abstract bachelor’ s thesis master’ doctor’ · abstract bachelor’ turun kauppakorkeakoulu...
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ABSTRACT
Turun kauppakorkeakoulu • Turku School of Economics
Bachelor’s thesis
x Master’s thesis
Licentiate’s thesis
Doctor’s thesis
Subject Marketing Date 13.6.2019
Author(s) Essi Niemelä Student number 503238
Number of pages 100 + appendices
Title Brand authenticity:
Meditating authentic experiences through brand communication
Supervisor(s) D. Sc. Ulla Hakala
Abstract
Brand authenticity is considered as a core element in the contemporary brand management, but its
theory and practice are still surrounded with varying point of views and lack of consensus. In the
previous academic research, it has been stated that brand authenticity has positive impact on brand
equity and overall reputation as people have an innate desire for authenticity. At an increasing rate,
consumers are seeking products that resonate with their desire of authenticity and opine that the ex-
istence for the real or genuine have been denied from them.
Mezcal is a distilled alcoholic beverage produced from fermented agave juice. Mezcal forms a part
of Mexican culture and has deeply entwined roots in the country’s history. By researching mezcal
brands, the purpose of this study is to describe how brand authenticity can be mediated in brand
communication. The purpose is subsequently divided into four sub-questions: 1. What are the stra-
tegical level requirements for brand authenticity? 2. What cues implicate brand authenticity? 3.
What signs convey brand authenticity? and 4. How the different signs of authenticity can be inter-
preted? This study aims to arouse relevant and critical ideas about branding by exploring the actual
and potential contributions of brand authenticity communication with semiotic perspective. The
study was conducted with qualitative mixed method research by combining semiotic content analy-
sis and poetic inquiry. In total of 49 mezcal brands were examined and both visual and textual au-
thenticity cues are collected.
Derived from the prior research on brand authenticity, four strategic level requirements are predom-
inant in constructing and maintaining an authentic brand strategy; purpose, genuineness, con-
sistency and product orientation and the cues that implicate brand authenticity are downplaying
commercial motives, craftsmanship, heritage and history, artistry and appealing to lifestyle. By
evaluating these cues that are communicated through varying signs, the viewer performs uncon-
sciously an assessment of the brand thus either allowing or denying the authenticity. Based on the
research, a brand authenticity syntagm-paradigm wasformed to better understand the semiotic levels
and practices of brand authenticity communication. Evidently, brand authenticity can be communi-
cated in multiple ways in hidden subliminal messages or presented explicitly throughout brand
communication. With different brand authenticity signs, it is possible to create rich, multi-dimen-
sional experiences with consumers and resonate with them in deeper levels.
Brand authenticity, semiotics, storytelling, mezcal, mixed methods, poetic inquiry
Further in-formation
TIIVISTELMÄ
Turun kauppakorkeakoulu • Turku School of Economics
Kandidaatintutkielma
x Pro gradu -tutkielma
Lisensiaatintutkielma
Väitöskirja
Oppiaine Markkinointi Päivämäärä 13.6.2019
Tekijä(t) Essi Niemelä Matrikkelinumero 503238
Sivumäärä 100 s. + liitteet
Otsikko Brändiautenttisuus:
Autenttisten kokemusten tuottaminen brändiviestinnän välityksellä
Ohjaaja(t) KTT Ulla Hakala
Tiivistelmä
Brändiautenttisuutta pidetään yhtenä nykyaikaisen brändinjohtamisen keskeisistä elementeistä,
mutta sen teoriaa ja käytäntöä ympäröi edelleen yhtenäisyyden puute sekä joukko erilaisia näke-
myksiä. Akateemisessa tutkimuksessa on todennettu, että brändiautenttisuudella on positiivinen vai-
kutus brändin pääomaan sekä maineeseen, sillä ihmisillä on todettu olevan luontainen kaipuu au-
tenttisuutta kohtaan. Kuluttajat etsivät yhä enemmän tuotteita ja yrityksiä, jotka resonoivat tämän
kaipuun kanssa, ja kokevat, että nykyaikaisessa kaunistellussa maailmassa kuluttajien oikeus aitou-
teen ja todenmukaisuuteen on evätty.
Mezcal on fermentoidusta ja tislatusta agaave-kasvin mehusta valmistettua alkoholijuomaa. Mezcal
on tärkeä osa Meksikon kulttuuria ja sillä on syvälle juontuvat juuret maan historiassa. Tutkielman
tarkoitus on kuvata mezcalbrändejä tarkastelemalla, kuinka brändin autenttisuutta voidaan välittää
brändin viestinnässä. Tutkielman tarkoitus on jaettu neljään osaongelmaan: 1. Mitä strategisen tason
vaatimuksia brändiautenttisuuden toteuttamiselle on? 2. Mitkä tekijät ilmentävät brändin autentti-
suutta? 3. Mitkä merkit välittävät brändin autenttisuutta? ja 4. Miten autenttisuuden merkkejä voi-
daan tulkita? Tämän tutkielman tarkoituksena on herättää merkityksellisiä ja kriittisiä pohdintoja
bränditutkimuksen saralla tutkimalla brändiautenttisuuden viestinnän mahdollisia vaikutuksia semi-
oottisesta näkökulmasta. Tutkimus suoritettiin laadullisena monimenetelmätutkimuksena yhdistä-
mällä semioottisen sisällönanalyysin sekä poetic inquiry -tutkimusmenetelmän keinoja. Tutkimuk-
sessa analysoitiin yhteensä 49:n mezcalbrändin visuaalisia ja tekstuaalisia autenttisuustekijöitä.
Aikaisempaan tutkimukseen nojaten neljä strategisen tason vaatimusta brändiautenttisuuden toteut-
tamiselle ovat arvopohjaisuus, aitous, johdonmukaisuus ja tuotelähtöisyys. Autenttisuustekijöitä
ovat puolestaan kaupallisten motiivien minimointi, ammatti- ja käsityötaidot, perimätieto ja historia,
taiteellisuus sekä elämäntyyliin vetoaminen. Kuluttajat arvioivat näitä tekijöitä viestinnässä esiinty-
vien merkkien avulla tehden samalla tiedostamattomia arvioita brändin autenttisuudesta. Tutkimuk-
sen pohjalta muodostettiin syntagma–paradigma -taulukko, joka selventää tarkemmin brändiautent-
tisuuden semioottisia tasoja ja käytäntöjä. Autenttisuutta voidaan ilmentää useilla eri tavoilla joko
suorasti tai piilotetusti. Erilaisten brändiautenttisuusmerkkien avulla yritysten on mahdollista luoda
moniulotteisia autenttisia kokemuksia asiakkailleen ja resonoida näin heidän kanssaan syvemmin.
Asiasanat Brändiautenttisuus, tarinankerronta, semiotiikka, mezcal, monimuotomenetelmä
Muita tietoja
BRAND AUTHENTICITY
Meditating authentic experiences through brand communica-
tion
Master´s Thesis
in Marketing
Author:
Essi Niemelä
Supervisor:
D. Sc. Ulla Hakala
13.6.2019
Turku
The originality of this thesis has been checked in accordance with the University of
Turku quality assurance system using the Turnitin OriginalityCheck service.
Table of contents
1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 12
1.1 Background of the study ........................................................................... 12
1.2 Purpose and structure of the study ............................................................. 14
2 BUILDING BRAND AUTHENTICITY ............................................................ 16
2.1 Brand authenticity definition ..................................................................... 16
2.2 Strategic level requirements for brand authenticity .................................... 19
2.2.1 Purpose ......................................................................................... 20
2.2.2 Genuineness .................................................................................. 21
2.2.3 Consistency ................................................................................... 23
2.2.4 Product orientation ........................................................................ 24
2.3 Brand authenticity cues ............................................................................. 25
2.3.1 Downplaying commercial motives ................................................ 26
2.3.2 Craftsmanship ............................................................................... 27
2.3.3 Heritage and history ...................................................................... 28
2.3.4 Artistry ......................................................................................... 29
2.3.5 Appealing to lifestyle .................................................................... 30
3 COMMUNICATING BRAND AUTHENTICITY ............................................. 32
3.1 Consumption and identity ......................................................................... 32
3.2 Semiotics .................................................................................................. 34
3.2.1 Signs ............................................................................................. 35
3.2.2 Icon, index and symbol ................................................................. 39
3.2.3 Denotation and connotation ........................................................... 40
3.2.4 Paradigm and syntagma ................................................................ 41
3.3 Storytelling ............................................................................................... 43
3.3.1 Metaphor ...................................................................................... 44
3.3.2 Metonymy..................................................................................... 45
4 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY ........................................ 47
4.1 Introducing mezcal ................................................................................... 47
4.2 Qualitative research .................................................................................. 49
4.2.1 Mixed methods ............................................................................. 51
4.2.2 Data collection .............................................................................. 52
4.2.3 Semiotic content analysis .............................................................. 53
4.2.4 Poetic inquiry ................................................................................ 55
4.3 Reliability and validity of the study ........................................................... 57
5 RESEARCH FINDINGS ................................................................................... 59
5.1 Mezcal brands’ authenticity signs ............................................................. 59
5.2 Mediating non-commercial motives .......................................................... 60
5.3 Mediating craftsmanship ........................................................................... 63
5.3.1 Production methods ...................................................................... 63
5.3.2 Agave ........................................................................................... 66
5.3.3 Maestro mezcalero ........................................................................ 70
5.4 Mediating heritage and history .................................................................. 71
5.4.1 Mesoamerican symbolism ............................................................. 71
5.4.2 Proverbs........................................................................................ 74
5.5 Mediating artistry ..................................................................................... 75
5.6 Mediating lifestyle .................................................................................... 80
5.6.1 Common cultural signs ................................................................. 80
5.6.2 Rebelliousness .............................................................................. 81
6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS .............................................................. 84
6.1 Discussion on the findings ........................................................................ 84
6.2 Theoretical contributions .......................................................................... 88
6.3 Managerial contributions .......................................................................... 90
6.4 Limitations and future research ................................................................. 91
7 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... 93
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 96
List of figures
Figure 1 Indexical and iconic brand authenticity ..................................................... 17
Figure 2 The definition of authenticity by Hitzler & Müller-Stewns (2017, 35) ....... 18
Figure 3 Interrelatedness of strategic brand authenticity dimensions ........................ 20
Figure 4 Factors on authenticity perception ............................................................. 32
Figure 5 Peirce's view on semiotic elements (Fiske 2005, 64) or triadic semiosis
(Mick 1986, 198) .............................................................................. 36
Figure 6 Saussure’s model of the sign (Danesi 2006, 28) ......................................... 37
Figure 7 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes (adapted from Chandler 2007, 85)...... 42
Figure 8 Signaling downplaying the commercial motives ........................................ 62
List of tables
Table 1 Strategic level brand authenticity dimensions and their source .................... 19
Table 2 Brand authenticity cues .............................................................................. 26
Table 3 Operationalization of the study ................................................................... 51
Table 4 Authenticity signs of mezcal brands ........................................................... 59
Table 5 Poetic inquiry on motives behind the brands ............................................... 60
Table 6 Poetic inquiry: craftsmanship...................................................................... 63
Table 7 Poetic inquiry: Written links to the past ...................................................... 73
Table 8 Brand authenticity syntagma and paradigm................................................. 85
List of images
Image 1 Oatly (2019) highlights its transparent intensions ...................................... 22
Image 2 Patagonia: Don't buy this jacket ................................................................. 27
Image 3 Ben & Jerry's I Dough, I Dough ................................................................ 31
Image 4 Absolut Vodka has shown support for the gay community over decades .... 33
Image 5 René Magritte: Ceci n'est pas une pipe....................................................... 37
Image 6 Sustainability of Mezcal Nacional ............................................................. 61
Image 7 Wahaka Mezcal demonstrates content community members ...................... 62
Image 8 Bruxo: dirty palms ..................................................................................... 64
Image 9 Los Javis: Hands........................................................................................ 64
Image 10 Gracias a Dios: Grinding ......................................................................... 65
Image 11 Mezcal Gracias a Dios: Jimador with a machete ...................................... 66
Image 12 Mezcal Vago: Agave ............................................................................... 67
Image 13 Santa Sabia describes the difference feelings aroused by Mexicano, Jabalí
and Tobala ....................................................................................... 68
Image 14 Santa Sabia describes the difference feelings aroused by Madre Cuishe,
Cuishe and Bicuixe .......................................................................... 68
Image 15 Photographs serve as indexical authenticity cues of Mezcal Meteoro's
legend .............................................................................................. 69
Image 16 Papadiablo: the creation of our magic mezcal .......................................... 70
Image 17 Mezcales de Leyenda introduces the Maestro Mezcaleros ........................ 71
Image 18 400 Conejos refers to Aztec mythology ................................................... 72
Image 19 Los Danzantes: masks ............................................................................. 72
Image 20 Oaxacan proverb (Siete Misterios) ........................................................... 74
Image 21 Oaxacan proverb (Siete Misterios) ........................................................... 75
Image 22 El Buho: Etiquette ................................................................................... 75
Image 23 Verde momento uses visuality and art in the mezcal bottles ..................... 76
Image 24 Ilegal Mezcal: Art exhibition ................................................................... 77
Image 25 Cinco Sentidos: murales .......................................................................... 78
Image 26 Banhez: Musica Banhez ........................................................................... 79
Image 27 Peloton de la Muerte: cultural symbolism ................................................ 80
Image 28 Ilegal Mezcal: rock lifestyle ..................................................................... 82
Image 29 Ilegal Mezcal: appealing to lifestyle ......................................................... 82
Image 30 Peloton de la Muerte: punk symbols ........................................................ 83
11
12
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire initiated a rich culinary revolution in the his-
tory of humankind. As Hernán Cortés, Spanish explorer, commanded his expedition to-
wards the New World, instead of monetary richness the explorers uncovered a variety of
culinary treasures, such as chocolate, vanilla, beans, avocados, coconuts, corn and toma-
toes. Though the conquerors occupied the Aztec empire and defeated the last emperor
Moctezuma Xocoyotzin through various battles and pervaded the territory with Spanish
structures and institutions, the native culture and traditions from the pre-Hispanic era are
still embedded in the Mexican culture. (Misiura 2006, 199–200.)
One of the cultural culinary products is mezcal, a Mexican alcoholic beverage obtained
by distilling cooked and fermented agave plants (Trejo-Pech et al. 2010, 119). Mezcal is
one of the vivacious remains of pre-Hispanic culture (García Mendoza 2010, 11; Valen-
zuela Zapata & Gaytán 2012, 1) and one of the most widespread and historically rooted
products of Mexico (García Marín et al. 2010, 36). Illsley Granich (2010, 18–19) argues
that no other alcoholic beverage in the world entails such biological and cultural diver-
sity. Mezcal producers, mezcaleros, all over Mexico are still crafting mezcal by honoring
the traditions of previous generations, by harvesting wild agaves from the hillsides, roast-
ing the hearts of the plants in a ground-dug oven, and distilling the fermented juice in
wood-fired pot stills (Bowen 2015, 127).
For long, mezcal was considered a poor-quality liquor or a cheap hooch that was
mostly consumed by the lower economic segments of Mexico. Surprisingly, in the past
decade an interest towards mezcal has risen substantially, thus shown in the growing rate
of multinational companies investing in mezcal production and trade. William Grant &
Sons added Montelobos mezcal in their portfolio in the United States in 2012, while Prox-
imo Spirits, the distributor of world’s best-selling tequila José Cuervo, introduced the
Creyente Mezcal in 2016. Only a year after, Bacardi, the world’s largest independent
spirits producer, acquired a minority stake in Ilegal mezcal. Later in 2018, Diageo added
Casamigos Mezcal to its portfolio in Europe. While the United States is the largest mezcal
consumer outside Mexico, the interest is developing steadily as well in Europe and Asia.
(Pelner 2018.) From where is the tendency of mezcal arising?
Globalization has allowed the exchange of knowledge concerning the way of life and
traditions from all over the world. Meanwhile, naturally or paradoxically, many things
tend to homogenize. At the same time, all those that maintain a unique essence anchored
in deep cultural roots acquire exceptional value. (Rasero 2010, 65.) People have an innate
desire for authenticity. Most institutions that have traditionally been considered as the
13
building blocks of people's identity, such as church, long-lasting careers in one company
or other social institutions used to gather people together to rely their identities are in
decline. Consequently, the loss of traditional identity cornerstones and the increased su-
premacy of conserving or building an image has led to behavior that affirms an individ-
ual’s desire for authentic self and collective connection. (Beverland 2009, 21–23.)
Brands are ubiquitous and have claimed their position as one of the most dominant
institutions in consumer societies. It is common that people with a BMW car, an Apple
phone, Dr. Martens shoes or a Starbuck take-away coffee are not merely consumers of
these goods, but these objects are rather imbued with rich, personal meanings disregard-
ing the objects mass-produced nature. These everyday-life, mass-produced products can
eventually obtain even sacred status by consumers, who have transformed them into au-
thentic objects. (Beverland 2009, 21–23.) Gilmore & Pine (2007, 19) state that all con-
sumers desire authenticity and confirm that the appeal for real is a universal necessity.
Three reasons can be seen to affect the reshaping of how and where people find identity
and authenticity. The first of them, as mentioned before, refers to globalization which has
played an immense role in postmodern societies. Within the increased global trade, mi-
gration and the augmented exposure to global forces, confusion among individuals con-
sidering their stand in the world has engendered. Secondly, globalization has simultane-
ously widened the possibilities for deterritorialization. More possibilities have emerged
for people to move from nation to nation, be it through tourism or migration, which has
caused a constant exposure to different cultures, art, entertainment and cuisine. The fu-
sillade of global exposition is withering individual’s connection to their original place of
origin that have helped them in forming their identities. Together with globalization and
deterritorialization, in comes hyperreality. The increase of stylization of everyday life,
through social media, advertorials, viral or guerrilla marketing has resulted in difficulties
in telling real from fake. (Beverland 2009, 23.)
Prior research shows that authenticity is salient on brand equity and overall corporate
reputation (Beverland, 2005; Gilmore & Pine, 2007) and it is an essential influencer of
brand recollection or even brand love (Godey et al. 2016). Additionally, authenticity is
currently considered as a cornerstone element of branding in the luxury segment (Hitzler
& Müller-Stewens 2017, 29). Perceived brand authenticity is a critical determinant on
consumers’ brand choice intention: it intensifies brand attachment in the emotional level,
increases word-of-mouth and drives the likelihood of brand choice (Morhart et al. 2015).
Regarded by some as the cornerstone of contemporary marketing, authenticity has started
to obtain growing attention amid the marketing literature. In spite of the frequent highly
prosperous applications of authenticity in business context, brand authenticity has not
been thoroughly examined in the academic research and it is still lacking exploration to
its contribution to branding theory. (Schallehn et al. 2014, 192; Ilicic & Webster 2014, 4;
Morhart et al. 2015, 200.)
14
Within the crescent pressure to respond to the consumers’ authenticity demand, com-
panies pursue to understand ways to influence brand’s perceived authenticity (Fritz et al.
2017). Already some brands are saturated with stories that consumers find essential in
constructing their identities (Holt 2004, 3–4), expressing their authentic self or reconnect-
ing to place, time, culture and others (Napoli et al. 2014, 1090). For example, Coca-Cola
states to be the real thing, Adidas proclaims to be once innovative, now classic, always
authentic as simultaneously Nike declares an authentic athletic performance (Schallehn
et al. 2014, 192).
People have become resentful with commerciality and marketing efforts and are will-
ing to re-examine and alternate their customary consumption behavior. Consumers are
seeking products that resonate with their desire of authenticity and opine that the exist-
ence for the real or genuine have been denied from them. (Napoli et al. 2014, 1096.)
Consequently, targeting the minds of consumers is no longer enough. Marketers should
aim their messages much deeper, to the hearts of people, by evolving the marketing efforts
to a stage where it addresses the spirit of the consumers, understands their anxieties and
desires and touches their souls (Kotler at al 2010, 35).
1.2 Purpose and structure of the study
Based on the earlier research, it is notable that brand authenticity is a core element in the
contemporary brand management. It is important to cast light in the creative corners of
brand authenticity theory and peruse the signs and connotative levels to better resonate
with consumers and create them authentic experiences. The creative, visual and narrative
aspect of brand authenticity is not yet a well-researched area, and the subject requires
further research. This study aims to arouse relevant and critical ideas about branding by
exploring the actual and potential contributions of brand authenticity communication in
the marketing practice and theory. This study was conducted to further elucidate the re-
search gap on brand authenticity.
By researching mezcal brands, the purpose of this study is to describe how brand au-
thenticity can be mediated in brand communication. This purpose is divided into follow-
ing sub-questions:
• What are the strategical level requirements for brand authenticity?
• What cues implicate brand authenticity?
• What signs convey brand authenticity?
• How the different signs of authenticity can be interpreted?
15
This research has been constructed based on the purpose and the sub-questions. To
better understand the concept of brand authenticity, the first main chapter introduces the
prior research of the topic and describes the dimensions and cues of brand authenticity in
more detail. In the second main chapter, concepts of authentic communication and semi-
otics are explored further. Subsequently to the core concepts, the research methodology,
data collection and analysis are represented. In chapter 5, the found authenticity signs are
introduced and interpreted and lastly, the discussion of the findings and contributions of
the study are presented.
16
2 BUILDING BRAND AUTHENTICITY
2.1 Brand authenticity definition
Authenticity has been studied from a multitude of research disciplines, including philos-
ophy, arts, sociology, anthropology, tourism and psychology. Despite the ancient appre-
ciation for authenticity by humankind, only recently the construct has caught the attention
of marketing academics as an important dimension of branding. (Frizt et al. 2017, 324–
325.) Originally, the term authenticity was built upon an earlier form of individualism,
and to this day it remains a powerful moral ideal. Diverse terms, such as originality, gen-
uineness, exclusivity, non-commerciality, trustworthiness, reality, self-expression, free-
dom and handcrafting are often used to describe authenticity (e.g. Fine, 2003; Beverland,
2005a & 2005b; Damien 2006). It is wort mentioning that the allusion to genuineness
itself is nothing new and the definition has deep and multidisciplinary roots. As this study
focuses primarily on brand authenticity, merely the definitions considering marketing are
discussed.
An existing literature regarding brand authenticity can be found among academic mar-
keting research. Yet, a lack of consensus reflecting the conceptualization of the construct
still remains lingering above it (e.g. Napoli et al. 2014; Ilicic & Webster 2014; Akbar &
Wymer 2017; Frizt et al. 2017; Athawal & Harris 2018). However, some consent to the
definition have been agreed upon.
Firstly, authenticity is more than a marketing claim. It is commonly agreed that as
authenticity has different meanings depending on the receivers’ varying point of views, a
mere repetition of an authenticity claim of a brand would not prove to be a successful
tactic. For some the word authenticity indicates the relation of real versus fake, while for
others it implies something deeper and symbolic, such as cultural icon (Grayson & Mar-
tinec 2004, 296; Holt 2004, Beverland 2005a, 460; Bai et al. 2009). Gilmore and Pine
(2007, 102–104) go as far as stating that no business offering can fundamentally be au-
thentic, since every manmade commercial product or offering is in its essence artificial
and thus, fake. Nonetheless, as experiences occur in people’s minds, they cannot be inau-
thentic. Businesses that are able to harness these authentic experiences can therefore gain
the perception of authenticity and seize it in their marketing strategies. This view is con-
cordant with Beverland’s (2006, 257) statement that companies’ claims and consumers’
perceptions of authenticity consist of both stylized or fictional factors that can be inter-
preted either objectively or subjectively. Gilmore and Pine (2007) emphasize that brand
authenticity is ambiguous and multifaceted concept, and correspondingly, Bai et al.
(2009, 249) and Napoli et al. (2014, 1096) suggest that authenticity is both theoretical and
created construct.
17
Secondly, the majority of the authenticity research based on consumers and branding
uses terms indexical and iconic authenticity as demonstrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Indexical and iconic brand authenticity
Indexical authenticity, or indexicality, is used to describe the distinguishing a real thing
from a fake or a copy (Grayson & Martinec 2004; Athwal & Harris 2018, 349). A brand
is considered indexically authentic, if it can be proved to be the original instead of an
imitation, placing the emphasis on the spatio-temporal evidence and authority perception
(e.g. Grayson & Martinec 2004; Beverland 2006; Bai et al. 2009, 253; Athawal & Harris
2018). Indexical authenticity cues are commonly inspected in evaluating artwork or lux-
ury products, such as handbags or wines.
On the other side of the spectrum, iconic authenticity takes into consideration the in-
dividual or communal evaluations of a brand. Iconic authenticity is considered to emerge
from consumers’ projections of a brand in evaluating how a brand is ought to be, or if it
answers to the consumers expectations and fits to the pre-existing lifestyle or culture. The
viewers’ emotions and feelings are essential factors in navigating the impression of iconic
authenticity. (Grayson & Martinec 2004, Holt 2004; Napoli et al. 2014.) Rather than at-
testing the connections to a point of reference with evidence as in indexical authenticity,
iconic authenticity forms emotional impressions of a brand’s perceived authenticity em-
phasizing the evaluator itself (Fritz et al. 2017, 327).
As a conclusion, it is a generally agreed that authenticity is not only an attribute inher-
ent to an object, but rather a socially constructed analysis of a brand (Brown et al. 2003;
Grayson & Martinec, 2004; Beverland 2005a & 2006; Napoli et al. 2016, 1201).
Brand authenticity
Indexcical
Authority perception
Spatio-temporal evidence
Not a copy, original
Iconic
Consumer perception
Feelings and emotions
Is as it ought to be
18
Henceforth, consumers are considered as co-creators of authenticity alongside with
brands (Leigh et al. 2006).
There are numerous varying definitions of brand authenticity. According to Napoli et
al. (2014, 1091) brand authenticity is a subjective evaluation of genuineness attributed to
a brand by consumers. This view is also supported by Akbar and Wymer (2017), who
propound that brand authenticity is the extent to which a brand is considered unique,
legitimate, truthful to its claims, and lacking falsity. Similarly, Frizt et al. (2017, 327)
support this view, as they suggest that authenticity is the perceived consistency of a
brand’s behavior that reflects its core values and norms, according to which it is per-
ceived as being true to itself, not undermining its brand essence or substantive nature,
whereby the perceptual process involves two types of authenticity (i.e. indexical and
iconic authenticity). As seen in the Figure 2, according to Hitzler and Müller-Stewens
(2017, 34–35), authenticity is the congruence of the brand’s self-image, behavior and the
public image.
Figure 2 The definition of authenticity by Hitzler & Müller-Stewns (2017, 35)
On their point of view, company’s predefined values, competences, performance, per-
sonality, origin and vision are the main shapers of the organization’s identity. This iden-
tity is reflected in company’s internal and external behavior, such as communication, and
in the other end of the spectrum received and interpreted by the consumers. If a company
displays authenticity in a constant manner, the end result will be an authentic impression.
Beverland (2005b, 1008; 2009, 26) defines authenticity from an iconic point of view,
and states that brand authenticity is a story that balances industrial (production, distribu-
tion and marketing) and rhetorical attributes to project sincerity through the avowal of
commitments to tradition (including production methods, product styling, firm values,
and/or location), passion for the craft and production excellence, and the public disa-
vowal of the role of modern industrial attributes and commercial motivations. In this
study, brand authenticity is derived from earlier research and is defined as follows: Brand
19
authenticity is consumers’ perception of a brand being true to itself and its consumers’
aspirations throughout its actions and communication.
2.2 Strategic level requirements for brand authenticity
Brand authenticity is strictly tied to company’s identity and must accordingly be entwined
in the branding strategy. To fulfill an authentic brand experience, a fundamental commit-
ment in the strategy is essential. Derived from the prior research on brand authenticity,
four strategic level dimensions are predominant in constructing and maintaining an au-
thentic brand strategy. These attributes are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Strategic level brand authenticity dimensions and their source
Purpose
Higher aim
Clearly defined values that reflect company’s history and vision
Brand essence, value
Demonstrating strong morals
Hitzler & Müller-Stewens 2017, 37
Eggers et al. 2012
Spiggle et al. 2012
Dwivedi & McDonald 2018, 1390
Genuineness
Sincerity
Credibility, Integrity
Genuiness (sincerity, actuality)
Uniqueness
Originality, self-expression
Indivuduality
Napoli et al. 2014
Morhart et al. 2015
Bai et al. 2009
Moulard et al. 2016, 421
Bai et al. 2009
Schallen et al. 2014
Consistency
Consistency
Stylistic consistency Design consistency
Consistent original design
Consistency
Consistenty
Design consistency
Longitudinal Consistency
Continuity
Consistent and continuous
Fritz et al. 2017, 328
Beverland 2006, 257 Napoli et al. 2014
Hitzler & Müller-Stewens 2017, 37
Spiggle et al. 2012
Athawal & Harris 2018
Brown et al. 2003; Kozinets, 2001
Moulard et al. 2012
Morhart et al. 2015
Schallen et al. 2014
Product orientation
Product orientation
Moulard et al. 2016
Purpose, genuineness, consistency and quality commitment have previously noticed
to form the basis of strategic brand authenticity. These four dimensions are partly inter-
related, as shown in the Figure 3.
20
Figure 3 Interrelatedness of strategic brand authenticity dimensions
It difficult to ascertain their equal importance of the dimensions in building of brand
authenticity (Athawal & Harris 2018, 350). The significance and the impact of the au-
thenticity dimensions varies and depends heavily on the context and the offering, and the
dimensions are not clearly distinguishable from each other. Each of the strategic level
authenticity dimensions are explained subsequently in more detail.
2.2.1 Purpose
Since the dawn of human thought, purpose has guided and inspired people, given humans
reasons to believe in something greater. For long, purpose has been associated with reli-
gion, nonprofit organizations and values in everyday life. (Reiman 2013, 5.) Besides the
economic incentives inherent to businesses, brand authenticity is also inseparably con-
nected to other motivations, such as political and societal goals (Freathy & Thomas 2015,
178). According to Reiman (2013, 5) a purpose acts as a universal force and its positive
presence should be acknowledged everywhere. Purpose forms the soul of the brand and
it is comprised of the company’s fundamental values. To show and act accordingly to the
purpose, brand must be aware of its core values and stay constantly true to them (Bever-
land 2006).
Instead of just fulfilling their practical needs, people are looking for products that re-
flects their personal image and identity (Smith & Milligan 2015, 5.) Embracing values is
already widely applied marketing, although companies often fail to live up to them thus
ending up causing negative consumer experiences. Consequently, the negative
Strategic brand
authenticity
Purpose
Genuiness
Consistency
Product orientation
21
experiences have increased cynicism towards purpose driven marketing claims between
consumers (Beverland 2009, 7). Kotler et al. (2010, 35) state three reasons for why the
importance of purpose has risen globally: Firstly, both generational change and especially
the recent financial fluctuations have ignited a shift in consumer values towards more
conscious consumer behavior. Secondly, the rise of internet and new technologies have
shifted the power structures from companies and market forces towards consumers, start-
ing the new era of consumer empowerment. Lastly, the developed economies’ value base
has overcome a radical shift from resources to experiences. As a result, consumers are
constantly seeking companies to fulfill their needs for values, empowerment and experi-
ences that purpose driven companies are answering to.
Showing a credible consciousness of purpose, a raison d’être for company’s existence,
works as an amplifier of commercial value in the increasingly competitive world. Peo-
ple’s motivations and attitudes in consumption, be it consumer products, business ser-
vices or political parties, have overcome a global change. Consumers are looking to con-
sume brands with an authentic sense of purpose, or work with companies run by intrinsi-
cally motivated, passionate people with a genuine interested in their offering. Consumers
are eager to see brands contributing in the solving of the wider societal challenges in life.
(Smith & Milligan 2015, 5.) Motivations are closely intertwined with companies’ pur-
pose (Pine & Gilmore 2007, 143).
In addition to increasingly choosing to buy from and work for companies that are
openly sharing their values and staying true to them, consumers are progressively testing
the authenticity of organizations. The judgements are not merely based on CEO’s state-
ments, but rather on testimonies of average customers and everyday customer touch
points. (Smith & Milligan 2015, 6, 14–15.) In this regard, there is a growing demand to
offer moral legitimacy and to pursue prosocial actions (Dwivedi & McDonald 2018,
1390) and companies should ensure the continuing legitimacy in the eyes of the consum-
ers. It is generally frowned upon to exploit communities’ values without actively showing
the ongoing actions. (Beverland 2005a, 460.) The companies with a purpose driven by
consumer insight and society demands are the ones gaining the strongest foothold. Pur-
pose should be manifested in three ways: Firstly, through communication, secondly, in
the way experiences that create value for target customers are delivered and finally in the
way companies innovate in order to continue to be the brand that they want to be (Smith
& Milligan 2015, 23–24, 57).
2.2.2 Genuineness
The second dimension of strategic brand authenticity is genuineness which indicates that
a brand being true and transparent (Ililic & Webster 2014, 24.), keeping its promises and
22
staying true to its exposed values (Dwivedi & MacDonald 2018, 1390). Concurrently,
being rebellious against societal rules and following one’s inner nature rather than adapt-
ing to the masses is also seen as a form of genuine authenticity (Bai et al. 2009, 252). It
is notable in the existing literature that the repletion of authenticity claims raises suspi-
cions about the sincerity and legitimacy of businesses (Beverland, 2006). Brands should
focus in genuineness of a brand and concentrate their strategies than enhance traits that
include transparency and fulfilling promises. (Bai et al. 2009, 252.) Instead of claiming
to be authentic, it must be shown in the actions.
In Image 1, the genuineness is demonstrated from the point of view of Oatly, a Swedish
producer of plant-based product
Image 1 Oatly (2019) highlights its transparent intensions
In Oatly’s website, true intensions, honesty and transparency are the epicenter of the
company’s promise. Oatly is encouraging its consumers and stakeholders to make judge-
ments based on its actions rather than its verbal acclamations. Their objective is also
clearly and transparently stated in their website.
According to Athawal and Harris (2018, 351), the pureness of the product, naturalness,
sincerity and integrity can be subsumed in the brand authenticity. The consistency be-
tween the genuineness of offerings and the authentic communication is a crucial factor in
23
answering to the demand for transparency (Molleda 2010, 233). In the era of social media
and word of mouth, the chances of survival are decreasing for inauthentic brands as con-
sumer have started to occupy high faith in strangers within their community, and simul-
taneously their faith in companies is decreasing. Misrepresentations and false promises
can be exposed globally overnight. (Kotler et al. 2010, 39.)
2.2.3 Consistency
One reason for brands in failing in delivering brand authenticity is inconsistency (Oswald
2012, 46). Schallehn et al. (2014) suggest that brand should be consistent and continuous.
This means that a brand fulfills its promise consistently at all brand touchpoints and re-
flects consistently the essential brand core. This view is agreed by Smith and Milligan
(2015, 14–15) who propose that delivering a unique customer experience consistently and
intentionally throughout all brand channels and guaranteeing the appropriate brand cul-
ture is a way to ensure a long-term sustainable brand authenticity. Therefore, it is notable
that genuineness and consistency work closely together.
The consistency and clarity of a brand’s communication messages are relevant aspects
in producing brand authenticity, whereas brand behavior that is inconsistent decreases the
authenticity perception (Fritz et al. 2017, 328). As stated by Eggers et al. (2013, 346), all
company activities and actions should reflect the enterprise’s identity to ensure the con-
cordance of the created image and the behavior of the organization. To better understand
consistency, Spiggle et al. (2012) proposed that it should be divided two parts: internal
and external. Internal consistency concerns the actions made by the organization, such as
whether a brand is true to itself and acts according to its essential core, similar to genu-
ineness. External consistency from its part takes into considerations the accuracy of the
claims made by the organization and whether a brand is what it claims and appears to be.
This means that the behavior and the claims of an organization (communication) must be
correspondent with its identity, instead of fake, exaggerated or counterfeit.
Though consistency is closely tight to the actions and claims of a brand, it also includes
the visual expressions of a brand. Authentic brands express style and aesthetics consist-
ently in design, communication and all touchpoints. For example, Apple’s has been able
to show authenticity through consistently sleek, cool, functional and user-friendly design
throughout its products and communication. Other way to signal legitimacy is the con-
sistent fulfilling of brand standards in production processes, components, ingredients,
and other attributes. Instead of changing fast in the market pressure or consumer fashion,
authentic brands respect their original designs and develop slowly to reflect modern times
(Beverland, 2006; Beverland et al., 2008). Changing designs radically or suddenly might
24
confuse or even upset consumers and consequently lead to questioning the brand's au-
thenticity (Brown et al., 2003; Kozinets, 2001).
Alexander (2008, 558–559) states that stylistic consistency is rather a facilitator than
an attribute of authenticity. It can be used to sharpen and encapsulate the authenticity
claim and as a marketing tool to convey the authentic feeling from the production and the
organizations core to the consumer. Athawal and Harris (2018, 364) suggest that brand
managers should focus on the development of simple product line and projection of con-
tinuity regardless of the industry norms.
2.2.4 Product orientation
Moulard et al. (2016) argue, that contradictory to the current marketing management stud-
ies are claiming, product orientation may offer an advantage to the currently widely ac-
cepted core marketing principle, consumer orientation. Companies and brands that focus
on interesting, inspiring and intrinsically motivational products are considered authentic
compared to products that are designed to fulfil consumers desires. Beverland (2006,
257–258) also pointed out that some wineries have adopted the view that instead of adapt-
ing the product to the consumers wishes, consumers should adapt to the product, thus
staying away from consumer-oriented activities, which is contradictory to modern mar-
keting theory. As wineries are the experts on their product, they are the ones capable of
deciding its final form.
Integrity, intrinsic affection for the product or company and a sense of moral virtue are
stronger factors in brand authenticity than any economic agenda (Beverland, 2006; Bev-
erland et al., 2006, 2008; Napoli et al. 2014, 1091). Opposingly, attributes desired by
external target groups that do not express the brand’s true identity are considered as mar-
ket-orientation and run the risk of creating inauthentic feeling for consumers (Schallehn
et al. 2014, 194).
Moulard et al. (2016) propose that product orientation, such as focusing on products
that are meaningful to the brand’s decision makers and which they care and feel passion-
ate about, apply to a brand management just like it has been studied in the music business.
Moulard et al. (2016, 421) suggest that brand authenticity is the extent to which consumers
perceive that a brand’s managers are intrinsically motivated in that they are passionate
about and devoted to providing their products, stating that product orientation would be
the sole creator of authenticity.
25
2.3 Brand authenticity cues
As per the research of Grayson and Martinec (2004), interestingly both reality and fiction
can be perceived as authentic, as long as the assessment of authenticity makes sense for
the recipient providing an authentic experience. In conclusion, brand authenticity can be
either real or based in fiction, as it is rather contrivance than a reality (Brown et al. 2003;
Gilmore & Pine 2007). Bai et al. (2008) agree on this view by stating that authenticity
can be constructed and used as a marketing strategy.
Prior academic research has presented several authenticity cues and researchers have
offered insight into consumers’ authenticity ascription to objects. Commonly, consumers
make authenticity assessments based on factual, spatio-temporal cues (Grayson & Mar-
tinec 2004), inherent connections with an object (Napoli et al. 2014, 1091) or existential
and self-enhancing means (Dwivedi & McDonald 2018, 1388). Table 2 represent in more
detail the cues that are often linked to brand authenticity.
26
Table 2 Brand authenticity cues
Brand authenticity cues and their author’s / source / origin
Downplaying commercial motives
Loving the doing
Minimizing advertising campaigns
Higher aim
Non-commerciality (or innocence)
Beverland 2006, 257; Alexander
2009
Beverland 2009, 7
Hitzler & Müller-Stewens 2017, 37
Bai et al. 2009
Craftsmanship
Finest, natural materials
Uncompromising top quality
Method of production
Craftsmanship
Appearing artisanal amateurs Product orientation
Tradition
Skills of a craftsman
Napoli et al. 2014
Beverland 2006, 257
Hitzler & Müller-Stewens 2017, 37
Napoli et al. 2014
Beverland 2009, 7 Hitzler & Müller-Stewens 2017, 37
Moulard et al. 2016, 421
Freathy & Thomas 2015
Heritage and history
Heritage and pedigree
Heritage and history
Heritage, pedigree, historically provable facts
Heritage and legacy
Longevity
Drawing on history and culture
Tradition
Sticking to roots
Commitment to region, region as quality seal, origin
History
Napoli et al. 2014
Beverland 2006, 257
Hitzler & Müller-Stewens 2017, 37
Alexander 2009
Athawal & Harris 2018, 347
Moulard et al. 2016
Beverland 2009, 26
Beverland 2006, 257
Hitzler & Müller-Stewens 2017, 37
Freathy & Thomas 2015
Artistry
Artitsts creative identity
Cooperation with artists
Fine 2003, 55
Bai et al. 2009
The construct of brand authenticity is complex and is premised on perceptions of
downplaying commercial motives, craftsmanship, heritage and history, and artistry. By
combining these dimensions, consumers make judgements about brands’ authenticity
suggesting that there are multiple routes to establish a brand authenticity (Napoli et al.
2014, 1091).
2.3.1 Downplaying commercial motives
According to Holt (2004), authentic brands run constantly a risk of becoming perceived
as commercial. This view is line with Beverland’s (2006, 252), who states that brands
must appear distant from commercial consideration to be authentic. For example, produc-
ing brand extensions that reflect purely externally driven and profit-focused motives are
quickly considered as inauthentic by loyal customers (Spiggle et al. 2012, 970).
27
To stay authentic, brands should remain detached from marketing pressures, commod-
ification and mass production for mass consumption and similarly shun the potential seg-
ment of consumers who would consume the brand for questionable reasons. (Avery
2010). Companies that oppose exploiting the brand and resist pursuing vain commercial
opportunities demonstrate authenticity by inner-directedness and defying external pres-
sures (Avery 2010; Beverland et al. 2008). It is also common to minimize advertisement
campaigns to downplay commercial motives (Hitzler & Müller-Stewens 2017, 37).
Non-commerciality can be shown through intrinsic motivation, dedicated and passion-
ate employees and brand decisions that avoids conflict with the brand’s essence. (Avery
2010.) Low commercial motives, as meeting the intrinsic needs creative freedom can be
articulated by centering in the values on passion (Athawal & Harris 2018, 355). A famous
example of downplaying commercial motives is Patagonia’s Black Friday campaign
Don’t buy this jacket (Image 2).
Image 2 Patagonia: Don't buy this jacket
In the advertisement placed in New York times in November 2011 to address the issue
of consumerism and its effects on the environment, Patagonia calls for its clients to think
before making a buying decision. Patagonia commented the advertisement claiming it to
be the test of our sincerity (or our hypocrisy), and will be if everything we sell is useful,
multifunctional where possible, long lasting, beautiful but not in thrall to fashion. (Pata-
gonia 2011.) The message of the brands core value, sustainability, remains clear.
2.3.2 Craftsmanship
The skills of a craftsman, such as commitment in the production and the employed pro-
fessional evaluation, are key components in authenticity assessment (Freathy & Thomas
28
2015, 185). Craftsmanship includes multiple concepts, such as using the fines and natural
material and producing uncompromising top quality (Hitzler & Müller-Stewens 2017,
37). Hand-design methods (Athawal & Harris 2018, 360) and selectivity in raw material
(Beverland 2005b, 254) are explicit trait of authenticity. In general, craftsmanship em-
phasizes mastery, expertise, inventive spirit (Athawal & Harris 2018, 355–356) and main-
taining quality standards (Dwivedi & McDonald 2018, 1390).
Commitment to quality embodies both a quest to continually living up to expectations
and a committing to consumers. Communicating uncompromising commitments to qual-
ity is a way to show authenticity which can be signaled through artisan skills, knowledge,
time-honored traditions, investing in areas that improve quality (Beverland 2005b, 254)
or emphasizing on innovative design and demonstrating expertise (Athawal & Harris
2018, 355). Quality commitment is a crucial factor also in brand extension, as inferioir
quality, varying production methods or overly inconsistent features risk both the exten-
sion and the umbrella brand to be perceived as inauthentic by consumers (Spiggle et al.
2012, 969).
One way to accentuate the value of creator’s craftsmanship skills and different iation
from mass-produced products is the release of limited editions. The restriction on the
production adds value and rarity to the product. (Bai et al. 2009, 252.) Limiting the
amount of production by artisanal standards or distinctive, hand-crafted methods impli-
cates the genuineness of a brand and connotates authenticity among commodified objects
(Beverland 2006; Gilmore and Pine 2007; Avery 2010).
2.3.3 Heritage and history
Heritage offers an impression of authenticity and can be utilized in celebrating brand’s
individual history and unique standpoint (Beverland 2005b, 253; Athawal & Harris 2018,
347). Misiura (2006, 81–82) states that heritage is widely sought by all types of consum-
ers which makes it an ideal component for branding. Heritage appeals to the aspirations,
needs and motivations of forthcoming as well as already loyal customers. Thus, honoring
traditions plays an important role in brand authenticity (Athawal & Harris 2018, 361).
Constructing a link between a brand and its past adds nuance to its meaning, thus
simultaneously indicating reliability for consumers (Beverland 2005b, 253). Heritage can
be communicated through various manners, such as historically provable facts, patent
dates, associated events (Alexander 2009, 552) or less verifiable assertions and allusions
of origin (Beverland 2005b, 253).
Enduring a brand with a rich history is a widespread tactic in the marketplace, and
Levi Strauss and Co. is commonly mentioned as a prominent example. The jeans manu-
facturer was originally created in 1874, and 140 years later the company is still marketed
29
as the original jean maker and the creator of the modern jeans. Levi Strauss and Co. has
been successful in maintaining its authentic brand and evolving in line with fashion trends
without losing its iconic status. (Athawal & Harris 2018, 347.) According to Misiura
(2006, 7) consumers are now more than ever looking for heritage in brands. Internet has
been one of the substantial forces of this tendency, since it has enabled the global con-
sumption of goods through from any part of the world. For example, consumers can pur-
chase a French wine straight from the vineyard which will be delivered to their door.
Alongside the internet, the growing tendency in global movement has enabled customers
to confront various new experiences, such as foods and drinks and the rituals these goods
require in preparation, consuming or sourcing. (Misiura 2006, 189.)
One way to point out authenticity is nostalgia. It is commonly considered to hold a
close relation to the manifestation of heritage and in arousing positive aspirational emo-
tions (Misiura 2006, 81). Nostalgia and heritage can be demonstrated for example by
launching a tribute model of a classic or by accurately reproducing or recreating an orig-
inal product (Athawal & Harris 2018, 362).
Demonstrating the region of origin is similarly an important factor in authenticity
(Beverland 2005b, 254). Coming from a particular country or provenance creates a natu-
ral heritage that can be utilized for marketing purposes, as it may reflect consumers curi-
osity, willingness for adventure or savor of knowledge (Misiura 2006, 200, 207). Being
able to trace a brand to a real place creates authenticity as opposed to it being placeless
(Beverland 2005b, 255).
2.3.4 Artistry
Bai et al. (2009, 249) state that originality and self-expression are the two main regimes
of authenticity since they have significant value in separating a brand from its rivals and
appealing to the consumers who are looking for individuality. A brand is considered as
an original, differentiated and particular concept that reflects its core identity, and this
identity can be replicated in a form of market offerings. These brand replicates can be
identical copies in a form of consumer-packaged goods or on the other hand varying
pieces, such as artistic or entertainment offerings, used by artist as a dimension of their
brand building. The originality and self-expression of the brand define its identity or au-
thenticity aura. (Brown et al. 2003; Beverland and Farrelly 2010.)
Innovativeness and uniqueness are closely related to brand’s artistry and creativity
(Dwivedi & McDonald 2018, 1390) whereupon one manner to insert authenticity to a
brand is to impregnate it with innovative and unique artistic elements. Artists’ creative
identities have the power to enrich brands with meaning (Fine 2003, 55). One way of
implementing this is through visual elements, as younger generations are generally
30
adjusted to mediating their messages via images in constructing their identities in order
to be associated with authenticity (Dwivedi & McDonald 2018, 1390).
Bai et al. (2009, 253) also note that it is possible to transfer an artist authenticity to a
product or a brand. The individual spirituality of the creator can form a link of authenticity
between the brand and the artist connected to it as artists’ work contains their essence and
expresses their authenticity.
Baumgarth (2018, 244) agrees to this and states that the art brand collaborations have
effect on consumer evaluations of a brand and can produce preferences of loyalty since
the abstract concept of authenticity becomes incarnate in the creative work. Hence, adding
visual images by artist are an intuitive way for audiences to grasp the artist’s spirit and
originality and add authenticity to a brand (Bai et al. 2009, 253, 256).
2.3.5 Appealing to lifestyle
According to Bruhn et al. (2012, 567) the cultural fit between the consumer and the brand
influences strongly on brand authenticity and supports the relevance of cultural proximity
as a significant driver of delivering brand authenticity. Instead of concentrating in meet-
ing barely the mundane market’s needs, companies should concentrate on engaging with
consumers by offering resonating brand meaning and appealing to more profound values,
and let brand be absorbed in communities as they are (Beverland 2005a, 461).
The same process functions also on the contrary direction, as mentioned previously.
As a way to identifying with a particular community, consumers regularly look for brands
that can be used as marks of belonging to a particular community. While doing so, they
grant authenticity to certain brands and similarly detract it from others. Similarly, choos-
ing an incorrect brand may cause an opposing effect – it may mark a consumer out as an
inauthentic member of the community, thus averting his ability to join the group or en-
gage with others. (Beverland 2006, 21) In selecting brands, the brand choice depends on
the shared histories of the consumer community and the brand (Beverland 2005a, 461).
A low degree of brand authenticity implies a brand positioning which does not get with
its identity, and therefore, the origin of the brand promise is attributed to external forces
rather than to brand identity. (Schallehn et al. 2014, 194.)
American ice cream manufacturer Ben & Jerry’s has been laudably resonating with
the LGBTQ community as expressed in the Image 3.
31
Image 3 Ben & Jerry's I Dough, I Dough
To honor the decision of the Supreme Court of the United States’ to allow same sex
marriage, Ben & Jerry’s renamed their Chocolate Chip Cookie Dough ice cream tempo-
rarily as I Dough, I Dough. This act reasserted the company’s values and positioned it
strongly in the minority culture. The importance of the cultural resonance is discussed
further in the following chapter.
32
3 COMMUNICATING BRAND AUTHENTICITY
3.1 Consumption and identity
Individuals express themselves and their cultures by the consumption of goods (Wat-
tanasuwan 2005, 179–180; Damien 2006, 149). People do not value products merely for
their benefit as much as for what they symbolize; their value for consumers’ identity.
Consumers drape themselves with brands that embody their admired ideals and use them
as channels of expression for who they want to be. Should a brand be successful in an-
swering to particular values and aspirations idolized by a group of members in a society,
it can eventually become a cultural icon. (Holt 2004, 3–4.) Since all consumption holds
expressive meanings, people endeavor to incorporate desired brands and products into
their self-creation while striving to resist the ones that are found undesirable. (Wattanasu-
wan 2005, 179–180).
Brand administrators are not the sole creators of brand authenticity (Beverland 2005a,
460). Managing consumers perceptions of authenticity is critical because perceived au-
thenticity must follow consumers’ mental frames of how things ought to be (Grayson &
Martinec 2004) and cover the invisible factors in people’s general perceptions (Bai et al.
2009, 253) to address the symbolic messages correctly and arouse resonance. The factors
affecting on the authenticity perception are illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Factors on authenticity perception
It is imperative to comprehend that people perceive things and situations in a different
way for their cultural background, environmental situation and lived experience. Other
important factors in the authenticity assessment are the surrounding circumstances, indi-
vidual judgement and identity. (Grayson & Martinec 2004, 296–297; Leigh 2006, 482.)
Authenticity perception
Community's values
Society
Culture
Individual values
Identity
Personality
33
People’s perception of authenticity is highly influenced by personal predilections (Gray-
son & Martinec 2004, 299). People’s personal preferences are still not the only factors in
the authenticity assessment. Being part of a social world allows external forces and social
pressures to influence personal identity as well (Schallehn et al. 2014, 193).
An authentic claim is worthless without authentic communication. Communicating
authenticity must capture the experiences, ambitions, and hopes of the involved segment
of society that is aimed to engage, to avoid a clash a values and beliefs that may otherwise
occur. (Molleda 2010, 234.) Hence, in selecting brands, the consumers’ assessment of
authenticity attributes depends heavily on the consumer community alongside with the
personal preference. As a result, instead of endeavoring the direct or self-evident brand
authenticity cues, marketing the brand authenticity can take an indirect route, such as
infiltrating to a community and becoming a part of it. (Beverland 2005a, 461.)
For postmodern consumers, brands are building blocks in the process of creating au-
thentic self and reconnecting to others in the continuum of place, time and culture (Holt
2004; Beverland & Farrelly 2010; Napoli et al. 2014, 1090). For consumers, consumption
has formed an autonomous space of self-expression outside the societal or institutional
pressures. Therefore, brands have the opportunity to offer authentic experiences in the
current consumption culture. (Holt 2004.) As an example, the Swedish alcohol brand
Absolut Vodka started bolstering the sexual minority culture already in the 1980s by sup-
porting the community’s events and values (Image 4).
Image 4 Absolut Vodka has shown support for the gay community over decades
Kiss with pride campaign was curated by Absolut to raise awareness of the illegality
of same-sex relationships that continues being a global inequality issue (Absolut Vodka).
In order to gain authenticity in the eyes of the members of the community, brands must
34
stay true to the community’s origins and bolster the development and wellbeing of the
community together with its members (Damien 2006, 151).
To establish authenticity, it is crucial to regard cultural and contextual factors as well
as the predominant power structures and history (Freathy & Thomas 2015, 178). Danesi
(2006, 91, 120, 126) states that the imagery produced by brands reinforces the pre-exist-
ing lifestyle models in cultures. To succeed in the market, besides being economically
canny brands must also be culturally canny. Brand messages must be in sync with the
target markets culture. If a brand is able to resonate with the culture’s core desires, it will
most probably gain a niche in the market, and by answering to universal needs, it can gain
a global foothold. If a brand lacks internal structure and its message is inconsistent or
irrelevant for the target segment, it will fail in touching the hearts and minds of consum-
ers. (Oswald 2012, 46.)
When selecting brands, consumers’ brand choices commonly depend on the shared
histories of the consumer, the community and the brand (Beverland 2005a, 461). Accord-
ing to Bruhn et al. (2012, 568) the cultural fit between the consumer and the brand influ-
ences strongly brand authenticity and supports the relevance of cultural proximity as a
significant driver of delivering brand authenticity. Instead of concentrating in meeting
barely the mundane market’s needs, companies should concentrate on engaging with con-
sumers by offering resonating brand meaning and appealing to more profound values, and
let brand be absorbed in communities as they are (Beverland 2005a, 461).
3.2 Semiotics
Communication is the symbolic activity between humans (Yakin & Totu 2014, 8). Since
all experience is mediated by signs and communication depends on signs, it is crucial to
understand their functioning mechanisms (Chandler 2007, 2). One way of sowing authen-
ticity into brand communications is semiotics. Semiotic theory focuses structuring and
operating the signs and sign systems (Yakin & Totu 2014, 8) and provides concepts and
analytical models that allow the unraveling of signs into components and relating them
to wider cultural entities (Seppä 2012, 128).
Semiotics is the study of signs and sign systems, and semiotic research focuses on how
meanings are made and how reality is represented and constructed through them
(Seppänen 2002,175; Chandler 2007, 2; Yakin & Totu 2014, 8). For instance, a brand is
a sign system that engages the consumer in a signification process. The meanings evoked
by brand’s assets, such as name, logo and visual cues, contribute directly to the brands
semiotic value. (Oswald 2012, 44.) Since brands aim to resonate with consumers moti-
vations and needs, they should construct these desires straight into brand communication
(Danesi 2006, 17). With semiotics, brands can create clear, affecting and relevant
35
communication and fit the messages in the communication channels to align with the
authentic brand message to reach the target consumers. (Oswald 2012, 1.)
Consumers use various cues to evaluate brand authenticity (Carsana & Jolibert 2018,
213) and it is essential in branding to indicate authenticity with adding authentic cues on
the brand. This can be made through focusing on the real attributes of the brand, but it is
noteworthy that some of the claims about the brand can be artificial (Beverland 2005a,
460) or rendered (Gilmore & Pine 2007). For example, in online settings these cues can
be visual assets such as logo, graphics, multi-media, color, shape, layout, news, and other
physical features (Rowley 2004, 134). Subsequently, practices of creating authentic ex-
periences in an interplay of visual and verbal cues are introduced.
3.2.1 Signs
To better understand communications through semiotics and the formation of meaning, it
is essential to understand the meaning of a sign. Traditionally, a sign is defined as aliquid
stat pro aliquo¸ something which stands for something else. However, it is noteworthy
that semiotics does not involve things that are referred as signs in everyday dialog, but
rather everything that stands for something else. In a semiotic sense, all meaningful phe-
nomena, including words, odors, flavors, images, acts, sounds, gestures or objects can
take the form of a sign. (Chandler 2007, 2.)
The history of semiotics can be traced to two prominent figures, an American philos-
opher Charles S. Peirce and a Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. As these two roots
of semiotics emerged almost simultaneously from different premises, some overlap and
dissent of opinions in the theory is still reflected to semiotics. For instance, Peirce and
Saussure both describe sign differently. (Seppänen 2002, 176; Danesi 2007, 27 Yakin &
Totu 2014.)
Peirce is acknowledged as the pioneer of pragmatism doctrine in semiotics as he has
developed grounds in the general theory of signs. One of Peirce’s main principles contains
the trichotomy of sign. (Yakin & Totu 2014, 6.) According to Peirce, a sign is anything
that stands for something to somebody in its context (Mick 1986, 198; Fiske 2005, 64).
This view of the construction of meaning is commonly described as a triangle which is
founded on three parts, representamen, object and interpretant (Fiske 2005, 64) as por-
trayed in Figure 5.
36
Figure 5 Peirce's view on semiotic elements (Fiske 2005, 64) or triadic semiosis (Mick
1986, 198)
A sign, or representamen, refers to another thing: its object. For example, a word dog
(representamen) refers to a physical dog (object). Through representamen, anything dis-
cussable or thinkable, is represented to someone. In a way, representamen calls someone
to interpret itself, creating a certain image of the object in the mind of the interpreter.
(Fiske 2005, 63–64; Seppanen 2005, 109; Yakin & Totu 2014, 7). This image of and
object produced by the representamen is called interpretant. The interpretant is the intan-
gible concept created by the sign in the experience of its user, and it should not be con-
fused with an interpreter (Seppänen 2002, 177). In this case, the interpretant would be an
idea of a dog in the interpreter’s mind. Interpretant does not refer to the interpreter nor is
it merely an interpretation – it is defined as the sign's transmutation into an inferred neu-
ral code. (Mick 1986, 198–199.)
Yakin and Totu (2014, 7) concur to this view stating that the interpretant means any
meanings about the object that are conveyed by the representamen that were previously
unknown, abstract in nature and nonexistent in human perception. The relationship be-
tween representamen, object and interpretant is thus interactional. (Yakin & Totu 2014,
7.) At the end of the construction of the meaning, traditionally called semiosis, the inter-
pretant can be transformed into a language or other symbolic code by which it is possible
to be shared and transmitted within the social environment. (Mick 1986, 198–199.)
René Magritte’s well-known painting The Treachery of Images (Image 5) can be uti-
lized to exemplify Peirce’s thoughts.
Representamen
InterpretantObject
37
Image 5 René Magritte: Ceci n'est pas une pipe
In Magritte’s painting, there is an image of a pipe with a text Ceci n’est pas une pipe,
this is not a pipe. Peirce would agree Magritte’s statement and continue that in fact it is
not a pipe, but a representamen of an object, a pipe. The idea formed in viewers imagi-
nations while seeing Magritte’s representation of a pipe would be called an interpretant.
This interpretant of the painting would then be transmitted by words and shared with
others.
Meanwhile, Ferdinand de Saussure provided a structuralist point of view to semiotics,
or in his own words, semiology. (Yakin & Totu 2014, 6.) Saussure’s view is different to
Peirce’s, but they both include similar elements. As a linguist, Saussure was first and
foremost interested in the relationship between the lingual signs, particularly in spoken
language. Saussure’s idea of a sign is built on two components, signifier and signified.
(Seppänen 2002, 177; Yakin & Totu 2014, 6.) The relationship between the components
is demonstrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Saussure’s model of the sign (Danesi 2006, 28)
38
Whereas Peirce’s theory of sign emphasizes the triadic and trichotomy signification
system, the principal concept of Saussure’s sign theory is based on dichotomy or duality
(Yakin & Totu 2014, 6).
Saussure observed, that when using a word, as an example a tree (signifier)¸ the word
in question produces an acoustic image in the brain and in consequence, a visual image
of a tree (signified) appears into mind (Danesi 2007, 28). Signifier is the physical form of
the sign, for example the written word car. Signifier refers to the signified, which is a kind
of intangible concept, for example an idea of the car. In order to understand each other's
signs such as words or writing, people must have similar understanding of the relationship
between the signifier and the signified, for instance have a shared idea of a car at least
partly. (Seppänen 2002, 177.)
Signifier refers to something that can be distinguished by human senses, something
that exists explicitly in physical or material form, whereas signified is something literal
and physically nonexistent (Yakin & Totu 2014, 6). Fiske (2005, 66–77) adds that the
intangible elements are usually shared inside the same culture or language. The relation-
ship between the signifier and signified is commonly called the signification system. Sig-
nifier and signified are closely entwined and work as complements for each other. They
cannot be separated, as one aspect would not exist without the other. (Yakin & Totu 2014,
6.) Once the connection between the sign in its physical form and meaning is establish, it
becomes bidirectional – the physical form implies the meaning and the meaning implies
the physical form (Danesi 2006, 28).
It is evident that Peirce’s object and Saussure’s signifier resemble each other, as well
as the interpretant and the signified. However, they are set in different semiotic systems
and thus have differences (Seppänen 2002, 177; Chandler 2007, 31–32). According to
Chandler (2007, 28) Saussure’s theory gives more importance to internal structure of hu-
man minds. He emphasizes the cognitive thought process of people in constructing the
physical and intangible signs taken from their environments or surroundings which in-
cludes the construction of linguistic signs in the language system that plays an important
role in the communications and other function as human beings. Saussure’s theory is sug-
gesting that instead of reflecting reality, language rather constructs it. Language is not
only used, or meanings are not solely given to things that exists in the real world, but also
to things that are non-existent or abstract. Yaki and Totu (2014, 7) add that according to
Saussure, a sign is a process or a phenomenon that never occurs in a coincidence or by
chance. Signs are delivered intentionally, with a purpose and specific meaning. That is to
say, a sign does not exist if it is not intentional.
As a philosopher, Peirce embraced logical thinking and formed his theories to describe
the way human beings think or use their common senses or rationality. Peirce believed
that people’s thinking process happens through signs. This enables them to communicate
39
with each other and give meaning to anything that exist in their environment. To the con-
trary of Saussure’s perspective, Peirce suggested that sign can be basically anything, as
long as it represent something through the individual’s thought and interpretation. Thus,
signs exist even though they are not purposely meant or communicated. (Yaki & Totu
2014, 7.) In conclusion, signs can be used deliberately or unintentionally – in either way
the receiver has an active role in forming the meaning.
3.2.2 Icon, index and symbol
Peirce distinguished three types of signs: icons, indexes, and symbols (Mick 1986, 199;
Fiske 2005, 71; Chandler 2007, 44; Yakin & Totu 2014,6).
An icon is a sign that resembles an object (Mick 1986, 199; Fiske 2005, 71; Chandler
2007, 44). The most obvious and unquestionable icons are maps or pictograms, such as
female or male signs on public toilets’ doors. Onomatopoeia is an attempt to convert lan-
guage into icon, as the word seeks to imitate the sound that people hear, for example in
the case of humming or murmuring. (Fiske 2005, 71.) In the beforementioned Magritte’s
painting, the image of pipe would be considered as icon.
An index does not have intrinsic resemblance but has a causal relation to an object
(Mick 1986, 199; Fiske 2005, 71; Chandler 2007, 44). One way to understand indexicality
is to express it as a metaphoric statement there is no smoke without a fire (Seppänen 2002,
178–179). In this sense, a photograph is an index in the same way as animal paw prints –
they both fulfill the requirement of a direct link to the target. The indexical nature of
photographs should always be considered, since it easily leads to the idea that a photo-
graph is a solid proof of the existence of its objects, even when that is not the case.
(Seppänen 2002, 178–179.)
Symbol diverges form icons and indexes, because instead of resemblance or causal
connection, it has a conventional relation to the object. Invariably, symbols require a par-
ticipative presence of the interpreter to create a meaningful connection. (Mick 1986, 199;
Fiske 2005, 71; Chandler 2007, 44.) Symbol's connection to its destination is based on a
habit, agreement, or rule. For instance, words or letters are mainly symbols, the red cross
is a symbol and numbers are symbols. There is no other reason for them to be understood
apart from the power and rules inside our culture. (Fiske 2005, 72.)
It is significant to note that these different types are not categories, but rather features
or stages that can occur at the same time in one sign. Typically, signs are simultaneously
iconic, indexical, and symbolic. (Mick 1986, 199; Fiske 2005, 71; Chandler 2007, 44.)
Per se, signs cannot be classified directly into types without referencing the purposes of
their usage and taking their contexts into account (Chandler 2007, 45).
40
As mentioned in chapter 2.1, majority of the brand authenticity research uses terms
indexical and iconic authenticity in explaining the difference of these two viewpoints.
Indexical authenticity or indexicality distinguishes the real thing from its copies (Grayson
& Martinec 2004; Athwal & Harris 2018, 349). A brand is seen as indexically authentic
if it is believed to be the original, not a copy nor an imitation, i.e. the authenticity is
incarnated in the object itself (e.g. Grayson & Martinec 2004; Beverland 2006; Bai et al.
2009, 253; Athawal & Harris 2018). Indexical cues produce a link with a trusted point of
reference (Athawal & Harris 2018, 350) which makes them objective sources in providing
an authentication of what the brand claims to be (Morhart et al., 2015). Secondly, iconic
authenticity encompasses a projection from the consumer’s point of view about how the
brand ought to look or be, taking into account the perceptions that are guided by one’s
feelings and emotional impressions. (Grayson & Martinec 2004.) Instead of proving evi-
dence or connections with a reference, iconic cues convey feelings and emotional impres-
sions of something that influences a brand’s perceived authenticity (Fritz et al. 2017, 327).
Similarly to the comprehensive nature of semiotic icons, indexes and symbols, iconic
and indexical authenticity are not reciprocally exclusive. Even if perceptions might some-
times underline iconicity over indexicality and vice versa, each perceived cue has both
iconic and indexical attributes. Thus, brands are commonly both iconic and indexically
authentic. (Grayson & Martinec 2004, 298–299.) Morhart et al. (2015, 200) propose, that
brand authenticity can be defined by the interplay of indexical authenticity, such as ob-
jective or incarnate facts, together with iconic authenticity, such as subjective mental as-
sociations by individuals or communities.
3.2.3 Denotation and connotation
Equally as important as understanding the meaning of signs, it is essential to comprehend
the way signs are interpreted. In the academic literature, the interpretation of signs is
usually divided into two levels: denotation and connotation. The literal meaning of a sig-
nifier is called denotation, whereas the connotation describes secondary or unconscious
meanings. It is distinctive that people form meanings through the creation and interpreta-
tion of signs (Chandler 2007, 13). In a way, brands are purely mental constructs that are
formed by culturally shaped images in consumers’ minds. The more meanings a brand
can build into the brand communication, the more probably it will be itself associated into
the social mindset of the consumers. (Danesi 2006, 22, 37.)
Denotation resembles the dictionary meaning of a word as a simplified indicator of a
concept or a literal translation of a sign to its meaning. For example, a logo functions
merely as an identifier which distinguishes it from another brands at the denotative leve,.
(Oswald 2012, 54–55.) It is rare to encounter literal messages in marketing
41
communications because even a naive or pure imaginary would immediately rouse a con-
nection to naivety, hence germinating meanings and interpretations (Barthes 1977, 42).
The more profound level of interpretation is the connotative level, that includes cul-
tural interpretation of signs (Oswald 2012, 54–55). Effectively, brands will have greater
psychological power when they manage to create a higher number of connotations – that
are the distinct interpretations of the brands and their advertisement perceived by people.
(Danesi 2006, 22, 37.) Barthes (1977, 50) notes that is essential to understand that the
connotations in the total image constitute discontinuous or scattered traits of the pano-
rama. In general, the mental construction of meaning is highly unconscious (Danesi 2006,
22).
Brands can operate as a link between consumers and their traditions, rituals and values,
and on the other hand provide valuable information about consumers and cultures. The
social and cultural relevance of brands is evident. (Danesi 2006, 21.) Culture has high
impact on connotations. For example, the interpretation of colors is usually under the
influence of a cultural lens. On the other hand, connotations can be highly personal and
arouse differently from a different perspective. Connotations endow signs with shades
and nuances of meaning and are highly dependent on the message’s context and receiver.
(Oswald 2012, 54–55.) In other words, the interpretation is anchored in both the inter-
preter and in the specific culture in which the interpretation takes place. The components
involved in the interpretation – the interpreter, the sign and other signs, the context, the
culture, are all inseparably interlaced. (Beasley & Danesi 2002, 68.)
3.2.4 Paradigm and syntagma
Signs context is a substantial factor in the construction of meaning. Meanings in an abso-
lute sense do not exists – from the semiotic point of view, meanings always occur in
relation to other meanings (Danesi 2007, 26–27). Therefore, together with studying solely
individual signs, semiotic is also interested in the cooperation and interplay of signs. This
includes the signs’ relation to other signs and the formation of the signs’ collective mean-
ing. Paradigm and syntagm are two different sign groups that together describe the rela-
tion between signs and determine how signs are organized. (Mick 1986, 197; Fiske 2005,
Seppä 2012, 141).
Paradigm is a set of signs from which only one unit can be selected to reflect the whole
group. All signs in a shared paradigm have something in common, the hold features that
define them as members of a particular paradigm. At the same time, the units of the par-
adigm must be clearly distinguished from each other. (Fiske 1992, 81–82; Seppanen
2001, 181.) Thus, signs in the same paradigm have a distinct identity, but each character
must be distinguished from other characters in the same paradigm at both the signifier
42
and the signified level. (Seppa 2012, 141.) For example, in choosing clothes for a person
posing in a picture, a hat can be picked from the paradigm, of hats and a coat can be
chosen from the paradigm of outerwear (Seppänen 2001, 181).
Syntagm from its part is a message composed of different signs chosen from varying
paradigms. For example, a written word is a syntagm composed of letters, while a sen-
tence is a word-built syntagm. (Fiske 2005, 83.) An outfit is a syntagm consisting parts
of different garment paradigms, while inside the paradigm and individual piece of cloth-
ing may be replaced by another, as stated in the example of hats and coats. In every cul-
ture, a set of well-established customs and practices govern the syntagmatic compilation
and compatibility of signs. For instance, people might consider that an evening dress
should not be combined with running shoes. (Seppa 2012, 141–143.) The interrelatedness
of paradigm and syntagm is demonstrated in
Figure 7.
Figure 7 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes (adapted from Chandler 2007, 85)
A set of chosen signs from a paradigmatic axis shapes the meaning in the syntagmatic
level (Mick 1986, 197; Chandler 2007, 85). In language, vocabulary forms the paradigm
and sentence the syntagma (Fiske 2005, 81). From a consumer culture point of view, a
family picnic can be a syntagma of choices that is formed from the paradigms of food,
beverages, entertainment, apparel, participants and so forth (Mick 1986, 197).
It can be said that paradigmatic relations are contrastive (Chandler 2007, 85) as par-
adigmatic relations reveal oppositions and contrasts within a set of signs (Mick 1986,
the
a
an
old
tiny
happy
dodgy
fierce
man
boy
husband
father
fireman
cried
weeped
jumped
rejoiced
Para
dig
mati
c axi
s
Syntagmatic axis
43
197). Members of the paradigm are structurally replaceable with each other in a given
context, and simultaneously the choice of one sign will always exclude the choice of an-
other. Consequently, the selected signs and those that are left untouched are also paradig-
matic choices that carry meaning via the selection process. Syntagmatic relations on the
other hand are messages that reveal rules and conventions occurring in combining the
paradigcmatic choise. (Mick 1986, 197; Chandler 2007, 85.)
3.3 Storytelling
Earlier research has shown, that storytelling is a fundamental mean in conveying brand
authenticity (e.g. Holt 2004; Beverland 2005a & 2009; Napoli et al. 2014, 1091). Stories
are international, transhistorical and transcultural. They exist just like life itself. (Barthes
1977, 79.) They are ubiquitous and constantly used to outline, store and recall information
and to comprehend the surrounding world (Escalas 2004, Gargiulo 2006; Miller et el.
2008, Torkki 2014) Stories affect in multiple ways. They empower the storyteller and
connect people. With stories, it is possible point out differences in the world, create set-
tings and engage listeners. (Gragiulo 2006.)
People have an innate inclination towards building memories and experiences in the
mind in a form of a story. Stories can also help people in forming their identities. Thus,
if a person has an engram of a brand story, the brand in question can eventually become
a part of the person’s identity. When a consumer identifies with the brand, it will print
into the memory and the brand’s story will become a story of the consumer. (Escalas
2004.) Some brands are saturated with stories that consumers find essential in construct-
ing their identities and expressing themselves (Holt 2004, 3–4) or creating their authentic
self and reconnecting to place, time, culture and others (Napoli et al. 2014, 1090).
Gummerus et al. (2011; 2013) mention that compared to other marketing communication
strategies, people are more willing to receive advertising in a story form since it is seen as
less intrusive than other traditional ways. Simply put, storytelling and brand marketing are
both based in the same starting point – emotions and values.
Storytelling makes a brand unique. It is an effective way in conveying brands values
to consumers and supporting the core values in memorable ways. (Gummerus et al. 2013).
Beverland (2009, 7) states that brand authenticity can be achieved through rich, multi-
layered stories that feature brand heroes that stumble and triumph against unbearable
odds. These brand stories should be embellished with vivid characters, colorful inci-
dences and passion or immersed in tragedy and stupidity. Essentially, authentic brand
stories are comprised by conflict. As any good stories, brand stories require setting, a
place and a time. (Alexander 2009, 552).
44
Holt (2004, 3) argues that marketers usually see brands as s psychological phenome-
non that stems from individual consumers’ perceptions but forget that the collective na-
ture of the perceptions is the key to eventually making a brand powerful. The brands that
can transform their stories conventional and embed themselves into the everyday interac-
tions will be continually reinforced. Should a brand story be compelling enough, it might
attract media around it to listen and to tell it forward. When the story is told by media, it
is considered more trustworthy by consumers. (Fog et al. 2005, 196.) In general, authentic
brand stories share multiple authors, such as marketers, shareholders, consumers, and so-
ciety (Beverland 2009, 7).
As mentioned earlier, consumers interpret numerous cues to evaluate brand authentic-
ity. These cues can include both naturally occurring cues along with intentionally pro-
duced signs, as long as the cues are interpreted as authentic by consumer. Generally, these
cues can take any form, from text, images or videos or other interactions with a brand,
and as a consequence either an authentic or inauthentic experience is formed.
A story can be told in many ways, either through visual or verbal means. Yet still, the
story would not be the same in case both systems are harnessed to work in conjunction.
To some extent, text functions as an anchor to the image and similarly, illustrations can
be used as anchors for text by reducing the signifieds. Together, verbal and visual cues
provide a relay function by interweaving and complementing each other, eventually gen-
erating meaning simultaneously. This relationship constitutes a narrative, or a mental con-
struct on receiver’s mind. (Golden & Gerber 1990, 207–208). Text can also be used to
identify the visual elements, as a denotative description of the image or guiding the sig-
nification process. Moreover, verbal and visual cues are always fragments of a larger
syntagma, which enables the reader to choose some and ignore others. (Barthes 1977,
38–39, 41.)
3.3.1 Metaphor
Brands depend heavily on metaphors to communicate and to stimulate people’s imagina-
tion (Holt 2004, 3). Metaphor is a figure of speech, a way to understand or experience
one thing through something else (Seppänen 2002, 185–186) or a way to express some-
thing unfamiliar through something well-known (Fiske 2002, 122; Oswald 2012, 59–60).
A metaphor is always distinguished from its literal meaning and is merely a figurative
expression (Seppänen 2002, 185–186).
Metaphor includes two parts, the primary and the secondary subject. (Seppänen 2002,
168). The well-known subject is usually called theme and the new or unfamiliar a rheme.
It is typical for metaphors to apply both similarities and differences simultaneously. It can
be argued that it works in a paradigmatic way, as the theme and the rheme must have
45
sufficient resemblance in order to place them in the same paradigm, but at the same time
they must have sufficient disparity. Both theme and rheme are thus parts of the same
paradigm that can be only distinguished to different units. The characteristics of a theme
will be transferred to the rheme by using a metaphor with associating their similar fea-
tures. (Fiske 2002, 122–123.) While interpreting a metaphor, it is always crucial to be
aware of the context. Metaphors are usually such a self-evident component of language
and thinking, that they are commonly disregarded (Seppänen 2002, 185, 187) or brushed
aside. An idea can be hammered into someone’s head or a person can be as awkward as
a fish out of water.
Metaphors contribute directly to the dimensions of brand meaning. They can com-
municate more than mere literal concepts and thus have an advantage over literal state-
ments. They broaden the semantic field of an idea and communicate visceral and visual
associations exceed mere facts as such. The rhetorical dimension of discourse has im-
portant implications for growing brand equity. Rhetoric cherishes the visceral connec-
tions between brands’ and consumers by expanding brands’ emotional dimensions and
semiotic value. (Oswald 2012, 34.)
3.3.2 Metonymy
Metonymy is sometimes considered as a type of metaphor, but these two types can be
distinguished from each other by their purpose of use. Whereas metaphor is based upon
two things analogous similarity, metonymy works by the contiguity or associations be-
tween two concepts. When metaphor works by transferring features from one subject to
another in different paradigmatic levels, metonymy works by associating meanings in the
same level. In using a metonymy, a section is emphasized to represent an entity. (Fiske
2002, 127; Seppänen 2002, 191.) For example, it is metonymic to talk about a crown
instead of royalty or refer to a pen instead of writing. (Fiske 2002, 127.)
Metonymies are effective tools in conveying reality, as they work in the same manner
as indexes. They are only a part of what they represent. Still, they can be distinguished
from naturally occurring indexes, such as the example of smoke and fire, because their
selection rests mainly upon discretion. This arbitrariness of metonymies is usually well
veiled or unheeded, which can cause them to be seen as indexes. In this case, the reality
that is formed with metonymy will be considered as a truth, and it will not be questioned,
even though it should be. (Fiske 2002, 128.)
On the other hand, a chosen metonymy often determinates which meanings are con-
veyed. For example, a photograph is usually seen as a metonymic sign, because it always
represents a smaller part of a larger entity. (Seppä 2012, 191.) It is essential to note what
kind of metonymy is chosen, because by interpreting the metonymy, the inspector forms
46
an idea of the reality that is left unsaid or restricted from the big picture. The chosen
metonymy designates what kind of an image will be built upon it. (Fiske 2002, 127.)
47
4 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introducing mezcal
Mezcal is a distilled alcoholic beverage produced from fermented agave juice (García
Mendoza 2010, 11; Valenzuela Zapata & Gaytán 2012, 1). Mezcal forms a part of Mexi-
can culture and has deeply entwined roots in the country’s history (García Mendoza 2010,
11). According to a recent archaeological investigation, the distillation of agave into an
alcoholic beverage was known in Mesoamerican cultures for at least 25 centuries ago,
and contrary to former beliefs, predating the arrival of Spanish conquerors (Goguitchaich-
vili et al. 2018). The history of mezcal is full of legends, flavors, and folklore, which is
why it offers a unique setting for the study of brand authenticity.
The word mezcal itself originates from an indigenous Aztec language Nahuatl, con-
sisting of words metl, agave and ixcalli, cooked or baked (García Mendoza 2010, 11;
Bowen 2015, 2). In its original meaning mezcal referred to the food obtained cooking the
stem of the agave plant which used to be the main livelihood in diverse pre-Hispanic
cultures (García Mendoza 2010, 11). Eventually, the cooking of agave lead to the discov-
ery of the distillation process, and the meaning of mezcal changed to refer distilled agave
spirits in general (Bowen 2015, 2–3).
Mexico is the country of agave, also known as maguey. These succulents have played
a key role throughout Mexico’s history (Illsley Granich 2010, 29). They have originated,
evolved and put into use by humans as food, fiber and prime material for building houses
for more than 8000 years. All the Mexicans are more than familiar with maguey plants;
it is common to see them as ornate plants in parks, gardens, avenues or installed in pots
outside houses. Outside the cities, they can be spotted alongside the roads, living undis-
turbed in highlands or grown in orchards surrounding villages. (García Mendoza 2010,
8.) Legends, myth and stories related to agave and mezcal are an essential part of Mexican
culture. (Illsley Granich 2010, 19.)
At least 40 different types of maguey species are used in the mezcal production, either
as single species varieties or combinations, resulting a distinctive blend to each region.
Most maguey species have limited distribution and are found in only one state. The most
widely used agave is espadín which is found throughout Mexico. (García Mendoza 2010,
11) It is notable that Mexico is essentially an arid country, and given the water crisis and
climate change, it is worth reconsidering the value of maguey’s capacity to adapt to con-
ditions of low precipitation and environmental stress. In many communities, maguey and
mezcal are the most important source of family income. Some mezcal producers are be-
ginning to look for new schemes that combine the conservation of native magueys, in-
cluding their sustainable management and trade. (Illsley Granich 2010, 25, 29–30.)
48
Mezcal is still prepared for ritual purposes. For instance, it can be used to propitiate
rains during the hottest seasons as it symbolizes fertility, return of the rains and the annual
renewal of life. (Coyle 2010, 38, 41.) In some parts of Mexico, mezcal is still commonly
used for medicinal purposes to alleviate the body or to cure the soul. It is frequently used
for headaches, flu, stomach pains or throat infections, and more rarely on post-partum
pains, depression or even jinxes. (Ángeles Carreño 2010, 60.) It is also used in a variety
of celebrations such as baptisms, weddings or funerals (Ruy Sánchez 2010, 47). The tra-
ditions and know-how transmitted and accumulated through generations make mezcal a
resource that arouses the feelings of identity and community by symbolizing the experi-
ence the culture has lived throughout its history (López Rosas & Espinosa Ortega 2018,
1634).
The production practices of mezcal vary considerably. Most mezcal producers roast
the agave piñas, pines, in pits in the ground that are covered with layers of dirt, stone, and
fiber mats. This process takes several days and produces the characteristic smoky flavor
of mezcal. Some mezcaleros cut or pound the piñas by hand in hollowed-out logs or on
wooden pallets; others use a stone mill, tahona, pulled by an animal or powered by an
engine. Some producers ferment their mezcal in pits dug directly into the ground, while
others use more modern methods, such as wooden, plastic, or cement vats or even animal
hides. Even though adding yeasts or other fermenting agents would speed up the process,
most producers do not add anything during fermentation to produce natural mezcal. The
length of fermentation varies according to the type of agave, the altitude of the distillery,
the microclimate in the region, and the time of the year; depending on the conditions,
fermentation can take a month. (Bowen 2015, 59–61.)
Bowen also notes (2015, 127) that the type of agave and the practices used to make
mezcal still vary from region to region. Every decision, the variety of agave, cooking and
mashing method, ingredients that are added (or not added) during fermentation, type of
still, and water source, influences the taste of mezcal, producing mezcals that are both
complex and diverse. The diversity of mezcal is its most essential characteristic. (Bowen
2015, 56–57.) Modern, well-equipped distilleries co-exist with the more modest, artisanal
palenques, the outlets of master mezcal distilleries (Ruy Sánchez 2010, 47). Whereas the
smallest distilleries produce below ten thousand liters of mezcal annually and operate
only some part of the year, on the other end of the spectrum, an increasing number of
industrial distilleries has commenced the mass production of mezcal. These distilleries
operate at a huge scale with production capacities reaching 4.5 million liters per year.
Instead of roasting the agave in the ground, industrial distilleries they cook the agave in
masonry ovens or autoclaves. More commonly, they also add yeasts during fermentation
and use column stills for distillation. Adding artificial ingredients to regulate the colors
and flavors of the batches is likewise generalizing. (Bowen 2015, 59–61.)
49
In the early 1990s, the Mexican government took unprecedented steps to standardize
mezcal production and take control over the thousands of producers (Bowen 2015, 127).
Consequently in 1995, mezcal was granted the Appellation of Origin status from the
World Intellectual Property Organization, with mezcal only being allowed to be produced
and bottled in specific regions in Mexico. Other famous appellations of origin include,
among others, Champagne, Prosciutto di Parma, Roquefort Cheese, Cuba cigars and Te-
quila, also an agave distilled beverage from Mexico. (Trejo-Pech et al. 2010, 117, 122 &
127.)
Regardless the efforts by Mexican government, building the reputation of mezcal as a
quality liquor has faced difficulties in the past such as black market for the sale, adulter-
ation of the product and forgery of bottles, labels and trademarks. The adulteration of
mezcal left the reputation of this product tremendously damaged. (Tjero-Pech et al. 2010,
126.) During the Viceroyalty of New Spain, mezcal was prohibited due to its connection
with pagan festivities and opposition to Spanish imports of brandy and wine industries.
As a result, until recent decades mezcal has maintained a stigma of illegal origin and has
been confined merely to the countryside for centuries. (Rasero 2010, 65.) In the past dec-
ades, mezcal was considered a poor-quality beverage or commonly adulterated cheap
hooch but it is currently rising and becoming widely considered as an exclusive product
with rapidly growing demand and consumption levels. (López Rosas & Espinosa Ortega
2018, 1645.) Currently, distilled agave spirits are globally one of the fastest-growing liq-
uor categories. (Bowen 2015, 27.)
The standardization, industrialization and globalization of mezcal has not come with-
out downsides. A segment of consumers fears that mezcal will become a commodified
and alienated product that cannot be compared to its original form. To prevent the alien-
ation, some consumer and producer groups have started to form a social resistance to
uphold the cultural significance by sharing information in social networks and establish-
ing artisan mezcal bars, mezcalerías (López Rosas & Espinosa Ortega 2018, 1645). Since
the production mezcal serves a relevant role in maintaining the basic standard of living
for many people, marketing strategies of these crafted products could have an impact on
the welfare of entire communities (Domínguez Hernández & Hernández Girón 1996). In
many communities, maguey and mezcal are the most critical source of family income
(Illsley Granich 2010, 25), especially in the most impoverished areas of Mexico (Trejo-
Pech et al. 2010, 134).
4.2 Qualitative research
Academic research methods are broadly divided into two main branches, quantitative and
qualitative research. For quantitative research the main aim is to quantify different types
50
of research problems by generating numerical data or transforming data into usable sta-
tistics, whereas qualitative research is an exploratory way to gain understanding on new
topics and provide insight for potential quantitative research. Both quantitative and qual-
itative research are umbrella terms for a wide variety of approaches and methods. (Tuomi
& Sarajärvi 2009; Saldaña 2011, 3–4.)
The purpose of this study is to describe how brand authenticity can be mediated
through brand communication. Having in consideration the inherent experimental nature
of brand authenticity and the research topic, qualitative perspective was a natural choice
for this study. This approach was seen suitable, as the research emphasis is to form in-
depth understanding on the relatively unknown phenomena. Qualitative research is most
applicable in studies where the explanation and understanding of the phenomena and its
influencers are essential and more noteworthy than specific measurements. (Carson et al.
2001, 77.)
Qualitative research is suitable for indicating exploratory questions such as how and
why. Qualitative research methods can be used to obtain comprehensive understanding
of the subject and describe how and why things occur (Carson et al. 2001, 77). Moreover,
qualitative research is usually not restricted solely to shedding light for scientific pur-
poses. On the contrary, oftentimes the intention is to revise the issue under study or to
produce practically relevant knowledge for practical problems. (Flick 2007.) The results
of qualitative research are commonly drawn from the salient findings of the data and
generally they contain documentation of cultural observations, perceptions and compre-
hensions about the individual and social complexity. (Saldaña 2011, 4.)
For qualitative research, it is common to adopt a postmodern research perspective that
suggest that there is no absolute truth, as a contrary to positivism. As truth depends on
context and multiple perspectives, it is suggested that various truths may occur simulta-
neously. Thus, knowledge is constructed individually in the perceivers mind, instead of
it existing outside of oneself already, waiting to be discovered. The goal of qualitative
research is to gather insights and understanding about social life rather than predicting
and controlling it. (Saldaña 2011, 23.)
The operationalization of the study (Table 3) demonstrates the interrelatedness of the
purpose of the study, the sub-questions, theoretical frame and the chosen research meth-
ods. The purpose and the sub-questions are approached by combining both theoretical
knowledge and observations from empirical research.
51
Table 3 Operationalization of the study
Purpose of the study
Sub-questions
Theoretical concept
Indicators
Describe how brand
authenticity can be
mediated through
brand communication
What are the strategical
level requirements for
brand authenticity?
Brand authenticity
Chapter 2.1
Chapter 2.2
Literature review
What cues implicate
brand authenticity?
Brand authenticity
Chapter 2.3
Literature review
What signs convey
brand authenticity?
Brand authenticity
Chapter 2.3
Semiotics
Chapter 3.2
Chapter 3.3.
Data collection
Content analysis
Poetic inquiry
How the different signs
of authenticity can be
interpreted?
Semiotics
Chapter 3
Data analysis
Content analysis
Poetic inquiry
The table specifies which part of the study answers to each question. Simultaneously,
the relationship between the chosen research methods and sub-questions are demon-
strated. Since the earlier research focuses on brand authenticity from the strategic level,
the answers to the first questions are answered mainly through the literature review. The
analysis of the data is thus divided in two parts, semiotic content analysis and poetic in-
quiry, that support each other and the understanding of brand authenticity communica-
tion. This study focuses on both written and visual brand authenticity cues and therefore
it is important to analyze both parties in conjunction.
4.2.1 Mixed methods
As the data comprises both visual and written material, this study was conducted in mul-
tiple phases, including data collection, semiotic content analysis and poetic inquiry. This
research method is generally called mixed method. A mixed method study means mixing
different research methods within in single study (Johnson et al. 2007, 123) to deepen the
understanding on the research topic (Hurmerinta-Peltomäki & Nummela 2006, 165–166).
In mixed method research, it is common to mix either qualitative and quantitative
methods or alternatively do the mixing within the research paradigm, such as mixing two
quantitative research methods (Hurmerinta-Peltomäki & Nummela 2006, 162; Johnson et
52
al. 2007, 118–122). This study was conducted by mixing two qualitative research meth-
ods, semiotic content analysis and poetic inquiry.
Mixed methods offer multiple opportunities to researchers (Ihantola & Kihn 2011, 3).
The aim of applying mixed methods is commonly the validation of the research results,
complementing other methods and the research process, inspire the study with varying
point of views or more diverse answer to the research questions and give more tool to
interpreting the results (Hurmerinta-Peltomäki & Nummela 2006, 167; Johnson et al
2007, 122–123), However, the selection of a single research method or a combination of
methods should always be premised on their theoretical relevance and fit with the research
topic and data (Hurmerinta-Peltomäki & Nummela 2006, 162).
While choosing a mixed method research, the elementary questions that should be
taken into account while planning the research are the role of the methods, order of the
method and the purpose of the study. Depending on the research, the methods can be
either parraller or sequential, one method can be dominant, or the methods can be equally
emphasized, and the methods should always serve for a predetermined research purpose.
(Hurmerinta-Peltomäki & Nummela 2006, 165–166; Ihantola & Kihn 2011, 3) In this
study, semiotic content analysis was used in interpreting the visual signs while poetic
inquiry emphasizes the textual data. In the following, the data analysis process and meth-
odology are presented more specifically.
4.2.2 Data collection
As mentioned earlier, qualitative research can be conducted in multiple ways. Either way,
each approach require data which can be in form of existing documents, interview tran-
scriptions, focus groups or other interactions. The data collected and analyzed in qualita-
tive research is commonly nonquantitative in character. (Tuomi & Sarajärvi 2009; Sal-
daña 2011, 3–4.) The use and analysis of pre-existing secondary data is similarly com-
mon in qualitative research. Secondary data is originally produced for another purpose;
however, it can be applied to other types of examinations to reveal unforeseen insight
from afresh angle. (Eskola & Suonranta 1998, 118.) One way to conduct a content anal-
ysis is to have a sole focus on previously existing material, for instance by exploring a
collection of internet sites. (Flick 2007; Saldaña 2011, 57.) If carefully studied and inter-
preted, website can reveal more than it contains at first glance (Saldaña 2011, 54–55).
For the study, a set of mezcal brands’ websites were chosen as the data source. The
websites provide extensive quantity of information about the brands and are focused on
communicating directly to consumers and other shareholders. People form impressions
of a brand solely based on websites (Shen et al. 2016) and they are considered as a key
platform for online communication (García García et al. 2017, 140). Websites are a fast
53
channel for finding and offering both in-depth and quick information about a company
and they have become an indispensable instrument for companies, as consumers expect
to find a place where they are able to find an abundance of information about a business.
(Belch & Belch 2015, 500, 523.) In addition, websites are globally accessible (Rowley
2004, 134) and offer information in different types, such as texts, videos and pictures.
In total of 49 mezcal brands (Appendix 1) were chosen by combining Mexican liquor
store Prissa’s product range (Prissa 2019) and the participants of a mezcal tasting event
Mexico in a Bottle hosted in San Diego 2018 (Mexico in a Bottle 2019). This selection
assured that both nationally sold and exported products would be included in the research
and guarantee a more variable material. Only the mezcal brands with an official website
were chosen for the study, and for instance brands with solely a social media account
were excluded.
Both visual and verbal authenticity cues from the mezcal brands were collected with a
pre-structured table as demonstrated in Appendix 2. In this part of the study, the data was
merely collected and no emphasis on the analysis was made. In this study, the empirical
data consist of purely secondary data, since the materials are collected from already ex-
isting websites including texts, videos and images. Brand values and messages are com-
municated through several elements of the web site, including logo, graphics, text, copy,
color, shapes and layout (Rowley 2004, 135–136), hence all the noteworthy elements that
comprises elements of authenticity were included in the data collection. As stated in prior
human-computer interaction research, in order to effectively communicate in websites the
design should go further than usability and focus on emotional, affective and aesthetic
aspects of the viewers (Zhang et al. 2009). As the purpose of this study was to identify
the visual and written cues that convey the feeling of authenticity, cues that diminished
the experience were not collected or analyzed.
4.2.3 Semiotic content analysis
Content analysis is the systematic examination of data to analyze its apparent and latent
meanings. Apparent meanings are the ones that are easily spotted from the surface of the
data, for instance describing a photograph in written form stating that in the picture there
is a man in a black leather jacket standing by a window. Latent meanings are more sug-
gestive and filled with connotative and subtextual information. For example, the black
leather jacket in a picture can symbolize a membership of motorcycle culture or hyper-
masculinity. (Saldaña 2011, 10.) Content analysis is based on observation, where conclu-
sions are made from all types of symbolical content and communications (Kolbe & Bur-
net 1991, 243; Krippendorf 2004, 18).
54
Kolbe and Burnet (1991, 244) assert that content analysis offers multiple benefits for
research, such as allowing an unobtrusive assessment of communications and facilitating
an empirical threshold for engendering original research evidence about the nature and
outcome of specific communications. Additionally, they stress that there are weaknesses
in the method. For instance, content analysis is relatively vulnerable to researcher biases
which might influence verdicts made during the data collection, analysis, and interpreta-
tion. The existence of researcher biases may affect a study's conclusions and contribu-
tions.
In qualitative content analysis, prior literature can used to contextualize and reshape
data, while simultaneously allowing the research answers to arise in the involvement with
the data from the perception of presumed context. Emerging interpretations and answers
are supported by incorporating examples from the data and literature about the context
into the deductions, and by constructing correspondence or comparison. (Krippendorf
2004, 87–88).
Tuomi and Sarajärvi (2009, 97–99, 110–116) present that a qualitative content analysis
can be either data or theory driven, or the analysis can be performed completely on a basis
of a theoretical framework. A data driven content analysis is inductive study by nature,
whereas a theory-oriented is more deductive. In a data-based content analysis the data is
first examined and simplified as an entity, and subsequently formed into categories or
subcategories, lastly creating theoretical concepts that can be seen emerging from the
material. Commonly, in a content analysis guided by a theoretical framework, a defined
framework formed from the pre-existing theory is presented before the analysis of the
data to define the set of concepts or a specific theory of what is already known about the
subject. The structure, or the framework for the analysis, can be formed strictly or loosely,
giving more space for emerging ideas outside the current theory. This study is conducted
with an existing theoretical framework on brand authenticity, as the pre-existing brand
authenticity cues are harnessed for categorization criteria in the data analysis and the the-
ory acts as guidance and affirmation for the interpretations extracted from the data.
The first stage of analyzing data is to ensure that all appropriate data has been col-
lected. This entails the tracking down of patterns and consistencies. (Carson et al. 2001,
182.) In qualitative research, it is common that the data analysis of the data occurs simul-
taneously to the data collection phase as the data is received. (Hirsjärvi & Hurme 2008,
135.)
A collection of mezcal brands websites were systematically explored with framework
sheet based on the pre-existing theory on brand authenticity (Appedix 2). In this phase,
the content of the data collected from secondary internet sources were analyzed through
performing a semiotic analysis and categorization based on the theoretical framework. In
research literature, the the total body of data collected is frequently called corpus, which
suggests that the gathered ensemble of data is not solely a massive assortment of
55
information but rather a living entity to analyze (Saldaña 2011, 26). Categorizing is a
prominent analyzing method that can be applied to all sorts of data. The main activities
in categorizing are distinguishing the relevant parts of the data corpus and comparing,
naming and classifying the parts. Through this process, a structure is developed in the
data, rearranging it towards a comprehensive understanding of the issue, the field, and
finally the purpose of the study. Data collection and analysis are usually interlinked to
profit further insights from the process. (Flick 2007.)
The authenticity cues found in the web sites were organized under different categories
by utilizing the academic framework grounded in the brand authenticity. Content and
semiotic analysis typically consists of correlating the physical form of symbols to what
they stand for (Danesi 2006, 25–33) as besides the structural analysis of signs, semiotics
can be used to identify how brand meanings are embedded the data in the forms of cultural
myths, social organizations, and beliefs of the target market (Oswald 2012, 50). In this
study, the previous research of semiotics was applied to analyse denotations and conno-
tations as well as different types of signs that occurred in the websites. The connections
of the signs to the Mexican culture were made to better understand the underlying levels
of authenticity and cultural references.
4.2.4 Poetic inquiry
In addition to the semiotic analysis, a poetic inquiry was performed to form and reveal
hidden authenticity cues from verbal messages and conjunction of visual cues appearing
in the brands websites. Poetic inquiry is a form of documenting analytic findings is to
strategically truncate relevant data into poetic structures (Saldaña 2011, 128). Underlying
reason for the usage of poetic inquiry is that it can interact through language in ways that
are not commonly accepted in more traditional qualitative research methods (Vincent
2018, 50). Poetic Inquiry appears across multitude of fields, recurrently in health care,
anthropology, sociology and education, and there has been successful applications in ad-
vertising as well. (Vincent 2018, 54.)
The mode of poetry, the act of writing poems or analyzing through poems, is repre-
sented in the literature to expand perspectives on human experience (Vincent 2018, 51).
Poetic inquiry can provide imagery, symbols, and metaphors for rich category, theme,
concept, and assertion development from the collected data (Saldaña 2011, 128). Poetic
Inquiry promotes criticality, can make explicit the position or reflexivity of the researcher,
and allows for different perspectives to be considered through the artistic medium of po-
etry (Vincent 2018, 50). Poetic interpretation enables additional levers for scrutinizing
and interpreting the data and resonating past the plain narrative lens. Employment of
56
poetic inquiry extends the self-understanding of the researcher and serves as an enhancer
for the readers experience. (Downey 2016, 359.)
Poetic inquiry takes note of what words and phrases seem to stand out from the data
corpus as rich material for reinterpretation (Saldaña 2011, 129). These phrases can then
be grouped to clusters that are helpful in conveying the empirical individual interpreta-
tions, and clarifying how the researcher understand the theme, topic, or concept in the
limited time, place, context and stance during the research. (Butler-Kisber & Stewart
2009, 4) Poetic constructions capture the essence and essentials of data corpus in a crea-
tive, evocative way. The elegance of the format attests to the power of carefully chosen
language to represent and convey complex human experience. (Saldaña 2011, 128.)
In this study, the poetic inquiry was included in the data analysis. The collected data
was carefully examined, the emerging themes of brand authenticity were categorized by
using the existing academic research (Appendix 2) and formed into poetic representations
alongside the visual cues. Through the collected poems, it was possible to demonstrate
the arising insights from the data. Generally, creating sequences or poem cluster around
a certain theme is considered as a powerful way of projecting a cohort of subtle nuances
while simultaneously constructing a more overall view about a topic (Butler-Kisber &
Stewart 2009, 4).
It is representative to qualitative research to analyze the research data in its unpro-
cessed form, such as in raw text, rather than converted to another form before analyzing
it. (Hirsjärvi & Hurme 2008, 135-136.) In the case of brand authenticity cues, it became
necessary to rearrange the data to make it possible to interpret the web sites effectively
and precisely in the cultural context. Therefore, it is worth mentioning that the sections
of texts used in the analysis were not altered from their original form, except the texts
available in Spanish were translated to English. Furthermore, it is also characteristic for
poetic inquiry to draw insights from the researcher’s engagement with the material to
create an emotional link and to enhance the additional interaction level that is experienced
while working with the data. (Downey 2016, 360.)
57
4.3 Reliability and validity of the study
Reliability and validity are commonly used indicators in assessing the quality of research.
They are usually associated with quantitative research but are similarly applicable to the
evaluation of qualitative research as well. (Hirsjärvi et al. 2004, 216.) Qualitative re-
search entails several different traditions, which is why it is apparent that also different
perceptions regarding the reliability and validity exist. In all research the aim is to prevent
mistakes occurring, therefore the reliability and validitity of a given research must be
assessed. (Tuomi & Sarajärvi 2009, 131.)
Validity of the study indicates weather the sub-questions and the research methodol-
ogy are applicable to answering the phenomena under inspection. In order to be consid-
ered valid, the applicable research approach should be the chosen to answer the essence
of the phenomenon. (Eskola & Suoranta 1998, 214; Koskinen et al. 2005, 254.) Hence,
the functionality of the research methods is an essential component in the validity of the
research as it can be assessed weather the research method in question were able answer
to the original research purpose. (Hirsjärvi et al. 2004, 216–217.)
Generally, the validity of the study can be examined from two perspectives, internally
and externally. Internal validity observes the researcher’s demonstrated comprehension
on the research phenomena, framework and material, whereas external validity takes into
account the possibilities of generalization of the interpretations and conclusions occurring
from the research. Research is considered valid, when the interpretations, both internal
and external, are not contradictive. (Eskola & Suoranta 1998, 214; Koskinen et al. 2005,
254)
Carson et al. (2001, 79) points out that significant validity factor in qualitative research
transparency, which should be demonstrated throughout the research with precise and
clear evidence. Transparency is expected furthermost in the interpretation phase of find-
ings, as clear descriptions and explanations are required to demonstrate why and how a
given interpretation is processed. Linking the interpretation to prior theory and describing
the process of interpretation should be taken into account to strengthen the validity of
transparency. Hirsjärvi et al. (2004, 217) add that the assessment of validity in qualitative
research is less unambiguous compared to quantitative research, as the qualitative re-
search is commonly more unique and context related. Consequently, it is important that
the validity is evaluated by justifying the choices made in the research throughout the
process. For instance, the data collection and analysis methods should be described as
precisely as possible as well as clarifying how the chosen methods yield the results that
are relevant in correspond to the sub-question.
Reliability is used to assess the repeatability of research findings. It is often discussed
in the assessment of the research results, such as the trustworthiness of the findings and
the transferability of the study. Generally, it can be stated that study is reliable, if
58
consistent findings could be achieved repeating the research by someone else (Hirsjärvi
et al. 2004, 216–217.) Trustworthiness in qualitative research is often discussed by the
means of credibility, dependability and conformability. These dimensions can improve
the trustworthiness of empirical findings through careful evaluation and application of
prior theory at various stages of the study. (Carson et al. 2001, 77.) In most qualitative
researches, an emerging struggle is the analyzers influence on the data collection and
analysis, thus affecting the findings. Even though qualitative research is commonly con-
sidered as subjective, there are conducts to diminish the interpreter’s influence. Never-
theless, the subjective traits are not solely negative or do not always affect the quality of
the research undesirably as it is one of qualitative research’s core features. (Hirsjärvi &
Hurme 2008, 35.)
In this study, qualitative research was conducted to gain new information on a new
phenomenon. Content analysis through semiotics and poetic inquiry were chosen to bring
out the answer to the purpose of the study. Because of the experimental nature and the
viewers perspective and the assessment of authenticity are core characteristic in the con-
text of brand authenticity, it is noteworthy that it is close to impossible guarantee the
generalization of the research findings, as all experiences, including the assessment of
authenticity are unique. Authenticity can be conveyed through multiple different path-
ways and it is always interrelated with the spectators personal and cultural background.
As this study was conducted from one researcher point of view, the validity and reliability
of this study could have been improved with conducting the analysis with a partner or a
focus group. Nevertheless, it was prerequisite for future studies to identify the mediators
of authenticity objectively through the academic framework.
59
5 RESEARCH FINDINGS
5.1 Mezcal brands’ authenticity signs
The researched mezcal brands’ websites are riddled with brand authenticity signs. Some
signs are easily associated to the corresponding authenticity cues, while others need more
deeper analysis to form an association. Furthermore, no sign by itself creates brand au-
thenticity but a combination of different cues forms the overall brand authenticity expe-
rience, thus the categorization is merely suggestive. Overview of the signs are collected
and categorized in the corresponding brand authenticity cues in Table 4.
Table 4 Authenticity signs of mezcal brands
Brand authenticity cue Visual and written signs appearing in mezcal brands’ website
Downplaying commer-
cial motives
Local kids, families, pure water, people working with a happy face, nature,
supporting human rights, opposing Donald Trump, Protecting the environ-ment, giving back to the society, emphasizing intrinsic motives, meaning of
mezcal to the local pueblos, stories of families and communities about the
importance of mezcal to their families and communities, being described as
a project
Craftsmanship
Dirty palms, tahona, machete, smoke, wood, fresh water, sun, horse, mule,
earth dug pit, agave, travelling long distances to hunt agaves, generations,
facts sheets on how to recognize quality, detailed information of the produc-
tion process, handwritten etiquettes, numbering of bottles and batches, pic-
tures and videos of the production method, handmade bottles, stories of the
maestro mezcaleros, stories of ancient working methods, hunting for the best
ingredients, harvesting methods
Heritage & History
Agave, Day of the dead decorations, cempasuchil flowers, traditional shirts,
sombreros, aprons and dresses, Acapulco chairs, colorful houses, Miguel Hi-
dalgo, Emiliano Zapata, Virgen de Guadalupe, local handicrafts such as alebrijes and textiles, traditional mezcal cups, papel picado, local villages,
pre-Hispanic symbols, maps, village name signs, aerial view of the villages,
generations, family recipes, Mexican cuisine, Catholic symbols such as an-
gels, crosses and virgins, history of mezcal, myths and legends about mezcal
and agave, history of mezcal and agave, relating to pre-Hispanic gods, refer-
ences to heaven and hell, historical events
Artistry
Crafts, art by local artist in bottles and websites, murals, considering mezcal
as an artform, playlists, art exhibitions
Lifestyle Tattoos, beard, parties, artists, rock music, guitars, leather jacker, ripped
jeans, speakeasy, skulls. Balck, and white with bright accent colors.
Camera, travel clothing, travel tips, bright colors.
Traditional clothing, family values, families, villages, houses, dining tables,
gatherings.
From the table, it is evident that the authenticity experience is formed in the interplay
between the signs. In the following subchapter, examples of these signs are analyzed in
more detail. The findings are also paired with examples of textual authenticity assertions
to demonstrate the cohesion of the communication methods.
60
5.2 Mediating non-commercial motives
Downplaying commercial motives arises in multiple ways in mezcal brands websites. An
initial observation that emerged is that the non-commercial motives were clearly and ex-
plicitly stated in written or verbal form, and merely supported in the imagery. Without
the textual affirmations, the motivations would have been less visible. Textual affirma-
tions of the non-commercial motives that often emerged from the websites are collected
in Table 5.
Table 5 Poetic inquiry on motives behind the brands
It started as a simple project
Cinco sentidos
a project with social impact Alipus
It caused a vibration
reached a sacred place in our hearts
Los Danzantes
Los Danzantes
Realizing that mezcal was not known nor valued Amores
It was our duty to share that experience Los Danzantes
The passion and devotion to the roots of Mexico
Make it known all over the world
Amores Amores
Developing a two-way connection
That goes beyond a simple transaction
Lalocura Lalocura
We are part of nature
The wood, the agave, the water
Mezcal Koch
Mezcal Koch
To preserve the fauna and the flora Verde Momento
We respect the earth
It is she who gives us the kindness
Los Danzantes Los Danzantes
We try in some way to give back
all those things she has given to us
Mezcal Koch Mezcal Koch
To support our friends Cinco sentidos
We sow with small producers to distribute the wealth Verde Momento
To promote and develop the traditional producers Alipus
Learn from people who have elaborated mezcal during generations Los Danzantes
Talents and traditions of the amazing people
with rigor and esteem
Cinco sentidos Cinco sentidos
That was our journey
a long way of great perseverance
Los Danzantes Los Danzantes
A project made with love Amores
The narrative arising from the poetic inquiry emphasizes the motives, values and in-
tegrity of the companies. Various mezcal brands, such as Cinco Sentidos, Alipus and
Amores, describe their company as a project, diminishing the commerciality of the busi-
ness and emphasizing the feeling of a bigger mission and intrinsic motivation behind the
operations. By offering nobility and humbleness, brands can appeal to consumers feelings
and engage them into expressing their own aspirations through consuming the brands.
61
The main goal is not set in money or economic growth, but rather in supporting the local
communities by committing themselves in a type of a missionary work. The motivation
is stated to rise from something else than money, commonly from in intrinsic motives
such as duty, devotion, love or passion. Commonly, respect towards the main raw mate-
rial and the workers is emphasized.
Another factor is that the brands state to be beneficent – it is commonly emphasized
that behind every transaction there is always something bigger such as development of
the community or protecting the nature. In a way, downplaying commercial motives
works as an amplifier for brands purpose. It can be used to communicate brands purpose
in a concrete way – say that brands defined purpose is fairness, it can be shown through
different actions reported in the page.
Since agaves are the core of mezcal production, most of the companies have included
sustainability in their strategies in order to preserve continuity of the endemic succulent
by choosing environmentally responsible production methods as seen in Image 6.
Image 6 Sustainability of Mezcal Nacional
Mezcal Nacional’s written sustainability statement is illustrated with drawn agave
plants. Without reading the full text, the viewer can quickly connect the word sustaina-
bility with the drawings of agave plants, thus the brand can deliver meaning effectively.
In addition to the environmental sustainability, the companies’ values to the local com-
munity is demonstrated with pictures of blissful community members, as seen in Image
7.
62
Image 7 Wahaka Mezcal demonstrates content community members
For example, the imagery of Wahaka Mezcal includes photography of the local towns-
people presented next to a word mezcal, implying that mezcal induces happiness and ben-
efit among the people. As Wahaka, the name of the brand, is the phonetic pronunciation
of the state Oaxaca, it draws a picture of the brand being fully committed to the wellbeing
of its community. These actions might include distributing the wealth or helping our
friends, as Cinco Sentidos and Verde Momento state in their websites.
In conclusion, the downplaying of commercial motives of mezcal brands is observably
rotating around the themes of mission, values, intrinsic motives, emphasizing the benefi-
ciaries and the project nature of the brand (Figure 8).
Figure 8 Signaling downplaying the commercial motives
All these themes can arouse simultaneously in one brand but emphasizing on one or
couple of the aspects was more common in the case of mezcal brands. As mentioned
Downplaying commercial
motives
Mission
Intrinsic motives
ValuesProject
instead of business
Emphasize the
beneficiary
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earlier, these themes are most visible in verbal form in text or videos, but they are fre-
quently backed up with visual signs, such as pictures content people, nature, animals. In
general, mezcal brands were quite straightforward in bolstering the non-commerciality.
5.3 Mediating craftsmanship
5.3.1 Production methods
Production methods are clearly visible in the brands websites, as demonstrated in Table
6. None of the brands examined for this study showed an industrial production method.
On the contrary, clear majority of the brands emphasized the traditional craftsmanship,
that has been passing on from generation to generation.
Table 6 Poetic inquiry: craftsmanship
A gift that comes from the soul of our land Alipus Ingredients: Oaxacan sun, agave, time Ilegal
No two productions can ever be exactly the same NETA mezcal
On the steep precarious hillsides Bozal
varieties of agave Bozal
indigenous to the region Bozal
grow wild Bozal
absorbing the energy of their natural surroundings Santa sabia
Producing flavors that are exotically intense Santa Sabia
with rich earth tones and savory smokiness Santa Sabia
something wild produces a far richer spirit Bozal Heavily sought after by the local mezcaleros Bozal
Harvested by hand and machete Ilegal
Selected manually, 400 conejos
one by one 400 conejos
Exceptional quality Mezcales de Leyenda
prepared by great master mezcaleros Mezcales de Leyenda
using their five senses Cruz de fuego
integrating their experience Mezcaloteca
born in the tradition Mezcaloteca
from parents and grandparents Mezcaloteca Liquid alchemy Creyente
The emphasis on the know-how, expertise and passion for the production is commonly
noticeable. The ingredient is described in mystifying manner, and the traditional working
methods are treated almost in a saint way. The production method is described pellucidly,
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having total respect and pride on the ingredients and the product. Generally, the process
is often described with rich and creative words, such as alchemy, ritual or magic, giving
even more mystical feeling on the production.
One clear sign of craftsmanship is imagery of hands or palms, either photographed or
drawn, as demonstrated in Image 8 and Image 9.
Image 8 Bruxo: dirty palms
Image 9 Los Javis: Hands
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Hands and dirty palms can work as an index of handmade work, as they implicate
getting one’s hands dirty while working. Dirty palms offer a feeling of naturalness and
humbleness as the producer does not mind doing the dirty and hard work for the sake of
the product. In addition to highlighting the handmade work, product orientation is com-
monly demonstrated with illustrations of traditional tools, such and utensils, as tahonas
(Image 10) and machetes (Image 11).
Image 10 Gracias a Dios: Grinding
Traditionally, after collecting, chopping and roasting the agave hearts, the raw material
is grinded in a horse-pulled tahona. Gracias a Dios mentions that Gaviota, the star of the
griding process, has cozy working schedule.
The collection of the agave is commonly described as hunting, as the jimadores, the
agave farmers and collectors must travel long routes to the distant highlands in order to
find the ripe agaves and carry them back to the farm to the production. As harvested piñas
can weigh between 40-90 kilograms, the collection of wild agaves is slow and long haul.
The jimadores are commonly pictured and characterized with a machete, as shown in
Image 11.
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Image 11 Mezcal Gracias a Dios: Jimador with a machete
Machete is a conventionally used tool in agriculture, but it entails more connotative
meanings. In Mexico, machete has a history as a weapon in civil wars and more recently
in the clashes of drug cartels, thus signaling bravado, as though the bearer was going to
engage in a war. As the culture is still strongly emphasizing the masculine macho culture,
the machete is commonly pictured in the websites.
5.3.2 Agave
While examining Mezcal brands’ websites, it is rather explicit that agave is the sole sym-
bol of mezcal uniting all the brands. This notion is fairly self-explanatory, as agave is the
main source and ingredient of mezcal and without it the beverage would be non-existent.
The noteworthy part of this observation is the multi-dimensional and rich usage of this
shared symbol.
Firstly, differentiation from rival brands can be seen in agave related cues, such as the
emphasis on the agave species or its provenance. The agave types and mezcal production
practices vary between regions which can thus be used as a differentiation tool for the
products. Unlike the most commonly used agave, Espadín, which thrives throughout
Mexico, majority of the agave species grow solely in certain regions. Therefore, the type
of agave can be connected to a certain region; for instance, the agave tequilana wich is
usually associated with purely tequila production, is widely used in the western mezcal
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regions to tie the brands closer to the place. Partly, it can be seen as a way to tying the
qualities of tequila to mezcal.
Additionally, the agaves used in the production can be either cultivated or wild. The
use of wild agaves is commonly emphasized by brands that produce limited edition col-
lections as a way of highlighting the products scarcity and uniqueness, whereas the usage
of more common and cultivated species reflects less originality. In the case of wild agave,
the collection of the wild magueys is generally referred as hunting, and it is paired with
imagery of long roads and distant highland which induces the feeling of hard work. The
choice of the agave is commonly explained transparently (Image 12).
Image 12 Mezcal Vago: Agave
In Mezcal Vago’s website it is explained how both wild and cultivated agaves are used
in the making of mezcal. The emphasize is in the natural agricultural methods, that are
passed down for generations. The craftsmanship is a process that runs through the pro-
duction process.
In addition to the different regions, the agave types possess different qualities in flavor
the same way as grapes do for wine or hops do for beer. The usage of different types is
clearly distinguishable in the websites. For example, Santa Sabia is using powerfully the
characteristics of different agave types in its communications while presenting its offer-
ing. The different agave types are described to have various affects to the mind of the
consumers and references to psychoanalysis are made. These affects are described in Im-
age 13 and Image 14.
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Image 13 Santa Sabia describes the difference feelings aroused by Mexicano, Jabalí and
Tobala
Image 14 Santa Sabia describes the difference feelings aroused by Madre Cuishe,
Cuishe and Bicuixe
The maguey that are used to produce Santa Sabia mezcal are mystified and connected
to the unconscious levels of the human minds. It seems to be generally received that mag-
uey and mezcal enable humans to get in touch with the subconscious, or as Mezcal Pa-
padiablo states, it can help access our creativity source or simply get in line with ourselves
to empathize with the world. This mystification generates a feeling of deeper connection
to the past and to oneself.
Aged legends and mythologies are reclaimed in mezcal branding at length, and an
abundance of storytelling can be seen around mageuys as well. To exemplify the
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storytelling aspect, Mezcal Meteoro’s has harness an old legend of a falling meteorite in
to the core of its brand:
”Many years ago, according to the legend, a flash lit up the sky of the
Sierra Sur of Oaxaca. There was a huge roar and then, the whole town
saw the ”little eyes of fire” falling all around. One of them made a small
crater and the local Master Mezcal Maker decided to use it as a red-hot
earthen oven to cook his fresh espadín agave hearts. And so, he produced
the best mezcal the region had ever tasted. "How did you do it?”, people
asked asked him. The old man simply replied: "It fell from the sky..."”
-Mezcal Meteoro (2019)
Shortly, it is told that a falling meteorite created a hole in the ground, which was then
used as an oven for roasting the agave hearts in preparing mezcal. The legend of the
Mezcal Meteoro is complemented with indexical evidence, such as photographs, as seen
in Image 15.
Image 15 Photographs serve as indexical authenticity cues of Mezcal Meteoro's legend
The photographs of the earthen pit and the meteorite in question can be seen to sub-
stantiate the truth of the matter and give more plausibility to the claims of the legend. The
pictures are also acting as an anchor and tying the company to a place, Las Margaritas in
Oaxaca. The same legend is also shown in Papadiablo’s website (Image 16).
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Image 16 Papadiablo: the creation of our magic mezcal
Papadiablo invites its consumers to engage with the history of the magic mezcal. Their
communication is more stylized version and does not provide spatio-temporal evidence.
The communication style is rather cartoonlike and resonates more with the viewers crea-
tive process.
5.3.3 Maestro mezcalero
Other indicator of craftsmanship are the maestro mezcaleros, the maestros of mezcal pro-
duction (Image 17). Their commitment and traditions in the making of mezcal is used in
the majority of the mezcal brands websites, and the process seems to be humanized
through their life stories.
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Image 17 Mezcales de Leyenda introduces the Maestro Mezcaleros
The maestros are generally pictured with traditional clothing, such as sombreros, in
the agave fields or in small villages, without technologies or modern appliances in the
rural backgrounds. The maestro mezcalero is usually inscribed in the bottle alongside
detailed information about the farm, agave type, and even batch and bottle numbers that
are handwritten in the bottles. This makes a closer connection with the consumers and
producers.
Oftentimes, the histories of maestro mezcaleros are described from generation to gen-
erations, and commonly the whole family is some way related to the production process.
It is common that men work as jimadores or maestro mezcaleros, learning the craft and
passing it down from father to son at young age. The women of the families are usually
involved in the bottling and etiquette process. It is made clear that the production of mez-
cal is an established factor in their lives which provides opportunities in the remote areas.
5.4 Mediating heritage and history
5.4.1 Mesoamerican symbolism
As legends, myths and stories are deeply embedded in Mexican culture, the references to
mythology serve as an anchor to heritage, tradition, culture and storytelling. Magueys and
mezcal are not an exception. Mezcal brands are rich in Aztec era symbolism, including
rabbits, ancient Gods, jaguars, masks, lightning, moon, Quetzalcoatl, and other characters
from age-old myths from the pre-Hispanic era.
One example of the application of mythology is 400 Conejos (Image 18) wich refers
to Centzon Totochtin in Aztec mythology.
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Image 18 400 Conejos refers to Aztec mythology
Centzon Totochtin, which translates to 400 rabbits from Nahuatl, refers to a group of
400 spirits or gods of alcohol in the pre-Hispanic Mexico. The 400 rabbits were the chil-
dren of the goddess of maguey and the god of fermentations. As it is common in the old
civilizations to have designated Gods for different purposes, these rabbits were seen as
patrons people engaging in alcohol consuming.
Another example from anchoring to the Mesoamerican culture is Los Danzantes, The
Dancers, that uses the image of three masks in its logo (Image 19).
Image 19 Los Danzantes: masks
Mezcal Los Danzantes, claims to be a drink that lives up to our roots and connects us
with our Mexican identity. In Mexico, masks are usually associated with traditional
dances and ceremonies in the pre-Hispanic era. These masks are still prepared and used
in communal ceremonies and carnivals and collected by art collectors or tourists. Usual
themes in the masks are characters from the ancient myths and are commonly tied to
certain regions. For instance, the mask on the right decorated with dots could be a repre-
sentation of a traditional jaguar mask. Generally, jaguars have deep roots in the Mesoa-
merican cultures as they symbolize warriors and strength.
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Besides the figurative links to the Mesoamerica, there is an abundance of written bear-
ings to the past Table 7.
Table 7 Poetic inquiry: Written links to the past
So much more than an intoxicating beverage
Casa Cortes a direct connection to the spirits of ancestors Casa Cortes
worshipped in ancient Mesoamerica Banhez
the Gods gave to mortals the pleasure of this drink Santa Tierra
the treasure of Oaxaca Cuish
The traditional toast of choice
ceremonial occasions
baptisms, weddings
town fiestas
business dinners
home remedy
Findencio
ritual, medicine, prayer and celebration Casa Cortes
May the essence of Oaxaca shine in every corner of the country El Señorio
Tap into an ancient culture
still deeply rooted to the cycles of the earth
Casa Cortes
As seen in Table 7 The beverages cultural and historical impact is oftentimes empha-
sized. Straight links to the ancestors are common, as well as the emphasis on the belong-
ing to the special events from passing rites to business meetings. Generally, it is seen
important to keep these traditions alive instead of substituting them with new ones – peo-
ple are encouraged to be proud of their origins.
Additionally, the Mesoamerican roots are accentuated with short stories that are en-
demic in the mezcal brands communication. Santa Tierra has chosen to present an ancient
story relating to the birth of magueys.
The history of mezcal comes from ancient times dating back to ancient
Mesoamerica, which a legend that is counted as was, that the gods gave
to mortals the pleasure of this drink.
This beautiful girl, lived in heaven guarded by a tzintzimitl, one of those
stars that at all costs try to avoid that light overcomes the darkness; one
of these beings was the grandmother of Mayahuel. But with all vigilance,
Mayahuel fled with the handsome Quetzalcoatl to betray his love, sparking
fury grandmother, who sent other tzintzimitl to give death to lovers, who
had become the same tree. The branches that were Mayahuel, were de-
stroyed by homing grandmother, was saved only Quetzalcoatl, who picked
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up what was left of his beloved to bury and those branches, arose the great
maguey.
-Santa Tierra
Passing on the legends and embracing the traditions are seemingly the core of mezcal
branding. It ties to history of the people into the histories of the brands. In consequence,
it is possible to form deep connections with the beverage, as well as with the brands who
embrace the shared history.
The history of mezcal dates earlier to the history than most of the historians have been
able to reach, which has provided a mythical and national status for the product itself.
Nevertheless, it is wort mentioning, that the status has been reached through age-old
branding methods, word of mouth and storytelling, that are still desired in the modern
marketing doctrine. To continue with this road, it is essential that the mezcal brands keep
bolstering up the old myths and maintaining the unique essence of mezcal.
5.4.2 Proverbs
Another way to root a brand to a culture is the usage of proverbs. For example, Siete
misterios uses local proverbs in their website, as seen in Image 20 and Image 21.
Image 20 Oaxacan proverb1 (Siete Misterios)
1 In English: If you are sick, drink mezcal, if it is heartache, even more reasons to do so. If you are happy
and content, well drink mezcal to celebrate. -Oaxacan proverb
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Image 21 Oaxacan proverb2 (Siete Misterios)
These proverbs are a clear sign that mezcal is culturally rooted to the speech and com-
monly used among people in everyday interactions. Proverbs are generally shared expe-
riences in communities that resonate with consumers in a deeper level. Thus, it is possible
to get immersed in the culture with using them in the communications as the common
language can create a strong tie between the brand and the consumer.
5.5 Mediating artistry
Mezcal brands channel artistry and creativity in multiple ways. It is shown through pic-
tures, photographs, graphic design, videos, animations and music. On way to show artistic
character is to add visuality in the product packaging as shown in Image 22 and Image
23.
Image 22 El Buho: Etiquette
2 In English: For everything bad, mezcal, and for everything good, mezcal too; if there is no remedy, then
take a litre and a half.
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The flask bottle of El Buho Mezcal has a folkloric artwork which is provided by famed
tattoo artist Thomas Hooper. The tattoo theme could be appealing to certain lifestyles that
appreciate tattoo artforms.
Image 23 Verde momento uses visuality and art in the mezcal bottles
Similarly, Verde Momento applies different graphic designs and pictures into the bot-
tles. Compared to El Buhos black and with tattoo theme, Verde Momento’s pictures are
more colorful, juvenile and are undoubtedly appealing to different target group and life-
styles. Both examples show strong visual consistency. Common way to bring out artistry
is to add artwork in the products and in the case of mezcal brands, it is common to use
visual effects on the bottles.
The connection to arts can also be made indirectly by supporting artists. This is possi-
ble for instance in bolstering artist and offering them space to present their artwork. In
Image 24, an example of Ilegal Mezcal’s art exhibition is presented in their website.
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Image 24 Ilegal Mezcal: Art exhibition
Ilegal Mezcal offers and exhibition space in their location in New York. As described
in the website, the aim is to create a genuine, unique approach to their exhibitions by
establishing a sense of community through the shared personal experience of art. The
support to the Ilegal community is shown through the exhibitions.
Murals are a typical artform in Mexico dating to the pre-Hispanic times. They are still
commonly used for commercial or political purposes, and it is natural that mezcal brand
have harnessed this creative way into their imagery. The use of murals by Cinco Sentidos
is demonstrated in Image 25.
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Image 25 Cinco Sentidos: murales
In the mural, a skeleton dressed in a poncho and sombrero is holding a pitchfork and
machete and is evidently heading to hunt magueys. In the right side, a florescent of a
maguey and a bat can be seen. The mural and the signs it features form together a strong
cultural connection to the viewer.
Music is also present in the websites. It can be stated in the background music, or it
can be used to express the brand’s nature and personality in a concrete way. For instance,
Banhez has added the auditive dimension to its website (Image 26).
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Image 26 Banhez: Musica Banhez
To engage its consumers to a more multidimensional experience, Banhez introduces
playlists to offer the authentic Banhez experience. As they describe, the playlist reflects
what inspires us to create. Playlists can be a strong tool in connecting with the consumer,
taking that the musical match is well received. Consumers are invited to listen the playlist
together with the band, as an offer to get in touch with the inspiration behind the scenes.
As it is shown in the previous examples, artistry is a practical tool to reinforce the other
authenticity cues. The more of these artistic traits are blended into the brand communica-
tions, the more creative and unique touch is achieved. It is noteworthy, that knowing the
audience, or the target of the brand, is crucial in selecting the artforms and styles, to res-
onate with the correct consumer groups. The appliance of artistic communication methods
reinforces the overall authentic experience.
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5.6 Mediating lifestyle
5.6.1 Common cultural signs
Alongside Mesoamerican symbols that represent heritage and history, more modern allu-
sions to the culture are made. While signs can be used in a subtle way, saturating the
brand communication with multiple signs is equally common. Image 27 is a collage pic-
ture from Peloton de Muerte that presents an overview of the cultural symbols that are
applied throughout the mezcal brands websites.
Image 27 Peloton de la Muerte: cultural symbolism
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In the collage from Peloton de la Muerte, multiple symbols with denotative levels of
culture can be distinguished. In the middle, there is a portrait of Emiliano Zapata, a leader
of the peasant revolution and a Mexican revolution figure and common symbol of rebel-
liousness in Mexican culture. The picture of Monarch butterfly in the upper right corner
symbolizes migration for their annual migration across the North America and are com-
monly used as a metaphor in the discussion of the Mexican immigration to United States.
Other distinguishable signs are Lucha Libre figures, that form a part of Mexican sports
and popular culture. The playing cards on the left and right sides represent a traditional
Mexican game Lotería, which is similar to bingo and a common game in school or parties.
These signs tap into the nostalgic feelings of the culture, as they are familiar from child-
hood and popular culture.
5.6.2 Rebelliousness
Besides the authenticity cues considering the brand and Mexican culture, it is notable that
these cues were commonly combined with elements that were closer to the consumers
and resonating with their lifestyle and desires.
The mezcal myth can has had a major shift in the past decades from illegal, cheap
beverage to an exotic, brave and proud of its origins and the trueness to itself, which is
crucial in the scope of authenticity. Instead of hiding or covering the not so bright history
of mezcal, it is harnessed in the branding. The illegal and underappreciated history of
mezcal is mostly used as a point of reference, and the history and the former bad reputa-
tion are not hidden but embraced. For instance, the illegal background, indigenous history
and the homemade hooch are in many cases emphasized. The rebelliousness and the true
self are a part of the mezcal tradition.
This goes hand in hand with the Mexican underdog mentality. Since the Mayan and
Aztec imperials and the Spanish Colonization, Mexico has been suffering of poverty and
social problems. To this background, Ilegal mezcal is connecting the illegal past of mez-
cal to defend the rights of immigrant children and transgender rights. As their slogan goes
the only thing that should be Ilegal is mezcal. The emphasis on the rock or punk lifestyles
were clear in the imagery, as shown in Images 28, 29 and 30.
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Image 28 Ilegal Mezcal: rock lifestyle
Image 29 Ilegal Mezcal: appealing to lifestyle
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Image 30 Peloton de la Muerte: punk symbols
This rock’n’roll or punk spirit is often emphasized with color such as black, white and
red or black white and yellow, that goes traditionally in rock and punk culture. The feeling
is topped with tattoos, beard, rock instruments.
Other lifestyles that were visible in the mezcal brands websites were traditional fami-
lies and travelers. In a similar way, these lifestyles were shown through colors, symbols
and imagery. The traditional family values were usually pictured with natural colors and
earthy tones, such as beige, brown and green. The imagery consists of villages and fami-
lies. The travelers were approached with more colors, that are traditionally associated in
Mexican tourism, or traveling equipment such as cameras and beach sandals.
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6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
6.1 Discussion on the findings
Based on the authenticity signs and communication methods of the mezcal brands, an
authenticity syntagma and paradigm can be formed. The syntagma axis is based on the
different authenticity cues, while the paradigm axis includes the different signs and mes-
sages that form the authentic experience. The paradigm-syntagma table can be used in
multiple ways to plan or analyze the signs a brand wants to communicate. Combining
different components from the paradigm and syntagma axis will create different types of
experiences by choosing the ones that are corresponding the brand strategy and neglecting
the ones that are not linked to the brand. Additionally, it is crucial to note that the para-
digms are interrelated, and the authenticity syntagma is not as tight to fixed system as for
example grammatical rules. In other words, it can be used in carrying creative ways. The
brand authenticity syntagma and paradigm are presented Table 8 Brand authenticity syn-
tagma and paradigmTable 8.
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Table 8 Brand authenticity syntagma and paradigm
It is evident that the first axis, downplaying commercial motives is related to the brand
values and purpose. Making these strategical level pillars of purpose evident and showing
Downplaying commercial
motives
Protecting the underdog or
being the underdog
Being fair and playing by the
rules
Appealing to future
generations
Showing clear values
Presenting content people
or animals working
Showing meaning for the
community
Telling the story of the people who benefit
Showing diversity
Craftsmanship
Traditional tools and utensils
Traditional working methods
ingredients in their natural
forms
Information of the production
process
Introducing the expert
Guide on identifying well made product
Serial numbering
Handwriting
Handmade packages
Heritage & History
Local ingredients
Local holidays
Local traditions
Local religion
Historical charachters
Ancestors
Elderly persons
Local design and decoration
Traditional clothing
Traditional working methods
Sights, attractions and landmarks
Artistry
Local artists work
Artist thatresonates
with the lifestyle
Local or traditional artforms
Art cooperation in product design
Music that resonates with
the chosen lifestyle
Lifestyle
Colors that resonate with
the lifestyle
Clothing that resonates with
the lifestyle
Symbols that resonate with the lifestyle's
values
Values that resonate with
the community
Syntagma
Par
adig
m
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the non-commercial motives in the brands communication and actions creates an authen-
tic experience to the consumers. It should also be highlighted that the company is acting
fair and not taking advantage or oppress its stakeholders or consumers. Additionally,
functioning thoroughly with non-commercial motives requires inherent genuineness from
a brands strategy. These findings are in concurrence with existing authenticity literature
by exhibiting inner-directedness and defying external pressures (e.g. Avery 2010; Bever-
land et al. 2008; Hitzler & Müller-Stewens 2017). As mentioned, this paradigm is com-
monly shown through either written or spoken affirmations, and imagery is used to un-
derline the claims. Without the concrete testimonies, it is uncertain that the message is
received by the viewer.
Craftsmanship can be emphasized in multiple concrete ways, such as showing the tra-
ditional working methods, tools and utensils, as well as demonstrating full expertise in
the quality of the ingredients and the professionality and know-how of the producers. One
notable way is also showing guidelines on how to identify a well-made product from bad
or fake. These aspects of craftsmanship can then be underlined in the product design by
offering handmade details instead of mass production in the packaging, and by using
handwriting, signatures and serial numbering. At the strategical level, quality commit-
ment is the key factor in performing in with a craftsman mindset – the production is not
only concerned about the end result, but the process of getting there is an equally signif-
icant factor in the value assessment. As Gilmore and Pine (2007), Beverland (2005a) and
Grayson and Martinec (2004) noted, the brand authenticity cues do not have to base on
reality, but they can also be rendered and stylized, as long as they resonate with the re-
ceiving consumers.
The allusion of craftsmanship can be relayed through visual signs. Based on the find-
ings, it seems that craftsmanship is an easily approachable rendering point for companies,
as the connection to the authentic feeling can be created by excluding the non-traditional
or mass-producing methods and restricting the imagery to that is not soaked in tradition.
Through unilateral communication where the company is the sole creator and moderator
of the communication, there is potential to skew the experience of authenticity. In the
long run, this can inflict to the consumer loyalty, if the reality does not concur with the
image.
History and heritage stem from cultural traditions, such as holidays, religion, ancestors
and the elderly. The locality of a product can be underlined with local design, ingredients,
decorations, or sights, attractions and landmarks. All these cues are bar none strictly tight
to the brand or product, but merely formed together in the traditions of the culture and
segued to the everyday life. The culture does not consist merely people in certain regional
areas, as in the case of mezcal, but can be seen as a wider perspective. For instance, should
a brand’s consumers consist of members of a subculture or minority, the heritage and
history of this point of view should be highlighted.
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The authenticity cues can be bolstered in an artistic manifestation, as arts are generally
considered as an authentic act. Regardless, it is essential to know one’s audience in order
to resonate in the right spot and be able to touch the possibly latent desires of the con-
sumers. This can be done for instance in cooperation with local artist that represent the
desires of the target consumer culture and by using local and traditional forms of art.
There seems to be no limits in the artistic performances, as long as they are the right ones
for the occasion an in line with the brands strategy and values.
To reach the lifestyle, it should be taken to account that consistency is the key factor
in the brands strategy. The brand must meet its consumers values, aesthetics and commu-
nication methods constantly, and be able to deliver the authentic experience in multiple
touchpoint not only for one consumer, but to the consumers culture and peers. The signals
must be addressed into the deep, unconscious desires, for instance by provoking the com-
munity’s shared desires. In a way, the brand needs to grow into and be adopted into the
community of lifestyle than build its way inside it. The components in the lifestyle par-
adigm are commonly blending with the other paradigms, but it can also perform solo.
Brand authenticity communications is strictly tied to company’s identity and must ac-
cordingly be entwined in the brand strategy. To fulfill an authentic brand experience, a
fundamental commitment in the strategy is essential. This goes hand in hand with Hitzler
and Müller-Stewens view (2017, 34–35) if companies’ identity is reflected to the con-
sumer consistently and correspondingly to its identity, as an end result an authentic im-
pression will emerge. Evidently the strategic level must be carefully planned in order to
perform in an authentic way. Brands must show purpose, genuineness, consistency and
quality commitment, to fulfill the brand authenticity promise to consumers. Also, it is
noteworthy that in accordance with the previous research, these aspects are interrelated
and are not easily distinguished. Commonly the strategic level decisions support each
other and work as pillars for communications.
It must also be noted that if a brand is performing authentically by its nature, the au-
thentic experience might emerge without intention. This view goes against Gilmore and
Pine’s (2007, 102–104) argument that no business offerings are authentic by nature, as
they are guided by commercial motives. The authenticity paradox is evident, as no com-
pany is authentic by merely claiming to be it – authenticity must be shown through ac-
tions. The situation creates a situation similar to Schrödinger's cat3 – a brand is both au-
thentic and inauthentic until a consumer experiences it.
In conclusion, the creative elements of brand authenticity are key pillars in conveying
an authentic brand experience to the consumers, but brand administrators are not the only
creators of brand authenticity (Beverland 2005a, 460). Managing consumers perceptions
of authenticity is critical as the perceived authenticity must follow the consumers’ notion
3 In the thought experiment by Erwin Schrödinger, a cat is placed in a box along with poison. Until the box
stays seeled, the cat is in a sense both alive and dead. (see e.g. Merz 2013.)
88
of how things ought to be (Grayson & Martinec, 2004) and cover the invisible factors in
people’s general perceptions (Bai et al. 2009, 253) to address the symbolic messages cor-
rectly and arouse resonance. Relevant and appropriate authenticity cues play an important
role along with communicating about them in a relatable, engaging and inspiring way.
6.2 Theoretical contributions
The purpose of this study was to describe how brand authenticity can be mediated in
brand communication. The topic was discussed by the point of view of signs and semiot-
ics and previous academic literature on brand authenticity. The phenomenon was also
inspected through a mixed method research by collating and analyzing brand authenticity
cues and signs that convey authenticity. This study makes three theoretical contributions
to the brand authenticity theory.
Firstly, it broadens the understanding of the brand authenticity phenomena and its def-
inition. An overview of the current state of brand authenticity theory was performed and
the concept of brand authenticity was examined further from the current research stand-
ing. In this study, qualitative methods were used to describe the multifaceted brand au-
thenticity communication to form a perception of the phenomenon in depth. Reflecting
on the existing literature, brand authenticity was defined as consumers’ perception of a
brand being true to itself and its consumers’ aspirations throughout its actions and com-
munication. It is notable that the authenticity can be both rendered, or it can occur natu-
rally, which was also visible during the research. The findings are uniform with Bever-
land’ s (2006) and Gilmore and Pine’s (2007) claims that consumers’ perceptions of au-
thenticity are formed in conjunction of stylized or fictional factors that companies claim
to be authentic. This study is in concordant with the existing brand authenticity literature
which states that instead of being merely an inherent feature, authenticity is rather a so-
cially constructed assessment of a brand (see e.g. Brown et al. 2003; Grayson & Martinec,
2004; Holt 2004; Beverland 2005a & 2006; Napoli et al. 2016, 1201) where consumers
play an active role in co-creating the authenticity (Leigh et al. 2006). Generally, authen-
ticity cues can be divided into indexical and iconic, where indexical cues represent spatio-
temporal evidence that are approved by authority and iconic cues represent the consumer
perception and discussed if a brand is as is it ought to be.
The first sub-question of this research considered the strategical level requirements for
brand authenticity. Commonly mentioned requirements were purpose (e.g. Eggers et al.
2012, Spiggle et al. 2012, Dwivedi & McDonald 2018), genuineness (e.g. Bai et al. 2009;
Napoli et al. 2014; Morhart et al. 2015), consistency (e.g. Beverland 2006; Frizt et al.
89
2017; Napoli et al. 2014) and product orientation (Moulard et al. 2016). Purpose is com-
prised of the company’s fundamental values. Besides the economic motivations that are
strictly tight to businesses, brand authenticity is also inseparably connected to other mo-
tivations, such as political and societal goals, as people are looking for products that re-
flect their personal image and identity. Genuineness indicates that a brand is being true
and transparent, keeping its promises and staying true to its exposed values. Consistency
means that a brand fulfills its promise consistently at all brand touchpoints and reflects
consistently the essential brand core. It also includes the visual expressions of a brand,
such as expressing style and aesthetics consistently in design, communication and all
brand touchpoints. Product orientations focusing on the products in an intrinsic way in-
stead of compared to products that are designed to fulfil consumers desires.
These strategical level attributes were also visible in the study and can be reflected
through the authenticity signs. For instance, purpose and genuineness are commonly re-
flected in downplaying commercial motives, and consistency and product orientation in
craftsmanship. It was notable that the lack of strategic level planning produces incon-
sistent authenticity communication, or communication that might be irrelevant for the
consumers.
The second sub-question was to identify cues that implicate brand authenticity. The
theory was based on existing literature (see e.g. Beverland 2006; Alexander 2009; Bai et
al. 2009; Napoli et al. 2014; Freathy & Thomas 2015; Moulard et al. 2016; Hitzler &
Müller-Stewens 2017; Athawal & Harris 2018) where commonly mentioned brand au-
thenticity cues were identified. All beforementioned cues were also found during the re-
search and it can be reaffirmed that they convey an authentic experience for consumers.
Downplaying commercial motives refers to brands appearing distant from commercial
consideration.
Secondly, this study broadens the understanding of semiotic dimension of brand au-
thenticity and brand authenticity communication. The third sub-question elaborates the
semiotics signs that convey brand authenticity and the fourth questions discusses the in-
terpretation of such signs. The brand authenticity cues can be communicated through
signs that can be further interpreted in denotative and connotative levels proving that se-
miotics is largely applicable to the brand authenticity research.
Additionally, semiotic proved to be a good indicator in extending the understanding of
cultural value that can be seen through signs and consumer cultures. With different brand
authenticity signs, it is possible to create rich, multidimensional experiences with con-
sumers and resonate with them in deeper levels. As Yaki and Totu (2014, 8) and Seppä
(2012, 128) mentioned, semiotic theory provides concepts and analytical models that can
be used in unraveling the hidden meanings of signs and relating them to wider cultural
entities. It is notable to state that authenticity can be applied widely and in various ways
into brand communication. It can be crafted into hidden subliminal messages or presented
90
explicitly throughout brand communication. Evidently, brand authenticity can be com-
municated in multiple ways. Symbolism and storytelling in visual imagery, text or video
are strong tools in conveying authenticity.
According to Saussure’s semiotic theory (Chandler 2007, 28; Yaki & Totu 2014, 7)
signs do not occurs coincidentally or randomly. Instead, they are always delivered pur-
posefully with an intension. It can be argued that the brand authenticity signs are rather
concordant with Peirce’s view. Peirce (Yaki & Totu 2014, 7) suggested that signs exist
even though they are not purposely meant or communicated, as long as the receiver finds
meaning on them. Receiver has an active role in forming the meaning in the same way as
a consumer has an active, though commonly subconscious, role in forming an assessment
of authenticity.
Thirdly, this study contributes a syntagma-paradigm scale for brand authenticity show
in Table 8 that describes the relation between the authenticity signs and determines how
these signs can be organized or combined (cf. Mick 1986, 197; Fiske 2005, Seppä 2012,
141). The scale presents the vertical and horizontal possibilities that can be applied in
planning the brand communication strategies based on the earlier research on brand au-
thenticity cues. Thus, it can be argued that this study expanded the conception of brand
authenticity by applying the existing theory to new areas. As mentioned earlier, brand
authenticity can be communicated in the interplay of visual and textual cues, that are
interpreted by viewer and transferred into an authentic experience. By evaluating these
cues, the viewer performs unconsciously an assessment of the brand thus allowing the
authenticity.
6.3 Managerial contributions
In addition to the theoretical contributions, this study provides important insight for mar-
keting practitioners from the managerial perspective. Firstly, in choosing the correct po-
sition of the brand, brand administrators can utilize the brand authenticity paradigm and
syntagma as a guideline to differentiate their brands from rivals by treasuring existing or
desired authenticity cues and emphasize or nurture a consistent strategy. Although brand
authenticity and its construction require long-term commitment, concentrating on the de-
velopment of an authentic brand and the brand’s core are proven to be successful posi-
tioning strategies for both existing and emerging brands, as companies endeavor to con-
nect with customers in search of authenticity in an increasingly commercialized and
staged world. The mere presence of authenticity cues, be it by enhancing or rendering,
could influence customer loyalty and brand value.
91
Developing authentic brand and reinforcing the symbolic meaning for customers re-
quires deep knowledge in the community that is sought after. Understanding the dynamics
and construction of authenticity works as a tool for marketers to design and constantly
deliver relevant and meaningful experiences for demanding customers. Additionally, the
insights of this research endorse marketers to effectively communicate such practices.
Thus, having acquittance with these cues offers a benefit for corporation them into brand
communication in strategic and tactical levels.
It is crucial to emphasize that brand authenticity cannot be produces superficially, and
it requires strong absorption in the organization’s reason for existence. As stated earlier,
the strategic level requirements for a brand to be successfully authentic are purpose, gen-
uineness, consistency and product orientation. Planning and having authenticity in the
mind throughout the business operations is indispensable for achieving consumer per-
ceived authenticity. Relevant and appropriate authenticity cues play an important role
along with communicating about them in a relatable, engaging and inspiring way. It
was notable that the lack of strategic level planning produces inconsistent authenticity
communication, or communication that might be irrelevant for the consumers.
6.4 Limitations and future research
As any research, this study does not arise without limitations. Nevertheless, it can be used
as a foundation for future studies such as quantitative research brand authenticity com-
munications and the impact of these signs to consumer behavior. Additionally, its insights
can be used as the base of researching and comparing the significance on the different
cues.
For the experimental nature of brand authenticity, the assessments of authenticity we
conducted merely from the researcher’s point of view. In the future, more emphasize in
larger entities of the consumers and their conception should be made to perform stronger
foothold on theory. Since mezcal is inherently a product with cultural roots and a vast
history, it would be important to study products that do not have established cultural back-
ground or heritage, such as technology or new product launches. Moreover, this study
was conducted in the consumer environment and it is not directly applicable to business
to business context without further research.
Furthermore, this study focused solely on brand communication through companies’
websites. Granted that websites form a well-established base for online communication,
the shift to more interactive communication has already happened. Consequently, the au-
thentic communication in other platforms, such as social media, should be research in
more detail. A light should also be shed to discussion that is happening between
92
consumers outside the direct brand environment. As the communication has shifted to the
social media, it is more common that consumers are in a direct touch with the brand.
Different touchpoints and communication methods should thus be approached. This
study was limited to a unilateral brand communication that occurs in companies’ web-
sites. Social media and other brand communication venues were excluded, as the topic of
brand authenticity communication is new and more knowledge on the communication
theory was needed.
93
7 SUMMARY
Brand authenticity is a core element in the contemporary brand management. Regardless
of its recent popularity among academics and businesses, the concept is still lacking a
consensus reflecting the conceptualization of the definition and practices. Although there
is a general agreement that authenticity is not only an attribute inherent to an object but
rather a socially constructed interpretation or an assessment made by an evaluator, there
is a continuous discussion on its definition and dimensions for its subjective and abstract
nature.
This study aimed to arouse relevant and critical ideas about branding by exploring the
actual and potential contributions of brand authenticity communication in the marketing
practice. By researching mezcal brands, the purpose of this study was to describe how
brand authenticity can be mediated in brand communication. This purpose was divided
into following sub-questions:
• What are the strategical level requirements for brand authenticity?
• What cues implicate brand authenticity?
• What signs convey brand authenticity?
• How the different signs of authenticity can be interpreted?
The theoretical framework of this study consisted of two main chapters discussing the
theories of brand authenticity and semiotics. In the first main chapter the prior research
of brand authenticity was introduced alongside with the motives of the changing business
environment and a shift in consumer culture. As people’s perception of authenticity is
highly influenced by personal predilections, personal preferences are still not the only
factors in the authenticity assessment. Living in a social world means that there is a con-
stant impact from external forces and social pressures on personal identity. Establishing
authenticity remains culturally and contextually dependent construct that requires insight
of the dominant power relationships as well as historical events and zeitgeist.
As one way of sowing authenticity into brand communications is semiotics, the second
main chapter included the framework of semiotic theory. To better understand communi-
cations through semiotics and the formation of meaning, it is essential to understand the
meaning of a sign. Semiotic theory focuses structuring and operating the signs and sign
systems and provides concepts and analytical models that allow the unraveling of signs
into components and relating them to wider cultural entities.
This study was conducted as a qualitative mixed methods study by combining semiotic
content analysis and poetic inquiry. The data was formed by a collection of mezcal
brands. With the aid of multiple research method, it was possible to study both visual and
written authenticity cues that occur in the mezcal brands websites. This approach was
94
seen suitable, as the research emphasis is to form in-depth understanding on the phenom-
ena. Mezcal was chosen as the research subject of this study for its deeply rooted history
and recent global popularity. Mezcal is a Mexican alcoholic beverage obtained by distil-
ling cooked and fermented agave plants. Mezcal is one of the vivacious remains of pre-
Hispanic culture and one of the most widespread and historically rooted products of Mex-
ico. In the past decade, an interest towards mezcal has risen substantially, thus shown in
the growing rate of multinational companies investing in mezcal. Globalization has al-
lowed the exchange of knowledge concerning the way of life and traditions from all over
the world, naturally or paradoxically, many things tend to homogenize. Consequently, all
those that maintain a unique essence anchored in deep cultural roots acquire exceptional
value.
The first sub-question was concerning the strategical level requirements for brand au-
thenticity. As brand authenticity is tied to the company’s identity and must accordingly
be entwined in the brand strategy. Purpose, genuineness, consistency and product orien-
tation emerged from the prior academic research as predominant requirements for suc-
cessful brand authenticity management. The second sub-question involved indicating the
cues that implicate brand authenticity. Downplaying commercial motives, craftsmanship,
heritage and history, artistry and appealing to lifestyle were identified as the main cues of
brand authenticity. The first two sub-questions were explored in the literature review of
the first main chapter.
In the following sub-question, the signs that convey brand authenticity were observed
and the fourth, and last, sub-question discussed the interpretation of authenticity signs.
Brand authenticity can be communicated in the interplay of visual and textual cues, that
are interpreted by viewer and transferred into an authentic experience. By evaluating these
cues, the viewer performs unconsciously an assessment of the brand thus allowing the
authenticity.
By researching the mezcal brands websites, a syntagma/paradigm scale for brand au-
thenticity was formed. The syntagma axis is based on the different authenticity cues,
while the paradigm axis includes the different signs and messages that form the authentic
experience. This scale describes the relation between the authenticity signs and deter-
mines how these signs can be organized and presents the vertical and horizontal possibil-
ities that can be applied in planning the brand communication strategies based on the
earlier research on brand authenticity cues. With the syntagma/paradigm scale this study
expanded the concept of brand authenticity to new areas in the field of semiotics. Through
semiotics, it was similarly possible to extend the understanding of cultural value that ap-
peared in the authenticity signs and reflected in the consumer cultures. It is possible to
create rich, multidimensional experiences with consumers and resonate with them in
deeper levels by applying authenticity signs in the communication.
95
It is notable to state that authenticity can be applied widely and in various ways into
brand communication. It can be crafted into hidden subliminal messages or presented
explicitly throughout brand communication. Evidently, brand authenticity can be com-
municated in multiple ways. Symbolism and storytelling in visual imagery, text or video
are strong tools in conveying authenticity. It can be argued that the brand authenticity
signs are concordant with Peirce’s view of signs existing even though they are not pur-
posely meant or communicated, as long as the receiver finds meaning on them. Receiver
has an active role in forming the meaning in the same way as a consumer has an active,
though commonly subconscious, role in forming an assessment of authenticity.
In addition to the theoretical contributions, this study provided insights for businesses.
Firstly, in choosing the correct position of the brand, brand administrators can utilize the
brand authenticity paradigm and syntagma as a guideline to differentiate their brands from
rivals by treasuring existing or desired authenticity cues and emphasize or nurture a con-
sistent strategy. Concentrating on the development of an authentic brand and the brand’s
core are proven to be successful positioning strategies for both existing and emerging
brands. The mere presence of authenticity cues, be it by enhancing or rendering, could
influence customer loyalty and brand value.
Secondly, it is noteworthy that developing authentic brand and reinforcing the sym-
bolic meaning for customers requires deep knowledge in the community that is sought
after. Understanding the dynamics and construction of authenticity works as a tool for
marketers to design and constantly deliver relevant and meaningful experiences for de-
manding customers and the insights of this research endorse marketers to effectively com-
municate such practices. It is crucial to emphasize that brand authenticity cannot be pro-
duces superficially, and it requires strong absorption in the organization’s reason for ex-
istence. Relevant and appropriate authenticity cues play an important role along with
communicating about them in a relatable, engaging and inspiring way. It was notable
that the lack of strategic level planning produces inconsistent authenticity communica-
tion, or communication that might be irrelevant for the consumers.
In conclusion, the creative elements of brand authenticity were key pillars in convey-
ing an authentic brand experience to the consumers, but it should be noted that brand
managers are not the sole creators of brand authenticity. Managing consumers’ evalua-
tions of authenticity is critical as the perceived authenticity must conform to consumers’
mental frames of how things ought to be and cover the invisible factors in people’s gen-
eral perceptions to address the symbolic messages correctly and arouse resonance. Rele-
vant and appropriate authenticity cues play an important role along with communicating
about them in a relatable, engaging and inspiring way.
96
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APPENDIX 1
Mezcal brands’ websites
400 conejos <www.400conejos.mx>, retrieved 5.3.2019
400 voces http://www.400voces.com, retrieved 5.3.2019
Agua Maldita http://www.aguamalditamezcal.com, retrieved 5.3.2019
Alípus http://www.alipus.com, retrieved 12.3.2019
Amores http://www.mezcalamores.com, retrieved 12.3.2019
Banhez https://www.banhezmezcal.com, retrieved 12.3.2019
Bozal http://www.bozalmezcal.com, retrieved 12.3.2019
Bruxo http://bruxomezcal.com, retrieved 12.3.2019
Casa Cortes https://backbarproject.com/portfolio/casa-cortes/, retrieved 16.3.2019
Cinco Sentidos https://www.drink5sentidos.com, retrieved 13.3.2019
Cobardes y Reyes http://www.reyesycobardes.com, retrieved 13.3.2019
Creyente https://mezcalcreyente.com, retrieved 13.3.2019
Cruz de Fuego Mezcal https://www.cruzdefuegomezcal.com, retrieved 13.3.2019
Cuish http://mezcalescuish.mx, retrieved 13.3.2019
Del Maguey http://delmaguey.com, retrieved 14.3.2019
Derrumbes http://mezcalderrumbes.mx/, retrieved 14.3.2019
Don Amado https://delmezcal.com/es/, retrieved 14.3.2019
Dos Volcanes http://www.dosvolcanesmezcal.com/, retrieved 16.3.2019
El Buho https://elbuhomezcal.com/, retrieved 16.3.2019
El Señorío elsenorio.com, retrieved 16.3.2019
Erstwhile Mezcal https://www.erstwhilemezcal.com/, retrieved 16.3.2019
Espiritu Lauro http://www.espiritulauro.com/, retrieved 17.3.2019
Fidencio http://www.fidenciomezcal.com/, retrieved 17.3.2019
Gracias a Dios https://www.thankgad.com/, retrieved 17.3.2019
Ilegal Mezcal www.ilegalmezcal.com, retrieved 17.3.2019
La Luna Mezcal www.lalunamezcal.com, retrieved 17.3.2018
Lalocura https://www.mezcallalocura.com/, retrieved 17.3.2019
Legendario Domingo http://domingomezcal.com/, retrieved 17.3.2019
Los Danzantes www.losdanzantes.com, retrieved 17.3.2019
Los Javis http://www.mezcallosjavis.com/, retrieved 17.3.2019
Marca negra http://marcanegra.com/, retrieved 17.3.2019
Meteoro http://www.cayodelcielo.com/, retrieved 17.3.2019
Mezcal Koch https://mezcalkoch.com/, retrieved 17.3.2019
Mezcal Nacional https://www.mezcalnacional.com/home, retrieved 18.3.2019
Mezcal Unión https://mezcalunion.com, retrieved 21.3.2019
103
Mezcal Vago https://www.mezcalvago.com/, retrieved 18.3.2019
Mezcales de Leyenda http://www.mezcalesdeleyenda.com/, retrieved 18.3.2019
Mezcalosfera http://mezcaloteca.org, retrieved 19.3.2019
Miel de Tierra https://www.mieldetierra.com, retrieved 20.3.2019
NETA Mezcal https://www.netamezcal.com/, retrieved 20.3.2019
Papadiablo http://www.papadiablo.mx/, retrieved 20.3.2019
Peloton de la Muerte http://pelotondelamuerte.com/, retrieved 20.3.2019
Rey Campero http://www.mezcalreycampero.com, retrieved 20.3.2019
Santa pedrera http://santapedrera.com, retrieved 20.3.2019
Santa Sabia https://www.santasabia.com, retrieved 20.3.2019
Santa tierra http://www.santatierra.com.mx, retrieved 20.3.2019
Santo Infierno http://mezcalsantoinfierno.com, retrieved 20.3.2019
Verde momento http://www.mezcalverde.com, retrieved 21.3.2019
Wahaka Mezcal http://www.wahakamezcal.com, retrieved 21.3.2019
104
APPENDIX 2
Data collection chart
Mezcal brand
Language
Colors
Visual authenticity
cues
Signs
(icon,
index,
symbol)
Downplaying
commercial motives
Craftsmanship
Heritage & History
Artistry
Lifestyle
Written authentic-
ity cues
Storytelling
Metaphor
Metonymy
Downplaying
commercial motives
Craftsmanship
Heritage & History
Artistry
Lifestyle
Other notes