universal consensus on how best to manage

quality within HE.• A variety of quality management models have been

implemented in different HEIs.• There was a reliance on industry quality

management models despite the fact that these models have been applied with partial success.

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN

HIGHER EDUCATION

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Measuring and managing quality in HE:• Quality has different meanings for different

stakeholders.• Education quality is a rather vague and controversial

concept.• A notoriously ambiguous term because it has

different meanings to different stakeholders.• As a result, quality measurement and management

are seen to be debatable.

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN

HIGHER EDUCATION

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• Quality Assurance has been seen as the important element in quality management.

• QA is the focus of external stakeholders which demand for increase knowledge and skills-based quality to support government national agendas.

• QA is defined as the planned and systematic actions deemed necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given requirements for quality (Borahan & Ziarati, quoted in Becket & Brookes, 2008:41)

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN

HIGHER EDUCATION

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• Quality Control – the organized effort employed by the company [organization] to provide and maintain in the final product the desired features, properties and characteristics of identity, purity, uniformity, potency and stability within established levels so that all merchandise shall meet professional requirement, legal standards as the management of a firm may adopt (Janakiraman & Gopal, 2007, p.14)

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN

HIGHER EDUCATION

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• National organizations responsible for the management of quality have been established in many countries.

• UK – the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) is responsible to inspect, audit and report on the quality procedures within institutions.

• Australia – the Australian Universities Quality Agency (AUQA) is responsible to monitor, audit and report on QA in HE.

• Malaysia – the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) is responsible to ensure the quality assurance of HEIs.

CURRENT QUALITY MANAGEMENT MODELS

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Total Quality Management (TQM):… a management approach of an organization, centered on quality, based

on the participation of all its members and aiming at long run success through customer satisfaction and benefits to all members of the organization and to society (ISO 8402, quoted in Becket & Brookes, 2008:43)

• It is a comprehensive approach to quality management that aspires to improve on quality through change and innovation.

• Encompasses the quality perspectives of both internal and external stakeholders.

• Works to achieve long term benefits for those involved and society as a whole.

Implication of current models

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• HEIs appear to rely heavily on industrial quality models.

• Benefits gained from these models have been on administrative and service function.

• Questions were raised by critics on the level of management and leadership skills in HEIs.

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY IN

HIGHER EDUCATION

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Driving forces for quality movement:

New public management movement

decreasing budgets

students enrolment

increasing competition

increasing demands from business and industry

increasing demands from accountable body

increasing demands from accrediting agencies

Accountability considerations may motivate government interest in the characteristics and performance standards of higher education systems.

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY MOVEMENT

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• Japan initiated a quality revolution in the 1970’s (Crosby, 1979)

• The United States joined the quality race in the mid 1980’s and has also made rapid advances (Walton, 1986)

• More recently, Europeans have launched cooperative efforts to improve quality

• 1990s have been a decade of quality approaches in HEIs

• Government emphasis was on value for money and fitness for purpose

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY MOVEMENT

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• Quality has become a mechanism of control in the 1990s• Procedures and methods of quality management were

prevalent whereby HEIs have to respond to new challenges and increase their internal capacity.

• New public-sector management emphasized on improving the efficiency and effectiveness of public services.

• In the United Kingdom (UK), the government concerned about quality and wanted to ensure that there was accountability on the public money that was spent.

• In the Netherlands, In return for greater autonomy, institutions would be expected to develop their own systems of quality control and assurance that would demonstrate accountability for the use of public funds.

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY MOVEMENT

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• In France the Act of Parliament 1985 set up an independent body to evaluate higher education establishments and the value of the public service tasks that they provide.

• In Australia, the Green Paper 1985 put the emphasis on the balanced between financial discretion with accountability. In 1988 the White Paper introduced a new funding mechanism.

• In USA, the National Institute of Education report 1984 called for greater student involvement in the learning process and focus more on the outcomes of the process.

• Only Germany did resist the external quality monitoring.

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY MOVEMENT

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• It was concluded that quality has been used as a vehicle for delivering policy requirements within available resources.

• It also operates as a mechanism to encourage change and to legitimate policy-driven change which includes making higher education more relevant to social and economic needs, widening access, expanding numbers and doing it with a decreasing unit cost.

• In short, external quality monitoring (EQM) became the predominant operational mechanism through which quality is used to legitimate policy.

THE DEVOLUTION OF ACCOUNTABILITY

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• Degree of control, extent of devolved responsibility, funding systems and the structure of organization vary from one country to the other.

• However, there was a tendency towards a dominant model of delegated accountability using standardized review methodology.

• The traditional British system of autonomous institutions have been shifting towards a government-backed requirements to demonstrate accountability and value for money.

• Delegated responsibility became a new trend for countries like China, Eastern Europe, South America and Scandinavia but followed by increase accountability and open to scrutiny.

PURPOSES OF QUALITY MONITORING

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There are four specific purposes of quality monitoring according to Harvey & Askling (2003):

• Accountability • Control• Compliance• Improvement

PURPOSES OF QUALITY MONITORING

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Object Focus Rationale Approach Mechanism

Provider Governance & regulation

Accountability Accreditation Self-assessment

Medium of delivery

Curriculum design, admin

Control Audit Performance indicators

Output Learning experience

Compliance Assessment Visit

Learner Qualification Improvement Standards monitoring

Customer surveys

NationalRegional

International

PURPOSES OF QUALITY MONITORING

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• Accountability – to ensure value for money, program is organized and run properly, quality of institutions and programs.

• Control – government control, control of status and standing of higher education.

• Compliance – compliance to emerging/existing government policy.

• Improvement – to encourage process of continuous improvement of the learning process and outcomes.

FORMS OF QUALITY MONITORING

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• Accreditation – establishment or revalidation of status, legitimacy of institution, program, module of study.

• Audit – process of checking to ensure specified practices and procedures are in place.

• Assessment – measure the level of quality inputs, processes and sometime outputs.

• Standards monitoring – monitor standards on programs by regulatory or professional bodies.

• Customer surveys – feedback from students, employees as indicators of service provision.

DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY MOVEMENT

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• The Baldrige Award, Deming Prize, and ISO9000 registration are three among many quality systems that may be taken together to establish TQM

• The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) is the highest level of national recognition for quality that a United States company can achieve

• The Deming Prize (initiated in 1951) has long been recognized in business

• In 1987, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published a series of global quality system standards

QUALITY ASSESSMENT

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• What is quality assessment?• Impact of quality assessment can be seen as a

function of two things: the methods used and the national and institutional contexts for their use.

• At national level quality assessment is a form of government way to steer higher education.

• At institutional level, quality assessment is associated with greater autonomy, flexibility due to diversity in terms of size, structures, prestige, resources, mission, history and leadership.

METHODS OF QUALITY ASSESSMENT

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The ‘generic model of quality assessment’ model includes elements:

• a national coordinating body• institutional self-evaluation• external evaluation by academic peers• published reports

Differences of methods are found in who assess what, how, and how often.

QUALITY ASSESSMENT

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Context

(a) National

(b) Institutional

Methods

(a) National

(b) Internal

Impact

Levels Mechanism

(a) System (a) Rewards

(b) Institution (b) Policies/Structures

(c) Basic unit (c) Cultures

(d) Individual

The impact of quality assessment (Brennan & Shah, 2001, p.10)

THE IMPACT OF QUALITY ASSESSMENT

• The impact can be divided into two levels - institutional level and the mechanism of impact.

• Levels include the individual, the basic unit (department, faculty), the institution, the national system.

• Mechanism includes rewards and incentives, policies and structures (changed committee or curriculum), and cultures (academic values, priorities and relationships).

• Improved academic standards and learning outcomes.• Existence of debates over the assumption of impact as

presumed improvement or enhancement.• Ideological is about improvement.

VALUES AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT

Four types of quality values (Brennan & Shah, 2000) :• Type1 – based on traditional academic values which

focuses on the subject field and quality is associated with strong professorial authority and control on academic hierarchy. Conceptions of quality are based on subject affiliation and vary across institutions.

• Type2 – managerial, associated with an institutional focus of assessment, with a concern about procedures and structures with an assumption that quality can be produced by good management.

VALUES AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT

Four types of quality values (Brennan & Shah, 2000) :• Type3 – pedagogic, and the focus is on people, on their

teaching skills and classroom practice. It is associated with training and staff development. Little emphasis on the content of education but a lot on its delivery.

• Type4 – employment focus, emphasis is on graduate output characteristics, on standards and learning outcomes. Takes into account customers requirements, where the customers are regarded as the employers of the graduates.

THE IMPACT OF QUALITY ASSESSMENT

• Quality assessment is sometimes viewed as a means of challenging and attempting to change existing educational values.

• Impact of Quality Assessment could be upon decision-making processes – how decisions are made, by whom, against what criteria.

• How quality assessment is organized and managed is a question of power and the introduction of system of quality assessment is therefore involved the changing of power balance between the institutional and systems levels.

VALUES OF QUALITY

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Type 1

Academic

Subject focus – knowledge & curricula

Professorial authority

Quality values vary across institution

Type 2

Managerial

Institutional focus – policies & procedures

Managerial authority

Quality values invariant across institution

Type 3

Pedagogic

People focus – skills & competencies

Staff developers /educationalist influence

Quality values invariant across institution

Type 4

Employment focus

Output focus – graduate standards/learning outcomes

Employment/professional authority

Quality values variant and invariant across institution

The Malcom Baldrige Quality Award

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Widely used in higher education settings, the goal is to fulfill customer satisfaction.

The core values and concepts of the award consists of seven categories:

► Leadership► Information analysis► Strategic quality planning► Human resource development and management► Management of process quality► Quality operational results► Customer focus and satisfaction

The Baldrige Award

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Leadership• Set company directions and seek future opportunities• A description of company’s leadership system• Organizational performance review• Learning through the work force• Responsibilities to the public

Strategic quality planning• New opportunities – Action Plan Development and

Deployment• Managing the competitive environment• Risks: financial, market, technological, and societal

The Baldrige Award

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Information and analysis

Examines the effectiveness of the use of data and information to support key company processes and company’s performance management system

Human resource development and management

To develop and utilize work force potential

Create and maintain performance excellence

Process management

Key aspects of process management

How key processes are designed, effectively managed, and improved

The Baldrige Award

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Operational results

Business results and performance

Financial performance

Emphasize quality system alignment

Foster a learning organization

Benchmarking

Malcom Baldrige National Quality Award

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Examples of recipients in USA:- Richland College, Dallas. 2005 recipient –

comprehensive campus management in the community college setting.

- University of Northern Colorado’s Monfort College of Business for quality management system applied to one school within a regional university.

- University of Wisconsin-Stout for the most comprehensive approach to quality management in higher education.