Some time qo, 1eYsal colleagues and I were dilcu....,, die lntereltl one bad In urban detip and what mlgbt be thought of u the speculative nature of urban intawntion. One member of the group, the Italian architect Peiro Sartogo, had recently been aked to propote a theme for an urban exhibi­tion to be beJd In Rome. In tblnldng about what kind of arddtectural lnvesdption nUgbt be appro­priate for mdl an exhibition, we were talking about various historical plans of Rome and the different biaa that each repretents in our perception of the development of that particular city.

Being aware of the succeuion of plam of Rome

MICHAELG ED

u pablilhed by Frutaz, 1 had UWl)'I felt that thole deweloped by Giovanni Battilta Nolli contained within them an urban life and Yltality dacribed tbroqb rather forthdaht graphic psturn, (1). Our C01Mt•tion penlstec! relative to Nolli'• bJlm in 1 plan delcrlption. I have, In utldel and ltcbuel rely on the walll of their enclolive aurfacel for such u 'f'rqmentl', delCdbed the vllue of the their wban comp:rehmaibility, (2). fiaure mlde In the voida of the arban laadnpe by Imagine for a moment one•1 reprd for the plan virtue of the enclolive gelture of the IUm>UDdillg If NoUi had~ to draw the '*1 from the roof bulldlnp. Oae might dClcribe this phenomenon u rather than Medon dlrougli the glOua4 floor a Ogunl void. The NoW plan la lntereltina becaUle p he did. NolU"I deacriptioa eaptuat1 more it recordl that 18880 of f"JgUtal voJd not only In the accurately, I think, tbe relatlon9'dps of piau to public: domain, such u the plazr.e, bat allo the tbnlbold to lalerna1 pablc rooa wldl a ... of 1emf.public coadidolll of the mflor pieolll of mchl- mtUtJlle or promeaacle that wout. be u•..-.1e tecture In the city. He WU interested. It ...... In utlng other papbic -~ ~. If delCribing not only the plan/sarface relatlonlblp of Noll had included the pdqf.e U.. u other street and 1quare but lllO the amblpltfea held In than a IOCOndarJ '10ndllioa of pochi. oae the pound plane by virtue of one• ,..... from llaft 1'eela wble to -- tM .._..,of the public atemal encloMe to the enclOlh<t..,.. eoelolDse to the extent daat Ids ,._ .,.._ turea of pubUc rooms 'WJtbln tile buUdtap diem- reaultlng homopneoua ,.ttera __. ildirlll* ..... (2). diltlncdollt betweea pubic an4 friftla .....

In contrast to a medieval plan which would Nollrs rendering ort8tb-centu:ry Rome contains make more discrete 1eparations between inllde not onlY a plan bias, u delCribed abo'9. but also a and outllde. (J), or a 20tlHeatury lcheme such u papbic tecbnlque wbtl:h al'lo'Wl. n1m1···-

Le Corb19f•1 Palllt du Ceaaotoyua wldda de- conception tbroup ...... ICdbtl a more condnuOUI relatiouldp ... tweea When one lllke4 te.,.. ln.w.-'out,(4). NoDra.,._... the,..... about tbe Glb".tld.Ul4111Gtl• of boa dell~- to tiea moNaocur,. OM ,... .. I ate _,don with fe8Ud to owr plt1lerJll -Of or wbaA putWpatlon. ollu ...., t In .. of bla o of 1748,uclll ot4elorlpdoe .....

0 juactmes or seams. Tboap it mJght be ..... without coordination, detelopment of the leCtions by the participating arcbi1ecta WOlllll 1114 to unneceaary fragmentation, it is allo tne tllat wban fragments en be ll!ell as eaen.tial to Nolli"I conception. If one wae to compare Piraaai 1 Campo Marzio, (6), with NolU's plan, one is made awipe of the cxtnme differeoces between thee two politiom: one Is a compolition of mutually adjusted set pieces, and the other involves the mutual modiflcation or figure and ground, providing a comprehensible equity between figural object and figural space. What begins a a problematic c:onclitlon of mutual adjustments between the frag­mented tieetions of the NoDi plan as issued to each of the 12 architects c:an be ued potitWdy by UIQ!Ding that the city is one of mutually adjusted (Jqmeatl, or adjacencies. modified to fit the context, rather than set pieces in a field.

Indeed. Rome u it exists now can be seen u a ales of quarten, mutullly adjusted to accommo­date adjacencies, aad the temporal deftlopment of thiNe qarms 11 geaeaa11y ftMlalecl by the .­•-•t within thcml. lt ii carious in ma.

tile exbibitloli ideatiftes dlole ......, attemptto*9ctalearbaa ......... llll'bllty

Oil dlltincdy dlft'eaent ..... Whtie ..,... PJllfer ... axid ~ flm>uP tile ..... patwa or a IOOIQOtl'lcal .,_, _... woUI

tile oppcMlite ID .tbOie kOUted \ltbaa .......... s odlen might atconuaodaflt

dlltle~fMptlldotla area•..,... to dlematlcor~.a1Nea1 .,.,....Lthe ftrietj Of iadMdual IOIDdl'm .... I think, our current tendency to accept dhne positions ,ad allow tbeit juxtaposition In a __ .. of

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ri.

Portoghesi presents an urban infill that appears as a lyrical or naturalistic version of the tree-growth urban patterns which are so characteristic of Team X, and which are now acknowledged to be a­contextual and a-spatial urban architectural disasters. We are supposed to be convinced by a series of drawings interpreted buildings as land­scapes that buildings can be made to represent landscapes literally. But urban landscapes are not !Jucolic ones and urban spaces are not understood .ls static photo images. The artistic technique i.s ~s Jnconvincing as the structureless scheme that It 1s intended to justify.

Ro~5i's presentation deals pictorially with the ·;urrealist imagery that holds such allure for him :nore than it deals with a projection of urban form '>r life. The 'early industrial' feeling conveyed by Rossi's images suggests a kinship with the presen­tation of Leon Krier, but without Krier's under­lying social programme.

Venturi abdicates responsibility by flogging a near-dead horse. Las Vegas may indeed be to the Strip what Rome is to the Piazza, but only as the analogy is descriptive of both places. Otherwise the logic is faulty. Venturi's mistake is in the considera­tion of the two, Strip and Piazza, as qualitative equals. Operating at an extreme, formulating theory in suppo1 t of unpalatable facts (if indeed they are facts), Venturi makes one wonder why he is so reluctant, or so afraid, to effect positive change.

Robert Krier shows a frightening array of sombre, g:10stlikc pictures that are inaccP-ssible to common understanding. They bear little relation to the isolated plan frag;,1c .. i that he has so skilfully d..!v~loped and that is so suggestive of an activi! and accommodating urhan Ii· __

Piero Sartogo has wrought mindless destruction and confusion in the guise of art. Using a technique that might be called 'constructivist Haussmann ', Sartogo overlooks or does not understand that Haussmann created order and hierarchy by slicing through the amorphous density of medieval Paris. Sartogo's technique does just the reverse. He attacks with violence and intellectual irrcverance one of the clearest 'set pieces' of Rome, if not the world, and creates chaos. The scheme seems to plead for recognition as a great work of artistic urban development. But, with such apparent mis­understanding of constructivism, such complete di regard for the clarity of urban form, and such a misanthropic attitude toward institutions of society (specifically The Church), it fails utterly.

With poetic mysticism, Antoine Grumbach has invented 'reverse archaeology'. It is perhaps the most difficult of all the projects to understand. Grumbach's newly made subterranean antique world sugj!csts that time is the ultimate measure; that all urban developments. indeed all human endeavour, will become eventually the uhjcct of future archaeology.

Romaldo Giurgola has made a small city in the image of the upper west side of Manhattan with all the amenities of Ebenezer lloward' garden city. With residences, office , factories and recreation all within walking distance, and all appropriately 'greened', Giurgola's project is eminently believable and would probably be a very successful urban development. It is ironic that an expatriate Italian would export urban America back to Rome a curious reversal of the American preference for the importation of things European. But it is difficult to accept the ease of Giurgola's wholesale purchase of _the gridiron of New York or Philadelphia as the ultunate urban paradigm without further question or speculation.

Leon Krier presents an attitude which seems .at first presumptuous but which is ultimately pathet.1c. Krier has created monuments of enormous s1z~ and scale, placed in locations of enormous promi­nence and importance. This suggests an arrogant imposition of his will upon Rome and upon the monuments of history. But Krier's monuments also suggest a social programme of populist suprem~cy as they house, protect and provide accommodation for the common people. Krier is a populist Sixtus v. His project suggests both a romantic and a pessimistic view as, in essence, he argues that to make urban life palatable, indeed humane, we must destroy, or at least obscure, the monuments of history as we enact the will of an impossible society.

James Stirling's self-described 'correction of the Nolli plan of Rome' is quite skilfully made. It is a mostly modernist plan that demonstrates most clearly that Mr Stirling has built many buildings and done many projects. In a paroxysm of self­indulgence and with some attempt at wit, Stirling distributes a score of his own projects about the landscape. Employing antique Roman, 'grid-shift­collision' planning in an artful manner, Stirling demonstrates that this strategy, traditionally so successful, is equally effective in the manip•Jla tion of elements of modern architecture into a modern urban fabric. The worst effects cf his megalomania can br. seen at the Siemens crossing of thc Tiber where Stirling suggests a connection to the real fabric of Rome and in the process compromises the Chiesa Nuovo and the Oratorio.

Michael Gra·1es hopes for the world to be an idyllic architectural public garden tempered by intellectual sophistication and beneficent aware­ness or the need for preservation of the rdics of the past. With the suggestion of an urban grid at its edges, the mundane world is all but suppressed in favour of an image of a world where everyone is an unoppressed member of the court at Versailles. Graves's presentation seems purposefully ambiguous as it compresses a variety of interpretations into a single image by using an abstract purist drawing technique in a sophisticated manner. The drawing is variously and simultaneously plan, elevation. section, axonometric, perspective, thick and dense, thin and light. It is always elusive. The presenta­tion introduces the important modern notion of simultaneous multiple view and multiple meaning. but Graves leaves the eye wondering and the mind wandering about exactly what it is that he is trying to accomplish. If size and scale can be taken as a measure of interest and concern, then it is quite apparent that Graves's preferences are for a world of urban landscapes. In the context of the scale pf Rome, however, his garden is too vast. \Vhat is interesting, if also curious, about this presentation is that while the thought processes and representa­tion techniques arc thoroughly imbm·d "ith the theories of modernism simultancou. I} n1ulti­visioned the images employed and created arc traditional and reflect a clear classical preference.

Colin Rowe, et al, are clearly the noble t Romans of them all. Their view extend and almost replicates the density and character of urban texture of the centre of Rome, including an e ten­sion of the fortification walls and an updated 'rebuilding' of the Palatine hill, all with the regular­ising influence of l8th- and l9th-century hench planning. This view rejects all notions of modern urban planning and, it seems, modern architecture as well. Consequently this project calls directly into question the continuing efficacy of modem architecture, modem zoning and building laws, and established modem huilding types. Despite its

unwillingness to recognise the existence of the last century, the project is believable and, among all the others, probably represents the most savoury of urban worlds.

Conclusion It is interesting to look at the new (197 8) map and to imagine each proposal, in turn, spread out over the entire 12, either as urban fabric type or as idea whichever is appropriate to a particular scheme' None of these propositions is wholly satisfying; some are indeed frightening. It is evident that Roma lnterrotta has not produced a new urban­ism. In fact, insofar as these projects do not present visions of a possible better world, they all reflect an elemcn t of despair.

Looking among the 12 for ideas of urbanistic value, the eye returns repeatedly to the projects of Rowe, Stirling, Giurgola and Graves. Although Rowe and Stirling present two different kinds of urban worlds, they share a kinship of plan organisa­tion; both employ collisions of grids and juxta­positions of geometrically clear urban elements. Rowe offers a city of spatial hierarchies, of streets. boulevards :rnd squares, of clearly defined public spaces. of potentially identifiable neighbourhoods in a wholly traditional plan. Stirling presents a city of spatial neutrality, characterised by the spatial indefiniten~ss of modern urbanism. although far better t)1an most. Stirling also represents for the entire enterprise an underlying conscience of modernity. lest we forget where we are. Giurgola relics upon the sanity and sobriety and all the other genuine benefits of an elaborated gii<lirun plan. Graves. in addition to the idea of urban land­scape. introduces the kind of multiplicity and com­plcx.t \ of vision that is necessary for any rich and realistic modern urbanism.

What can be learned from Roma lntermtta? It is clear that presently, at a time of wide ranging personal preferences and differing attitudes about architecture, there is no agreement or consistent belief about how cities ought to be made. It is also dear that no individual view can satisfy our requirements for a healthy, successful and stimula­ting urban environment.

But this docs not mean that the exercise of Roma !111crrott11 is valueless. To the i:ontrarr. it impresses upon us that the requirements of cities, indeed cities themselves, arc exceedingly comple'\. It also encourages the view that cities are capable uf sustaining and even supporting fragmentar} intervention and that such intervention can provide architectural clarilication. In fact it suggests that cities arc resistant to a singular view no matter how poetic, hu1111rnistic or scnsihl~ that icw mil!ht be. and that, generally, effective alterations n~ust be small scale. incremental. contextually responsive. culturally related, and probably slow in material­ising and maturing.

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A premibe 11ue, 'Roma lnterrotta' semble ~tre une entreprise discutable: un abondant deploiement d'energies dediees d une a11enture denuee de sens ou de 11aleur. Rome, apres tout .. a sujyj 'II 11.lPPIJ:

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S'H 1'116/I d• ll'OllllU """ ....,,. i 'Ro'* lnterrotto', celtz dott It! rbwner o dr.wc TJOlllNltb tn#pt1roble1 et inh'rente1 i l'uerctt:« l+e"""­ment, la pombU1te d'tl11t111c• du lllaftllolu (JOll­t1"ei et ayont trait 11 Iii nalUl'e du dlH/Oppeme11t urbain - ce qu'il demzit lire, ce qu'll •ndt pu hre. Deuxihnement, Iii poaibllitl d """'°""' da comtMntaires et de1 hyTJOtlll#11 nu In ttructures et inttuutiotU 10cialei apPll1'1tmllnt tJ M culture contemporaine ou ,,.-e.

Pris sous cet lltf8/e, on ne pe&lt supfJOla 1111Cune 11Ulf1ension de l'histoue ou ·du temps, nulb ii f aut plutot t'On1iderer la 11ille de Rome a11et: sa com­fJ/exite et 111 longue histoire, teUe qu'eUe fut dessinee par Giambatti11a Nolli en I 748, de11eflllnt a/ors le 11M11cule d'un plan d'etudes urbaines sbie11se1, sans rapport au temps. I e pro/et 'dlma"atll • e11 1748 et la 11il/e choisie etanl Rome, cec1 1111pl1que la recvm1a1ssance et pri1e en cvn· 1idlration de l'histmre archllecturale et urhaine, pou11ant renronter aun1 loin que l'antiquite. Du /art que /'on JIOll mainleflllnt en 1978, ii est in· ·l1111able que toute recherche, tout pollulat d'une condition urhaine, revelent des preferences llUr le dt!11elopp,.,,wnt 11rhai11 < ontemporailr et le /JOl<'nttel de l'arcllll<Ctun da11s le context£• urham II 11)' a pa1 be1111/n de 'programme' en wi, Ii l.e hut de telle~ reclrerches est de promou11oir la q1ttulation. U11 tel programme, SI tant e1t qu'il puisse exister, srratt 1111/HI thle d t!lahorer sa11s inev11ablc111ent restreindre et mterdue (Quelques r'61e1 de base donnant un po111t de con11ergence aux part/cipanll daru un ieru g'neral, aura1ent ete souhaitahles). I e /au de d1111ser la 11ille de fllfOn arhitrt1ire, comme le fall le p/lln, at un moyen auez raiaonnable de faclliter le morcelkmenl d partir d'attributioni, de /~on d fain fill/Ur des profealoM de foi.

II n 'o rate /NU moln1 que, /onque /'on regllJ'de l'ettlillge da douze pl'Ojet1, l'ab#ntt apparente de communictltion entre lei pa11/cipan11 nt durement rementle Olrttllna /uJCltlpodtiolu .ant Ii dacor­dlmtes .- l'on peut 1e demanda co"""ent In ,,.,,lc/ptlllti dont la p/upal't .aftl tJa COlllUtUtl .. nllPOllh, n'ont p11 ~lrlebaolnduo,,.,,.,,. lficlltlon •U COWS du fHO/el q11i d11111 pbu du M.

Une des consequences de cette absence de coordination est le fail que l'on ne peut considerer chaque presentation que de fafon isolee ou dons le f;C>nlQU de J 'J. Jl 1t)' "

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11n:hilectlmnlx, 11-contextutllUtes et a-1p11tiawc. On e6I nqJpoli ltre con1111incu1 par de1 6'rie1 de demn1, btterpritant lei ldiflce1 comme dei 111ymge1, que lei ldifice1 peu11ent ltre '1abore1

de /tlfOll tJ liltbalement reprtienter des paysages. Mau lei Pll}'lllge1 urbains ne 10nt pas bucoliquei et lei npaces urbain1 ne peuw:nt etre consideres romme des Images photopaphiquei statiques. la l~nique artiltique conlltlinc aussi peu que le Pro/« a«ructurt qu'elle est mppollle justifier.

La preientation de Rossi tnzite, au moyen d'ilbutmtio1U, l'imagerie 1U1Teali1te qui represente un bttbit tout tJ fail penonnel bien plus qu 'une p10/ection de Ill /omre ou 11ie urbaine. Le sentiment de 'debut indunriel' communique par les images de Roai iuaitt une parente a11ec Ill presentation de Lion Krier, llllU toutefou le p10gramme 1acial de Krier tJ Ill btue.

Venturi abdique toute responsabilite et se depell# en pure pene. Las Vegas peut en effet reprtienter au Strip ce que Rome represente tJ Ill Piozu, mau ieulement en tant que l'analogie est deicrlptt.e de1 dewc endroits. Sinon 111 logique est fauale. L 'erreur de Venturi est le fail de con­~lrer lei dewc, Strip et Piozza, en tant qu'egawc qualitatift - tra11t1illant 4 l'extrtme, formulllnt une thlorie pour appuyer des fai11 d'un gout douteux r• lant ell qu'il y ail de1 fails), on finit par• detn11nder pourquoi Venturi helite tant ou a ri peurd'il/tttuer un changement politif.

Robert Krier deplore une serie effnzyante d'image11ambres et 1pectrale1, ilUlccessibles au bon se111. Elle1 n'ont qu'une rel111· lointaine a11ec le fragment de pllln isole qu a d habilement de11eloppl et qui sugglre si bien une fonne de 11ie urbaine active et accomodcnte.

Piero Stutogo aboutit ri Ill de1truction et Ill con­fusion in10Ucilln1e1 en guue d'art. Utlli•nt une technique que l'on pourrait appeler 'conllructi· 1 isme 4 l'Hauamann', Stutogo 1emble oublier ou ne pa1 comprendre qu'Hauamann 11 cree un ordre et une hllrorchie dom Ill densile amorphe du Paris mldll11t1l.

la technique de Sartogo aboutit eX11ctement d ''effet inrene. R attaque violemment et avec une "e11erence toute intellectuelle une des 'donnee1' 'e1 plu1 clllire1 de Rome, 1i tt n 'ell du monde, et 1boutit ailUi au chao1. Le pro/et 1emble demander

ltre reconnu en tant qu'oeuvre d'art du develop­~ment urlN11n Mail, avec une incomprthelUion du -on1truct1Pi6me ,; apparente, UM indi/flrence Ii

'por/llite 4 l'ltard de lo clm1' de lo tonne urbaine et ~ne att/111/U Ii milonthroplque •II 4 ril de1 iflltitu­kHu 60d6la, (en l'oecurence, l'Elll#J celo aboutit ~ "" klrec total.

AH'c 10n myltfcisme polt/que, Antoine Grumhodl 11 inNnt' l'ATChft>/olle in'HtW C'ell ,,rohablemeu le pro/et le plu1 di/flcl/e 4 com­Ollndre. u monde ant111ue aoutemdn de

rumbadr, rkmunent c1'1, IU/ldre que le tempi 1H1llilue lWtinw me111tr et que tOflt dheloppe

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l'aisance avec laqueUe Giu1g0la acquiert en g10s le terrain de New York et Philadelphie en tant que paradigme urbain sans plu1 de que1tlon1 ou de speculation.

Leon Krier adopte une attitude qui iemble ti premere vue pre10mptueuse mail qui est ftnalement pathetique. Krier a cree des mo numents d la taille et echelle enormes, situes dans de1 emplace­ments en evidence. Celll sugglre une imposition arrogante de 111 volonte sur Rome et mr lei monu­ments de l'histoire. Mail les monumenll de Krier suggerent aussi un p10g1r1mme 10cial, atteignant le 1tade du populilme, du fail qu'iJs abritent, protegent et /oumislent un logement aux gens.

cation, une 'reconstruction' mile d jour du Mont Palatin, tout ceci sous /'influence regularnante de la planification franfQile des Uf' et 19" siecki. Ce point de vue rejette toute notion de planificatlon urbaine modeme et, semble-t.iJ auai, de l'archi· lecture moderne. Par con#quent, ce projet met en cause directement l'efficacite de /'architecture moderne, de la repartition en zones moderne

1 et

des lots de conrtruction et der types de bitim~ntr modernes etablis. Malgre 111 mauvaise 110lont~ ti reconnaitre /'existence du siecle paue. le pro/et ell plausible et, parmi tous les autrer, represente p10bablement le monde urbain le plu1 attirant.

Krier est un Sbctus V populiste. Son p10/et suggere Conc/Ulion d la foil un point de 'llUe 10mantique et populiste R est intere1St1nt de regal'der la nouvelle carte du fail que, par enence, il soutient que pour rendre (1978) et d'imaginer chaque projet separement la vie urbaine (/greoble et du coup humaine, il faut mperpose sur les douze rh4nil, IOit en rant qu; detruire OU au moins ob1curc/r les monuments type Urbain, SOit en tant qu'idee, comme ce/a con. /egues pa l'histoire, car cela repreiente Ill volonte vient au p10jet paniculier. Aucune de ces propo,;. d'une socilte impoalble. tions n'est entierement satilfaisante; certaine11ant

La correction de Stirling, qui 'ie decrit d'elle- mime e/frayantes. R ert evident que 'Roma mime' du pllln de Rome de Nolli, ell reolisee avec Interrotta' n'a pas cree un urbanilme nouveau. En aaez de talent. C'est un plan par deaus tout fail, Ii /'on considere que ces p10jet1 ne ptiientent moderniste, qui demontre de Ill fafOn Ill plu1 clllire pas une 11ision d'un monde meiJleur poaible, iJs que M Stirling a construit beaucoup d'edifice1 et 1 re/letent tous un element de desespoir. realise de nombrewc projets. Dans un acces d'ego- Er. cherchant parmi les douze der ideer tJ 11aleur centrisme, accomPllJr11e d'une tentative d'esprit, urbanilte, l'oeil revient mru arrit aux projetr de Stirling distribue sur le paysage un echantillon de Rowe, Stirling, Gi11rgo/a et Graves. Bien que Rowe se! p10pre: p10jet1. E11 utilisa11t adroitt:ment la et St/rli~ prese,,tent deux sorter differentet de planification de Ill Rome Antique, Stirling demonte monde urbain, ils partagent u11 souci d'organimtion que cette ltrat~ en general Ii heureuse, ell aussi de plan. Tous deux emploient des collirioru de ebicace dans Ill manipulation des elements d'archi- grilles et des juxtapositions d'ellment1 urbainr lecture modeme dan1 un tissu urbain moderne. On geometricalement clain. Rowe offre une 11ille d peut retrouver les pire1 e/fets de 111 mlgalomanie, hierarchies spatiales, avec des ruer, boule1111nlr et au panage du Tihre 'Sieme1U', ou Stirling iuggere places, des espaces urbainr clairement defrnil, et une lilliaon at1ec le veritable tiau de Rome et com- des vouinage1 potentiellement identi/iable1 danr promet Ill Otiesa Nuovo et l'Onztorio dans le un plan tout d fait traditionnel. Stirling prercnte prottuus. une ville d neutnzlitl spatiale, caractlruee par

Michael Graves upire tJ un monde qui rerait un l'indeflni spatial de l'urbanilme moderne, cepen­jardin publique architectural idyllique tempbe par dant bien meilleure que Ill plupart. Stirling une iophiltication intdlectuelle et une pme de represente auai, en ce qui conceme l'entreprile conscience salutaire du be1ain de conserver lei entiere, une conscience IOUr/acentedela modernile, relique1 du paae. Aw:c Ill suggellion d'un rtseau de peur que l'on oublie ou l'on ell. Giurgola urbain en bordure, la qJhire mondaine demeure et compte mr le bon 1en1 et Ill 1abriete et tou1 lei ceci donu une image d'un monde ou chacun ell autres bienfa1ts d'un plan en grille, &bo~. G1r1va, un membre non oppriml de Ill cour de Venoille1. en plu1 de l'idee de paymge urbain, introduit cette La prtientotion de Grave1 iemble diliberement sorte de mult1plicite et de complexite de llilion qul amb'8Qe du fa1t qu'elle concentre une 11t1riete sont nice11111re d tout urbamsme moderne, nche d'11tterf"''"''""' en une imoge u11ique et ceci, en et reoliste. utiluant une technique de deain abllraite et Que peut-on apprendre de 'Romo /ntecrott•' purUte d'UM ""'1f/be IOp/riltiquie. Le destin R est clair qu'actueJlement, tl UM qo;,. Otf la reprbente diHnemmt et limulttznlment le plan prtflrence1 penolllltlle1etlei11ttltuder "'' rlld• d'llhtltlon, l'aJConomltrie, ltt perspective, d'une /'architecture iont lei p/M1 diNna. I 11) •I"" manilre """'1e et denM, ou mince et lifere. d'accord ou de croy11111:e COIUtnte en ct1 flll...,. C'ell toufoun etlUif. I.a p1'1entatlnn intmduit la ceme lo faron dont la rllesdnrsimt lire /ftll R not ton motkme lmportante du point de vue e t auia cltllr, que taU:Ull point tli rw • multiple et dmultlllll et du 1e111 multiple, mats peut 111#4Wruto14 tl'i•'9'•11e11•JnJ,..,_ Gtne1 lttille tl l"od le '°"' de ie demtmder et ""1tt --. fl9ll/tlfl tit.,, .... tl l'erprlt le '°"' de It PIV""""11' "" Cfl ..... II eXll&t,,,_ttt eaql d'~ SI ,_ tdll l'«h.U. pt111Nlll ltn ~Ml# rnn.,,,, • .,. • .

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f) Villa Giulia munphaeum

deed, it was in the villas built in the countryside Jround Rome by succeeding generations that \fannerist architectural principles achieved their greatest development.

The Villa Madama, {1./5), begun in 1516 for ardinal Giulio de Medici, is the first Roman villa 11ich can clearly be labelled Mannerist. Vasari •ributes the design to Raphael, but much of the rk appear to h:ive been carried out bv Giulio ma110, who was in Raphael's workshop at the

unc. Like most of the villas built in the Roman ·1rnntryside during the century, the Villa Mad?ma •\'as not intt:nded to servl! as a residence, but 'ather a· a lavi. h retreat where the cardinal could •ntertain guests and !.'Scape the heat of the city on 1 summer day. The steepn~ss of the site on the .lope of Monte Mario and the lack of a specific irchit.:ctural programme contribute to the novelty lf the relationship between building and landscape.

'Jlle building was planned around a series ofout-1.JOr courtyard space , linked axially and leading 1tirnately to the garden, (4). One approached -,1m the river, per hap ascending by a series of tt•pped terrace (the design of the garden has not 1een convincingly reconstructed), to a massive acade facing the city. A minor axis through the •uildinr- tc.-ps up the hill, connecting the stables at h,• l<mer lcwl \\ ith a circular court at the piano 111b1lc and an amphitheatre, cut into the hillside "•oh'. fhl' primary t:ntrancc seem· t\1 have hecn ;1t

•nt• end, where a large re1:tangular 1.:ourt leads hrough a lo~ia to tht: cirn1lar court, wl11d1 is the oided core of the building, and then out through a •cond loggia to the giardino scgreto. l hisscque111..'C I linked vnids carved into •hl' mas.s of tl1l' huildin)! hie\ Cs a lig11r;1I qualil}' in its don11nan1:e over the

111m or the vill.1. I hl' proces.sion spills over into 1c g.ml ·n, \\ hid1 is treated as a series of outdoor 111111 . e\lcnding the re.1lm of architecture into the

111d .lpl', lc.lllim: finally to a r•1stll' nymphaeum ut mto the 11111 ide, where the man-made land cape nd the natural landscape ultimately merge.

While the Cortile di Belvedere l."Onsi t of a •rie of garden terrace , it l."Omposition is under­ood primarily a a ingle pace which has been -agmented. (TI1u it remains within the Renait­~nce tradition.) In the Villa Madama, the fragmen­>rY nature of the composition is the donun.1t 1eme. The major space , a iaUy aligned, are ndcntly conceived and linked by p1roclllllloa

~rough the building. The prden -•rtJ eated a ne of outdoor rooms. ........... par.ated yet linked proc:emonally tlallt lop~ between architecture and '-'ape per.

4 Villa Madama plan, Raphael, Giulio Romano

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7 Villa (,"iulia, street jacade, 1•11:110/a 1551 ·55

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8 Villa Giulia, casino courtyard facade; vignola construction on the amphitheatre was halted when landslides threatened the safety of the project. Even partial!} completed, the villa maintains the charact::r of a fragmented gatewa}' to the garden, a non-building.

The Sack cf Rome by the l'rench Empernr Charles V in 15 27 was an important factor i11 the spread of Mannerism to the rest of Italy, for many of th:: artists who werr active in the first decades of the century lei! the city after the Sack and settl-.:d in the north. Die stylisti.: diversity of the perk1d is no doubt due partly to this dispersal, however ever. more import;:nt was the new artistic freedom. In the years immediately following the Sack, buildin~! al"11vity in Ro!lle slackened. The spirit of experrmenlation that began the century was not diminished b}' th<' hiatu., however the ideas initiated in the ~arlier robus1 phase developed at mid-century into a more mature, classical phase of Mannerism.

The Villa di Papa c;iulia, ( 4). was begun in 155 I hy Pope Julius 111 on his prop,.rty aero. s the Tiber from the \'ilia Madama. Where the architec­ture of the Villa Mad.1ma is articulated as a gate­way lo the garden, in the Villa Giulia the idea of building as a \Cries of voids i developed to the ex!ent that tl•l' an:hitccluie bet:omes the frame for the garden itsdl. (5).

A number of artists contributed to the project, making it dil hcult lo dl'tcrmmc the precise contrt­bution of each. Vasari da1111s l'redit for the original layout, and it t thought that Michelangelo played some role in the early tage • Vignola was respon­sible lor the de 1~n ot the ea ino with it semi­l·1n ul.u lo •11 111J 11 r en mccrm • till' waterworks of the sunko1 n mpha um. llo ·vcr, It wa Ammannat1 \"liho devil ·d the flrc nt arrangement of a cond loggia and conne ·ting courtyard walls between th a 1110 and th nymphaeum, a devite which Johu ( lolidg • point ' ut cceedcd an um fymg the prevaou y d met lement of the com position the U-thapecl of the ea no and the void or the nymphaeum. 2 It a ea of uniftca by divilion for the loggia fint tbe the nymphuum from the ntrance then lllO\lel thftNlh the courtyard frames it. eat logia. the painld ramp

of RfmpUeunt t

10 Villa Farnese, Capraro/a to the ne t via the loggias along the central axis of ymmetry, movement between adjacent courts

1s alway to either side. One is continually brought back to the central a is, however, by the visual connection to the adjoining segment.

While the patial character of the Villa Giulia is e scntially as it was in the seicento, its surface qu~lity has not been a well prt'scrved. Stucchi om·c covered the blank panels on the semicircular fal·e of the ci.sir,o; there were frescoes of garden L-Cnes on the upper curved walls of the

nymphaeum, and on the end wall aviaries opened to either side of the third lo~ia, (6). The niche~ were lilied with statues, anJ the display of wat<'r in all three courts would have contiibuted to the sensual e'perience in a way which we can only 11na)?1nc today.

1"!1c urfacc aspects of Mannerism hi.ve been much •Jisi:ussed with respect to the work of M1ci1clangelo and that of Giulio Romano in Mantua, however the exaggerated character of their \\ork is not necessarily typical. While certain cc•ncralities can be made concerning the surface trc·:1t rnent of Mannerist buildings, there i. con­si<knhle stylistic diversity, and indeed such di·.ersity is an important aspect of the period. It is interesting to note in this regard that, because of st. list1c discrepancies. the outer and inner faces of thl· Vill:1 Giulia casino were once attributed to 1ftl 1 ·r,·nt ard1itects. Both were designrd hy \ 1 •n.,l.1; their differences seem to result from their <lil!L'll'nt lunctions. ·1 he public facade is solid and . 111 .. ular. \\ 11 h rustication symbolising its protective \.1h1L'. (7), "'l11lc the private court facacle. a con-1111111111\ cndos1vc curve, has a more· linear, even url,ll L'. (8).

I he d1 tindions of mc:inin!! in thL'Sl' surfac·cs .,,. h.1 d "11 th · u"· "' lrad1t1011al ;11d11tL'l"tur;il Ill 111 Ill .1 11 "\\ \\.I~ \\here \lannl'rrst pa111t Ill•' '"'-'' 11.11111l· .1 :i h.1"-' lrorn \\hid1 Ill .1bstract. Mannerist .ir l11IL' tur · u cs classical architcl·turc. Sud1 1h tr.1 11011 1s h.1scd <>n umlcrstaudin!! thL' C\Sl'IHT 1. • ii 1 lht• stth t"IHt' ol d.rs rc;rl 11l"!11n•cll11L', """I""" spatt.il ideas as well .is element . In its pl.111 1>r>!.111tsat1011 a well as surface treatment, the \ 111.1 ( dllh<I tomb mes a unified cl lect ol the whok \\ 1t h .1 11nultaneous diversity ol its parts; achil'ving .111 111l 1rn.1tl' s} nthesis ol conceptual ;rnd pcrl·cptual l' pt.:ril'IH:l'.

In I 559 Vi1mola hcgan work on a villa at (',1prarnl.1, (152). lor ( ardinal Alessandro I arnesc. llc h.iscd his plan on the existing penta)!onal foun­d at tons, which were typical of ·1 uscan RenaissanL'C viii.is, derived from fortified rural ca~tles. fie

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I) I ilia J.;mnc p/u11. <i111rurola. I 'ixnolu I 55'J {•'asi) hrilliantl~ 111,·,>rpor.1tes tl11s traditional dosed form into an open spatial sequence, linking city to fore­court to building (with its circular cortile) to garden. (')). \I (";1prarola the dialogue between hurld111e .11111 l.111d ·'I'" '' 1: ... cn t" a ne\\ level. I 11sl. a p.11r ol Wlf<'I g.mlcns arc· l111kccl across a rno.11 lo the l\\o rear laces ol the pentagon. 1 ·urther up tl1<· 11111 to one side, set with111 a hosco, is a sc·nimf l11r111.tl • 1r<kn. u111sist111g of a water sl;11r k.1d111,: I• .1 .-.is:rH>, .1ml linally to an outdoor room hounded hy hedges, paved in pebble mosaics, and l'dgl·d with lountains Sl't among parterres. This second garden scquenn• IS aligned on an axis which seems rndqwndenl o I the 11ri1!111al compo it ion, yet wl11d1 lcrmrnates h.Kk at the stair leading from the main street of the town to the forecourt of the villa. Thus at the cnd of the architectural prome­nade a visual connection is made back to-its begin­ning, (I 0). I he idea of splitting the garden and setting it in a bosco represent a eontinuingdialogue between the man-made landscape and the natural

12 Villa Lonte, Bagnaia; Vignola 1566 landscape, as one moves from garden to bosco and back to formal garden again.

The nearby Villa Lante, (151), at Bagnaia of 1566, also attributed to Vignola, represents a different attitude; here the landscape has become the architecture, ( 12). The residential functions of the villa are filled in two side pavilions which are treated as minor clement~ in the composition.4

The major focus is on the garden it:;elf. The symbolic programme of the Villa Lante represents a progression from natural landscape to man-made la!ldscape, and ultimately to urban landscape. This is reinforced by the use of 'IUte1 which rushes out of the natural bosco at the enu of the sequence into a grotto on the central J:\.is of the garden. It moves frorn four1t:oir. to fountain down the hill, slowing gradually as it proj!resse , until finally it terminates in a quiet reflecting pool set amidst low parterr'!s i!l the fiat at the base ol the liill.

One experiences the reverse, starting at the bottom and moving always against the current of the water. Water is the focus of this garden; its path is so rnntrolled that II achieves the perma­nence of stone. The hedges arc its walls; columns of trees arc set amidst columns of marble. atural elements achieve solidity in their alliance with architectural elements. I he Villa Lanie is set within a public forest at tlw ed!!e of the town. Though separated b} walls, the two seem to merge, for till' l.1tcr.rl f:il"l' nl lhl· l!.1rdl'n lead oll to vistas into the wood. I he dialogue established here between an:hill•l"furl' and landsc.l(>e is hoth more subtle and more direct th.111 .It C'aprarofa .

('ollcc·tivcly thl'Sl' \ rllas rc·pn•scnt not the linear development towards .1 patial ideal, hut rather a simultaneous investigation of various themes within the arl of ard11te,·tur<'. In )!Cneral thcrl' i ·a Ill'\\ cmphaS1s glV<'ll lo lht• rl·l.11ronsh1p ht't\\lc'n the hu1ld111g and its •onfl• t, rn lhl'Sl' l' .1mpks the rum I landsl·ape. I his '' t:ons1stl'nt \\ llh till' general e:\.pfoltation ol thl' prllc·cssion.11 aspel"!s of ard1i­ll'l"lure and thc• hnk111° of 'I'·"" •n 'lll's. One l"Hild anal}"-' othc·r hurld1111! I} f ·s rn s11111l.1r tc·•ms. ·1 he ritual aspects of .1rchllt'l"lun· lii:un• promi­nently in the dchatc '' hid1 rnnl mued throu)!hout the L-Cntury c·onl·crn1111! lhl' .1ppropri.tt<'ne sol the centrally planned church Vl'rsus the longitudinal plan, as reflected not only in the sd1cmes f,1r St Peter's but also in the rnmpctllmn designs for San Giovanni dei fiorentim. Sud1 cont-em arc al o manifested in the 16th-ccntury urban palazzo, of which Palazzo Massimo is a particularly rich example.

In 1532, Baldassare Peruzzi wa hired by Pietro

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---• ........ 15~ $~ ..... "'~dlPmo. 1. Aurlt to eatlttpJ ..... 4i 1Wtik F.,,,.._ o,no Vlrtorlo E"""""1e. ~ Suplo B Gllmnl 1523 (1911Hent ..._ 01I..., Co•>·"' 1"'11ao Yid~. f"ia del Sudtlrlo. 10-16. ....... ISIS (fMaCle on Via de1 Sadario). £7 8 ,.,_.JO Ltmallotti. Piazzll NtlllOllll, 114. Pirro Ligorio, 1'52-60. D7 9 PoJaz Jl11ct:aTlllll. Plana dt S E111tlldlio, 8J. Giulio Romano, 1535. E7 I O Palazzo Mmtmo a/le Calonne. Omo Vittorio Emanuek. Baldamne Peruzzi, 1532-36. D7 11 Polazw d1 PirNJ, Cano J mono Emtmuele, 145. G10vanni Mangone (upper floor added later). D7 12 l'bMzzo Sora, Cano Vittorio l:"marruele, 217. I aCllCle on V'aa Sora attrib to Bramante, 1503-09. D7 l 1 Palazzetti, Via de/ Pellegrino, 6.5-66. foacades attrib to Damele da Volterra. 07 14 Zttca (Palazzo de/ Banco di S Spinto), Cano Vutono Emanuele. Antonio Sangallo il Giovane, l52l.C6 15 Palazzo Gadd1 (N1ccolmi), Via de/ Bonco d1 s SpU'ltO, 42. Jacopo sansovino. C6 16 Palazzo de/la Valle, Cano Vittorio Hmanuele, IOI. Lorenzo Lotti(Lorcnzotto), 1517. E7 17 Sant' Andrea de/la Valle, Corso Vittorio f.'man11ele. l·rancesco Grimaldi and Giacomo della Porta, 1591; (completed 17th-cent by Carlo Maderno and Rainaldi). 07 18 011esa 11ova (S Mariam Val/1cel/a), Corso Vlttono f.ma11uele. Giovanm Matteo da Citta d1 Catello and Martino Longhi ii Vecchio, 1575-1605 (lacade later). 07 19 S Mana d1 Mmiserrato, 1'1a di Monserrato.

ntomo San!(allo II <.:iovane. I'\ 18. 07 'O l'u/a o c;1anx1a«mro, ~1a d1 Mmm rraw. 105. 07 21 Sa11 C1wvan111 d<'t 1-ior<"ntmi, Via Ci111/1a. Jacopo Sansovmo; Antonio Sangallo ii <.:iovane, 1520; <.iacomo delta l'orta. 1583-1602 (facade later). C1 n ~I • 'l1xw" ·11 Ort•/1<1, ~ IU d• Sant. f.llf{W.

tlnb to Raphael, IS 16 (facade later). 07 23 Palazzo Oarel/1, Via G111/1D 79. Antonio Sanµllo 11 Giovane. C1 24 Palazzo Sacchelll, VID G1u/111, 66. Antonio Sangallo ii G1ovane, anm dt Bace10 Bigio, lSSS. C1 25 Polazzo de1 Tnbuna/1, VID G1ullll. 62. Bramante (unfinished). C1 26 Oratono di S /.11e1a de/ Gonfalone, VID del C10rtfalone. !'.arty ISOO.. C7 27 S Maria deU' Orrtzwne e Morie, 11"1 Glullo 1575

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ttrt- AllDiballt LIPPl.1~ 87 «J lWtqzo Muti·Bluli, Yid"' J'or ........ Giovarirll Ant De Rolll. a'7 41 Pllltrzzo Lante, PidzodelCqretli, 70 Jacopo SisloYino E7 42 Palazzo de/la Stlp/lmU, Qno "41 ~ Giacomo deDa Porta· facade, 1587; (courtyud and Sant' Ivo by BonomW.17tlMlent). E7 41 Polazzo de/ GoWHnO Vecchio, Via del GONnlO Vecchio, J9 D6 44 Palazzo de SalfgTO, Via del GoPOnlO Vecduo, J. Late 1 SOOs. D7 45 Palazzo Tu~• (Pal di Bramante} Via del Goll0f1to Vecclr10, 121. 07 46 Owl di Raphael, Via dei Coronllri, 122-21 D6 47 Palazzo Vecchiarelli, Yla del Corolulrl, 135-41. Bartolomeo Ammannati. 07 48 Tabernacle '/mmagine del Ponte', wa de1 Coronari and Vicolo Dommo Antonio Sangallo ii Giovane, 1523; fresco Penn del Vaga. D6 49 Qua di ProqJero Moch1, Via de1 Coronar1, 148 49. Pietro Rosselli, 1516. D6 50 Paiazzetto Oriovenda, Vu:olo Monte11ecchio, 5- 7. Attrib to Baldassarre Peruzzi D6 51 Palazz rto. V1Colo Monte• duo._? Attrib to Baldassarre Peruzzi. D6 52 Palazzo R111z. Piazza F111mmetta, /6A D6 51 Palazzo Samp1en, Piazza Fi11mmetta I I D6 54 Palazzetto de/le Qnque Lune. Piazza de/le Cinque lune. Attrlb to Antonio Sangallo ii Giovane. D6 55 Palazzetto Boldass1111 V111 delle Copp ll . 35 Antomo San~allo II G1ovane, 1514-25. E6 56 Casa Vtacampos V111 de/ Orro, 28. Antomo Sangallo ii G1ovane. D6 57 Palazzo d1 ftrenze, Piazza Firenze, 27. Portirn m corttle and garden Bartolomeo Ammannati.E6 58 Palaz:o Cardelli Piazza Carde/11, 4 (Viad.Ila Scro/a). I acade. I rancesc:o da Volterra. 1592. E6 59 Palazzo IJorghae, Pillzza Borghese. Vignola., I 560, (completed l 7th cent 1 lamimo PORZIO). E6 60 San l.u'6/ dei Fnurceld, Piazza S lu'6/ de1 Froncem. Do1Mmco Foatana. IS24-89. Facade· Giacomo cleUa Porta. E6 61 S Glmlllmo dt!ffi SdliaPoni, LIB1lodttfll Schilwonl. Rebuilt 1587 Mudno l.onlh1 D Vecchio. P.5

'hinges' unmistakably form the points of the urban triangle determined by Via Condotti, Via del Babulno and Via di Ripetta. Further, half way up the Via di Ripetta, the node made up of Porto di Ripetta, the Mausoleum ol ugustus and· the church of S Carlo al Corso, fulfills the role of 'hinge• on the tangent to the arc of the riber. This hinge draws the Via di Hipetta away from Piazza Borghese and, although the Piazza Borghese is at the geometrical vertex of the 11rh·111 tri;ingle. it appears shifted over h ·c;iu~c its relationship to the river is mi~srn~.

?

I h · hio;torv of Piazza del Po polo tl1<· mos: signitkant 'hinge' of th.: whole BarOliue system in the northern part of I.he city - clearly shows, through various contributions laid down in the span of two centuries, to what degree the deeper structure of the urban image depends on choices made on the scale and within the limit of architectural thought. The perspective plan of the Tempesta of I 593 surveys the anonymous condi­tion of the place preceding the inter­ventions. In Nolli'1 plan the final

..

order 11f the l'i:ill<t, still rem·1rkahly i11compiete in • omp:irison to its fiual configuration, had nonetheless been predetermined.

This was a direct conse4uence of the completion by Rainaldi, starting in 1662, of the twin churches of S Maria del Miracoli and S Maria di Montesanto. The provocative capacity of these two elements results from their architectural resolution which splits the visual focus on these two churches. This device unloads the weight of their two mB11es onto the

l'iana. Th•·ir <limensions ure swn1lt· c.111tiy out of caie with the prol1lcs o( the three converging streets of the Tridente. This device is also evident in many of the projects prepared by Vuladier from 1793 onwards.

The attempt to close the conver· gent configuration of the Tridente began with the Introduction of two long, porticoed buildings placed bet· ween the twin churches and slightly aet back in relation to the optical channels of Via di Rlpetta and Via del Babulno. This arrangement

formed a tight, splayed piazza. After variou permutation of the 1810 project, the programme for the Tridente was developed by Intro· ducing, in ide the city wall , ome of the spatial character! ties of the vast natural ·1rrangement anticipated for Villa N11poli:one. Only then, llS a re ult of this urban/non-urban Jialc<:t1c, J1J the tormallvt: proce ·of the c;iardino dcl <..rande Cesare he.gin to unfold. n1is 1.:tiun had the effect of salvai:in~ fur the piazza the two <" edr.1 .. 111tl •·n·.1ting between tht: two d1111cli.· .111J Ille gate .1 prul: · ol sp.1ti.1I int ·rpla\

I or our pru1•· ·t to onll'nd \\i 1t 11 a si1t1ation which. 65 year later, would tmJ an ,. tr.1orchnar re olullon, \\•n1lll he ,1 1111.111 111etf·di • d1 er sion. Howi:ver. to all empt to read from that later resolution could be a useful form of verification.

Our proposal for 'Interrupted Ito me· devclor the area of the two e cdra. However, the clarity of the e i ting Neu-cl 1 lcal Intervention I dehatable owing to the retention of the S Maria del Popolo mon tery, which outlive it If and break up the Baroque Intervention • The olu· lion of the Pinelo, on the lope of

...... ., ....... Tiie

*"*' 1114 aller-war• ... ~ by IM permaneat ..,...... ,.,.... .... When comideria1 a promeude whlcla would link llae ilDportaat vilbl, from the Bridlb Em .... , to .... VUla ........ •d ... dial tlmtuah tile Vlllaa Torlonta Pqaaninl and Albani, one can • bonte a Yeptal circuit thnadin1 atl way between private homes and their gardens.

Fiction I The .A u~l/4n Wall Diversion of a connralnt Celebration of a limit The tory of the affectionate relation­ship betwec;n Rome and its wall is full of events, .or celebrations, of aggressions; of monumental doon, such as the Portalia Pia-, of breaches, either military such aa Victor l::mmanuel's, or circulatory such as Porta Salaria. The permanence of the Aurelian Wall, which enciosed most or the city when Victor Emmanuel entered Rome in 1870, i surprising if compared with ·Paris or Vienna, where demographic and in titutional evolution led to the suppression of the city walls. 1 hi'! project of a radial development on the axi Via del 20 Settembre - Via Nomentana which expresses the idea of creating a republican axis, symmetrical to the Vatican axis, is a partial expJanation for maintaining the Aurelio Wall.

The moving of the Porta Nomen­tana, owlna to an adjustment durina the layina out of the Via, enabled -by appropriatina land on both aides of the road - the buHdlna of the VIiia Costaauttl, which "- since become AndOlllla. Th• sumptuous

Alltlq• Rome, la Ille I lab '*llWJ, or aow It fonts a witneas, an evedatia1 liln of the relation betwfen dty -4 aature. Yesterday, aa well u todaj, Whal me aot to be foend fil •Y Plaas of dtiea Ja this dimeftdon of 'W'efelal. paruitfc forms

QIQIC)t be ,..,......,eel, thoqh they are a main feature of the city.

palace llll'fowaded by prden with numerous ~ effects. Factories were built aplast the Aurelian Wall and topther haw con­tributed to its implantation aa part of the form or the city ••

In hil aardoa, C:O.tquui bad a larp artificial potto with many room butlt apinst the wall. A water­fall from the top of the wall fed into a little artificial lake: the lake of the Oead. These arottoes were aar­mounted by a garden from wlalch the top of the all as eui.ly rea.:hed, and where omu:ould enjoy th beauti­ful scenery of the RomH coun r -aide. Claude Nicolas Ledou • ho stayed nt the Villa CO aautti, pre entt"d his ho with I drlwln1 of a door for the arotto ...... to the one of the Royal Salt·Wot of Ale and Senan.

Outafde the

22 Gowmment Centre, Doha, 1916

,. •l('A&!!._...P.~~~=. -~· I~ •.;_ - -

.~.,~,,~-- . ~ ~ ·-: -· , I ·~ • '

,, , ! ~ i I

~- ~ ·- ~ i I . •L. ~. . ... --=.. i =.!. - 111 1 -,.,, -

28 Sheffield, 1953

27 Lelce•ter, 1959 .. .. •

29 Ormbrldge, 1964

20 Gollt!mment Cent~. Doha, 1916

2.'i JS 50th birthday cake

JO Cam1Jrid6e 1964

•) Coatla ... lloq * die loecl recdfitd OM reacla• die MW Un•..,_~ c,i.,..._

tranoe II from t1111; flllilllO (:4). da• ........ ...,, • of ...... Paleuo IUllto. la eh.- " ..... of Swe4ea foua•ed la 1700 tlM 1fOUP of tile Arcadia. Tour It ,.,i of tlae COUeetlo of the atloul o.a., or Art. n. moo.....,.. ...,_ at eon of tlae p1m from .,... tlat ....... a ofa fonuf ...... wldcb bal been • • tended ud .upt1y ....,..eel endJn1 at the foot or the blaer-tban~eal JS oa a birthday cake, (2S), which bu Npiaeed Garibaldi Oft I lao•, (26). TllJa prden bas PGlltioaed on Its

26 Monument to GuitMldl, 1895 edps a Department of EnPteertn1 (Lelceater Ualwralty 1959, 27), aad an Arts Depwtmnt (Shemeld Unhenlty 1953, ZI) ladudiaa a School of ArclaJt.ceun, lllO a Hlltory Facalt7 (CaiQddp Ua r­llty 1964, - lllO oar Road *• ...... wlalcla .............. ,. ... demlc w ,....,.. around a ....... 29,,0).

• •

40 4142 Dre6dner Bak. Morb~, 1977

48 Bra,,,.,,tt•a Tempwtto and eourt

47 O.U.14or/. 1975

45 City Centn, Dnby, 1970

~-

t; I

51 Donn• LOfW, 1965

quarten of a poup of poets wh< aimed to 'return poetry to the purit) of claaic:al tradJtiom'/7 The stel>' lead allo to another uea of housin1 and to die Ualvenlty.

q) The road out of Rome toward Tuscany .,..... tbrougb th~ Porta Paac:razio, OM of the city's mair ptes. The Glanicoio walls were hull bJ Pope Urban VIII (162344) accor dins to RenaJaace miUtary design thouah keepln1 la miad the spec1fi contours of the hW Complementar. to these, a new wall of building propoMd ( ... Dorman Long Pro,e 1965,J/). Tbesewall along the ere or the h1U separate the hlstonc are from the Campqaa Romana, and th form or the new buildings re1nfor e tbe defeamw/protective funcnoa o the Giaaicolo wall while absorbin the pGlt-war development which ha occurred In the ..... round vi

Grqorio VII. Vehicular access 1

from Vacuum Stnida and there 1

multl4ewll carperldJll at lower lewt with Ufla to atnce floon abow. T facllltale ......... lllOft .. Dt i tbele .... '"' ................ pa• wt a flat floor a.wel liltercoaMCI all Hft .....

CMtace. ltlDI In collabontion

IS & P). Tile city lnteada to lta Regloul and JuclJdal

'ltncr. from the Y8rloua palazzi in he hiltoric area and stve dleae uUdiap over to residential use. The lealp of the new centre relates to he concept 'prden-1ateway-island', 58). The garden of th• ViUa Doria amphili is a threshold, the front oor step, to a sequence of new buil· lnp; it is also the upper surface of a trge underground carpark. Position­J over the 'way up' from this car­ark is an entrance pavilion (the VDla imphili, SJ and 54) which serves as ortico to the bridge spanning to the .iateway '. The Gateway, (SS), is a roup of buildings which include a otel and three office to"'rers; it is in 1e larger sense a Gateway to the Jproach to Rome/Florence from the est and by Vacuum Strada to the ·w developments on the Gianicolo 111. At lower levels, !he Gateway comes an interchange with roads, r parking and metro stop. An en­>sed bridge leads to !he island. 'The 1se of the island i!I a large ground vel c:tr park with frequent stairs to 1e piazzas and buildings above ... ne Regional and Ju:iicial buildings 1d shops, offices and residential nits are positil}ned in several ptazzai: d pedestrian streets at varying

vels though all are interconnected colonnades and terraces, (56) ...

'le relationship of buildings to ban space is of similar proportions

those in Florence, ie: the Piazza Ila Signoria, (5 7), the Piazza SS inunziata, etc, and a "mix" of fice and residential units plus >pping, bars etc should keep these ices active throughout day and ening .. .'18

To the north a new park and lake .e been created for public recrea­•nal u e. The site around the lake is 1dscaped according to the tradition

I 8th entur Englhlh gardens, in­dmg the careful positlonang of hitectural follies (c/ Stourhead, ), uch as a group of stiff Dom-ino • •uses (195 I) and an E pandable u e, 1957, (60), and a model lage, 1955 (61), and many more, connected by footpath around lake. The most picturesque site

ng the water edge la occupied by Castle (reference Olivetti, Milton

yne 1971, 62) wbich has senerous •rt faciiltlea and Its own pier for Ina. The Island ln the centre of the e has on it a small pavilion (houte the Isle of Wlaht 1956). Borderlat this luxurloua estate is a runl

111lna commune ('" our Uma ject 1969, 63) conalstlna of boUM

.,. I Atdaitecta used to need kinp and

dlctaton to liberate their megalo­mania, but now they do a better job themselves. They think that they are ghea larp suma of money to play pmea with, just u a child or a Rembrandt for that matter ii given a cheap box of paints. So Gropius flees Hitler and infticta the Pan Am building on New York. Stirling Inflicts the glaahouse on Cambridge. Frank Uoyd Wrigbt's houses are notor­ious hell to Im in. Even Saarinen foists his protege 'I unbulldable Opera House on Sydney. The common factor is a complete dis­dain for the people to have to live with it (God help me, I'm going to have to live with the glass­house I). All this la ln the authen­tic tradition of Vanbru1h and Gilbert Scott. Nothing matters to these men but their rcputatior. in the art-histories. They are not so much undemocratic as enli· democratic: structural fascists. The astonishing thing is that Hitler was a failed paint'!r. Stalin a failed divine. Had they been failed architects, they would have '°hed blood, not in rivers, but in oceans.' Hugh 3rogail, The Cam­bridge Review, October 1968. (Such is the hysteria of some 0 -bridge Dons when confronted with modern architecture. This was an early effort in the now­fashionable tirade against architects in the UK).

2 30 out of SO 3 Stirling and Gowan projects: I le of

Wight House 1956. Three house for B Mavrolean 1957, Expand­able House 1957. Churchill College 1958, School Assembl) Hall 1958, Selwyn College 1959, Leice ter UniversitY. Engineering Building 1959, Old People's Home 1960, Children's Home 1969.

JS and Partner (Michael Wilford) projects. Olivetti HQ 1971, t Andrews Art Centre 1971, D-Muaseldorf Museum 1975, Cologne Museum 1975, Meineke Struse Berlme 1976, Government Centre Doha l976, Regional Centre T1a1Cany 1976 (wath Castore, Malanima, Rizzi), Dreadner 9aatt Marburg 1977.

4 'The collecdon (In a btdldln1) of forma and aha the

... ryda pubU ·~~~=~ with and be /Mf-l*ntl/) with ellOfttial. • • tile toe.I lltllNlflt( could be thouaht of -­blap of ....-yday elementa NCOI· nflable to a aonnal ma and not only an schltect. For laatance, In

a buildina dlcl at 0 ford Uni­versity some yeua aao (1966) It

ilateaded that you could recopile the hiltaric elem•ts of courtyard, entrance pte towers, cloiaten; also a central object replacing the traditional fountain or statue of the college founder. In this way we hoped that students and pubUc would not be dbtl#oclllttd from their cultural put ••• ' JS lecture lnd Iran Inter­national Congress of Architecture, Persepolis 1974. See 'Connexions' AR, 5/75.

5 'Collage City', Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter, AR, 8/75. Also appearing in MIT press.

6 Employed or commissioned by Central Government or Local Government.

7 'Despite obvious preference of loca­tion this most important site (In Cologne and adjoining the Cathe­dral) has been criss<rossed by high speed roads which together wath service roads cover much of the ground surfa""-e of the building site.' Report by Cologne City Authorities to the Architects for the new Museum - uct. is testi­mony to the Planners' Art.

8 The triangular plaza (of the Col­ogne project) is here a mote valid modern alternative than the l 9th­century creation of the Corso Vittorio Emar.uele, as Che Cologr>e project re tair>s lhe plaza's original hape. Thi plaza i dominated by

h"o celigious buildings, however the Oratorio dei Filippini prevails, because of 'the extraordinary den­sity and intensity of the image, \\hich make Borromini' insertion the true protagonist of the surrounding space'. Portoghe i, Roma Barocca.

9 The Roman left bank ha always had a character of its own. The medieval ljUarter. Tra tc\ere. had and till ha a ddinitc working class status, while the Gianicolo arc 1 ltm I) de eloped a the '. uburban' home of the wealthy .md the loc,11ion for man} con­vent and monasterie . Toda) it also h u Rome' mam prison, lte m 1 ( och. ('l he poh t: c full pre nted the d\.onon trator frum rea hlng th~ Reg1Aa Coeli prJSOn, which 11 on the Tra tevere 1de of the Tiber, by blo kins all

the l>r1dre . Tht ..:auscd add1t1on al traffic chaos.' Th~ Gullrdltln 7/3/77.) The Siemen crossing pans from the t1ghtl -knit fabric

of the right bank to the Via Lungara, appro lmately at the location here today e ista the Ponte Mazzini. Siemen Incorpor­ate the courtyard of the OD\lellt of S Giacomo and ls aa attempt to urbanile the area of tile Tiber.

I o 'The idea of the dty • a coa.p ot"types"lay behind the Rational

Architecture Conference (March 1975) •.. On display in the exhi­bition was his tiny project for an art gallery for St Andrews, which collaged together three e isting buildings, using a curved wall to create internal e hibition spaces and an external entry courtyard .•• This collage technique, like townscape, can include historic fragments of popular conceptual reactions to a building or a city. It destroys the total design, "machine aesthetic" of the Bauhaus but retails ideal types.• G Shane, AJ, 16/7/75.

11 See Charles Jencks, A.AQ, 1972 and follow-up letters from JS and Jencks. To quote from the letter l wrote to AAQ, 'Jim on Jencks': 'Dear Sir, Charles Jencks is all balls if he thinks the St Andrews Residence was designed to look like a ship, anymore than a crotch, etc'. I knew Charlie would fall for this. When, earlier, we went round the building together he asked one of the girl students which views of the building she liked - she replied 'all e cept the view up bt:tween the leg '. Jenck wrote a letter ir> reply to mine, 'Jenck on Jim : 'Dear Sir, Jame tirling lose. hi argument tn th:: fir t fi e \ 01d when he accuse. me, rr.etaphori­o:al!y, of being "al! ball ", not ,inly because th~re 1 more to m) anatomy tha11 that, but r~ally

because he, like mai.y modern architect , would like 10 upprn all metaphor and pretend the ain't there. Hi n:ference to t Andre" Re adence a "a crotch·· ha more ignificance than he could like to admit, and ns he cannot den (because I and another w11ne were there) at lea t one girl tudcnt wa highl) d1 Ire scd at h.1 1111! lo enler lh< building ''between tts legs" ... ' Note, the 'another witne ' wa me (J ').

..,.tt 17 Portoghesi RonN ~ 11 From architect port

J .... s,.,... M"*-IWll/Old R.,.B..,,.,_ .,.,_.Weis

............ Unctloa. and ............ • dvan of the protiloltd and .._...... lltea ormecl IW or the tone (Satrl, .fepl, C'ltlta C'Mtellaaa; B...t.rafto, Vlto!Chllno, ·tc). In the Cone one bu the f'eelina of being 1111ide', a quallty which ii more often experienced n OJvlronmenu with a varied microstructwe than ,, the grand and penpicuous landtcapea of the lalllcal South. The forre haw been extenllvely 11ed during the coune of history. In certain pieces Norchia, 6arbarano, Castel d'Aao) the Etnllcam ranaformed the natural rocks into continuous >ws of architectural facades, creating ¥ertiable ities for the dead. It ii in this connection impor­ant to point out that the excavation of tufa rocb

an archetypal way of "building' in lup parts of' 1e Roman region. Today it is ltiU a well-known rofession to be f'Oltaiolo, that ls, an excavator of rtificial caves. In general the forre bring us dose > the ancient forcea of the earth; they bring us nside' and give us roots.

Whereas the landscape of the Corre is under the cutral urface of the campagna, the Alban hill 1se up to form an lmpreaive 1Df well delimited 1a 01•er the everyday world. Being an old olcano, the Alban hills have a simple shape, and 1eir clear topographical feature are emphasised y the presence or two almo t circular lakes in the eep craters. The hills thus possess the basic ropcrty of the cla ical landscape: a distinct and 1sily imaginable rela1ionship between masses and >aces. o wonder that the main sanctuaries of .atium were located here. On the top of Monte 'avo (A/ha11u1 Mons) Jupiter Latiari presided over he whole rcgi'>n. In the wood on the lo(>f' of the 1ountam l>aana re~ncd, mirroring herself in the aim and deep Lago di Nemi, and on the other side •r the lake, in Lanuvio (l.anuvium), where the lope is cultivated and le steep, Juno had her emple. It is hardly accidental that the sanctuaries ire lined up on a north-south axis. Every spring the '7 member or the Latin confederation celebrated he Feriae llltinlle on the top of Monte Cavo, ·onfirming thus the importance of the Alban hills 11 the centre of the natural region of Latlum. The 1Ws in fact formed the nodal point for a system of .anctuarie . If we continue the "•creel' axis to the

uth, we reach Ando (Antlum) where there wu a

• temple dedicated to FortuJll. Cowards the north the same axis brings tu to TUICUlum where Cutor and Pollux were at homo, and to TivoU C7'16"') where Herculea ruled over a wilder kind of' emtron­ment. The main llDctuariel of Latius thus formed a natural cvdo with Jup!ter at the centre. On the other side of Rome the situation wu different; ancient Etruria wa conquered by the Romans relatively late, and the woodad Monte Cimino for a long time remained an insurmountable obstacle. Towards the north, however, where the Tiber valley reaches the Roman campagna, we find an isolated and very characteristic natural place, the mountain of Soracte, where the temple or the old sun~od Soranus wu located, later to be identi­fied with Apollo.

We understand that Rome 11 situated between two different worlds: to the west the chthonic world of the forre, and to the eut the cllMlcal landscape of the gods. Around Rome, keeping both worlds at a certain distance, we find the campagna proper, which create a kind of pause before one reaches the man-made synthesis of the city.

But this i not all. The third basic component of the: Roman genl11s loc1, th<: ardo.cJccurtanus scheme, 1s also present m the natural unoundmgs. In Pale trina a large sanctuW dedicated to l·ortuna wa built about 80 BC. lwo old sacred places in the steep hillside were taken a the point of dcpartur-= for the new layout: a circular temple of l·ortuna Primigenia from the third century BC, and a statue of Fortuna with Jupiter and Juno in her lap. These two elements were incorporated in a grand scheme of axially disposed terraces. The axis function as a cardo which leads the eye between the Alban hills and the Lepine mountains toward the distant sea. Below the sanctuary the wide and fertile Secco valley, which connects the Roman region with Campanill fellx, runs towards the eut, crossing the north10ath CtUdo Ute a decunu1111u. Its direction ls repeated in the terracea of the sanctuary, which thereby appears u a pand­iose conc:ntlsadon of the 'cosmic' order whlcb

..... lllSIPGlllld jilllilll• ... .., • ... .. ddll

,. ... J"•lllln• a _...,_,. ..... : the

abarb of T...-... of nit, tbu, .....,. to 11e ...... •odd or tone. M it aot among ... , 11tea. ......... • ..._ Tiber• 'ltrona' conflpratloa ts found, and in the doll of Etaaria there hardly exists a similar cluster of' bills which is so weD predkpoeed for a conulbetlon. In early times Rome In fact OOlllllted of l8Yerll •ttlements, which, llko the rillqes of p,..nt-day Etruda, were located a1oJ11 the aem of the .bills. Among thae r,,ttlements, however, one '1ld a puticular position and role; Ro1n11 (JuMlnzta on the Palatine hill. Accoldtng to lepnd this 1ettlement wu founded by Romulus and Remus in 753 BC, and the name indicates that it might have poaeaecl a cardo and a decumanui. The axil urbl1 of the conwbation, how.wer, wu the Vaa Sacra leading along the common forum m the basin between the hills. t 2

It is hardly a coincidence that this axis connects the Jupiter temple on the Capitol with the distant Alban hills! The axil urbls represents the ftnt attempt to make Rome somethJng more than a cluster of vernacular settlement . The fact that thr. axis symbolically e tends toward the old "ntre of Latham lhows that the city wanted to 111W11e the rote of a tcue urban place which •gathers' the surroundings.

hom early times, then, Rome poue sed a 'double' spatial tructure: the vernacular clu ter of settlement with roots in the earth to which it belong , and the abstract a is which made the c1t)' become the focus of a more comprehensive totality. The main property of the fir t component 1 the 'idyllic' enclosure of the urban spaces; the second, instead, aim at axial ymmetry When these two components are combined, a particular kind of architectural unit comes into beang· •n .axaally ordered enclosure, which may be considered the basic element of Roman architecture. Ancient Rome literally consisted of such units •rving various functions: fora, thermae, 1111ctuarie , palacea, atrium hou1e ; Ill of them are fally. ordered enclo1111e1. It Js Important to note that tile wdU comerve a certain independence within the urbut totality. They are not milnla&ed by IDY superior pometrical l)'ltem. but are addecl topther Ute the indMdual buldlap of the dtllicll Greek •ttlement. Thus weuriYe at the thhd fund111Mmta1 property of Roman space: the clalllcal m..,. of an

the Wolf's Cave. which is named in the Arcadian fashion atter the Wolf-god. Lycaean Pan. He showed him also the aettd grove of the Argiletum. and explained how on this spot Arg<>s met ft.is death, although a guest. From there he conducted him to the Tarpeian Rock and the Capitol, which is now all gold, but which was once wild and covered with under­growth. Even in those days that spot held a sinister awe of its own, which inspired fear and dread in the country folk. who trembled at the trees and the rocks. (Evander continued:) This hill with its wooded crest is the abode of some god, but it is not known which god he i . The Arcadians believe they have seen Jupiter here, shaking the dark aegis in his right hand to gather the clouds of storm.1 8 •\ml, indeed, Jupiter got his temple on the

Capitoline hill. from where he tamed the occult forces of rock!! and woods. The passage from Vcrgil is highly significant as it makes the original K<·11i11s loci become alive. Today the rocks and hills ol Rome have lost most of their presence, as the ground has risen I 0-20 metres during the course of hi tory, and we have to go to Etruria to rediscover the lamlscapc which 'educated the eyes' of the ancient Romans. In the forre of Etruria we meet what l'aolo Portoghesi appropriately has called 'Rome before Rome'. 1 9 Here we find the golden­hrown colour of Piazza :wona and the Roman str:.:et'., .:nu we linu the sol t, malleable tufa which has determined the Roman sense of form. Although the landscape of the forre has some properties in common with the romantic landscapes of the

ordic countries, it is basically different. The forre do not constitute any infinite, mysterious world such as the Nordic forest, but consist of delimited imaginable spaces. And their relationship to the sky is also different. The walls of the forre do not end in a serrate silhouette, but are suddenly cut off by the flat campagna. Thus they end Wee a row of buildings crowned by a cornice. The l truscans in fact had no difficulty in transforming

.-.~JJ:llJ!t•• .. -Tlre --~---l ; ..... _...,,.._ WIJ&om to"'°"·.., ,,. .,,.._ or •.W tM .._ ...,..,., Jolldaa or

the .... .... .... - modelled mtlulr • .......... wldch ii 11r1111d by .. ooatfll- Rt ......... 10W1 of 6adel. llWlls DP ra.. meb ot tafa. the hcnalet appear ..... ,.... ..... of the aatua1fonnl,1114 ....., die ....... loeated in IUth. ft7 that they .... - _,.,,.. Important ICluctun1 r..._ la the landlCapo, IUda a Clllll, iloJated p ...... 1, aad pmmoatorla. When uddCectate ii ued to cladty ad ............ ndape wbich canGlts of ""'81Nble forms llld .,._, It ii appropriate to taJt about. ~·character, a quality which ii emphaliled by the elemeniary shape of the hoUles thenuelvea. The vernacular architecture of the Rl)man ngion thu combines closen• to the earth with a wish for imaginable order.

The urban architecture of Rome to a high extent comerves this vernacular character. On the Campo Mar.do IUld especially in Trutewre the streets often look like hollowed~ut spaces in tufa rocks rather than bui!t environments; an impression which it strengthened by the heavy aud rusticated ground floors. The arched openings of the tabernae remind us of the grottoes excavated in the walls of the Corre. The uches themselves rarely have a tectonic appearance; usually they form an integral part of a continuous, 'modelled' frame around the opening. The building materials, very thin bricks and plaster, emphasise the general continuity of the space-defming boundaries. In the simpler houses articulation is scarce. Mostly it only consists in a subdivision of the facade by means of string-courses. In more articulate build-

ings, the floors may be differentiated among them­selves; for instance by making them gradually 'lighter' over a rusticated base. We may in this con­text recall Serlio 's characterisation of the rusticated wall u opera di nature, a concept which proves that the architecture of the cinquecento still recognised its vernacular roots. The differentiation of the storeys, however, never becomes a vertical 'addition' of independent units. The clasdcal Ordon are usually absent from Roman IOCUlar facados, but

classical detail appears as pediments, cornices etc. n1e traditional Roman house is therefore a unified and enclosed building. characterised by plasticity and heavinea. The architectur.tl detail is applied to a massive core rather than being put of an articulate body. The type has conserved its identity through­out the course of history. We find it in the insu/ae of ancient Rome, as is clearly evident in the better preserved tections of Ostia and in the Via Biberatica in Rome. It remained alive during the Middle Ages,20 and reappeared with full force in the palaces of the Renaissance and the Buoque.

The classical superimposition of Orders intro­duced by Alberti in Palazzo Rucellai, Morence, about 1450, never became a success in Rome. After the use offacade-pilasters in the Cancelleria ()489) Roman architecture returned to the massive opera di natur.i, an approach which found its typical manifestation in PaJazzo Farnese by Antonio da Sangallo (l S l 7). Thus the Roman environment conserved its closeness to nature. Even during the • Baroque period the palace did not change its basic properties. A building such as Borromini' Palazzo di Propaganda Fide (1647f0 appears as a large, enclosed mas.'l. The rounded comers emphasi~ its plastic character, and the trmg<ourses bet\\ cen the storeys tie the volume together rather than subdivide it: The entrance facade rhow a conve -concave movement which makes the continuity of the Roman wall evident. The row of giant pilasters which flank the main gate do not l•elong to any skeletal structure, but, together with the elaborate windows on the main floor, visualises the 'archaic' plastic force of the building. Evidently, thu , the classical members have a particular f\anction in Roman architecture.

In Greek architectu.ro the classical mombon are constituent elements in the full sense of the word. The buildings are made of columns, ontabla­ture and pediments. They are trabeatod structurel, whore each member embodies the character of the whole. In Roman architecture. instead, the cllllical Orders are applied to or liberate thomlOlvos from a

mass which is 'given' a priori. The Orders therefore have a purely characterising function, and are used to 'humanise' the given opera di ruttura. This is already evident in the Colosseum, where the super­imposed Orders transform the primary mass into a system of characters. Being a main public building, a centre where the structure of existence becomes manifest, the Colosseum exposes the Orders out· side, and thereby it fulfills its focal role in the urban environment. In the Roman palace, instead, the superimposition of Orden is confined to the cortile. The ancient forces of nature dominate the exterior, and we have to go inside to find the human world of the classical characters. In the courtyard man has freed himself from the domin­ation of the genius loci, and may live with those forms which symbolise his general understanding of the world. The Classical aedicola which is used to mark the entrance to the palace, announces the character of this interior domain.

In certain cases, however, the Orders are also used to characterise a public, urban space. As examples we may again quote the Capitoline Square and Piazza San Pietro. Being main urban foci, these squares represent a synthesis of nature and culture. They •gather' the meetings of the par­ticular natural environment as well as man's general knowledge, and thereby make a total form of life visible. In both cases this problem is solved in a truly Roman way. The squares ue not onl)' <ur:,an interiors', but their b<'undarie' also have the plastic quality and grandezza of the typical Roman wall. A giant order is used (pilasters at the CampiJoglio and columns at St Peter's) which carries a very heavy entahlatun: crowned by a balustrade and a row of statues. The powerful intP-raction of \ertical and horizontal members is Roman rather than Greek. and when we walk inside the colonnade of Piazza San Pietro b.:tween the immen~. swelling Tuscan shafts, we teel an echo of the ar.cient world of the foue and remember Vergil's words about the 'sinister awe' of the Roman environment. Here this awe does not announce the presence of Jupiter, but prepares for entering the church of St Peter's, perhaps the greatest manifestation of Roman interiority after the P.mtheon.

Since the first churches were built und.:r Con­stantine, Roman sacred architecture has conserved its typical properties. The basic themes of enclosure and axiality were from the very beginning con­cretised in centralised and longitudinal structures, \\hid1 were uscJ a bapistry/tomb and congrega­tional basilica respectively, a profoundly meaning­fu I distinction which interprets life as a path between birth and death.21 In both cases the early church was distinguished by a strong interiority. The exterior was hardly given any architectural attention, except for l' certain emphasis on· the 1111in f 1l··1lle; 11 \\,1s c11111.:rivcd as :1 neutral sh •II around .1 rid1I\ a1 t1n1l,1te mterior. In general th1 therm:. 1s taken over lrom Antiquity, but the C hristian interp•etation is different. The mterior of the l'anlheun is eviJently a representation of the wsmo . I he spac.:c 1s divided i:t three uperimpol'ed wne ; the I ir t having a plastic character, the second a impler and more regular articulation, wherea the geometrical dome makes eternal harmony manife t. In the early Chri tian church we find an echo of thi differentiation, but the preciM: anthropomorphic character of the lower zone 1s ubdued, while the upper part of the apace is tran formed into a de-materialiled heavenly domain whach spread out u ~tinuou1 aurfac:e of shimmering mou1c.

The churche of the Reaaiaance and the Baroque offer new interpretatloas of tile 1111ae

themes. Again we find that the exterior is_ <;>f. secondary importance, except. for an increasing emphasis on the main facade, which in the Baroque churches indicates a return to the more active relationship between the exterior and interior world of ancient Roman architecture. Only the domes which rise over the roofs of the surrounding houses are fully articulate bodily forms which signal the urban presence of the values'symbolised by the church. These domes are also eminently Roman in their harmonious equilibrium of horizontal and vertical movements; so basically different from the aspiring silhouettes of Byzar.tine and Eas!ern churches. In the interiors of the Roman Barc.que th.! anthropomorphk members of classical archite.:tur'! are again used with full assurance. Even the tiny space of S Carlino by Borrominl (l 639f0 is surrounded by a 'colonnade' of pl.istic shafts, and in St John in the Latcr:in the same arch1tel.! used a rhythmical succession or giant pilasters. In general, however, the Baroque churches .:omerve the primeval cave-like rharacte~ of Roman sp:?ce, and shun the Gottik inspired de­materi:ilisation of Central Euro1>ean huildings.22

The Romans di:! to splce what the Greeks did to plastic form. Applying the classkal orders to the boundaries of interiors and urban spaces, they transformed the amorphous enclosure into a structured whole where the properties of the boun­daries determine the character of the ·pace. Although it is hardly possible to give the boundary of a pace the same presence as a bodily form, walls may be transformed into a plastic skeleton, as was done by Bernini in the colonnade of St Peter' Square. The normal Roman solu:ion. however, was to apply the dassacal members to a contmuous, structural wall. This is the method used in the Pantheon, the great thermae, the llasihc.:a of Maxantius a weU a the Baroque churches. What is 'given' in Roman architecture is therelore mass and pace a primeval totalities.

I he man wh e av.1tes a pac.:c 111 the sott rock, doc not con truct an 'oppo ite' which, hke the Greek temple, face him ... He rather penetrates mto amorphous matter, and his creative activity co'!fi t in making for himi;elf an e istc11t111 pace.

These word of Kaschnitz von Weinberg well define the different approaches of the Greek and the Ruman • We only have to add that the Roman took over the cla sical order to humanile their e · tentaal pace

To concJUde we might Yisit Piazza avona, where we encounter the e stentW IPICO of Romana in lt1 archetyplll form. Plua JOdl not 1 monumental ............. ,. __ ........,...,_,.,,.. • ... the orillnt. and .....

properties concretise the local landscape, and It

continuous orange-brown walls make us remember the tufa of Etruria. 1 he articulation of the boun­daries however, also comprises the anthropomorphic classical characters, with the dome of S Agnese a a primary, bodily manifestation. None of the two components dominate, an ideal equilibrium between nature and culture has been achieved. At Piazza Navona we are really 'inside', close to the earth, close to the palpable things of everyday existence; at the same time as we feel part of a comprehensive cultural totality. No wonder that it has become the popular place of Rome par excellence. The synthesis of nature and culture is condensed and visualised in Bernini's great fountain, where natural elements such as water and rocks are combined with human figures and religious symbols. In front of the church of S Agnese, finally, we find another characteristic Roman element: a broad flight of stairs. In Rome stairs are not used to create a distance between different existential realms rather they represent an articulation of the ground itself. The great Roman stairs bring us close to the earth and increase our sense of belonging to the place.

~niu1 loci Our analysis of the spatial tn;cturc and character of the Roman region has shown that Rome form~ the centre of a landsCllpc which contains 'every· thing'. In Lallum tht old chthonic forces are present, as well as the anthropomorphic charac!er~ of the classical gods, and the abstract, cosmic order of the i.ky. These meanings become manifest as an exceptionally vari.:d and rich environment. In Etruria we encounter the. unJerworla or the forre, in the Alban hi!ls we rise up to meet the new gods, and b.:tween these two realms the -::ampagna f mns an everyday level where the daily life of man takes place. The role of Rome as capu: mundi i undoubt· edly determined by this natural ituation. In Rome all the basic categories of existential meanings arc gathered, like in no other place. This gathering does not simply consi t in the central location ol the city, but in an active symbolisation ol the various meanings. The world ol the forre i thus reproduced in the streets and piazze of Rome's everyday environment, and the gods are brought down from the hills to be housed in urban temples. horn these temples they extend their influence to the whole environment· cla •ical form appe.11 on the facades and in the courtyards of the houses and palaces, and 'humanise' their •natural' structure. fhts synthesis ol the d1thunic and the classical constitutes the e 5encc of the Roman 'idyll'. In the Greek towns mstead, the dtthoml torces were vanquished by the 'new' god , and the environment became fully das teal. What was thereby )!ained in humar. c.:onh:nl wa lust a a separation lrom the given nah.:ral reality.

The Roman synthesi also lompnsc the cosmu: dimension which from immemorial times hu been a ociatcd with the cours.: ol the un. Stra1 •ht north of Rome, Soracte r:5C ap to rc1.'Cne 1t ray~. 'Look how the now hes deeply on ghttenng Soractc •• .' says Horace,,. and till today the mountain exercise 1t spell on the vmtor of the campagna. The quality of the light i certainly one of the peat enYU'onmcntal factor which have cletennlnod the Roman ,.,..,, locL In Rome 1t ha neither the ~force or the desert 188 aor aim bcric quality

t..a Roman light 1

plutic quality ._ .... ~ .. Ml~llillil•llltllllll-11i...iltllla-browntu~. rone and the ........_ ---ii.~IJ::•••"z;•.~•••,.·:111• ··• ring

dlM!lltlo•·..t ........ , ........ the ....... .. •• of left beblal; a peidect. .... ..._... lama die bllkfordll.....a4clllle....,. -~ made - ,._., iD ..... COii ... .., latM ........ tlllWOlldilptbtmil .... . built. mabolle ......_ It ii importlnt 1101o t the coffen or the dome ue not related to the centm or the spbe1e which could be illlcribecl within the ..-.. The dome is related to the centm of the floor, that is, to the centm or the earth, and the vertical axis wbida it.a up from this centm tluouP tbe Imp opeaiDg at die -'th tberefore unifies eartb ud ._.... (mo u 1""t) in a .. n1ng. ful tobllity.

The ucbitectuae of Rome ptben llld Yilualile a complete enviraameaL This ptberiag obYiomly comprilea inn.aces from other cult1llea. Thus Goethe aid that Rome •gave a dwelling to all Sods'. Thac iDJluences, however, did not iemain a mere foreip import; tbanb to the muldfarioua llructllle of Latium, almost everything found a local refer­ence. If the Alban hills bad not been there, the classical gods would not have been really at home in Rome, and if the campqna had not poaeaecl Its grand and solemn structure, the image of a pmeral cu mic order might only h.tve 1eemed a far-fetched product of the human imagination. This general rea:ptivity ii the real meaning of the saying that 'all roads lead to Rome:'. We misht add that they also lead from Rome.

Th power and versatility of the: Roman ~enwr loci has througbOdt history pw:a tbe arclutecture of the city a unique IOlf~ and ,,.flllau. Even the pure and elepnt q1111ttrottnto aot a new subltantiality under the iafta'CIP' or Roman

ntiquity. A peat unified btUriol' •c:b • Alberti' Sant'Aodrea in Mantua ii aatbinbble without Rome, md its !Kade reproducm tbe at... tdlm­phal arc:b, that is, the mllin armbol of llome • the place to wlUc:b ............ De crilil ol the ~ did aot nNlace a ..... arc:billectme to an arbitlUy p1a, 'Wida r--. • It did In other .,.__ m Rome It ralMr .,._.t llbout a~

of the new city, where the natural environment is still moulded by virgin ravine ; in other word , a fac­simile of 'Rome before Rome'.

It 1 evident that the penpective of the intervention i focused on the futur city, even in the choice of structures. It is not a monumental picture bound to take its place in the archive of timele• 'scene from h11tory ·.but rather a portion of every· day city composed of hou1e1, hops, colonnades, collective public services and utilities woven together iato a continuous fabric. l::ven the im81e of natural unoundinp, repraented by public greens which the proc:eaa of urbanisation ha colloalted in zones separated by the city lllandl to

effect man-made constructions penetrate th~ city with violence. Nature pierces the body of the city like· a hand with J!-Hnted fingers entering liquid mass, and the bone structure of the hand in this Cllllt", is cu1• r1tutcd hy the umler11:ro11nd crevices which converge in a single flow.

The tree-like, branched, structures found m northern Latium served aa models for designing the treets. The tips of the branches were to coincide with the many poina detla•tlna the area of treet network u it appeared to Nulli. The definitive form wu achieved through a proceu of po. metric ratlonalilatioa wblch took account of the NRlts of the com-

parative analysis synthesised in the illustrations, the confrontation of spaces represented by the ravines and by the Roman streets and squares.

Selection ii inherent to research, and we have operated within that knot of contradictions and alterna­tives which composes the organism of Rome. We have chosen a well-defined portion of its body and its heritage, not a model or representative city, not the object of the orations of Apollodorus from

l'tnlt#rflln: ~ M4 ..... "' 4N1J#r .... holol'b ..... We .. 8t tM dawn of die ... aild et.., aymptOllll of exlllultioa malCe UI tJatiak tlaa, before tM end of Clall decade, the clebaw oa arcllltec:ture mlllt look for aew ways out In _.., to aYOld ........_ and tb• eYMloa of tb• wry PIO*• that U.. m•kecl th.. llllt ,..,.. la ., opinlo• two lopfa of meditation a. crucW to ....,., ua to come out "from tbe ltap•t optlca of this de­cade: the arcblteCtun ... twe ud tile archltectuN.plauln1 relationships.

It Is only rlaht that the debate 6hould open on them, and in the hope of offering a small contribution to it, I oft'er here a few consider­ations on the ftnt topic and attach to them this ..... or drawings from my 'Rolda lnterrotla' contribution which auma up a very Iona journey.

E F Schumachttr wrote: capital comina to us from nature Is much larser than the one coming from man', and further, 'the modem indus­trial 1ratem with lb aophlatlc:ated inteDectual patrimony consumes the very basis it wu erected on •• Jt lives on a not rntorable capital, treating it

~"co::2 .co:..~:Y st-:re!e!tts w:: :: transposed directly to the netd of architecture, howtng a similar situation.

This problem Is not only one u 1et by Morris of 'the beauty of hearth• undergoint1 a fa ter and futer consumption, but allO one of archi· tecture intended as a 1econd nature, u a reaerve of experiences accumu· lated over the centuries by succeedin1 generations. It becomes a clnmatlc problem u soon as one reallael tbat tit• 4atatute of ftulctioa. alllm' adopeed bJ die ladUl&rlal qstem, in Its achanc:ecl ataae ........ to the past the role of a ,....... of Yalues, and to die present, the .,_. and llmple .....,._...._.,

u me values - without pving the benefit of offering a creative contri· bution to that a reserve which is simultaneously belna eroded by tremendous and destructive mechanisms.

To bring modern architecture back to the womb of history also means reali1ing once and for all that we must impose new strategies In order to help detach human culture from the myth of total development and of the irrevenibillty of processes.

. -llflllllt ..... a ........ ""'-"'ad • of._,....._ for the

.............. IWftl~ ·;

Jn .... \WY ....... co~• Nlalloa­tlaip wldt ............. to be DOI Olll)' remote a""' ...,..._,the hJpotllelil of a .... .....,_. and cattial approacla ..,... of etfecthta mecll...._ of production

• Miii•- lnCNlllDllY more sound. modem dty, day bJ day.

makes ua the conlClousnea made out of various forms of life. In this aenae the city represents an environ· ment no lea escapist and deformin1 than the coacept or the 'country' as the other aide of the urban medal.

The reconnection of th ... models or settlement constitutes the objec· tive for a Just rediltrlbutloa of rnources and fm IM ebolllh ... of prtvileps. It also constitutes aa essential objecthoe of knowled1e. wltblll wbWt .... .... llopea ol stopping, or at laa of restralnln1. th• conaumptloa precea.

Before sunestinl that architec­ture. throup d...... could be a means for lfttet'Yention, I woul~ uaeat that It a mean for the re

search Into tile polliblity of a nn relatiolllhip beJWeea settlement an .. nature. And th new relatiomlup should be a coltlqUellCle of this new way of lnterpretln1 natuN u tbt 'other capital' Wd must rec:lt.oa not • the lnllalte ..mo•dlllt but • the Rake •dt)< we mu• eatabUlb new alllaaoea with.

But, tll now, wllat ...... ., baa our culture pwa et MW..,_. uncler ...,.... HCll

mON beJoM lr&Mi!l ul COlldltiam or._,..,,,...~ ot 'a.,_ out of 't

trade, Along thoae walu people build their own house1, buildlng1 for public uae, worklltop1, markeu, a:hool8, and pla«1 for recreation, a they alway1 had been doing and wUl be doing two Cf!nturle1 later in the city nf Philadelphia In Penn1ylvama,

They build comfortable homes, planned with a lllmple "'6ic, pro. vtded with porches and gardens, and they alternate the uae of the 11>a« with public uae1 without amb1Rui1y, making clear what belong1 to the prlvat<' a11d what belnngs to the

'"'' til!C' lift'. 1 'ht're Is a lu'lfc parlc which Is

built by restorlnl( the •alley formed during the construction of the ancwnt Alf1fere Serviano centunes lwfon'. '/7:t're are trnplcr:I plant on the bottom of the wlllt!y and mountain tret' on the top of the mound. Durirtll holiday , people fly lclte1 from the top of the parlc, They haWt allo built conal1 which him around the IO{t Undulation of the llte, The aqueduct adds new water whlclt ha fomr«J a ltuwe latte IUOulld tlte "'Uu of the TINnnat batlt1, a• e:iri.1U1o11 of the part wltlclt u ll#d for .,...,. mntt ad boalllw, wltllt! ,,.. lllOflb of Saitta Marla d.,,,, A,..11,,. #ldr

chants in their pre•rwd churdt. 77te wall , wit/eh do llOt ltaw to

defend anynllt! any lofwrr, fe«l tlttt city. Within them, compuwrl#dpifM. U-1 ha..e been hilt to /ftd food and lflOtt!ricU _.df!d by flN lfN!rbfa _,, the "'°'*Mapa ,.,.,,.,.,.,.,,,,...,,

alonw tltt! Pf!""'n.r of tlw Mlolir cltJI. TIN •"11t:e ._ .._ 111......, wltlt ,.,.., tot.,,. 6ooMa .,,,,,,,,,.

"" _,.,,.,.,._ tllu1 teducln6 tlte ltftd

for llflhiclq whit ,,_.,,, '°""- on IM drffQ.

A tMciNd to tltt! ...as alld to dJtt ,,.,.,.... ,,..,,,.... ... .,$ ... ,..,

IOWMI dw,..,,,, OOIUdrJ! • ,,,. -.it "' ........... , .............. ................. .., ---~ "--•S..LoNwwwa....._

t. • lhdltlbv of lltlt~ al Mir.,. ,,,,,. "" ""' -" • #liool, • pla ttllwte _,,__ ""'° ..,,,,.,.. to ,,,,,,

.,.. to ,,,. - ... '"' • l#llod ,,,.,.,, .,,,.,,,.,. ,,._, ,,,. dty wll

Ill * ...,,., prw,_. ,,..,_,,for tit 11/'t! perfe I ltU OM1 ,.,,,,,, IO 4/To tit urban Nib q tt. wltll Ida /dlow "°'itwa.

.,.,.,. /lwmeworfc of tlw Mell city a1lltl ..,/"""'"'II tM Pto/1161 ~ "' tit trodltloul ,.,.It tit uu» Ill WWII. wort

,,.,..,,. wltlt ,,.. ,,.,.,,., cl ,,,,,_,.. ,_ twoMri

S LVIA DANESI

USES OF THE

ANTIQUE

In the decades followmg the return <'f papal power fror.i Avignon to Rome the various popes' literary men refer almo>st constantly in their communi­cations with the pontiffs to thi: tlaeme of 'Rertauratio lmperii' (the Reltoration or the Empire); to the necessity of safegu.irding ancient b !!'h ......................... , ... , 'l•thllr d•allllue .......... the pmctice of ........ in lllldlllt ....._ or bamiBg tlaem ro. lime, to the .... ,or ,.._Mdhat11e 1om.,....._..c.uqaa Flllce, AOlpla v...-.., etc:), _. to- .... Rome ...... 1ta CllldmJ.,.,....,. or,....• Italy. n.e niteaew ..... ._ ,.,.. acceplalce of lome's extalonlinuy Clllhual ........._

Tiie 'JWil'tb or aatiqalty", tllea, --. puti· ... I •UL I'll.. ia Ila a- coate t. la " ........................ lome ....... ........ • JI ?Ill to CM ...... of the lrclli-tlCI • a - al culblae (II aaderllood by ....... c111 ... ltill .... pli&ecl ill the Prix de ao..), .... the laflllence the City had on Allldl, 8• 11h. _. otllea, _, •• ' ••h• of Rome ..... ...ace the hiltorical empll8lls or Plot......... 't mcldlectme,

Tiie work or lbldyiDg dd aeconliaa antiquity of ........ ad .......... fonnal Rlpertoire ......... out by a few arddtec:ls. pmiaten, ad ICl9olan declicatecl to a new 11:1ence the ltudy or alliqllily. The meetillg or ,..,_ thn1e comple­....wy apprwhes to the psublem or....,,_,.., the clalical ...,..... had definite COlllellaeallel for an:ldtec:ture. •

If clMlidsm II 1U11 as a murco or typea. 'then it II tbJOUlh d.........., aacl ........,2illa aatiqtlity by ..., ..... II that ........ • -.nble or lllOdels to be lmllated. (I mull aota bele that I .. tbe terms ..,,.. and 'model' .. detlaecl by Quatre..a.e de QulncJ and adopted by G C Arpn.)

Tbk •ucly or mtiqaMy wa the •cnetift' ll:holalldp wldcll permitted asddtectlue in tbe IStb 0111tmJ a .,.... ,......hm ad _,.... IDllltatlDa far ....... ,_die riPI,...... of die , ...... "9ldm7 - ., ... ., tbat.....,..., Tafml. la ..... 10• to .......,, ..,.._ el CM de-IJlllhll•tlii»o (II: 111e ..,,,._ or 'nt> or the aclllNii:t.. or the ...., period 1a coalnlt,

Tlais text hu been edited from a tmullatioll by Maiperite Scaife ol a mcNe detaled and extellliwty footaoeed ... , by SilYia DaJleli tided: '11ae ..... or Rome u Symbol llld lntennediuy or Che Continuity or Aatiqllity in ArdUtectue or the

15Ch llld 16th centuries'.

th~ Humani tic phase of ar1:hitecturt encompas.ed a detailed recon truction of amiqui!y - not only of typ.>logies, but also of their use and the life styles they accommodated.

These re ... on truction of antiquity tended to revive Roman structure as ·p ych<'logical places'. Wilhoat this 'paychc+>Var CODteld, apea Foclloo, die llPirft or a p11ce would be Ol*I• ..s eluM un~le •would be wbat Alrln Rolli C8ls 'die thrill of mcient wodd•.

Wllat I lbould lib to ..._ ...... m.... the iaflueace tbe aotiquanam luld ia bllltllll& billory iDlo die domaio of ......._ md bow the faeqMOt ..,..... to die .... in the ...., *etches of the perioll (a few or whida UI RlplO­dllClld ..._), .-bed flOlll the circuJatioll of the ................... 4lnnriDp. baYel ...... and adl of tllele few men.

One llKfl cua ii the ...._ of die Codice lalarcaaoft which .. att"'8ted to Cidlco 1• AllCI08I. In it are repn>daced landmarb of an h .... .,. ftNlte .......... - die - ...... llltcned to. faatlllllc ....... of .. ~ ....

Ewa the 'in ....... bldldillp or the Clwca ..... ..- or papier....W, ....ty for the..._ or. beu.r 11iD. to "8 lDDlported oa ...,... ..... the ....as of wbao tlteatre ..S ..,.._... .... which hqueatly occuned la the l Sdl cmt1117 (aml whidl rec:alled the !peetada of ....... Rome). Yet dra .... by suiaoae del Follllolo. dlltillg ffOlll around 1489. lbow how ucertaill dd empirical the matax for compotiag die ......... or utiqulty 1111 ....

Howewr. this libudoa .......... I)' la 149' ........ lift ................ .. Vaml ........... the ........ PllfPOle 'to U.. of his owa--. .... • Wlil11110t w....., ..... ... to, at .. -.- ............ ltrudlll9I or ltom9 Allll befolW bw .. 11111 mr , ... .., • ... .,.M .... ia dllt cil7 _. ia tlle•n 'iasCOOllbylhle •• , ... a•,.. ... Thull..... • Mrfloa,... • ..... IDOCl-ofll, ~ • -.a tbil Oma • Gia••

ol a•• 1W ...... ot• n.tt.1o•,..,.. .......... la JSll ia V..._) ,_. ...........

mostly details, for a book on Roman antiquities of which Vaciri writes, 'Fra Giooe>ndo dedicatf'.d many of his youthful year to the study of ancient things, not only the structures, out also the tomb inscriptions, and other ancient works, and not only in Rome, but in the suuo~ v~·. FJOm tJds boot. Ge ..., ••-= one can deduce tllat PD GiaNloodo ... la lw belweee 1471 .., flom 1497 to 14", lo the ... two,_.. or hll llfe (died 1515) .. dlreceld t1te ..,....acma of St reter•s with ....._.aodGidmtda.....,, ..SoaeofllilUawilp ..... a.0018"llilltoltawe beea done • Rapllael's .._.

1'llil ...... me '11 • ., ........ ofmtiquily w directed ..S ••ZW I llF ..... L Ami ii II he wllo, in a...,.,.._ lllW to rope Leoa X (1510), ............... ., ....,... tbat ............................... plaa. ....... .a .... llllr ..... llliL II was ....... to ............ M:m ...... p_.., .... Mum .. &a .., .. ....,ftf•tilallilY - 'abtoat•....... ..... arr rab.,,

Tiie ... a:lioi of ...... I'll .......... beea .... to....,oot..,_111 ue .... .....,....... .. ... ..., ,._........ ..... ... a1 _,.,. for 11'"'181 a flillll? ' b the .......... die Colom 1zaw ,......,. llaRielo ... the SeptilooD. ~ ........ m , ... ., •• ..,.,a

.................... 6om the Age of II I todaJ .___ It olfen ... • ..... .... to ....

q1llly ...... .. "' die .... of.... .. lift wllll•of .. ......

/lnUUflte p..,,,tJCtlN Mdt:#I Of dte lluW Nf M:l1a of tit• Ba/Ill» of Conltdlltln& se lk«dla of /IN di/I.,., RlllwllM,_ _,,,.

Gtulu1110 da Sang11llo the theatre of MlllUlba. Becauu the ucond lank floor did not /II 011 the Fftl Gioconda· mauureme11t1 uf Nrio&u comlca, ptl6e, Sangallo drew II a1 a ruin p«/lment1, bau, copltah. Anonymuus. the Settizonw, I 6th century

"

which to derive lessons for the typical. Each city vividly superimposes elements of a supranational scale on the local fabric: churches in the re­ligious capital, casinos and their signs in the entertainment capital. These cause violent juxtapositions of use and s(:ale in both cities. Rome's churches, off streets and piazzas, are open to the public; the pilgrim, religious or architectural, can walk fro in dHirch to church. The gambler or architect in Las Ve similarl ' Lak · a ino alo th trap l ,f L g

mental and mon m nt n ding publi , b nk and r ilro d a c1t1 .. olli map of th mid i and comple con c ·on b~r11v~._~n (Fig l 7). Pri te building i into by th public pac roofed, churcnc:. q

Al lhas lace we W'lll Nit~~ Mulcahy lo both his foot ole and hia fan1uie . To u1 he has provided an indispensable guide; but he has also lefl us in the posilion or old faahioned clusical archaeolo&i t attempting to re.:on5truct a shattered monumenl or 1latue from the m<111 fragmenluy debris and, while ii has been u1eru1, has information 1s some· limes a lillle too selective for our purposes. I hu , while he make hnef rererence lo the monumental ceme· l!!rY of the lllustn 1m1, I ather Muk11h 1s lrangely relic< 111 ahout further developm.-111 on the l' ho which Val11d1er' propo5als seem lo have pon orcd. We refer lo: the elc gant ()uarllcre Malle1, achieved with out ;my grc11I mutilatmn or lhc Villa Mattei itself, to the sequence of spaces (the presenl l'iaua <.iluseppe Terraani and Larao C11ttaneo) leadma In from lhe l'olosaeum, lo Von Klenze' manipulation of Santo Sier ano which have oflen been considered doubtful, and then, and unlike our Jesuit aulde, we 1uuest thal the ume uchltect'a Accademla Uavarese, loca fed tmmecttately lo the rear or lhe cbutch In the former vtana of tbe Collqio Germanlco, II a buildlna

A I""""" J (,real Terra of the Av 111111.-2 Sunto Sp1r110 della Re laur.tl1one J Villa Casamu 1m11 4 Alher1111 th ltu 111 5 Orio Dotanico 11 · l'alaZ7.t> dci ('avahcr1 7. Palazzo l aetll 1a

In the public park, the l'mcta dcl Monie Te laccao, which prolrude~

mlo the area, and to the e<1ucncc uf vlll111 and other hualdmg • vaguely re ailing C1iulm Kom11no, l'1rro Ligurio and C laud ... Nicola I edou \\ h1ch. n 1111: nul ul lhc1r untc I n1 lrcc . comprbe the IUUlh we tern o:nclo urc of the C'ircu Mnlmu Hut. even

f

2J

'lbe Stratesr of Fngments Within the site, each hill ropraents a separate prototypical mucture. 1 The Aventine as an ideal city, (17): its actual plan is a deformation of this, retaining the closed perimeter and open centre, (18). 2 The Palatine as megastructure: its figural core stabilises a variety of edges, (19). The actual plan shows the specific perimeter adaptions, (20), and the axonometric indicates poSllible internal growth. The spatial structure of garden parterrC6 solidify into urban blocks, transforming a palace into an elaborate urhan texture, (21). 3 The Celio as a hilltown of rationalised space linked to a central piazza at St Stefano Rotondo, (22); the actual plan also shows an ancient Roman collision of monumental figures, (23). This hill­town prei:umably extends u a field to St John the Lateran 4

24

35

40

38

The Tactics of Connection Within the site, various methods are used to form connections and transitions between the separate pieces. I Interpenetration of fields: the overlapping of edges and patterns between fields establishes a multiplicity of relationships, (35). 2 Continuity of texture: all continuity wi!h the existing Roman centre must be stretched through the narrow bottleneck of the r. rum Boararbm. The existir.g texture is extend, •tnd rechannelled. Before, (36), after, (3 7). 3 Public landscape: the structure be!ween the separate hill fragments is a system of interstitial gardens an<l trees, (38). 4 The Italian gardt:n generates h:xture: the existing gardens of the Villa Mattei provide a pattern for urbanism. Befort" and after, (39i; air view, (40). 5 The French ga1den as model: superimp'Jsed on the city as con cinuity, not authority, it becomes a starting point for extensions - space breaks out of the site but retains its local origins. The garden becomes an alternative urban strategy, (41).

l

~.:-: n IQ~~ \,'- ' e.__:: I

J7

41