Online journal of volunteerarchaeologyand training

February 2010Adve nt u re s i n Arc h a e o l o g y

Maya Research Medical H istor yDeser t Refuge? Chief ta in’s Hal l

Past Hor izons

Ro ck-Ar t of S outh Central Cal ifornia

© R ick Bur y 2010

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24 A Refuge in the Desert?

Nick Brooks and Joanne Clarke have been examining how prehis tor ic populat ions responded and adapted to severe cl imat ic and environmental changes, specif ical ly the deser t i f icat ion of the Saharan region between about 6000 and 4500 years ago.

16 Painted Landscapes

The surreal pictographs of the Cal i fornian Chumash have been recognised as among the most e laborate and exquis i te examples of rock-ar t found anywhere in the United States . A team of archaeologis ts led by David Robinson is carrying out a detai led examinat ion of the ar t using the la tes t technologies .

Issue 11February 2010

Editors:Felicity DonohoeMaggie Struckmeier

Layout:Maggie Struckmeier

GraphicsDavid Connolly

Past HorizonsTraprain HouseLuggate BurnHaddingtonEast LothianEH41 4QA

Tel: +44 (0)1620 861643 Email: editor@pasthorizons.comWeb: www.pasthorizons.com

Contributors: David RobinsonNick BuryNick BrooksJoanne ClarkeKevin GoodmanTim PrestonAnnie EvansSergei Vavi lov ( images)Odd-Arild Bugge (images)Chris Zielecki (images)Front cover: Los Padres pictograph with bedrock mortars .© Rick Bury 2010

NotePast Horizons can give no endorsement of any listed project or guarantee the accuracy of the information supplied. The editors accept no responsibility for any loss, injury, or inconvenience sustained by anyone using the resources contained within this magazine and/or the websites mentioned herein. When considering a project, be sure to contact the director with any questions you might have about conditions, travel, health issues, etc. Check for references from previous participants, seek advice where possible and select a project that will be of the greatest benefit to you, the project and the team.

All content is copyright and no reproduction of text or images is allowed without prior permission from the author.

Past Horizons 2010

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5 EditorialThe long-term approach.

6 News News stories from around the world.

48 Dig InVolunteer digs and field schools for 2010.

50 Dig CookCulinary escapades from Annie Evans.

52 Focus OnArchaeotek digs in Romania for 2010.

53 ViewpointDavid Connolly discusses illustration and photography in archaeology.

54 Back PagesPseudo archaeology.

Contents

8 Chum Balam-Nal

The Maya Research Program has been carrying out research at Blue Creek in Belize for many years now. Their main focus of study centres on why an advanced society such as the Maya collapsed so dramatically. Their plans for the 2010 field season include the excavation of an elite area known as Chum Balam-Nal.

44 Medicine Man

Re-enactor Kevin Goodman describes the fascinating world of medical history and how research helps him bring authenticity to his performance.

Regulars

36 Lords of the Sea

The Lofotr Museum is a replica of the largest chieftain’s long-house ever found in Scandinavia. The excavation of the long-house revealed much about life in late Iron-Age Northern Norway and showed that the inhabitants had travelled widely in order to trade.

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adam@aerial-cam.co.uk

www.aerial-cam.co.uk

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editorial

Maggie Struckmeier

editor@pasthorizons.com

T h e Lo n g -Te r m A p p r o a c h. . .Welcome to the la tes t issue of Past Horizons with i ts exci t ing select ion of archaeological projects f rom around the globe. Immerse yourself in the t ropical world of the Maya in Bel ize , Chumash rock-ar t in the dry cave-strewn landscape of south-central Cal i fornia , and pre-his tor ic nomadic cat t le herders in the baked heat of the Western Deser t .

Consider ing the divers i ty of locat ion and subject mat ter, a l l three of these projects share a common purpose; namely a commitment to longevi ty of research. The directors are not just in i t for the short term but are dedicated to col lect ing information over an extended per iod to provide a corpus of data that feeds into a larger research framework.

For example, the area of Blue Creek (page 8) in northern Bel ize has been s tudied intensively for 18 years under the auspices of the Maya Research Program and al though great things have been achieved there , es tabl ishing answers to the bigger quest ion of why Maya society col lapsed requires a s t rong obl igat ion to the larger task in hand. Not only does Blue Creek need to be s tudied as an ent i ty in i tself , but should be placed within the greater Maya world to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the society and the problems they faced.

The energy to dr ive forward these projects undoubtedly comes from the directors who have the abi l i ty to inspire the s tudents and volunteers who wil l form the next generat ion of researchers , and Blue Creek is no except ion. Tim Preston (co-wri ter of the Blue Creek ar t ic le) f i rs t arr ived as a volunteer in 2001 and is now a ful ly-f ledged archaeologis t commit ted to the ongoing work within the Maya Research Program.

A strong commitment to this type of work over a sustained per iod can eventual ly make a s ignif icant difference to the outcome, but i t takes a ser ious amount of perseverance. The Western Sahara project (page 24) has , with the help of volunteers , methodical ly col lected both cl imate and archaeological data for the past e ight years . Directors Nick Brooks and Joanne Clarke are very aware that there is much more work for them to do, and give up their own t ime each year to lead this expedi t ion to uncover new and exci t ing information about the evolut ion of a l i t t le-explored par t of the world.

The systematic approach to gather ing information forms the basis of our third project , Painted Landscapes (page 16) . Here, the team members have dedicated themselves to long-term research goals adopt ing a mult i - temporal approach to the s tudy of rock-ar t and i ts associated archaeology. Recognis ing that the rock-ar t cannot be s tudied to the exclusion of a l l o ther e lements makes this an exci t ing project to be par t of . I t wi l l take years of research to bui ld up a picture of the l ives of the Chumash and how they interacted with their environment , but i t i s cer ta in to lead to many discoveries .

I t i s a l l too easy to adopt a hi t -and-run approach to archaeology where the only thing that is important is the chance to dig up a few ar tefacts which, in the end, may impart l i t t le knowledge of real s ignif icance. A considered research agenda produces meaningful resul ts that give purpose to years of hard work, so go ahead, read and enjoy, but remember, you can actual ly be par t of these or other s imilar projects .They need your support!

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new

s A skul l , d iscovered las t year in the mud of the River Thames foreshore at the Is les of Dogs in London, has been proving something of a mystery.

Nick Stevens, who came across i t whi le out walking along the foreshore, informed the pol ice immediately who removed i t for fur ther examinat ion. However, deciding i t was not a forensic case, the skul l was passed into the care of the osteoarchaeology sect ion at the Museum of London for assessment .

Curious as to the skul l ’s or igins , Nick returned to the foreshore in ear ly January this year with Nathal ie Cohen, a team leader f rom the Thames Discovery Programme. They re-examined the area and found par ts of the upper torso and arm just before the t ide came in . Returning the fol lowing day with a ful l team, the rest of the skeleton was excavated.

The team members managed to recover a largely complete skeleton of a fa i r ly young individual , probably around 12-years-old, who they are cer ta in had been buried at this spot . Although i t was diff icul t to see a dis t inct grave cut , the body had been placed in a hole . Changes were not iceable in the

immediate context of the burial and the ar t iculat ion of the skeleton made this the most l ikely scenario.

I t proved to be an extremely chal lenging excavat ion. The burial lay very close to the low t ide level and the team only had around an hour to uncover, l i f t and record the bones. This process was made diff icul t by the resul tant waves from each passing vessel that threatened to wash away any exposed mater ia l . Consequent ly, once the bones were exposed they were photographed and immediately l i f ted so as not to lose them to the water. Fi lm-maker Anies Hassan was also on hand to record the day the skeleton was l i f ted from i ts grave.

The skul l re turned a date of cal AD 1735–1805 (52.8% probabi l i ty) . Why this young person was la id to res t here in the cold grey mud of the Is le of Dogs wil l remain a mystery. However, the burial took place in an area that was largely undeveloped at this t ime. Old maps show that the main features of interest were a l ine of mil ls s t re tching along the western s ide, Horseferry House at the southern t ip of the peninsula and a gal lows in between – a gr im reminder of the harshness of e ighteenth century London l i fe .

A Thames Foreshore M yster y

red

Find out more about the Thames Discover y Programme: http://w w w.thamesdiscover y.org

cl ick here to see the videoht tp: / /www.vimeo.com/8801439

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redFind i t Here

BATTIFERRO

past horizons 8

ChumBalam-NalExcavat ions at B lue Creek , Bel ize

M a ya R e s e a r c h Pr o g ra m v o l u n t e e r s , l o ca l h e l p a n d s t a f f s t r i p p i n g h u m i c o v e r b u r d e n a t C h u m B a l a m - N a l

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T he Maya Research Program (MRP) at Blue Creek was formed 18 years ago to carry out research, survey and excavat ion to a t tempt to uncover more information about the Maya; their or igins , their r ise to power

and in par t icular, their eventual decl ine.

There are many theories that t ry to address the Late Classic era col lapse (mid 900AD) of the Maya civi l isat ion. Some point towards pers is tent warfare , others highl ight overpopulat ion, environmental degradat ion, deforestat ion, and drought , but in t ruth we are s t i l l no closer to knowing the t ruth. In the coming years the Blue Creek project a ims to focus i ts a t tent ion in this direct ion providing data for scholars and inst i tut ions around the world in order to advance the debate .

By Dr. Thomas Guderjan and Tim Preston

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Blue Creek is located in northwestern Bel ize , c lose to the border with Mexico. I t was a pol i ty with a c i ty centre incorporat ing major monumental archi tecture , out lying el i te res ident ia l zones and extensive agricul tural areas .

Occupied for a re la t ively long per iod of t ime, f rom the Middle Preclassic (900-300BC) to c i rca 1100 AD, Blue Creek has been – and cont inues to be – an ideal subject for the s tudy

of the Mayan civi l isat ion and i ts eventual col lapse.

Over the past 18 years much of the publ ic archi tecture a t the core or central area has been excavated along with some of the el i te and non el i te res idences. The core is made up of two large plazas with a number of associated bui ldings along with a bal lcourt which s i ts on top of a large platform.

I t was clear ly a weal thy ci ty evidenced in some par t by the large quant i ty of Late Preclassic and Early Classic jade found around the s i te . I t may have supported an est imated 15-20 thousand inhabi tants a t i ts height and ruled over an area of 100-150 square ki lometres .

The f i rs t monumental archi tecture a t Blue Creek was bui l t towards the end of the Late Preclassic per iod but i t was during the Early Classic per iod of 200-600AD that saw major construct ion works. By the t ime the Late Classic per iod is reached not only were some el i te res idences becoming grander but new areas were being inhabi ted for the f i rs t t ime. After this point there appears to be l i t t le or no construct ion work taking place, leading eventual ly to a lmost total abandonment of the s i te .

Blue Creek represents one of the most wel l -s tudied and longest-cont inui ty excavat ions in the Americas . The s i te cont inues to produce new and exci t ing possibi l i t ies year af ter year and the 2009 season was no except ion. The MRP team, consis t ing of s taff , s tudents and

MAYA TIMELINE

O n e o f t w o p y ra m i d s w h i c h f o r m p a r t o f t h e p l a z a B s e c t o r o f t h e B l u e C r e e k co r e

1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600ADBC

Early Preclassic Late Preclassic Late ClassicMiddle Preclassic Early Classic Post Classic

Writing is developed in Mesoamérica.

1750:Minoan Crete flourishes

1339: Tutankamunand Egyptian New Kingdom

753:Rome founded in Italy

Birth of Christ323:Alexander the Great conquers Persia

410:RomansleaveBritain

630:Mohammedtakes Mecca

901:VikingsdiscoverGreenland

1066:Norman conquest of England

1348:Black Death in Europe

1492:Columbuslands on Guanahani

The earliest known solar calendars carved in stone by the Maya.

Founding of the Royal Dynasty of Tikal.

Tikal becomes first great Maya city,Teotihuacán citizensintroduce new ideas such as weaponry,ritual practices and human sacrifice.

Unknown event destroys civilisation at Teotihuacán.Tikal becomes largest city-state in Mesoamérica.

The Classic Period of Maya history ends, with the collapse of the southern lowland cities.

1517: The Spanish first arrive on the shores of Yucatánunder Hernández de Córdoba,

Maya alliances begin to break down. Trade between city-states declines and conflict increases.

Mayapán becomes the capital of Yucatán, and forms the League of Mayapán

Maya adopt idea of a hierarchical society ruled by nobles and kings.

The rise of the Olmec civilization, from which many aspects of Maya culture are derived. Village farming becomes established throughout Maya regions. Early artistic epoch of the Maya in

Belize, stucco platforms, elaborate ceramics and use of cultivated crops.

Dates in Maya Long Count Calendar

past horizons11

HONDURAS

BELIZE

NICARAGUA

EL SALVADOR

GUATEMALA

MEXICO

YUCATAN

Gulf of

Mexico

Carribean Sea

Pacific Ocean

Blue Creek

Coba

Chichen Itza

Kalakmul

Tikal

Copan

La Milpa

Lamanai

Palenque

MayapanBelize

S o m e a r t e f a c t s f o u n d a t B l u e C r e e k

1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600ADBC

Early Preclassic Late Preclassic Late ClassicMiddle Preclassic Early Classic Post Classic

Writing is developed in Mesoamérica.

1750:Minoan Crete flourishes

1339: Tutankamunand Egyptian New Kingdom

753:Rome founded in Italy

Birth of Christ323:Alexander the Great conquers Persia

410:RomansleaveBritain

630:Mohammedtakes Mecca

901:VikingsdiscoverGreenland

1066:Norman conquest of England

1348:Black Death in Europe

1492:Columbuslands on Guanahani

The earliest known solar calendars carved in stone by the Maya.

Founding of the Royal Dynasty of Tikal.

Tikal becomes first great Maya city,Teotihuacán citizensintroduce new ideas such as weaponry,ritual practices and human sacrifice.

Unknown event destroys civilisation at Teotihuacán.Tikal becomes largest city-state in Mesoamérica.

The Classic Period of Maya history ends, with the collapse of the southern lowland cities.

1517: The Spanish first arrive on the shores of Yucatánunder Hernández de Córdoba,

Maya alliances begin to break down. Trade between city-states declines and conflict increases.

Mayapán becomes the capital of Yucatán, and forms the League of Mayapán

Maya adopt idea of a hierarchical society ruled by nobles and kings.

The rise of the Olmec civilization, from which many aspects of Maya culture are derived. Village farming becomes established throughout Maya regions. Early artistic epoch of the Maya in

Belize, stucco platforms, elaborate ceramics and use of cultivated crops.

Dates in Maya Long Count Calendar

past horizons 12

volunteers f rom around the world, undertook seven excavat ions in three separate locat ions as wel l as conduct ing several intensive survey and mapping operat ions including two interest ing s i tes , Nojol Nah and Grey Fox.

Although within the Blue Creek survey area, Nojol Nah appears to be a centre of monumental archi tecture . At the moment i ts re la t ionship to Blue Creek is unclear but i t may be a suburban centre connected to an al l ied pol i ty or even an ent i re ly separate c i ty-s ta te . Excavat ions wil l cont inue the research in 2010. Grey Fox seems to share the same character is t ics as Nojol Nah and is s l ight ly smaller in scale than Blue Creek but remains to be invest igated properly.

New approaches and techniques cont inue to chal lenge previous theories and have led to new and exci t ing discoveries a t Blue Creek. The MRP team acknowledging this new potent ia l decided to implement a large-scale re-examinat ion of the areas near the core .

As par t of this project Chum Balam-Nal which l ies one ki lometre direct ly south of the core , was surveyed. An ear l ier survey from 1998 had suggested the presence of a large high el i te courtyard but this had never been examined in any great detai l .

The new survey successful ly re located the courtyard and clear ly shows that the associated s t ructures , their placement and dis t r ibut ion on the landscape differ s ignif icant ly f rom the ones lying to the north of the core . As a resul t of this discovery more resources have been devoted to carrying out excavat ions at Chum Balam-Nal in the coming years .

A resident ia l zone, Chum Balam-Nal is located along the Rio Bravo escarpment . The northernmost border is def ined by a deep ravine cut by seasonal water f low. The eastern border is formed by the escarpment i tself . The western and southern extents of the zone have yet to be def ined.

The inter ior of the CBN-13 courtyard group platform measures 12.5 metres north/south by 16.5 metres east /west . Three of the courtyard s t ructures CBN 13, 14 and 15 are arranged in a U-shape that opens to the east and the escarpment edge. These s t ructures are or iented 3˚ west of magnet ic north. The remaining two s t ructures , CBN 16 and 17, are arranged in an L-shape closing off the courtyard to the east and or iented 13˚ west of north.

The different or ientat ions of the s t ructural groups indicate that the courtyard was constructed in a t least two major phases .

LAYOUT OF CHUM BALAM-NAL COUR T YARD GROUP CBN-13

CBN13 Courtyard groupChum Balam-Nal

excavated architectureproposed architectureexcavation limits

CBN-16

CBN-13

CBN-14

CBN-15

CBN-17

stairwaydown

stairwaydown

stairwaydown

phase I wall

phase II wall

Room 2

Room 1

past horizons13

La Milpa

Chan ChichLa Honradez

Kinal

Rio Azul

Blue Creek

Dos Hombres

Rio

Azu

l

Rio Hondo

Rio

Bra

vo

Booth

’s R

iver

Rio

Bra

vo E

scarp

ment

LaLu

cha

Esc

arpm

ent

Booth

’sR

iver

Escarp

ment

Mexico

Belize

Guatamala

Gran Cacao

Chum Balam-Nal

The courtyard inter ior could only be accessed from two locat ions. The main access is by a large 5.5 meter wide passage between s t ructures 13 and 16. This passage opens out to the north. The second access point is to the south and consis ts of a s ta i rway that exi ts the courtyard between s t ructures 16 and 17. The s ta i rway opens onto a lower platform on which rest three of the four associated s t ructures .

The north and western boundaries of the courtyard are def ined by a s ingle large L- shaped substructure platform. Two construct ion phases are evident on the western leg

of the platform; Phase I was constructed in the Terminal Preclassic t ransi t ional per iod and Phase II was constructed in the Early Classic or la ter.

The platform is surmounted by a minimum of two masonry room blocks; the northern room block is designated as CBN-13, Structure 13, and the western room block as Structure 14. Two intrusive burials were contained within s t ructure 13, each located beneath a large masonry bench.The southern s ide of the courtyard is def ined by s t ructure 15, a long gal lery-s tyle room with a s ingle central doorway surmounting a low platform.

Structures 16 and 17 complete the eastern edge of the courtyard group. The difference in or ientat ion shared by these two s t ructures and the s ta i rway between them (13˚ west of magnet ic north compared to 3˚) , indicate that the eastern component of the group was constructed in a separate phase from the western s ide of the group.

Structure 17 has been interpreted as an ancestral shr ine due to i ts locat ion and overal l dimensions, but fur ther excavat ion is needed to e i ther prove or disprove this theory.

S t r u c t u r e s 1 3 ( r i g h t ) a n d 1 4 ( l e f t ) a s s e e n f r o m t h e co u r t ya r d f l o o r

C h u m B a l a m - N a l i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e B l u e C r e e k co r e S t r u c t u r e 1 5 i s a l o n g g a l l e r y - s t y l e r o o m w i t h a s i n g l e ce n t ra l d o o r wa y s u r m o u n t i n g a l o w p l a t f o r m

past horizons 14

The s i te actual ly contains a t least two large courtyard groups, a pat io group and a large ar t i f ic ia l l inear s t ructure measuring over 60 metres in length. In addi t ion there are many small s t ructures both associated with the larger groups and s ingular ly. Other features include over 15 chul tuns (underground s torage chambers) , check dams, a t least one reservoir, a modif ied rock shel ter, and ar t i f ic ia l terraces . Mapping in the 2010 f ie ld season wil l bet ter def ine the overal l area and locate a l l of the s t ructures .

In 2009, team members Tim Preston and Greg Mastropietro conducted a s t r ipping operat ion

of the humic overburden and col lapse mater ia l of one of the courtyard groups CBN-13. This courtyard consis ts of f ive s t ructures arranged in a c losed square. A minimum of four addi t ional s t ructures l ie outs ide but c lose enough to be considered par t of the overal l group (see pages 12 and 13 for descr ipt ion) .

The l imited excavat ions so far makes for l imited analysis but the scale of construct ion shows that i t i s one of the most e l i te res ident ia l groups at Blue Creek. I t was not bui l t a l l a t once, though, nor does i t appear to fol low an overal l plan.

Dat ing al l the e lements may be premature but a tentat ive t imeline for the construct ion sequence is possible . Two intrusive burials placed within s t ructure CBN-13 points to Phase I of the substructure platform being constructed at the end of the Terminal Preclassic (c . 250AD) or ear l ier. Thin facing s tones used to sheath the platform upon which CBN-15 rests , places i ts construct ion in the Early Classic (c .250 – 600AD). Phase II of the CBN-13/14 platform abuts the CBN-15 platform indicat ing the f inal per iod of construct ion and located on the western s ide of the courtyard.

The difference in orientat ion of s tructures CBN-16 and 17 and the inclusion of the s ta i rway down to a lower platform act ivi ty area argue for these two s t ructures being constructed at the same t ime, but the quest ion is , whether they were constructed f i rs t or las t .

S t a i r wa y b e t w e e n s t r u c t u r e s 1 6 a n d 1 7 l e a d i n g d o w n t o a l o w e r p l a t f o r m

S t r u c t u r e s 1 6 a n d 1 7 f o r m a n L- s h a p e t o t h e e a s t s i d e o f t h e co u r t ya r d

E xca va t i n g B u r i a l 2 i n S t r u c t u r e 1 3

past horizons15

MRP hosts mult iple t wo -week sess ions for students and volunteers at B lue Creek . Ever yone is a fu l l par t ic ipant , being involved with f ie ld excavat ions and laborator y work .

Dates for 2010:Sess ion 1 : 24 May - 6 June Sess ion 2 : 7 - 20 JuneSess ion 3 : 29 June - 11 JulySess ion 4 : 12 - 25 July

Cost : A required donat ion of $1750 per s ingle sess ion ($1500 for students) . Each subsequent sess ion is an addit ional $1200. I nc ludes food and accommodation.

G et I nvolved

For more detai ls :Web: http ://w w w.mayaresearchprogram.orgEmai l : mrpinquir ies@gmai l .com

D r. T h o m a s G u d e r j a n i s a fa c u l t y m e m b e r a t t h e U n i ve r s i t y o f Te xa s a t Ty l e r, p r e s i d e n t o f M R P a n d d i r e c t o r o f t h e B l u e C r e e k p r oj e c t. H i s b o o k , The Nature of an Ancient M aya Cit y : Resources, I nterac tion and Power at Blue Creek , B el ize , s u m m a r i s e s mu c h o f t h e wo r k a cco m p l i s h e d t o d a t e.

Ti m P r e s t o n j o i n e d M R P i n 2 0 0 1 a s a vo l u n t e e r a n d h a s wo r ke d o n p r oj e c t s i n B e l i z e, M e x i co a n d Pe r u, b o t h a s vo l u n t e e r a n d s t a f f m e m b e r. I n 2 0 0 7 h e o b t a i n e d a M a s t e r s d e g r e e f r o m S a n Fra n c i s co S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y b a s e d o n e xca va t i o n s h e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e Ro s i t a co m mu n i t y, a n o u t l y i n g s e t t l e m e n t l i n ke d t o t h e B l u e C r e e k s i t e co r e. I n 2 0 1 0 Ti m w i l l co n t i nu e h i s e xca va t i o n s o f C hu m B a l a m - N a l.

The bigger issue of how the residents of Chum Balam-Nal f i t in to the greater fabr ic of ancient Maya society clear ly needs to be addressed. These people appear to be important members of the Blue Creek pol i t ical and social s t ructure . However, they were probably not royal rulers or their

c lose famil ies but possibly some sor t of non-royal e l i te . Future s tudies wil l endeavour to understand their role .

In 2010 work wil l cont inue on CBN-13 and other s t ructures in the surrounding area. Plans include s t r ipping off the remaining overburden as wel l as conduct ing l imited intrusive invest igat ions to obtain f i rm dates for the construct ion sequence.

This type of research would not be possible without the t remendous support of volunteers and s tudents who work alongside professional archaeologis ts , graduates and local Bel izeans. Of varying ages, backgrounds, nat ional i t ies and educat ional levels , MRP’s volunteers help to provide f inancial resources , f ie ld ass is tance and many kinds of special ised expert ise . In turn, MRP offers a unique adventure , new learning and personal chal lenges, and an opportuni ty to play an act ive role in fur ther ing our understanding of Maya cul ture .

past horizons 16© R ick Bur y 2010

past horizons17

Painted LandscapesArchaeology and the Rock-Artof South-Central California

By David Robinson

Left : Los Padres pictograph with bedrock mortars

P l e i t o C a v e

Within the hidden inland and inter ior regions of South-Central Cal i fornia , mil l ions of years of wind scouring and water erosion have sculpted dis t inct ive yel low-and-tan sandstone outcrops into bizarre and begui l ing forms worthy of a Dal iesque t imescape. The endless forces of weather and cl imate have created a menagerie of rocky pinnacles , honeycombed sandstone cavi t ies , and s inuous rockshel ters . In deser t scrub and patchy oak woodlands, misshapen cave mouths appear to gr in awkwardly in shif t ing shadow and l ight as the sun wheels overhead, season af ter season.

past horizons 18

Pacific Ocean

Sierra

Nevad

aM

ountain

s

Cen

tral Valley

San Francisco

Santa Barbara

Los Angeles

Nevada

Arizona

California

0 300 km

Wind WolvesProject Study Area

These places have more than a touch of the legendary about them; mythologised as animals turned to s tone, the Nat ive Chumash and neighbouring indigenous Cal i fornians were at t racted to these compell ing formations, where they painted a form of rock-ar t except ional by anyone’s s tandard—fanciful f igures depict ing insects , rept i les , birds , bears , humans, or s t range combinat ions, of ten with upturned appendages or embel l ished with f ine l ines and del icate dots . Other images, painted in vibrant reds , look l ike mandalas or sun disks with radiat ing spokes. There are even abstract composi t ions in sui tes of exot ic colours—images begui l ing as any produced by the most cunning and ski l ful of surreal is ts .

Scholars have turned to the pages of re la t ively recent 20th century anthropological accounts

to formulate theories regarding the shamanic inspirat ion of these paint ings. These controversial theories have advanced rock-ar t s tudies and brought rock-ar t to the wider a t tent ion of the archaeological community. Even so, we s t i l l have meagre understandings of where the ar t was placed and how i t was viewed, how old i t i s , what act ivi t ies took place around i t , and what var ie ty of roles i t may have played in the past . The rock paint ings of the Cal i fornian inter ior remains one of the least understood of a l l archaeological phenomena found in the Americas . The surreal pictographs of the Cal i fornian Chumash have been recognised s ince the 1960s as among the most e laborate and exquis i te examples of rock-ar t found anywhere on the cont inent . Yet , unl ike some other regions

past horizons19

R o c k f o r m a t i o n , R a t t l e s n a ke S h e l t e r, S i e r ra M a d r e

(where rock-ar t s i tes have been the focus of excavat ion) , scant a t tent ion has been paid to invest igat ing these paint ings in terms of the archaeological features and mater ia ls surrounding them. Because of this , we have l i t t le comprehension of the context within which these of ten vibrant and colourful paint ings were made, e i ther throughout over 10,000 years of indigenous prehis tory nor even within his tor ical t imes.

Painted on rock surfaces above the soi ls and sediments that regular ly contain qui te surpr is ingly r ich archaeological remains, the ar t hovers as i f in a t imeless ‘e thnographic’ present , separated from the mater ia l lef t behind by the very people who l ived and worked around the ar t , and from those who must have made i t .

I f we know l i t t le about the making of the ar t i tsel f , we know even less about the archaeology lying quiet ly below. This mater ia l may wel l hold vi ta l c lues to understanding both the community and the ar t found in their midst . Qui te s imply, while the pages of recent wri t ten accounts have been turned with keen scholar ly a t tent ion, few have plumed the depths of those deposi ts to understand the deeper human his tory of the spaces where the ar t once made has s ince endured. Unt i l very recent ly, that is .

Three summers ago, a small team of archaeologis ts f rom as far af ie ld as England and from nearby in Cal i fornia excavated a l i t t le rock-ar t s i te cal led Pinwheel Cave, located on a magical place cal led the Wind Wolves Preserve found in the very hear t of

past horizons 20

South-Central Cal i fornia . This pi lot project a lso included s tudents f rom both Europe and America, and was exci t ing in br inging together people f rom such diverse backgrounds and ways of doing archaeology.

At Pinwheel Cave, few ar tefacts were evident on the surface beneath the ar t , and i t appeared to be a c lass ic example of a hidden shamanic s i te . However, i t was surpr is ing what the s tudents found during excavat ion and in the screens while s ieving; beaut i ful ly craf ted arrowheads and the small f lakes f rom their re touching, burnt animal bone and charcoal f rom cooking and eat ing, and even t iny shel l and colourful glass beads showing a range of mater ia l cul ture f rom Late Prehis tory and during colonial t imes. Indeed, nearby bedrock mortars showed that acorns, the s taple food of the Cal i fornian Indian, were processed in some quant i ty f rom the oak woodlands surrounding. The archaeology of Pinwheel Cave showed i t was anything but a pr ivate s i te . I t became clear that i t was as important a place in the local environment as i t was a place for paint ing. Perhaps the two — rock-ar t and environment—were related?

The Chumash were a diverse populat ion of sophis t icated hunter /gatherers who inhabi ted many different areas f rom the Pacif ic waters of the Santa Barbara Channel , inland through the rugged coastal ranges of the backcountry, and even deeper into inter ior Cal i fornia to the margins of the great San Joaquin Val ley. I t i s here , a t the very margins of their terr i tory, where some of the most spectacular examples of Far Western rock-ar t can be found and where our recent research is a t tempting to tease out the relat ionships between ar t and i ts environment through systematic archaeological work.

This is no easy task. Where once extensive wet lands and lake systems teaming with waterfowl exis ted, dry land with i r r igated

orange groves and bobbing oi l derr icks now stand. Old wave cut terraces s t i l l can be found demarcat ing the shores of now-desiccated lakes due to more than a century of modern agricul tural drainage. Al l around these now dry lake edges once exis ted large vi l lages of the people known as the Yokuts in one of the most densely-occupied indigenous regions in Cal i fornia; the Inter ior Chumash l ived just to the south in the San Emigdio foothi l ls r is ing above and overlooking the lakes . This region, as one of the most heavi ly- impacted ecosystems in the world, is where the Wind Wolves Preserve was created in the 1990s in effor ts to preserve and restore natural habi ta ts in the onslaught of development and modern populat ion growth.

As the largest pr ivate land holding in the American West , the Wind Wolves Preserve encompasses around 100,000 acres of

Fi n d s f r o m Pi n w h e e l C a v e

Pa i n t e d i m a g e s a t t h e r o c k - a r t s i t e o f T h r e e S p r i n g s

© R ick Bur y 2010

past horizons21

mountains and meadows, canyons and open lands. They are dedicated to educat ing the publ ic about the environment and the real benefi ts of protect ing threatened animal and plant communit ies to preserve wildl i fe divers i ty. Equal ly, they are concerned that we learn about the past human communit ies who l ived for such a long t ime within those habi ta ts in c lose, symbiot ic re la t ionships . As a resul t , a par tnership has emerged between our concern of the archaeological environment of the past and the preserve’s concern for the ongoing l iving environment . At the core of this par tnership is a mutual and deep commitment to educat ion.

For this reason, we have establ ished an archaeological f ie ld school looking at the long-term human relat ionship with the environment

and how indigenous people made the landscape their own; a process cal led ‘encul turat ion’ . This project a l lows s tudents the opportuni ty to be act ive par t ic ipants in researching the past environment of this unique landscape in the hear t of Cal i fornia . Rock-ar t is one way that the Chumash encul turated their surroundings, par t icular ly, of coarse , rock surfaces . However, our research has shown that not just any rock surface was chosen; the rock invariably used was that near to re l iable water suppl ies , a t r ich r ipar ian zones, or within oak woodland where abundant acorns can be gathered. To reach these places requires a t rek into the rugged terrain. Along the way, we of ten see amazing wildl i fe such as deer, e lk , coyotes , foxes, bobcats , as wel l as a l l k inds of birds including redtai l hawks, fa lcons, and golden eagles—even the elusive condor vis i ted us on one occasion.

Students learn about the preserve from talks by i ts s taff and rangers and tours to different areas of the landscape. However, the pr imary business of this project is to come to gr ips with the changing environment of the past as found at the very intr iguing landforms where the ar t is found.

Our excavat ions include auguring t ransects across the adjacent environs to examine landform and sediment changes. In the summer of 2008, s tudents auguring at the s i te of Three Springs found evidence that the oak woodland would have been more extensive in the past ; as a s i te current ly with sparse oaks, this f inding may explain why so many bedrock mortars are found there .

Other excavat ions, such as las t summer in 2009 at Los Lobos, have shown that the hydrology of landscape in the past was at t imes much wet ter than current ly vis ible . These f indings go much fur ther towards rethinking the placement of ar t as a way of marking the very most important places for past populat ions in terms of water and food resources . More and more we see evidence that rock-ar t was posi t ioned at places concerned with the everyday tasks of the local community rather than the pr ivate mindscape of the shaman.

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D a v i d R o b i n s o n i s a l e c t u r e r i n a r c h a e o l o g y a t U n i v e r s i t y o f C e n t ra l L a n ca s h i r e. H e g ra d u a t e d f r o m U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a S a n t a B a r b a ra w h e r e h e f i r s t b e ca m e i n t e r e s t e d i n C h u m a s h r o c k - a r t w h i l e w o r k i n g o n t h e K a m u p a u Pr o j e c t ( h t t p : / / w w w. a n t h . u c s b. e d u / p r o j e c t s / ka m u p a u ) . H e co m p l e t e d a P h D f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a m b r i d g e ( U K ) s t u d y i n g t h e r o c k - a r t o f t h e W i n d Wo l v e s Pr e s e r v e i n 2 0 0 6 a n d h a s r e s e a r c h e d r o c k - a r t , g ra f f i t i , a n d l a n d s ca p e i n E n g l a n d, S p a i n , I n d i a a n d C a l i f o r n i a . H e w o r k s o n b o t h p r e h i s t o r i c a n d h i s t o r i ca l a r c h a e o l o g y, i n c l u d i n g t h e S t o n e h e n g e R i v e r s i d e Pr o j e c t , t h e Ty n t e s f i e l d Wo r l d Wa r I I Pr o j e c t , a n d, o f co u r s e, t h e E n c u l t u ra t i n g E n v i r o n m e n t s Pr o j e c t .

L a s e r s ca n n i n g a t Pi n w h e e l C a v e

Sti l l , th is does not mean that the ar t was s imply about the s tomach or in the realm of the mundane. Last season, in one of the shel ters containing rock-ar t , our f ie ld school found a careful ly placed s tone with i r idescent facets embedded throughout i ts natural matr ix . I t was not modif ied, but ra ther a natural object found local ly but probably considered special because of i ts ref lect ive qual i t ies .

These kinds of f indings are showing that even though rock-ar t s i tes were places where people undertook day-to-day act ivi t ies , the space

of the shel ters themselves were sometimes considered qui te special .

For this reason, we have employed a var ie ty of digi ta l techniques to record them in the highest detai l possible , including laser scanning and digi ta l photogrammetry. In combinat ion with our digi ta l mapping, we are able to create computer models of the rock-ar t s i te , the landscape, and the environment . Students are t ra ined in a l l these aspects and contr ibute to the f inal rendering that a l lows us to more ful ly reconstruct the archaeological past .

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Excavat ions at Los Lobos

© R ick Bur y 2010

G et I nvolvedThis i s a student- only f ie ld school . The course has three goals :

1 . To introduce students to f ie ld methods in archaeology.

2 . To provide a prac t ica l work ing k nowledge of sur vey, d igita l laser scanning, excavat ion, geoarchaeological analys is , ar tefac t process ing/post- excavat ion, and f ie ld cataloguing methods.

3 . To appreciate the preser vat ion and management of cultural and environmental resources in a case study on the 100,000-acre Wind Wolves Preser ve.

Dates : 13 June - 18 July 2010Cost : See website for detai ls

Cl ick here for projec t website

For more information about the projec t please go to : http://ant iquit y.ac.uk/projgal l / robinson323

past horizons 24

I f you haven’t heard of Western Sahara you’re not a lone. Si tuated between Morocco, Algeria and Mauri tania , and

r iven by decades of confl ic t , Western Sahara is not exact ly on the beaten t rack.

Often descr ibed as Afr ica’s las t colony, and classif ied by the United Nat ions as one of the world’s few remaining non-self governing terr i tor ies , Western Sahara has been the subject of a bi t ter dispute between Morocco and the indigenous Pol isar io independence movement s ince the withdrawal of the Spanish colonial authori t ies in 1975.

While the confl ic t has been pol i t ical ra ther than mil i tary in nature s ince the UN brokered a ceasef i re and promised a referendum on self determinat ion in 1991, the referendum never mater ia l ised, and Western Sahara is current ly par t i t ioned between a Moroccan control led

zone and a much smaller area control led by the Pol isar io .

The Pol isar io-control led areas are lacking in resources and infrastructure , and over half of the indigenous Sahrawi populat ion l ives in refugee camps near the town of Tindouf in neighbouring Algeria .

These camps are a lso home to the Pol isar io government- in-wai t ing of the self-declared Sahrawi Arab Democrat ic Republ ic (SADR), a putat ive s ta te that has been recognised by a number of countr ies , and which is a member of the Afr ican Union.

Unsurpris ingly, l i t t le is known about the archaeology of Western Sahara, and very l i t t le research has been conducted in the terr i tory. However, this s i tuat ion is changing as the terr i tory begins to open up to foreign

Tex t and I mages by N ick Brooks and Joanne Clarke

A Refuge in the Deser t?

C limate C hange and Human Adaptation in Prehistoric Western Sahara

past horizons25

T h e d r y r e m a i n s o f a p r e h i s t o r i c f r e s h wa t e r l a ke i n t h e f a r s o u t h o f We s t e r n S a h a ra

researchers. The Polisario has been part icularly act ive in encouraging archaeological research in the areas they control , and the SADR has recent ly passed a law relat ing to the t reatment and preservat ion of Western Sahara’s archaeological her i tage.

For the Pol isar io , archaeology provides a means of engaging with the wider internat ional community and rais ing awareness of the exis tence of Western Sahara and, by extension, the predicament of i ts people .

For some years Spanish archaeologis ts have been working in the Pol isar io-control led areas , systematical ly cataloguing the many rock paint ings and engravings in these areas , and recording hundreds of other archaeological s i tes .

In 2002 a team led by the Universi ty of East Anglia (UEA) carr ied out an archaeological and palaeo-environmental reconnaissance survey in the northern sector of the Pol isar io-control led areas . The resul t of this ini t ia l survey was the establ ishment of the Western Sahara Project , based at UEA. Since 2002 the Western Sahara Project has run f ive seasons of extensive survey and reconnaissance work, and three seasons of excavat ions and intensive survey.

While these f ie ld seasons have expanded our understanding of the archaeology of Western Sahara in general terms, a key aim of the project is to examine how prehis tor ic populat ions responded and adapted to severe cl imat ic and environmental changes, specif ical ly the deser t i f icat ion of the Saharan region between about 6000 and 4500 years ago.

A Refuge in the Deser t?Mauritania

MoroccoCanary Islands

Boujdour

Laayoune

Tarfaya

Zoug

Tifariti

Wes

tern

Sah

ara

0 250km

Northern Sector

Southern

WesternSahara

Mauritania

LajuadMuyalhet Awaadi

Sector

Tindouf

Line

of B

erm

past horizons 26

During this per iod the Sahara was t ransformed from a humid savannah to an ar id deser t . This t ransi t ion was not smooth, and appears to have been closely l inked with episodes of rapid global c l imate change las t ing several centur ies and centred around 5900 and 5200 years ago. During this per iod much of the world cooled and deser ts advanced across the northern hemisphere sub-tropical region, with evidence of increased ar idi ty apparent in records f rom West Afr ica to China, and in southern North America.

The f ive centur ies between about 5700 and 5200 years ago saw col lapse of ra infal l and vegetat ion throughout much of the Sahara, and coincided with severe ar idi ty in the Arabian Peninsula , a 600- year drought in I ran, the drying of lakes in South Asia , and a shif t f rom forest to savannah in what is now the south western United States .

Throughout the drying of the sub-tropics, human populat ions had to contend with reduct ions in the avai labi l i ty of water, pasture , product ive land and wild food products as ra infal l fa i led and landscapes changed beyond recogni t ion.

Human responses to c l imat ic desiccat ion and the resul t ing scarci ty of resources a t this t ime is evident in environmental and archaeologcial records f rom across the globe. However, the evidence for severe environmental changes and human responses to such changes is most apparent and dramatic in the Sahara.

So profound were the climatic and environmental changes in this region that Savino di Lernia 1, the director of the I ta l ian archaeological mission in the Fezzan region of Libya, has descr ibed the Sahara as “a theoret ical ly ideal ‘ t ra ining ground’ for the analysis of social responses to major environmental a l terat ions”.

Rudolf Kuper and Stefan Kröpel in 2, who have conducted many years of archaeological and palaeo-environmental research in Egypt , Chad and Sudan, refer to the Sahara as “a unique natural laboratory for the reconstruct ion of the l inks between changing cl imate and environments , and human occupat ion and adaptat ion”.

In the eastern and central Sahara, wel l -funded research programmes las t ing for many decades have done much to i l luminate the l inks between past c l imat ic , environmental and cul tural change, a l though much more work remains to be done in these regions. In the western regions work has been much patchier and less wel l resourced, and vast swathes of deser t there remain unexamined by modern archaeological and scient i f ic methods.

Cattle herding, which f irst originated in the more arid eastern S ahara, provided a means of sur vival in an increasingly harsh and unpredic table environment

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Dates are few and far between, and a map of dated archaeological s i tes containing cat t le remains reveals a great void over Western Sahara, northern Mauri tania and much of Algeria . This is not because of the lack of archaeological s i tes associated with cat t le , which are widely depicted in rock-ar t in these areas , and which are evident f rom their bones at undated s i tes . Rather, i t ref lects the extent to which this par t of the Sahara has

been neglected by the internat ional research community.

The work of the Western Sahara Project a ims to f i l l in some of these gaps. One of the main tasks of the project is develop chronologies of c l imat ic and environmental change, and use these as contexts within which to interpret the archaeological record.

The project addresses cul tural changes through an examinat ion of mater ia l cul ture in the form of worked s tone, pot tery, and funerary monuments . Intensive survey work around the small set t lement of Tifar i t i , in the northern sector of the Pol isar io-control led zone, has revealed evidence of occupat ion by hunters and gatherers between about 10,000 and 8000 years ago, a per iod of very humid condi t ions across most of the Sahara. Evidence of human occupat ion between about 8000 and 6000 years ago is scarce, with this hiatus commencing around the t ime that the col lapse of the remnant ice sheets over North America resul ted in several centur ies of cool , ar id condi t ions. Interest ingly, the reoccupat ion of the area around Tifar i t i sometime around or af ter 6000 years ago coincided with the shif t towards permanent ar idi ty across the Sahara and the northern hemisphere sub-tropical region at large.

I t i s around this t ime that cat t le herding spread rapidly throughout the central Sahara from east to west , as nomadic herders leap-frogged from one area to another in search of ever-dwindl ing water and pasture . Cat t le herding, which f i rs t or iginated in the more ar id eastern Sahara, provided a means of survival in an increasingly harsh and unpredictable environment , enabl ing herders to fol low the rains and exploi t the landscape in a f lexible , opportunis t ic manner. In more recent t imes the Sahrawi came to be known as the “chi ldren of the clouds” for their habi t of moving with their herds to wherever ra in fa l ls , a l though their herds are of camels and goats , ra ther than cat t le .

Cat t le played a major role in Saharan prehis tory, and are one of the most common themes in Saharan rock-ar t . Excavat ions

C a t t l e p a i n t i n g s a t R e ke i z

past horizons 28

S t o n e m o n u m e n t s s u c h a s t h i s t u m u l u s n e a r T i f a r i t i a r e co m m o n f e a t u r e s i n t h e S a h a ra n l a n d s ca p e

across the Sahara have establ ished that the region’s ubiqui tous s tone burial monuments were constructed by nomadic herders , with the ear l ies t monuments containing only cat t le remains, tes tament to the r i tual s laughter ing and internment of the animals on which these groups depended for their survival .

Monumental burials and associated s t ructures are extremely abundant in Western Sahara. Over 400 such monuments have been recorded in an area of around nine square ki lometres north of Tifar i t i over the past few f ie ld

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S t a n d i n g s t o n e s o n a n e l e va t e d a r e a o v e r l o o k i n g t h e w e l l - v e g e t a t e d Wa d i T i f a r i t i

seasons of the Western Sahara Project , and reconnaissance surveys indicate that such funerary landscapes are l ikely to be widespread throughout the terr i tory. I t i s c lear that sometime af ter about 4000 BCE, cat t le herding arr ived in Western Sahara as the rest of the region was drying out , ra is ing the possibi l i ty that Western Sahara acted as a refuge for people f leeing ar idi ty fur ther east . Today Western Sahara is s ignif icant ly wet ter than other Saharan regions at s imilar la t i tudes, sandwiched between the monsoon zone to the south, the Mediterranean region

to the north, and the Atlant ic to the west .

Average year ly ra infal l exceeds 50 mm in some par ts of Western Sahara, more than ten t imes the amount in the hyper-ar id central Sahara. Year- to-year var ia t ions in ra infal l are large, with some years seeing abundant vegetat ion and f lowing wadis and others plunging the region into severe ar idi ty.

Given i ts re la t ive fecundi ty today, the refuge hypothesis cer ta inly seems plausible , and is compat ible with the l imited archaeological

past horizons 30

Unlo ck ing the secrets of Western S ahara’s past wil l require much more work

L a r g e ‘ b a z i n a s t y l e’ t u m u l u s o v e r l o o k i n g t h e Wa d i Te r n i t

evidence acquired to date . For example, two funerary monuments near Tifar i t i excavated by the project in 2005 contained metal , indicat ing that these burials date to some t ime af ter around 1000 BCE, the ear l ies t date for metal working in western Afr ica . Clear ly the region around Tifar i t i was habi table long af ter most of the rest of the Sahara had dr ied up.

The refuge hypothesis might a lso explain the pecul iar combinat ion of central Saharan aff ini t ies and unique regional character is t ics in the archaeological record of Western Sahara, for example as seen in the var ious s tyles of funerary monuments .

The former indicate that Western Sahara was par t of the wider prehis tor ic Sahara cul tural complex, while the la t ter suggests more local ised cul tural t ra i ts . One possibi l i ty is that these more regional s tyles developed af ter the western regions of the Sahara had been separated from the areas to the east by the expanding deser t .

Unlocking the secrets of Western Sahara’s past wil l require much more work in the areas of both archaeology and environmental change. Cul tural and environmental chronologies need to be establ ished so that we can place changes in human occupat ion, subsis tence s t ra tegies , funerary pract ices and social organisat ion within their wider contexts .

past horizons31

This wil l require detai led analysis and dat ing of worked s tone, pot tery and funerary monuments , in order to es tabl ish how these aspects of the mater ia l cul ture evolved over t ime. For example, excavat ion and dat ing of funerary monuments wil l enable us to determine whether the more unusual monuments are la ter than those that are more typical of the wider Saharan region, as we might expect i f the former are the resul t of local innovat ion af ter the region became isolated from other par ts of the Sahara due to c l imat ic and environmental change.

Geochemical analysis of teeth and bones might a lso be able to te l l us about the diets and geographical ranges of prehis tor ic pastoral

groups, and how these changed over t ime as the environment evolved. Ini t ia l resul ts indicate that the prehis tor ic populat ion in the vicini ty of Tifar i t i a t least had l inks with neighbouring regions. One of the monuments excavated in 2005 yielded dr i l led shel ls (most probably worn as a necklace) or iginat ing from the West Afr ican coast .

In order to place the archaeological evidence in i ts environmental context , indicators of past environmental condi t ions need to be ident i f ied, sampled and subjected to laboratory analysis and scient i f ic dat ing. Ini t ia l dates suggest humid condi t ions around 7000 and 5000 years ago, consis tent with evidence of more humid condi t ions than at present throughout the Sahara at these t imes. However, s i tes yielding accessible and precise environmental information are few and far between. Western Sahara lacks the sand seas that character ise many other Saharan regions, and in which groundwater-fed lakes have lef t layered, datable sediments that can be used to reconstruct past environmental condi t ions.

To date , only one such palaeolake (known local ly as Muyalhet Awaadi) has been identif ied in Western Sahara, in the far southeast near the border with Mauri tania . Samples f rom this s i te are current ly awai t ing analysis , as are samples f rom a now-dry spr ing in an elevated rock shel ter a t the s i te of Lajuad. Even i f these samples yield useful data , they represent only a f i rs t s tep in reconstruct ing past environmental condi t ions in this barely-known region.

While the s tory of Western Sahara’s prehis tor ic inhabi tants is beginning to emerge, much more survey and excavat ion work is required before we can place these populat ions in a wider regional and environmental context . The Western Sahara Project wil l cont inue with i ts work in November 2010, through a combinat ion of archaeological and environmental survey work throughout the northern sector, and archaeological excavat ions in the Tifar i t i area.

Ult imately the project seeks to answer some key quest ions about Saharan prehis tory, and about how the waxing and waning of

past horizons 32

G et I nvolvedVolunteers are sought for the November 2010 f ie ld season for both excavat ion and sur vey work . Volunteers wi l l receive a l l necessar y t ra ining in excavat ion and s i te recording, and wi l l become fami l iar with the wider archaeology of the Sahara .

Par t ic ipants wi l l lodge in guest accommodation whi le work ing near sett lements and mi l i tar y bases, and camp in the open in more remote locat ions (e.g. dur ing the sur vey work) .

Volunteers wi l l a lso have the oppor tunit y to v is i t rock-ar t s i tes and other s i tes of archaeological and environmental interest whi le not excavat ing or conduc t ing sur vey work .

Dates : 5-28 November 2010 (precise dates to be conf i rmed)

Cost : £2400 (approx €2760 or $3880) . I nc ludes f l ights f rom London and a l l f ie ld expenses ( food, water, accommodation, t ranspor t ) .

Volunteer fees make a v i ta l contr ibut ion to the costs of f ie ld seasons, which do not make a prof i t . Any funds not spent on direc t f ie ld costs contr ibute to the costs of laborator y analys is and dat ing of samples.

Emai l N ick Brooks at :n ick .brooks@uea.ac.uk for more information or to apply.

Website : http://w w w.nick brooks.org/WS/WSahara .htm for more detai led information.

human occupat ion in Western Sahara was l inked with dramatic changes in c l imat ic and environmental condi t ions.

For example, was Western Sahara one of the las t refuges for people f leeing deser t i f icat ion as the rest of the Sahara dr ied out? How did people adapt their l i fes tyles as c l imat ic condi t ions changed and resources became scarcer? When were current deser t condi t ions establ ished? And what happened to the populat ions who bui l t the monuments that l i t ter today’s landscapes?

If we can answer these quest ions we wil l be able to make a major contr ibut ion to Saharan – and Afr ican – archaeology, and also to our understanding of humanity’s long his tory of interact ion with a f ickle environment .

N i c k B r o o k s o b t a i n e d a P h D i n c l i m a t o l o g y f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f E a s t A n g l i a i n 2 0 0 0 , a f t e r w h i c h h e w e n t o n t o w o r k o n t h e Fe z z a n Pr o j e c t i n s o u t h e r n L i b ya , e xa m i n i n g t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n p a s t c l i m a t i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e a n d h u m a n o cc u p a t i o n . N i c k i s c u r r e n t l y a v i s i t i n g r e s e a r c h f e l l o w a t t h e Ty n d a l l C e n t r e f o r C l i m a t e C h a n g e R e s e a r c h a t U E A a n d m a ke s h i s l i v i n g a s a f r e e l a n ce c l i m a t e c h a n g e co n s u l t a n t , r u n n i n g f i e l d s e a s o n s t o We s t e r n S a h a ra i n h i s s p a r e t i m e. I n 2 0 0 6 N i c k p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r o n c l i m a t e c h a n g e a n d t h e o r i g i n s o f c i v i l i s a t i o n , a n d h a s j u s t f i n i s h e d a b o o k c h a p t e r o n h o w h u m a n s o c i e t i e s r e s p o n d e d t o s e v e r e a n d a b r u p t c l i m a t e c h a n g e i n t h e d i s t a n t p a s t .

J o a n n e C l a r ke i s a l e c t u r e r i n A r c h a e o l o g y a n d M a t e r i a l C u l t u r e S t u d i e s a t t h e S c h o o l o f Wo r l d A r t S t u d i e s a n d M u s e o l o g y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f E a s t A n g l i a . I n a d d i t i o n t o h e r w o r k i n We s t e r n S a h a ra J o a n n e i s a s p e c i a l i s t i n t h e p r e h i s t o r y o f t h e Le va n t , w i t h a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n Cy p r u s, w h e r e s h e h a s d i r e c t e d e xca va t i o n s a t t h e p r e h i s t o r i c s i t e o f K a l a va s o s K o k k i n o y i a / Pa m b o u l e s s i n ce 2 0 0 3 . J o a n n e s e r v e d a s J e r u s a l e m D i r e c t o r f o r t h e C o u n c i l f o r B r i t i s h R e s e a r c h i n t h e Le va n t , a n d wa s a c t i n g d i r e c t o r o f t h e B r i t i s h S c h o o l o f A r c h a e o l o g y i n J e r u s a l e m . S h e h a s a l s o w o r ke d f o r t h e N a t i o n a l M u s e u m s S co t l a n d, a n d h e l d t h e J R B S t e wa r t Fe l l o w s h i p i n Cy p r i o t A r c h a e o l o g y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Sy d n e y.

1 . S a v i n o d i Le r n i a , ‘ B u i l d i n g M o n u m e n t s, C r e a t i n g I d e n t i t y : C a t t l e C u l t a s a S o c i a l R e s p o n s e t o R a p i d E n v i r o n m e n t a l C h a n g e s i n t h e H o l o ce n e S a h a ra’, Q u a t e r n a r y I n t e r n a t i o n a l, Vo l u m e 1 5 1 , I s s u e 1 , J u l y 2 0 0 6 , p p. 5 0 - 6 2

2 . R u d o l p h Ku p e r a n d S t e f a n K r ö p e l i n , ‘C l i m a t e - C o n t r o l l e d H o l o ce n e O cc u p a t i o n i n t h e S a h a ra : M o t o r o f A f r i ca’s E v o l u t i o n’, S c i e n ce, 1 1 A u g u s t 2 0 0 6 : � Vo l. 3 1 3 . n o. 5 7 8 8 , p p. 8 0 3 - 8 0 7 . O r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n S c i e n ce E x p r e s s , 2 0 J u l y 2 0 0 6

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G et I nvolvedVolunteers are sought for the November 2010 f ie ld season for both excavat ion and sur vey work . Volunteers wi l l receive a l l necessar y t ra ining in excavat ion and s i te recording, and wi l l become fami l iar with the wider archaeology of the Sahara .

Par t ic ipants wi l l lodge in guest accommodation whi le work ing near sett lements and mi l i tar y bases, and camp in the open in more remote locat ions (e.g. dur ing the sur vey work) .

Volunteers wi l l a lso have the oppor tunit y to v is i t rock-ar t s i tes and other s i tes of archaeological and environmental interest whi le not excavat ing or conduc t ing sur vey work .

Dates : 5-28 November 2010 (precise dates to be conf i rmed)

Cost : £2400 (approx €2760 or $3880) . I nc ludes f l ights f rom London and a l l f ie ld expenses ( food, water, accommodation, t ranspor t ) .

Volunteer fees make a v i ta l contr ibut ion to the costs of f ie ld seasons, which do not make a prof i t . Any funds not spent on direc t f ie ld costs contr ibute to the costs of laborator y analys is and dat ing of samples.

Emai l N ick Brooks at :n ick .brooks@uea.ac.uk for more information or to apply.

Website : http://w w w.nick brooks.org/WS/WSahara .htm for more detai led information.

E xa m i n i n g m o n u m e n t s i n t h e s o u t h e r n s a n d s e a , n e a r Zo u g

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The Institute of Archaeology and Antiquity offer a range of postgraduate and professional training courses aimed to provide you with the skills you need to work in the heritage environment today. From project management techniques in archaeology to the visualisation of past environments, we aim to give you practical experience in the diverse range of techniques and approaches available to heritage practitioners.

All of the courses we offer can be tailored to your individual interests and needs, and can be delivered full-time or part-time degrees.

Campus-based programmesMA/PG Diploma in Practical ArchaeologyMA/PG Diploma in Landscape Archaeology, GIS & Virtual EnvironmentsMSc in Environmental Archaeology & PalaeoenvironmentsMA in Conflict ArchaeologyM Phil (B) in Archaeological Practice

Distance Education programmesMA/PG Diploma in Practical Archaeology (DE)MA/PG Diploma in Landscape Archaeology, GIS & Virtual Environments (DE)

To find out more, go to http://www.iaa.bham.ac.uk/Postgraduate/or email us at archpgrad@lists.bham.ac.uk

Birmingham provides the ideal footing for anyone wanting to begin a career in archaeology or the heritage environment. Along with diverse skills and opportunities provided, I also got to experience city life in Britain’s second city. Thanks to the course, I have been employed in archaeology since I graduated in 2007. Emma Sautejeau, MA Practical Archaeology

Emma holding a medieval leather shoe recovered from excavations in Birmingham

U B U B

past horizons35

WHSWORK HARD OR STARVE

Find i t Here

past horizons 36

By Maggie Struck meier

During the la te I ron-Age, Lofoten chiefdoms were act ively increasing their weal th through t r ibute and t rade. These chief ta ins owned large farms, bui l t f ine boats and longhouses , and surrounded themselves with exot ic i tems brought back from trading expedi t ions.

A gl impse into this dynamic Norwegian world was helped by a chance discovery in 1981 on the Is land of Vestvågøy which contained the largest longhouse ever found in Scandinavia . The resul ts f rom the excavat ion led to such a weal th of information that a repl ica of the hal l was bui l t nearby al lowing vis i tors to experience the l i fe of a Lofoten chief ta in .

Lords of the SeaUncovering an I ron-Age Chief tain’s Long-house

past horizons37 Photo credi t : Sergei Vavi lov

past horizons 38

Fi n d s f r o m t h e e xca va t i o n s (c l o c k w i s e, f r o m t o p l e f t ) :1 . G o l d f o i l c u l t i c p l a q u e o r ‘g u l l - g u b b e’ d e p i c t i n g Fr o y, t h e g o d o f f e r t i l i t y a n d p e a ce, e m b ra c i n g G e r d, t h e d a u g h t e r o f a m y t h o l o g i ca l N o r s e g i a n t2 . Ta t i n g - wa r e j u g m a d e i n t h e R h i n e l a n d a r e a b e t w e e n l a t e 8 t h a n d e a r l y 9 t h ce n t u r i e s3 . To r t o i s e b r o o c h e s w i t h d r e s s f i t t i n g s f o r a w o m e n’s o u t e r g a r m e n t .4 . H i g h l y d e co ra t e d s w o r d h i l t

I t is es t imated that there may have been three Lofoten chiefdoms; two of them on Vestvågøy and the third on the neighbouring Is land of Gimsøy. This way of l ife was already established by the ear ly centur ies AD, with f ishing and small-scale farming the main subsis tence act ivi t ies . However, towards the la te I ron Age larger farms with a more central ised funct ion began to appear, indicat ing a shif t in for tunes and a concentrat ion of power.

At that point the Lofoten is lands were densely populated put t ing pressure on the scarce arable land found mainly along the coastal areas . Borg, located in the northeast of Vestvågøy, s t i l l forms one of these habi table spots . This t iny community had been ident i f ied by archaeologis ts as exhibi t ing most of the hal lmarks of a possible chief ta in’s farm with i ts boathouse remains, barrows and vest iges of long-houses . However, with no evidence of a great hal l there was no conclusive proof .

This was set to change when, in the Autumn of 1981, Fr ikk Harald Bjerkl i , a local farmer out ploughing his land, not iced some unusual pot tery and glass coming up in the soi l . Fortunately, he ret r ieved the i tems which proved to be a turning point for Borg his tory. The fragments represented high s ta tus European wares , rarely seen in Scandinavia le t a lone in Northern Norway.

In response to this discovery tes t t renching began in the farmer ’s f ie ld in 1983 and recovered more of the dis t inct ive Rhineland pot tery known as Tat ing ware, a long with a wide var ie ty of European glass f ragments . In the same locat ion the remains of a t least f ive bui ldings were ident i f ied with radiocarbon dat ing indicat ing a span of 650 years , leaning towards la te I ron Age. However, the range of ar tefacts found, including the imported wares , were mainly dated to between the 6th and 8th centur ies .

past horizons39

M a p s h o w i n g l o ca t i o n o f t h e Lo f o t e n I s l a n d s w i t h t ra d e a n d co l o n i s a t i o n r o u t e s

1 9 8 0 ’s e xca va t i o n s i t e w i t h l o w e r i m a g e r e v e a l i n g t h e s h a p e o f t h e l o n g - h o u s e

The exci t ing resul ts obtained from the tes t t renching clear ly warranted more act ion. Major excavat ions got underway in 1986 in the form of a combined research project involving par t ic ipat ion from Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the United Kingdom.

After three years the archaeological team had succeeded in excavat ing the remains of the largest longhouse ever found in Scandinavia , and was interpreted as a chief ta in’s hal l . The excavat ions revealed that a 67-metre- long bui lding had f i rs t been erected as ear ly as the s ixth century and was subsequent ly rebui l t and enlarged at the beginning of the 8th century to a length of 83 metres .

The remains of the hal l i tsel f were preserved to the extent that t races of the turf outer wal ls , entrances, par t i t ioning wal ls , f loors , hear ths and internal roof supports could be understood. The s t ructure had been divided

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past horizons 40

T h e c h i e f t a i n’s l o n g - h o u s e co m p l e t e d i n 1 9 9 5 a n d o p e n e d a s a m u s e u m w h e r e v o l u n t e e r s ca n s t a y f o r a w h i l e a n d t a ke p a r t i n t h e d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s ra n g i n g f r o m p i c k i n g h e r b s, co o k i n g, s a i l i n g, c ra f t - w o r k a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l a r c h a e o l o g y

into f ive main areas consis t ing of the l iving quarters , banquet ing hal l and s torage room, vest ibule , and animal shed.

The funct ion of each room was determined mainly by the dis t r ibut ion of f inds. Although modern farming methods had destroyed the s t ra t igraphical sequence the objects did not appear to have migrated very far f rom their or iginal locat ions within the confines of the bui lding i tself .

After three years , archaeologis ts had amassed enough evidence to re-construct the long-house as i t would have looked in i ts f inal phase. Several a l ternat ive roof construct ions were discussed based around the two opt ions of shingle or turf . Shingle , such as is found, for instance, on Norwegian s tave churches, was eventual ly decided upon. Shingle makes the bui lding vis ible f rom a great dis tance, whereas a turf roof would have made the hal l qui te inconspicuous within the landscape. Poles mounted in pairs bear the weight of the roof which s i ts 9 metres f rom ground level and r e l i e v e s

the turf outer wal ls of any s t ra in . The long-house was completed in 1995 and is now known as the Lofotr Museum.

The remains of three boathouses a t Borg have never been examined archaeological ly. The largest is es t imated to be around 26 metres long. Based on information from excavat ions at Rennesøy in Rogaland, a 30-metre- long boathouse has been reconstructed at Borg to house ‘Lofotr ’ , a copy of the Gokstad ship from the 9th century found during excavat ions near the Oslo f jord.

At this t ime, boat bui lding had become much more accomplished and navigat ion was extremely precise . A warming cl imate a lso meant that t ravel l ing became easier and the Atlant ic Ocean was crossed on t r ips to Iceland, Greenland and Vinland (par t of North America) . Norwegian merchants t ravel led to the east , by way of the Russian r ivers , to the Caspian Sea and through the Black Sea to Constant inople (Byzant ium).

past horizons41

A v o l u n t e e r a t Lo f o t r w o r k s t h e s m i t h y i n p e r i o d co s t u m e, m i x i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l a r c h a e o l o g y w i t h l i v i n g h i s t o r y

One Norwegian chief ta in f rom the 9th century who went on such expedi t ions was Ottar f rom Hålogaland, to the north of Lofoten. In his t ravelogue from the 9th century he descr ibes t ravel l ing to the frozen wastelands along the White Sea, deal ing with groups such as the Sami, then onto the t rading towns of southern Scandinavia and across to England where he vis i ted King Alfred of Wessex.

Ottar brought back to his homeland luxury ar t ic les such as f ine text i les , glass vessels , precious metals , wheat , honey and wine. In re turn he could offer black fox and white marten fur, soapstone vessels , whets tones made of shale , and a var ie ty of i ron goods. Walrus tusk ivory was very much in demand and so valuable that when Ottar vis i ted the Court in Wessex he brought two as a gif t to King Alfred.

Photo credit: Odd-Arild Bugge

Photo credit: Chris Zielecki

past horizons 42

Ottar may have seemed par t icular ly adventurous to the l ikes of the Engl ish, but due to the l imitat ions of the land in supplying their needs i t was expected of men from these Norwegian communit ies to t ravel in search of weal th and opportuni ty. This , of course, meant leaving behind a family and s laves to cont inue the year-round farming act ivi t ies .

Life on an Iron Age farm involved a s t r ic t demarcat ion of roles . The women were responsible for milking the cows, baking the bread, brewing beer, preparing meals , spinning, weaving and rais ing the chi ldren. When young, boys and gir ls had a s imilar upbringing. They played together and were expected to take par t in day-to-day chores where they acquired the ski l ls needed to run a successful farm and maintain the community; to keep the society going.

The women went s t ra ight f rom chi ldhood to marr iage and were equipped with a personal dowry. This was their f i rs t contr ibut ion to the weal th of the farm to which they moved, and in many ways a woman was as valued and respected as a man. She might own her own land, and with very few except ions would inheri t on an equal foot ing with a man. To symbolise her authori ty and power, she would wear the keys to chests , cupboards and

s torerooms on her bel t . In cer ta in s i tuat ions she would take over the funct ions of her husband and was of ten effect ively in charge of the farm.

At the age of 15, young men were ent i t led to decide how to use their inheri ted property and to bear responsibi l i ty for their act ions. They were given publ ic tasks that included par t ic ipat ion in defence and acts of vengeance, and were expected to win honour and weal th for themselves and their famil ies .

Although these people seemed to enjoy s ta tus and weal th , events or c i rcumstance appeared to have dr iven them from their set t lements . Iceland was fast becoming a popular dest inat ion for Norwegians, being f i rs t set t led around the la te 9th century by a chief ta in cal led Ingólfur Arnarson. Many chief ta ins quickly fol lowed sui t , accompanied by their famil ies and s laves , most probably dr iven by pol i t ical upheaval and land pressures .

Towards the end of the 10th century the farm and long-house at Borg were abandoned. The precise reasons for his departure f rom the shores of Lofoten may never be known, but i t i s l ikely that this chief ta in , in search of more securi ty and bet ter opportuni t ies , had boarded his ship and in the t radi t ional Norwegian way and sought greater for tunes overseas .

A l o r d p r e p a r e s t o t e l l t a l e s o f h i s t ra v e l s

past horizons43

Work at Lofotr:

The summer season star ts on May 1st and c loses September 15th. Dur ing the season employees are needed for fu l l and par t-t ime work as guides and handcraf ters . A background in archaeology, h istor y and travel or good language sk i l l s i s an advantage.

For a l l these jobs you must speak Engl ish and appl icants who a lso speak German, French, Spanish or I ta l ian wi l l be shown a preference. When apply ing enclose test imonials showing educat ion and exper ience. Remember to speci fy which occupat ion and t ime per iod you can work , and i f you want fu l l or par t- t ime employment. Appl icants who want to work cont inuously for more than four weeks wi l l a lso be shown a preference.

Appl icat ions must be sent in no later than 7 Februar y each year.

G et I nvolved

A video presentat ion f rom the Lofotr Museum.

Volunteer:

As a volunteer at Borg, you l ive and work at the museum and par t ic ipate in the ac t iv i t ies. You can br ing your own Vik ing c lothes and appropr iate equipment for the job you want to do. However, th is must be approved by the museum for authent ic i t y.

Send an emai l with the t ype of work you want to do. I nc lude information on other sk i l l s you may have. For instance, k nowledge of o ld handicraf ts , mak ing food or, col lec t ing herbs. The museum wants to k now more about what you can do and what you have done before.

Post your appl icat ion to : Lofotr Vik ingmuseet , Prestegårdsveien 59, 8360 Bøstad, Nor way

Emai l : v ik ingmuseet@lofotr.no

See website :http://w w w.lofotr.no/Engelsk/en_index.html

I f you are v iewing this on scr ibd, p leasecl ick the l ink below to v iew the v ideo

http://w w w.youtube.com/watch?v=hYAwhi IF0H8

past horizons 44

MedicineMan

By Kevin Goodman

A s a re-enactor special is ing in medicine, surgery and the heal ing ar ts , accuracy

and authent ic i ty are extremely important . Fortunately there is a weal th of medical documentary and archaeological material available for research. Present ing that mater ia l in a way that is accessible , enjoyable and at the same t ime educat ional is a l l par t of the chal lenge of the job.

K e v i n G o o d m a n a s t h e ‘ B a r b e r S u r g e o n’. ( i m a g e : J o H o m f ra y )

past horizons45

As a resul t of my research I have developed an enormous respect for the physicians of the past , recognis ing the dynamic processes they were involved in . Over the past two-to- three thousand years , pract i t ioners have referenced many different sources , enabl ing advancements in medicine around the world.

For example, the 7th century Greek physician Paul of Aegina and the 10-11th century Persian physician Avicenna professed a great admirat ion for the ear l ier work of Hippocrates and Galen. Leap forward hundreds of years to the Mediaeval t imes where Avicenna, Galen and Hippocrates great ly inf luenced the 14th century French surgeon Guy de Chaul iac . He bel ieved that medical advancements could only be made by f i rs t s tudying these great men, and as a resul t de Chaul iac dominated medical thinking in France for over 200 years .

The Engl ish author Geoffrey Chaucer ’s descr ipt ion of the ‘Doctor ’ in the prologue to The Canterbury Tales (c1390) names many of the men through his tory that inf luenced the Mediaeval medical mind:

“Well read was he in Esculapius , And Descorides , and in Rufus,

Hippocrates , and Hal i , and Galen, Serapion, Rhazes, and Avicen,

Averrhoes, Gilber t , and Constant ine, Bernard and Gat isden,

and John Damascene…”

The Mediaeval doctor f i rmly bel ieved in the four humours f i rs t championed by Hippocrates . The humours , namely choler ic , melanchol ic , phlegmatic and sanguine, were formed by the bodi ly f luids of blood, phlegm, black bi le and yel low bi le . I f these humours became imbalanced i l lness would occur. Diagnosis and t reatment was a mixture of as t ronomy, as t rology and rel igion which Chaucer c lear ly i l lustrates:

“For he was grounded in as t ronomy. He of ten kept a pat ient f rom the pal l

By horoscopes and magic natural . Well could he te l l the for tune ascendant Within the houses for his s ick pat ient .

He knew the cause of every malady, Were i t of hot or cold, of moist or dry,

And where engendered, and of what humour; He was a very good pract i t ioner. . .”

MedicineMan

1 2 t h c e n t u r y m u ra l f r o m A n a g n i , I t a l y, d e p i c t i n g e a r l y p h y s i c i a n s G a l e n a n d H i p p o c ra t e s

Zo d i a c M a n f r o m J o h n d e Fox t o n’s L i b e r C o s m o g ra p h i a e, 1 4 0 8

past horizons 46

Archaeological evidence shows that Pre-his tor ic peoples had already amassed a weal th of medical knowledge par t icular ly in the realms of herbal t reatments and some types of surgery. The s tudy of human remains from excavat ions reveal a great number of medical intervent ions. For example, painful headaches might be deal t with by t repanat ion of the skul l in order to re l ieve pressure on the brain. Evidence for this has been found dat ing as far back as the Neol i thic per iod. Performing a t repanat ion procedure is not without danger but the evidence shows that many people survived the ordeal nonetheless .

Mummified bodies seem to provide a great source of fascinat ion and ‘Ötzi the Iceman’ is no except ion. The 5300-year-old frozen mummy discovered in the Tyrolean Alps in 1991 is par t icular ly interest ing from a medical point of view. He was found to be carrying different var ie t ies of fungus, some of which may have represented t reatments for intest inal worms and diarrhoea. Ötzi had approximately 57 carbon ta t toos consis t ing of s imple dots and l ines on his lower spine, behind his lef t knee, and on his r ight ankle . Using X-rays, i t was determined that the Iceman may have had ar thr i t is in these joints with some speculat ion that the dots and l ines may be related to acupuncture .

Many s tudies have been carr ied out on ancient Egypt ians , both on the weal thy el i te and the lower classes . The remains of Ramesses I I who died at the grand old age of 90 revealed that he suffered from joint inf lammation, severe dental problems and hardening of the ar ter ies . Not a lone, the ancient Egypt ian populat ion, many of whom endured hard physical toi l and dietary def ic iencies , suffered from a var ie ty of bone and joint problems such as f ractures , curvature of the spine, ar thr i t is and r ickets , with some skeletons even showing evidence of l imb amputat ion.

Moving forward again to Mediaeval England the medical f ra terni ty had a range of diseases to contend with from dysentery and leprosy to plague and smallpox. The chal lenge to physicians was immense at this t ime as many brutal bat t les were being fought with soldiers of ten sustaining horr i f ic injur ies .

Discoveries f rom the bat t le of Towton (1461) give an insight into some of the successes of medical t reatment on these of ten l i fe-threatening fractures and wounds. In 1996, 43 skeletons were excavated from the bat t lef ie ld s i te and examined in detai l . The skul l of skeleton 16, for example sustained injur ies inf l ic ted by the beak of a poleaxe or war

S k u l l o f a N e o l i t h i c ( 3 5 0 0 B C ) f e m a l e w h o s u r v i v e d a t r e p a n a t i o n o p e ra t i o n

S e a t e d s t a t u e o f R a m e s s e s I I a t A b u S i m b e l, E g y p t

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hammer. While these par t icular injur ies were fatal , the skeleton’s jaw showed s igns of being previously smashed and successful ly reset . This would have been achieved by support ing the jaw in a s l ing t ied around the head, whils t holding the mouth open with pieces of wood to a l low feeding. I t i s most l ikely that a compress of comfrey would have been appl ied to heal the bones.

Knowledge of medical remedies and surgical equipment are a big par t of the re-enactors reper toire and i t can prove useful to look at wri t ten sources for descr ipt ions and i l lustrat ions. In his book The Method of Medicine , the Is lamic physician and surgeon Albucasis provides numerous i l lustrat ions of his large col lect ion of surgical instruments as did the revolut ionary 16th century French surgeon, Ambroise Paré . This valuable information has enabled some craf tsmen to enter into the realms of experimental archaeology and recreate surgical equipment using a combination of archaeological evidence, i l lustrat ions and wri t ten descr ipt ions.

Archaeological discoveries have enabled us to view original surgical objects a t f i rs t hand and work out recipes for medicines . From a house in Pompeii archaeologis ts recovered what is recognised as one of the best col lect ions of surgical instruments ever found from the Roman per iod. Equal ly as exci t ing, f rom the wreck of the ear ly 16th century ship the Mary Rose, the barber surgeon’s cabin and medical chest were located intact , represent ing the most complete col lect ion of medical equipment and surgical instruments f rom that per iod and includes the remains of medicines and ointments .

1 . A m b r o i s e Pa r é’s i l l u s t ra t i o n a n d d e s c r i p t i o n o f a t r e p a n a t i o n d r i l l2 . R e - c r e a t i o n o f d r i l l p a r t s3 . A s s e m b l e d d r i l l

Kevin Goodman’s passion for re-enactment/his tor ical interpretat ion developed from applying his love for bushcraf t , h is tory and archaeology. Based in Dudley, West Midlands, England, he now travels around the country appearing at fes t ivals , museums and s i tes of his tor ic interest portraying the wiseman, surgeon or physician. He regular ly appears a t schools and societ ies giving presentat ions on a var ie ty of his tor ical subjects including medicine, surgery and the heal ing ar ts f rom Prehis tory to the Renaissance.

For more information on future appearances see Kevin’s website at : http// :bowsbladesandbatt les. t r ipod.comemai l : bowsbladesandbatt les@yahoo.co.uk

More I nformation

1 2

3

In this ar t ic le I have t r ied to highl ight some of the many fascinat ing s tor ies that make up the mater ia l for medical re-enactment .

A two dimensional image on a page or an isolated object in a museum display cannot a lways enl iven the imaginat ion in the way that re-enactment can. A good re-enactor can inspire , as tonish and educate and i f a t the end of the performance the audience goes away thr i l led and enl ightened by their experience then al l of the research wil l have been worthwhile . Of course, that said, adding a dash of the gruesome does have something to do with i t as wel l !

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A selection of archaeological andconservation projects around the world.

D ig In

I re land Boyne Val ley Research Projec t

The Boyne Val ley Research Project is a mult i -per iod, mult i -discipl inary research project a t the Bend of the Boyne UNESCO world her i tage s i te , I re land. This year ’s research programme wil l focus on archaeological excavat ions at Bect ive Abbey and Rath Maeve on the Hil l of Tara. Students and par t ic ipants wil l be taught by experts and wil l be guided through the process of archaeological excavat ion. All levels of experience wil l be catered for.

Dates: 7 June - 27 August 2010Costs: €500 per week ( includes tui t ion)

Contact: info@iafs . ieWeb: http:/ /www.iafs . ie / index.html

I s rael Tel Burna

Located in southern Israel a long the banks of Nahal Guvrin. The Shephela ( foothi l ls) served as a border between the kingdoms of Judah and the Phi l is t ines in the Iron Age, and was known as the breadbasket of the south due to i ts sui tabi l i ty for growing grapes and ol ives . The prominent summit is a resul t of the for t i f icat ions that enclosed the upper c i ty and are s t i l l v is ible today. Tel Burna has never been excavated before .

Dates: 13 June - 2 July 2010Costs: $400 per week

Contact: shai . i tz ick@gmail .comWeb: http:/ / te lburna.wordpress .com

Mongol ia Mongol-Amer ican K hovd Archaeology Projec t

The project a ims to advance mater ia l invest igat ions of the peoples and cul tures of the Altai Mountains , a crucial region between the nomads of the Mongolian s teppes and the Si lk Road area within present-day northwest China. Excavat ions wil l focus on a Xiongnu (3rd century BC - 1st century AD) cemetery in the high mountains and invest igate several preceding Bronze Age monuments within the vicini ty of the Tsenkher River. The Khovd project addresses a set of research quest ions that invest igate pat terns of subsis tence and mobil i ty in both local communit ies and the larger region in order to understand integrat ion and interact ion.

Dates: 8 June - 31 July 2010Costs: $1500

Contact: mil lerbk@sas.upenn.eduWeb: http:/ /s i lkroadfoundation.org/archaeology/khovd

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To see more projec ts go to: http://w w w.pasthorizons.com/WorldProjec ts

England B inchester Roman Excavat ions

Binchester Fort , known to the Romans as Vinovia , wil l be the s i te of a major new project explor ing the archaeology of the for t , the a t tached vicus and the landscape in which they l ie . Between 2009 and 2014 teams from the archaeology departments a t Durham Universi ty and Stanford Universi ty wil l work in c lose co-operat ion with the archaeology sect ion of Durham County Counci l to bet ter understand this important s i te .

Dates: 4 - 31 July 2010Costs: $4000

Contact: binchester-devore@stanford.eduWeb: http:/ /humanit ies lab.stanford.edu/Binchester/Home

Jordan K hirbat a l -Mudayna

Wadi ath-Thamad f lows southwest into the Wadi Majib just north of i ts confluence with the Dead Sea. This wadi system forms the border of a t r iangular area that includes the Moabite c i ty of Dibon, the capi ta l of Mesha. A ser ies of for t i f ied s i tes a long the Wadi a th-Thamad may indicate a northern front ier between the Moabites and the Israel i tes who had conquered par t of Moab in the 9th century BC. Khirbat a l -Murdayna, an Iron Age te l l s i te with a Nabatean set t lement a t i ts foot , was chosen for a long-term invest igat ion project in this f ront ier region.

Dates: 17 June - 31 July 2010Cost: $2200

Contact: wadithamad@wlu.lcaWeb: http:/ /www.wlu.ca/page.php?grp_id=296&p=3083

United States Archaeological Prospec t ion Workshop

This workshop is dedicated to the use of geophysical , aer ia l photography and other remote sensing methods as they apply to the ident i f icat ion, evaluat ion, conservat ion and protect ion of archaeological resources . The workshop wil l present lectures on the theory of operat ion, methodology, processing and interpretat ion with hands-on use of the equipment in the f ie ld . To be held at the Knife River Indian Vil lages Nat ional Histor ic Si te in North Dakota .

Dates: 24 - 28 May 2010Costs: $475

Contact: steve_de_vore@nps.govWeb: http:/ /www.nps.gov/history/mwac

Romania Carpathian Ancient Resource and Technology Projec t

The 2010 f ie ld season wil l take place at the la te Chalcol i thic to Early Bronze Age set t lement s i te a t Piatra Tomii in Alba County. The research this year wil l cont inue to invest igate f l int mining techniques used during the Chalcol i thic and Bronze Age as wel l as f l int processing workshops at the set t lement , par t icular ly re la ted to the methodology and equipment used by the Cotofeni people .

Dates: 5 - 24 July 2010Costs: €200 per week

Contact: cerc_de_arheologie@uab.roWeb: http:/ /cartproject .22web.net

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Annie EvansThe Dig Cook

Recipes for Archaeologists

The Dig Cook’s websitehttp://www.digcook.com

The pat tern of l i fe on a dig usual ly cal ls for very ear ly breakfasts and then food to eat in the f ie ld a couple of hours la ter. For f ie ld food, I l ike to prepare a select ion of high energy snacks, cakes, biscui ts or scones that wil l survive the morning in hot or cold cl imates in a backpack to have with that f lask of morning tea or coffee. These wil l give an energy boost when i t ’s most needed.

Here are several ideas for these morning munchies . I supply a reuseable z iplock bag so that people may help themselves to my t ra i l mix. This consis ts of mixed nuts ( raw, roasted, sal ted and unsal ted) and dr ied frui ts such as sul tanas , ra is ins , dates , dr ied cooked chickpeas, and breakfast cereal such as Nutr igrain or whatever is avai lable in the area where the dig is taking place. Boi led sweets and toffees are a lso popular.

Another good idea is a r ich, dense frui tcake. I t cuts wel l and wil l keep for weeks. Anzac biscui ts are an Austral ian invent ion and are t radi t ional ly eaten on Anzac Day (from the ini t ia ls of the Austral ian and New Zealand Army Corps) , the 24th Apri l . I make them on a dig because they are del ic ious and crunchy and survive wel l in

the f ie ld . These were suppl ied to soldiers on the bat t lef ie lds of Turkey and France in World War One because of their excel lent keeping qual i t ies .

Date and walnut loaf is ideal f ie ld food as is lumberjack cake, cheese and curry biscui ts and al l manner of scones. Scones are very quick and easy to make. They cook in twelve minutes in a hot oven and you can have a batch ready to eat in 30 minutes . Scones are best eaten the day they are made and ideal ly warm from the oven. . .not that that ever happens on a dig.

Some people l ike to take a second breakfast into the f ie ld . This helps to make i t through the long, arduous hours between breakfast a t dawn and lunch in the middle of the day. Some bread, a boi led egg, tomato, cucumber, cheese and maybe some s l iced cold meat wil l keep the team going unt i l luncht ime. Frui t is another opt ion for the f ie ld . Bananas, apples , oranges, lychees, kiwifrui t and anything sealed in i ts own skin wil l be refreshing and keep away the hunger pangs unt i l luncht ime comes around.

Here are some of my favouri te recipes for f ie ld food.

FOOD FOR THE F IELD

© Annie Evans 2010

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METHOD

Combine dates , sugar, but ter and water in a saucepan. St i r over heat unt i l sugar is dissolved but do not a l low to boi l . Remove from heat . Transfer to a mixing bowl and al low to cool . St i r soda, l ight ly beaten egg and nuts into cooled date mixture , then add s i f ted f lours . Put into a greased and f loured loaf t in and cook for approximately one hour in a moderately s low oven at 170 degrees . I f a skewer is inser ted into the centre of the cake comes out c lean, the cake is ready. I t can be served with a scrape of but ter.

METHOD

Combine dr ied mixed frui t , but ter, sugar, brandy and water in a saucepan. St i r constant ly over low heat without boi l ing unt i l sugar dissolves . Bring to the boi l , reduce heat and s immer very gent ly, covered for ten minutes . Transfer to a large bowl and cool to room temperature . Grease a 23cm round or deep 19cm square cake t in . Line base and s ides with two thicknesses of baking paper.

Add eggs, t reacle and ci t rus zest to cooled frui t mix and mix wel l . St i r in s i f ted dry ingredients and combine thoroughly. Put into the cake t in and smooth the top. Tap t in on the bench to remove air bubbles . Bake in a s low 160 degree oven for 1½-2 hours . Halfway through cooking t ime place a sheet of a luminium foi l on the top of the cake to s top the top from burning. Leave to cool in t in . A small amount of brandy or rum can be poured on top of the hot cake as soon as i t comes from the oven. This cake is very r ich and wil l keep for two weeks in an air t ight container.

METHOD

Combine oats , s i f ted f lour, sugar and coconut in a bowl. Combine the but ter and syrup in a saucepan and s t i r over gent le heat unt i l mel ted. Mix soda with boi l ing water in a cup and add to but ter syrup mixture . I t wi l l f roth. Add to dry ingredients and mix thoroughly. Place teaspoonfuls on a greased baking t ray, a l lowing room for spreading. Bake in a s low oven for 20 minutes . Loosen and cool on t rays .

DATE AND WALNUT LOAF

1 cup seeded and chopped dates60 grams but ter (2 ozs)1 cup brown sugar¾ cup water½ teaspoon bi-carb soda (baking soda)1 egg l ight ly beaten½ cup walnuts roughly chopped1 cup self ra is ing f lour½ cup plain f lour

BOILED FRUIT CAKE

1 kg dr ied mixed frui ts (e .g . sul tanas , ra is ins , currants , mixed peel , glace cherr ies , glace apricots) 250 grams but ter1 cup brown sugar½ cup brandy½ cup water 5 eggs l ight ly beaten1 tablespoon t reacle (or golden syrup or maple syrup)2 teaspoons grated orange r ind2 teaspoons grated lemon r ind1¾ cups plain f lour1/3 cup self ra is ing f lour½ half teaspoon bi-carb soda (baking soda)

ANZAC BISCUITS

1 cup rol led oats1 cup plain f lour1 cup sugar¾ cup desiccated coconut125 grams (4ozs) but ter2 tablespoons golden syrup (or maple syrup)½ teaspoon bi-carb soda (baking soda)1 tablespoon boi l ing water

This cake wil l cut into about 10 s l ices .

I t wil l cut into about 25 s l ices .

This makes approximately 25 biscui ts .

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ViewpointFo c u s o n RomaniaI f you’re looking for an interest ing archaeological experience this summer then why not check out some of Romania’s fascinat ing opportuni t ies? Past Horizons takes a look at what’s on offer f rom Canadian group Archaeological Techniques and Research Center (Archaeotek) .

Bronze Age Osteology WorkshopAlthough the or igin of the Noua Culture is s t i l l debated, most special is ts agree on Eastern beginnings. or igin. This summer ’s workshop is designed to conduct an exhaust ive osteological survey as wel l as to select bones to be brought back for DNA and s table isotope analysis . Students wil l receive lectures on theories and methods in osteology pr ior to working on the bones. They wil l be taught how to determine age, sex, s ta ture , ident i fy pathologies and take s tandard measurements .

Dates: Firs t session 16 May - 12 June, second session 13 June - 10 July 2010 Cost : $1475 per session (maximum five s tudents per workshop) . Accommodat ion: double or t r iple occupancy roomsWeb: ht tp: / /www.archaeotek.org/bronze_age_osteology_workshop

Neol i thic Sett lement Excavat ion and Sur veyThe s i te of Soimeni means ‘of the eagles’ . Previous excavat ions have already located Neol i thic houses belonging to the Chalcol i thic era (4600 BC – 4300 BC) and large hear ths . Several c lay f igurines have been found including two of the largest yet found at a Cucuteni-Ariusd-Tripolye s i te , as wel l as a number of small a l tars . The wat t le and daub dwell ings at the s i te were burned, creat ing wel l -preserved archaeological features . The remains of a Neol i thic s t ructure a t the Soimeni s i te are the focus of excavat ion for the 2010 season.

Dates: 11 July - 8 August 2010Cost : $365 (maximum 12 par t ic ipants) . Accommodat ion: camping Web: ht tp: / /www.archaeotek.org/neol i thic_set t lement

Bronze Age For t i f ied Sett lement Excavat ion and Sur veyExcavat ions within the embankment of Soimeni have discovered s t ructures belonging to different per iods of Bronze Age occupat ions: an ear l ier Cost isa-Ciomortan occupat ion and a la ter Wietenberg occupat ion. On account of i ts locat ions near the mountain pass , this set t lement was of s ignif icant s t ra tegic and social importance. During the 2010 f ie ld season there wil l be cont inuing excavat ion of one of the Wietenberg s t ructures a long with a geographic survey of the set t lement and local landscape.

Dates: 13 June - 10 July 2010Cost : $365 (maximum 12 par t ic ipants) . Accommodat ion: campingWeb: ht tp: / /www.archaeotek.org/bronze_age_set t lementI ron Age Dacian For tress Excavat ion

The Piatra Detunata s i te is on a hi l l facing an August in Temple Complex and is most l ikely associated with i t . The tes t t renches over the past three years have exposed a r ich and complex for t i f ied urban centre , destroyed by Emperor Trajan’s legions during the Daco-Roman wars (102-106AD). During the 2010 season there wil l be cont inued excavat ion of the for t i f ied acropol is and for t i f icat ion system.

Dates: 6 June - 10 July 2010Cost : $365 (maximum 25 par t ic ipants) . Accommodat ion: campingWeb: ht tp: / /www.archaeotek.org/ i ron_age_dacian_fortress

Excavat ing the Roman Front ierThe Romans constructed a s t r ing of castra (mil i tary camps or for ts) a long the boundary known as the l imes. Castrum Cumidava was one such for t . Research shows that the s i te consis ts of two for t i f icat ions, one ear then and the other s tone, used over a per iod of 150 years with probable abandonment in 250 AD at the invasion of the Goths. The 2010 season wil l cont inue excavat ion in the castrum. In addi t ion there wil l be a soi l survey looking for the civi l ian set t lement .

Dates: 11 July - 15 August 2010Cost : $395 ( includes lab fee, maximum 25 par t ic ipants) . Accommodat ion: campingWeb: ht tp: / /www.archaeotek.org/roman_front ier

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Whilst reading the Painted Landscapes ar t ic le (page 16) in this issue of Past Horizons , i t s t ruck me just how beaut i ful and creat ive the use of language can be. There has a lways been a lot of importance placed on the wri t ten word within archaeology, but when t rying to convey complex

ideas , good i l lustrat ion and photography are a lso t remendously important .

Painted Landscapes, for example, cer ta inly benefi ts f rom descr ipt ive language but a lso s i t t ing alongside this is equal ly descr ipt ive photography. The project directors have had the foresight to employ one of the leading rock-ar t photographers in the United States , Rick Bury, and the resul ts are s tunning. You are t ransported to the s i te in an instant as the words and the photographs work together to enl iven the senses .

Unfortunately, this approach only seems to apply to a minori ty of s i tuat ions at the moment . The sad real i ty appears to be that in the las t two decades the ar t of the photographer and the i l lustrator has been in decl ine. As an i l lustrator myself , I have of ten argued that our ski l ls are both under-rated and under-ut i l ised, and that a s ingle wel l -drawn plan can represent a complex idea in a way that most wri ters would f ind diff icul t to convey.

There was a t ime when i t was seen as an absolute necessi ty to have a professional draughtsperson and a photographer on s i te . Nowadays, i t seems that these are areas where costs can be cut . Instead, i t i s cheaper to put a digi ta l camera into a s i te ass is tant’s hand so that they can point and cl ick. The resul t ing photographs may be a bi t blurry but people seem to think that they can get away with i t .

I l lustrat ion is s tar t ing to suffer the same fate . For example, someone can pick up a penci l and draw a spidery sketch of an ar tefact , and no-one seems to object . Archaeology should be about t rying to communicate ideas to a wider audience but this insis tence in cut t ing s tandards is extremely damaging to the discipl ine.

If you wri te reports or have recent ly read any, just take a look at archaeological photographer Adam Stanford’s websi te (ht tp: / /www.aerial -cam.co.uk) and think about how much bet ter an idea could be conveyed with something of that s tandard accompanying the text . Adam manages to l i f t a s i te or a bui lding out of the mundane, creat ing a power and a presence that a bad photograph cannot do. That is the value of a professional photographer and thankful ly Adam has a growing band of fans that are sympathet ic to his approach.

We l ive in world where visuals are an extremely important method of communicat ion. Both i l lustrat ion and photography can get to the hear t and soul of a subject and should not be compromised, but not everyone has the abi l i ty to convey that to an acceptable s tandard. In my opinion, therefore , as archaeologis ts we have a responsibi l i ty to make sure we use professional help to ensure good i l lustrat ion and photography maintains i ts place as a vi ta l par t of archaeological inquiry.

ViewpointGet Professional Help

David Connol ly i s the direc tor of Br i t ish Archaeological Jobs and Resources (BA JR)Web: http://w w w.bajr.org

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B a c k P a g e s P s e u d o A r c h a e o l o g y

Egypt ian Hal l of Records – why let real i t y get in the way?

The K ingston Zodiac – see what you want or see what is there.

Sometimes f ic t ion is st ranger than the t ruth. A selec t ion of v ideos which highl ight what happens when lack of evidence doesn’t get in the way of a good stor y. Enjoy. . .

To v iew this v ideo please c l ick here

To v iew this v ideo please c l ick here

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B a c k P a g e s P s e u d o A r c h a e o l o g y

M ichigan Tablets – assume ever ything.

12,000-year- old Bosnian Pyramid – or, b ig point y hi l l?

To v iew this v ideo please c l ick here

To v iew this v ideo please c l ick here

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