accounting choices and earnings management. accounting principles accrual accounting is...
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Accounting Choices and Earnings Management
Accounting Principles
• Accrual accounting is principles-based.
• Review the “accounting principles” in the course Reader.
• Use these principles to analyze transactions and justify your classifications.
• Managers make accounting choices, which means that …
• Managers have the opportunity to select the manner in which certain transactions will be classified.
• These choices change can alter the income statement and the balance sheet relative to alternative choices, thus ...
• Reported profits across similar companies might differ just because accounting choices are different.
• Accounting Standards are both rules and guidelines for measuring & classifying certain activities/transactions.
• Managers make accounting choices in consultation with their auditor.
• Auditors are expected to be “independent”.• The Enron scandal suggests that investors
cannot always rely on a firm’s auditor for unbiased behavior.
.
The firm’s Managers make its accounting choices and auditors review them
•Manager might use the opportunity to enhance the appearance of financial performance, i.e. report higher profits?
This is called “Earnings Management”.
•It’s not performance, it’s performance appearance.
What if you could decide your professor’s grading policy
and style it just for “yourself”?
Managers frame the interpretation of the firm’s transactions
• What gets recorded & reported (or doesn’t).• How transaction amounts are measured.• The classification of those amounts: Revenue or
Gain?Asset or Expense?
• And when this is reported. This period, or next period?
Companies make profits.
But managers report them
Revenue Recognition
Recognize revenue when it is realized:
(a) the service is delivered;
(b) buyer & seller agree on the price; and
(c) when cash is collected or its collection is reasonably certain.
Expense Recognition
•Associate (using the “matching principle”) costs with revenue generating efforts :a)Directly – e.g. COGSb)Indirectly – e.g. Advertisingc)By Period – e.g. Rent
Booking Costs-of-Goods Sold “COGS”this is a
Cost Flow Choices•LIFO - last costs IN first costs “out”, i.e. COGS •FIFO – first costs IN first costs “out”, i.e. COGS
LIFO implies FISH (first in still here)FIFO implies LISH (last in still here)
Aggressive AccountingChoices
• Revenue recognition based on liberal interpretation of the Realization Principle.
• Shifting expenses to future periods or taking them during bad times.
• FIFO for COGS – usually the lower costs.
• Capitalizing – and Amortizing - big costs.
Conservative AccountingChoices
• Revenue recognition based on strict interpretation of the Realization Principle.
• Booking expenses when they are incurred.
• LIFO for COGS – usually the higher costs.
• Expensing, not Capitalizing, costs that are uncertain as to helping create Sales.
Same Treatment?
• Interest expense.• Most routine costs will be recognized as ordinary
expenses, i.e. direct, indirect, or periodic expenses, e.g. rent, advertising, office-related, travel, wages & salary, maintenance & repair.
• Pre-paid expenses.• Purchasing inventory for sale.• Paying vendors, employees, banks.
1st Period Events • Sell 200 shares of stock @ $1 each; • Buy an Ugly Puppy for $100 cash.• Buy T-shirts in three successive cost layers as:1. 10 shirts @ $1 each.2. 10 shirts @ $2 each.3. 10 shirts @ $3 each.• Consult 40 clients and 30 pay $1 each; 10 promise to
pay later. • Sell 10 T-shirts at $5 each in cash.
The Ugly Puppy’s Role in this Firm
What is the business nature of the puppy?
• ?• ?
How does the accounting choice reflect Management’s view of the business nature of
the puppy?
Amortizing the Puppy’s Cost
Cost is $ 100.Expected recovery of that cost is $ 0, thus•Amortizable Basis is $ 100 - $ 0 = $100.•Give the amortizable basis a three-period life.•Apply straight-line amortization•So $100 / 3 gives this Depreciation Schedule:1. $ 332. $ 333. $ 34•This will be our periodic Amortization expense.
Receivables and Bad Debt
Customers often buy on-account, i.e. credit instead of cash, and the selling firm books a Receivable.
Most, but not all customers pay later. Since, some Receivables might never be collected, the firm may want to reflect this uncertainty in its financials. This is called an Allowance.•Create an Allowance for Bad Debt. A contra-asset to Receivables.•Fund the Allowance by recognizing a Bad Debt Expense.
The 1st Period Books w/ Conservative choices
Rev 90
COGS (30) GP 60 G&A (110) EBITDA ( 50) DA ( 0) EBIT ( 50) I ( 0) EBT ( 50) T ( 0) NI ( 50)
200
0
0
0
0
(0)
0
0
0
0
200
0
120
10
(10)
30
0
0
(0)
0
0
0
0
200
(50)
Inventory Cost Flow?
• Use LIFO as the Conservative choice.• The $ 3 layer goes to COGS first, thus• The $ 1 and $ 2 layers are in Inventory, FISH.
• Use FIFO as the Aggressive choice.• The $ 1 layer goes to COGS first, thus• The $ 2 and $ 3 layers are in Inventory, LISH.
The 1st Period Books w/ Aggressive choices
Rev 90
COGS (10) GP 80 G&A ( 0) EBITDA 80 DA ( 33) EBIT 47 I ( 0) EBT 47 T ( 0) NI 47
200
0
0
0
0
(0)
0
0
0
0
200
0
120
10
( 0)
50
0
100
( 33)
0
0
0
0
200
47
A Few Observations
• We may have two sets of Financials, but• We have only one business !• Thus, we have created a reporting form• That is different from the substance of events –
does this matter? How?• The one reported item that cannot be altered by
Accounting Choices is CA$H.
2nd Period Events
• Purchase 10 T-shirts @ $4 each, pay cash.• Borrow $100 @ 10% interest on an interest-only basis
with interest due in subsequent periods.• Take the puppy to a Vet and a Trainer and pay $60
cash. • Consult 40 clients and 30 pay $1 each; 10 promise to
pay later. • Sell 10 T-shirts at $5 each in cash.• Encounter a person who agrees to $100 for a Puppy
appearance – next period – and pays $50 cash now with balance due on performance.
Cost Flow Assumptions:COGS & Inventory
• Conservative Cost Layers on LIFO
1. 10 @ $1:2. 10 @ $2:3. 10 @ $3: 1st COGS4. 10 @ $4: 2nd COGS
• Aggressive Cost Layers on FIFO
1. 10 @ $1: 1st COGS2. 10 @ $2: 2nd COGS3. 10 @ $3:4. 10 @ $4:
The 2nd Period Booking with Conservative choices
Starting Rev 90
COGS (40) GP 50 G&A ( 70) EBITDA ( 20) DA ( 0) EBIT ( 20) I ( 10) EBT ( 30) T ( 0) NI ( 30)
120
10
(10)
30
0
0
(0)
0
0
0
0
200
(50)
250
10
(20)
30
0
0
(0)
50
0
10
100
200
( 80)
Capitalizing the Vet & Trainer Costs
• Cost is $ 60. Just an accessory to the L.L.A. “Puppy”.• Expected recovery of that cost probably $ 0.• What life for the $ 60? Same as the $100 “Puppy” cost?• Arguments?• Apply 3 period straight-line amortization to get $20 per. • Adjust the Depreciation Schedule:1. $ 332. $ 33 + $ 20 = $ 533. $ 34 + $ 20 = $ 544. $ 0 + $ 20 = $ 20
The 2nd Period Booking with Aggressive choices
Starting Rev 140 COGS ( 20)
GP 120 G&A ( 0) EBITDA 120 DA ( 53) EBIT 67 I ( 10) EBT 57 T ( 0) NI 57
120
10
( 0)
50
0
100
(32)
0
0
0
0
200
47
250
20
( 0)
70
0
160
(86)
0
0
10
100
200
104