The Turk�sh Her�tage Organ�zat�on (THO) �s a young, �ndependent, nonpart�san, nonprofit 501(c)(3) organ�zat�on that promotes d�scuss�on and d�alogue around Turkey's role �n the �nternat�onal commun�ty and �ssues of �mportance �n the U.S.-Turkey b�lateral relat�onsh�p.

Founded by a group of Turk�sh-Amer�cans w�th backgrounds �n commun�ty leadersh�p and run by a staff w�th demonstrated �nterest �n and comm�tment to Turk�sh-Amer�can relat�ons, THO strongly bel�eves that any successful b�lateral relat�onsh�p rests on cooperat�on and construct�ve d�scuss�on between the people of both countr�es. W�thout tak�ng an �nst�tut�onal pos�t�on on pol�t�cal �ssues, THO and �ts Adv�sory Board of global scholars and pract�t�oners str�ve to foster a deep and comprehens�ve d�alogue that �s �ndependent of any pol�t�cal or�entat�on to strengthen the relat�onsh�p between Turkey and the U.S., as well as the larger �nternat�onal commun�ty.

THO's events, programs, research, and publ�cat�ons prov�de a un�que platform for explor�ng s�x cr�t�cal �ssues �n the U.S.-Turkey relat�onsh�p: Secur�ty, Educat�on, Human�tar�an A�d, Energy, Economy, and Technology. To h�ghl�ght these key �ssues, THO act�vely partners w�th lead�ng th�nk tanks, un�vers�t�es, and nonprofit organ�zat�ons to host roundtables, panel d�scuss�ons, and var�ous other programs. Add�t�onally, THO works w�th Turk�sh and Amer�can academ�cs, experts, government offic�als, and pract�t�oners to produce t�mely and �ndependent analys�s and research on developments �n U.S.-Turkey relat�ons.

The strong partnersh�p between the U.S. and Turkey �s rooted �n common values and strateg�c �nterests, and �t �s re�nforced by the endur�ng l�nks between the people of both countr�es. As an organ�zat�on w�th Turk�sh-Amer�can roots and broad d�aspora networks, we bel�eve �t �s extremely �mportant to embrace and bu�ld on these shared values and relat�onsh�ps.

Through �ts programs and publ�cat�ons, THO a�ms to encourage and fac�l�tate strong U.S.-Turkey relat�ons by foster�ng a better understand�ng between the people of both countr�es.

About THO

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THO SUMMER 2018 RESEARCH PROGRAM IN TURKEY

"Refugees and Asylum Seekers �n Turkey: Challenges, Opportun�t�es, and Approaches"

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4 2018 Summer Research Program Part�c�pants

Selected Program Photos 6

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Program Part�c�pants Presentat�on and Meet�ngs �n Wash�ngton D.C.

Part�c�pants F�nal Research Projects

Sponsors

-Joshua S. Eb�ner

-Ryan McCarthy

-K�nga H. Karlowska

-Lawrence Cenk Laws

-Mer�am Selam

-Lyd�a W�ll�ams

Table Of Contents

2018 Summer Research Program Part�c�pants

Academ�c Gu�de

Ass�stant Professor of Pol�t�cal Sc�ence, School of Publ�c Affa�rs Publ�c Adm�n�strat�on PhD Graduate Fac�l�ty Jul�ette Tolay �s ass�stant professor of Pol�t�cal Sc�ence at the School of Publ�c Affa�rs �n Penn State Harr�sburg. She �s an expert on asylum and m�grat�on, fore�gn pol�cy and publ�c att�tudes. Her research and publ�cat�ons focus on Europe, Turkey and the M�ddle East. She co-authored the book: "Turkey and Its Ne�ghbors: Fore�gn Relat�on �n Trans�t�on," Lynne

Jul�ette Tolay

Mer�am Salem �s a recent graduate from Amer�can Un�vers�ty �n Wash�ngton, D.C. Throughout her t�me �n un�vers�ty, she explored postcolon�al and cr�t�cal soc�al theory through her �nternat�onal relat�ons major, and brought her research to the screen w�th her film and med�a m�nor.

Researchers Mer�am Salem

R�enner, 2011. Her publ�cat�ons also appeared �n Internat�onal M�grat�on, Perspect�ves on Pol�t�cs, R�s�ng Powers Quarterly, Les Etudes du CERI, and several ed�ted academ�c books.

Lawrence Cenk Laws currently holds a B.S. �n Internat�onal Pol�t�cs from Georgetown Un�vers�ty's School of Fore�gn Serv�ce, a J.D. from The Cathol�c Un�vers�ty of Amer�ca's Columbus School of Law, and most recently an L.L.M. �n Publ�c Internat�onal Law from Koç Un�vers�ty �n Istanbul, Turkey. H�s research areas have thus far pr�mar�ly been centered on �nternat�onal human r�ghts law and m�nor�ty r�ghts.

Lawrence Cenk Laws

K�nga Karlowska �s a graduate student at the Un�vers�ty of Massachusetts Boston work�ng towards her M.A. �n Internat�onal Relat�ons. Last year, she fin�shed her undergrad at UMass Boston, major�ng �n Pol�t�cal Sc�ence w�th a m�nor �n Internat�onal Relat�ons.

K�nga Karlowska

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Ryan McCarthy �s a full-t�me student at DePaul Un�vers�ty pursu�ng a Master's �n Refugee and Forced M�grat�on Stud�es.

Ryan McCarthy

Joshua Eb�ner and �s a recent graduate from Cal Poly Pomona w�th degrees �n Pol�t�cal Sc�ence and Ph�losophy.

Joshua Eb�ner

Jude Alawa �s an undergraduate student at Yale Un�vers�ty study�ng Global Affa�rs and Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental B�ology. H�s �nterests pr�mar�ly l�e at the �ntersect�on of med�c�ne and publ�c pol�cy, spec�fically �mprov�ng cl�n�cal standards and �ncreas�ng access to healthcare for marg�nal�zed populat�ons.

Jude Alawa

Samantha Hunt �s recently graduated from Dom�n�can Un�vers�ty of Cal�forn�a as an Honors Program student w�th dual degrees �n Internat�onal Stud�es and Pol�t�cal Sc�ence. She now works as a case handler �n the fam�ly law d�v�s�on of an �mm�grat�on law firm �n San Franc�sco, where she �s exposed to the �ntr�cac�es of the �mm�grat�on system �n the Un�ted States and abroad. Her research focuses on c�v�l soc�ety organ�zat�ons and how they are spec�ally pos�t�oned to address the spec�fic �ssues female refugees face.

Samantha Hunt

Lyd�a W�ll�ams �s an undergraduate student and sen�or study�ng pol�t�cal sc�ence and Amer�can stud�es at Penn State Harr�sburg. As a Schreyer Honors College Scholar, she gathered research on the tr�p for her thes�s on the evolut�on of Turk�sh pol�c�es towards the Syr�an refugee educat�on.

Lyd�a W�ll�ams

THO would l�ke to thank and recogn�ze Jul�ette Tolay and Cays�e Myers. Dr. Tolay was the Academ�c Gu�de for the 2018 Summer Research Program and her exper�ence, knowledge, and leadersh�p ensure the successful execut�on of the program. Cays�e Myers was THO staff lead for the program, her hard work and comm�tment gave l�fe to the program and THO �s proud to have had them both part of the program.

Meet�ng w�th Congressman Brendan Boyle (D-PA) �n Wash�ngton, D.C.

Meet�ng at Turkcell w�th the Corporate Soc�al Respons�b�l�ty Team and CEO Kaan Terz�oglu.

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Selected Program Photos

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Meet�ng w�th Istanbul Chamber of Commerce Pres�dent Sek�b Avdag�c.

Meet�ng w�th Karam Foundat�on �n Istanbul.

Meet�ng w�th Hamza Tasdelen, Deputy Head of AFAD.

Meet�ng w�th representat�ves of the follow�ng Turk�sh government m�n�str�es: The M�n�stry of Fore�gn Affa�rs; the M�n�stry of Health; the M�n�stry of Just�ce;the M�n�stry of Nat�onal Educat�on; and the M�n�stry of Labor, Soc�al Serv�ces, and Fam�ly.

Meet�ng w�th UNHCR's Ankara office.

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Meet�ng w�th the Gaz�antep Metropol�tan Mun�c�pal�ty.

V�s�t to the Turk�sh Red Crescent's Gaz�antep Commun�ty Center.

Meet�ng w�th Hasan Kalyoncu Un�vers�ty.

Summer Research Program Part�c�pants Presentat�on �n Wash�ngton D.C.

On Fr�day November 30th, THO welcomed back �t's 2018 Summer Research Alumn� to Wash�ngton, DC for "Refugees and Turkey: A Research Sympos�um."

Follow�ng the THO 2018 Summer Research Program program, the program's academ�c gu�de, Dr. Jul�ette Tolay, co-authored an Atlant�c Counc�l publ�cat�on w�th Laura Batalla, Secretary General of European Parl�ament's Turkey Forum, t�tled, "Toward Long-Term Sol�dar�ty w�th Syr�an Refugees? Turkey's Pol�cy Response and Challenges."

The sympos�um was moderated by the program's academ�c gu�de and Ass�stant Professor of Pol�t�cal Sc�ence at the School of Publ�c Affa�rs �n Penn State Harr�sburg, Dr. Jul�ette Tolay, and featured the follow�ng researchers:

Mer�am Salem - Amer�can Un�vers�ty Graduate, B.A.

K�nga Karlowska - Graduate student at Un�vers�ty of Massachusetts Boston Ryan McCarthy - Graduate student at DePaul Un�vers�ty

Lawrence Cenk Laws - Koc Un�vers�ty, LLM

Program Alumn� present�ng at THO offices conference room

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Pr�or to the panel, the researchers were �nv�ted to meet at the Atlant�c Counc�l headquarters �n Wash�ngton, DC to present the�r research and d�scuss the�r find�ngs w�th top offic�als from the EU Parl�ament and the Atlant�c Counc�l. These �ncluded Dan�el Bennett, D�rector, M�llenn�um Fellowsh�p Program, Laura Batalla, Secretary General, European Parl�ament's Turkey Forum, and P�nar Dost, Deputy D�rector, Atlant�c Counc�l �n Turkey and Istanbul Summ�t. The researchers also answered quest�ons from the offic�als regard�ng the appl�cat�on of the�r research and how they would ut�l�ze the�r find�ngs �n the future. Th�s meet�ng was of s�gn�ficance due to THO's close relat�onsh�p w�th the Atlant�c Counc�l, THO was a proud sponsors of Atlant�c Counc�l's M�llen�um Fellowsh�p Program.

After an �ntroduct�on of the Summer Program by Dr. Tolay, Mer�am Salem presented her research. Mer�am's research exam�ned the Syr�an refugees, the�r homes and the�r l�ves �n Turkey through photographs that she had taken throughout the tr�p. Her presentat�on focused on s�x photos. Wh�le tak�ng these p�ctures, she talked to the refugees and asked them a ser�es of quest�ons to better understand them and the�r l�ves. Her presentat�on also �ncluded a short v�deo.

K�nga Karlowska spoke about her research �nto the exper�ences of female refugees and the �nsecur�t�es that they faced both wh�le m�grat�ng to Turkey, and once they had settled �n Turkey. She exam�ned how trad�t�onal gender roles affected the women's l�ves as refugees, as well as what the Turk�sh government, �nternat�onal organ�zat�ons and NGOs were do�ng to a�d these refugee women.

Program Alumn� v�s�t�ng U.S. Department of State

Ryan McCarthy's research looked at the Emergency Soc�al Safety Net (ESSN) cards that are g�ven to refugees. Through a jo�nt program wh�ch was funded by the EU between the Turk�sh Red Crescent and the World Food Programme, Syr�an refugees can apply for ESSN cards, allow�ng them to transfer money. H�s research exam�ned the program �tself and how �t affected the refugees and the local bus�nesses �n Turkey. Lawrence Laws' research compared Temporary Protect�on Status (TPS) des�gnat�ons �n the Un�ted States and Turkey. H�s presentat�on looked at the h�story of the TPS law �n both countr�es, as well as the s�m�lar�t�es and d�fferences between the two. Laws asserted that TPS revolves more around pol�cy than legal�ty. He also expla�ned the drawbacks to both des�gnat�ons as they make �t more d�fficult for refugees under TPS to obta�n the�r c�t�zensh�p.

Summer Research Program Alumn� tak�ng part �n a meet�ng at Atlant�c Counc�l

Summer Research Program Alumn� meet�ng w�th Congressman Jam�e Rask�n (Maryland)

Follow�ng the panel, the students met w�th Congressman Jam�e Rask�n to d�scuss the 2018 Summer Research Program and the � r find�ngs. They then v�s�ted the U.S. Department of State Offic�als. Hav�ng met w�th many of the State Department offic�als before the tr�p, the v�s�t allowed the researchers to share the�r find�ngs from the�r research and answer quest�ons.

The day ended w�th a v�s�t to the Turk�sh Embassy and Ambassador's Res�dence. The researchers met w�th Cem Utkan, Deputy Ch�ef of M�ss�on, to d�scuss Turkey's response to and role �n the refugee cr�s�s. Mr. Utkan la�d out h�s pred�ct�ons for how Turkey would handle refugee cr�s�s mov�ng forward. Follow�ng the meet�ng, the students toured the Turk�sh Ambassador's Res�dence.

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Summer Research Program F�nal Projects by Program Part�c�pants

Th�s paper analyzes some of the most sal�ent challenges confront�ng the Syr�an refugees res�d�ng �n Turkey. It w�ll d�scuss the m�spercept�ons of Syr�ans held by the Turk�sh host commun�ty, the barr�ers that �nh�b�t Syr�ans' access to programs and resources, and the absence of �nst�tut�onal mechan�sms that �ncorporate refugees �nto the dec�s�on-mak�ng processes of government and non-governmental organ�zat�ons �nvolved �n rel�ef efforts. Th�s paper contends that many of these �ssues can be allev�ated by way of develop�ng mechan�sms that mean�ngfully �ncorporate refugees �n the dec�s�on-mak�ng processes of those organ�zat�ons. I ma�nta�n th�s pos�t�on for three pr�mary reasons. F�rst, my recommendat�on would overcome �nherent ep�stem�c gaps that �nh�b�t the effect�ve operat�on of a�d development. Second, my recommendat�on �s cons�stent w�th the ex�st�ng goals of soc�al cohes�on and commun�ty empowerment. Th�rd, my recommendat�on would contr�bute to a�d projects better al�gn�ng the�r leg�slat�ve and operat�onal goals to the needs and �nterests of the benefic�ar�es. G�ven the protracted nature of the Syr�an C�v�l War, �t �s l�kely Syr�an refugees w�ll be res�d�ng �n Turkey longer than �n�t�ally ant�c�pated. Innovat�ve and �nclus�ve pol�cy dec�s�ons, therefore, must better �ncorporate Syr�an refugees to ensure the commun�ty's future success and self-suffic�ency.

Syr�an Refugees �n Turkey: The Case for Includ�ng Refugees �n the Dec�s�on-Mak�ng Processes of Development and A�d Programs

Abstract

By Joshua S. Eb�ner

Introduct�on The Syr�an refugee cr�s�s �s w�dely regarded as one of the "worst man-made d�saster" s�nce World War

� �II. The Syr�an C�v�l War has produced more than 5.6 m�ll�on refugees who fled to ne�ghbor�ng countr�es �Turkey, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, and Egypt. Turkey hosts more

� Un�ted Nat�ons. (2017). Syr�a 'worst man-made d�saster s�nce World War II' – UN r�ghts ch�ef.

� A refugee �s un�versally defined �n the 1951 Convent�on Relat�ng to the Status of Refugees as someone who has a "well-founded fear of be�ng persecuted for

reasons of race, rel�g�on, nat�onal�ty, membersh�p of a part�cular soc�al group or pol�t�cal op�n�on, �s outs�de the country of h�s nat�onal�ty and �s unable or, ow�ng

to such fear, �s unw�ll�ng to ava�l h�mself of the protect�on of that country; or who, not hav�ng a nat�onal�ty and be�ng outs�de the country of h�s former hab�tual

res�dence, �s unable or, ow�ng to such fear, �s unw�ll�ng to return to �t." UNHCR. (2018). Emergency Handbook.

� Central Intell�gence Agency. (2017). The World Factbook.

4refugees than any other country w�th about 15% of the global refugee populat�on res�d�ng w�th�n

� 6�ts borders. The c�v�l war has d�splaced at least 6.8 m�ll�on �nd�v�duals and k�lled more than

�400,000 �n the ensu�ng confl�ct.

� S�nce the start of the c�v�l war �n 2011, more than 3.8 m�ll�on refugees have fled to Turkey.

Wh�le Turkey has exper�enced mult�ple waves of �mm�grat�on beg�nn�ng �n the 1920s, �ts

�mm�grat�on pol�cy "was �n flux" when government offic�als �mplemented the "open-door

�approach" to the Syr�an cr�s�s. The open-door approach was a generous and strateg�c dec�s�on that

reflected Turkey's �nterest �n the future of Syr�a and the protect�on of �ts c�t�zens. However,

government offic�als could not ant�c�pate the sheer number of Syr�ans who would come to Turkey

seek�ng protect�on �n the matter of a couple of years. The �mm�grat�on pol�cy also reflected an

"assumpt�on that the confl�ct would come to a sw�ft conclus�on," w�th Syr�ans be�ng referred to as

"guests" who would soon return home rather than "refugees" who would l�kely be �ntegrated �nto

Turk�sh soc�ety.

As the Syr�an C�v�l War enters �ts seventh year, there �s "no mean�ngful pol�t�cal resolut�on

���n s�ght" wh�ch l�m�ts the prospect of eventual voluntary repatr�at�on to Syr�a. Further

compl�cat�ng the s�tuat�on �s the loom�ng uncerta�nty surround�ng Idl�b, one of the last rebel

��enclaves wh�ch currently hosts approx�mately 3 m�ll�on people. The Assad reg�me has already

begun m�l�tary operat�ons �n the reg�on and negot�at�on attempts to preserve c�v�l�an l�ves

� Keyman, E. F. & Sazak, O. (2014). Turkey as a "Human�tar�an State"; see also Erdoğan, Murat, M. (2017).

Th�nk�ng Outs�de the Camp: Syr�an Refugees �n Istanbul.

� It �s �mportant to note that, as of July 2017, Turkey hosts at least 64% of the Syr�an refugee populat�on.

See Un�ted Nat�ons. (2018). Operat�onal Portal: Refugee S�tuat�ons.

� Central Intell�gence Agency. (2017). The World Factbook.

� World Bank �n Syr�an Arab Republ�c. (2018). Overv�ew.

� Internat�onal Organ�zat�on for M�grat�on. (2018). M�grat�on Cr�s�s Operat�onal Framework: IOM Turkey 2018-2019.

� Icduygu, Ahmet. (2015). Syr�an Refugees �n Turkey: The Long Road Ahead. Transatlant�c Counc�l on M�grat�on.

�� Internat�onal Organ�zat�on for M�grat�on. (2018). M�grat�on Cr�s�s Operat�onal Framework: IOM Turkey 2018-2019.

�� The Atlant�c. (2018). Surv�v�ng �n Syr�a's 'Forgotten Prov�nce'.

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�s frag�le at best. Should confl�ct reach a t�pp�ng po�nt, a human�tar�an cr�s�s that pales anyth�ng

��before �t could occur. In Turkey, meanwh�le, 74% of Syr�an refugees have both �nd�cated that they

��bel�eve they are "adapted to l�fe �n Turkey" and would l�ke to become Turk�sh c�t�zens. The

durat�on of these unforeseen c�rcumstances has necess�tated fundamental changes �n Turkey's

��refugee pol�c�es.

Faced w�th the task of develop�ng and �mplement�ng a more permanent, long-term solut�on, the

Turk�sh government �s challenged w�th a complex and mult�d�mens�onal �ssue that scrapes soc�al,

cultural, pol�t�cal, and econom�c cleavages. The deta�ls of th�s sh�ft �n pol�cy are st�ll be�ng

developed wh�ch has bred uncerta�nty and tens�on. Th�s report w�ll accompl�sh two outcomes.

F�rst, �t w�ll evaluate three major challenges that confront Syr�an refugees l�v�ng �n Turkey.

Second, �t recommends that organ�zat�ons ass�st�ng refugees should develop �nst�tut�onal

mechan�sms that foster opportun�t�es for act�ve �nvolvement, �nput, and feedback �n a�d

operat�ons. I argue that many of the challenges refugees confront �n Turkey could be m�t�gated �f

countr�es and �nternat�onal organ�zat�ons prov�ded formal and permanent mechan�sms that

allowed for refugee perspect�ves, �nput, and feedback �n pol�cy development and �mplementat�on.

The Syr�an refugee cr�s�s �s an unprecedented phenomenon; successfully address�ng �ts challenges

�s essent�al as best pract�ces can be d�st�lled and �nvaluable academ�c and pract�cal �ns�ghts

prov�ded.

Some of the most sal�ent challenges confront�ng the Turk�sh government and refugees, �nclude: (1)

general m�spercept�ons of the refugee commun�ty and a lack of awareness of the�r

�� Ib�d.

�� Ingev. (2017). Syr�an Refugee L�vel�hood Mon�tor: Summary Assessment.

�� Although beyond the scope of th�s project, a recent dec�s�on by the European Court of Human R�ghts (ECHR) ruled that there �s "need for an overhaul of

Turk�sh leg�slat�on and pract�ce �n the field of m�grat�on and asylum". Refugee R�ghts Turkey, 2017.

Challenges Confront�ng Refugees and the Host Commun�ty

s�tuat�on; (2) barr�ers (e.g. �nst�tut�onal, econom�c, soc�al, ep�stem�c, cultural, or geograph�cal)

that �nh�b�t refugees' access to legal r�ghts, serv�ces, and resources; and (3) �nsuffic�ent

mechan�sms that pr�or�t�ze the act�ve, d�rect, and mean�ngful �nvolvement of refugees �n the

dec�s�on-mak�ng processes for soc�al, pol�t�cal, econom�c, and legal developments.

The soc�ocultural env�ronment �n Turkey �s str�k�ngly complex w�th many d�fferent bel�efs

about and understand�ngs of the refugee populat�on and host commun�ty. Stud�es conducted by the

World Food Programme (WFP) (2017), as well as my own observat�ons �n Turkey, have

demonstrated that Syr�an refugees are overwhelm�ngly apprec�at�ve of the protect�on and

resources they have rece�ved from the Turk�sh government, non-governmental and c�v�l soc�ety

organ�zat�ons, and the �nternat�onal commun�ty. Refugees have, however, �ncreas�ngly vo�ced

concerns over prevalent barr�ers that restr�ct the�r ab�l�ty to access resources, a sense of acute

�solat�on from the host commun�ty, a loom�ng uncerta�nty about the�r legal status, "labor

�� explo�tat�on and h�gh rent."

The WFP measured and compared the percept�ons of the host commun�ty and Syr�an

refugees along four themes, �nclud�ng: (1) "soc�al �nteract�ons; (2) econom�c �mpl�cat�ons; (3)

��ass�stance prov�s�on; and (4) safety, secur�ty, and stab�l�ty". The study revealed provocat�ve

results. In the first theme, Syr�an refugees demonstrated more w�ll�ngness to engage and �nteract

��w�th the Turk�sh host commun�ty both �n short- and long-term ways. For econom�c �mpl�cat�ons,

responses suggested that Syr�ans bel�eved landlords were charg�ng them h�gher rent

�� World Food Programme. (2017). Soc�al Cohes�on �n Turkey: Refugee and Host Commun�ty Onl�ne Survey.

�� Ib�d. p.3

�� Ib�d. p.7

M�spercept�ons and Lack of Awareness

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��as compared to Turk�sh tenants. Meanwh�le, members of the host commun�ty bel�eved that Syr�an

��refugees were the cause of h�gher cost of l�v�ng , were contr�but�ng to h�gher unemployment rates

by tak�ng the jobs prev�ously occup�ed by Turk�sh workers, and were dr�v�ng wages down by

predom�nantly work�ng �n the �nformal economy.

For the th�rd theme, the major�ty of Turk�sh respondents d�sagreed that Syr�an fam�l�es are

more vulnerable than Turk�sh fam�l�es, and they were spl�t on whether the "Turk�sh government

should prov�de ass�stance to Syr�an fam�l�es so they can meet the�r bas�c needs" (41% agreed

��compared to 37% who d�sagreed). For the fourth theme, 46% of Turk�sh respondents bel�eved that

��cr�me rates have �ncreased due to the presence of Syr�an refugees. Intercommunal v�olence

between Turk�sh and Syr�an populat�ons �s becom�ng a more sal�ent concern w�th �nstances of ant�-

refugee v�olence �ncreas�ng "threefold �n the second half of 2017 compared to the same per�od �n

��2016." Desp�te th�s and the uncerta�nty regard�ng the�r legal status, refugees have expressed

overwhelm�ng confidence that they w�ll be able to stay �n Turkey "as long as the confl�ct cont�nues

���n [Syr�a]", and that the�r ch�ldren have a "chance of a br�ght future �n Turkey."

Although Turkey has been generous �n accept�ng and host�ng the Syr�an refugee

populat�on, there rema�n numerous barr�ers that ra�se concern. The first and most cr�t�cal are

�nst�tut�onal barr�ers wh�ch contr�bute �n part broader challenges. By �nst�tut�onal, I mean

var�ables related to government m�n�str�es �nclud�ng nat�onal laws, the enforcement of those laws,

capac�ty-related l�m�tat�ons w�th respect to meet�ng the needs of the publ�c by way of d�str�but�ng

�� Ib�d. p.10

�� Ib�d. p. 10

�� Ib�d. p.12

�� Ib�d. p.14

�� Internat�onal Cr�s�s Group. (2018). Turkey's Syr�an Refugees: Defus�ng Metropol�tan Tens�ons.

�� Ib�d. p.15

Barr�ers to Access

goods and serv�ces. As Mohamed Al Bdullah �nd�cates, the Turk�sh government has not allocated a

suffic�ent amount of funds to the "l�vel�hood sector to enable Syr�ans to bu�ld the�r l�vel�hoods �n

��Turkey." In a s�m�lar sense, Turkey has struggled �n �ts effort to create "mean�ngful employment

opportun�t�es for Syr�an refugees, �ntegrat�ng and organ�z�ng refugees �n the labor market, and

��address�ng problems between refugees and the�r employers." Syr�an refugees are class�fied as

"cond�t�onal refugees" under Turk�sh law wh�ch s�gnals the�r temporary res�dent status and

��subjects them to movement and employment restr�ct�ons. For �nstance, refugees are requ�red to

res�de and work �n the mun�c�pal�ty they were reg�stered. Although �t �s techn�cally �llegal for

refugees to move and work �n a d�fferent mun�c�pal�ty, anecdot�cal ev�dence suggests �t �s a

commonplace pract�ce done out of necess�ty.

The Turk�sh government has been slow �n develop�ng and enforc�ng employment pol�c�es

that would allow Syr�an refugees to part�c�pate �n the formal economy. The government has been

s�m�larly slow �n prov�d�ng access to �nformat�on regard�ng the appl�cat�on process for work

��perm�ts. A separately cr�t�cal �ssue �s the qual�ficat�ons for the work perm�ts. Syr�an refugees are

requ�red to l�ve �n Turkey for s�x months before apply�ng for the perm�t and most employers w�ll

��not h�re Syr�ans w�thout �t. For those employers who do cons�der employ�ng Syr�ans, there �s a

nat�onal law wh�ch requ�res them to "employ at least five Turk�sh nat�onals for every fore�gn

��employee." Consequently, many Syr�an refugees are forced to work �n the �nformal economy

where they are subject to explo�tat�on by way of below-market wages, lack of worker r�ghts and

protect�ons, and job �nsecur�ty. As the World Bank recogn�zed, "pract�cally none of the

�� Al Bdullah, Mohamed. (2018). Syr�an Refugee Employment �n Turkey.

�� Ib�d. p.1

�� Leghtas, Izza & Sull�van, Dan�el. (2017). "Except God, We Have No One": Lack of Durable Solut�ons for Non-Syr�an Refugees �n Turkey.

�� Asylum Informat�on Database. (2018). Access to the Labour Market: Turkey.

�� Frayer, Lauren. (2017). For Syr�an Refugees �n Turkey, A Long Road to Regular Employment.

�� Ib�d. p.11

18

19

Syr�an refugees rece�ved work perm�ts" wh�ch leads to an �nflux of workers enter�ng the �nformal

��economy. A more char�table est�mate suggests that less than 14,000 Syr�an refugees were able to

��secure work perm�ts that would grant them access to formal employment �n 2017.

Others who have tr�ed to establ�sh the�r own bus�ness have run �nto bureaucrat�c red tape.

Wh�le representat�ves from the Turk�sh government m�n�str�es and certa�n NGOs cla�med a

bus�ness could be establ�shed �n as l�ttle as a s�ngle day, other NGO representat�ves and Syr�an

refugees expressed frustrat�on �n the delays they have exper�enced and lack of �nformat�on. For

those who have successfully establ�shed bus�nesses, amb�guous or confl�ct�ng government

"�nformat�on on account�ng and legal procedures" has �mpacted the effic�ency of bus�ness

��operat�ons. Banks and other financ�al �nst�tut�ons tend to treat Syr�ans d�fferently and have been

��known to deny Syr�ans access to creat�ng bank accounts or secur�ng loans and cred�t. The

complex�ty of the bank�ng system by way of "d�fferent layers of ver�ficat�on and rules for

��transferr�ng money outs�de Turkey" has also been a barr�er for bus�ness. Further compound�ng

th�s �ssue �s the lack of ev�dence of Syr�an bus�ness owners hav�ng a seat �n mun�c�pal �nst�tut�ons

such as the Chamber of Commerce.

Another challenge for Syr�an refugees �s access�ng publ�c serv�ces and soc�al safety net

programs. Wh�le Syr�ans who qual�fy for temporary protect�on have legal cla�ms to pr�mary

healthcare serv�ces, "educat�on, access to [the] labor market, soc�al ass�stance, �nterpretat�on, and

��s�m�lar serv�ces", anecdotal ev�dence suggests there rema�n cons�derable d�fficult�es �n

�� Del Carp�o, X�mena V. & Wagner, Math�s. (2015). The Impact of Syr�an Refugees on the Turk�sh Labor Market.

�� Frayer, Lauren. (2017). For Syr�an Refugees �n Turkey, A Long Road to Regular Employment.

�� Ucak, Selen & Raman, Kavya. Another S�de of the Story: A Market Assessment of Syr�an SMEs �n Turkey.

�� Chehade, Nad�ne. Jordan�ans and Syr�an Refugees: Rem�ttances and F�nanc�al Serv�ces Use.

�� Ib�d. p.12

�� Nat�onal Leg�slat�ve Bod�es / Nat�onal Author�t�es. (2014). Turkey: Temporary Protect�on Regulat�on.

access�ng those serv�ces. Part of the challenge �s d�ssem�nat�ng �nformat�on to the Syr�an

populat�on, a task compounded by r�g�d language barr�ers. Torun and assoc�ates conducted a study

to "asses the health needs of urban refugees l�v�ng �n Istanbul" and they d�scovered nearly half of

��the women they �nterv�ewed "d�d not know about free health care r�ghts for Syr�ans." Th�s comes

�n l�ght of Turk�sh government efforts to promote publ�c awareness of serv�ces and ass�stance and

���ts expans�on of "ex�st�ng nat�onal soc�al ass�stance systems."

Th�s populat�on �s part�cularly suscept�ble to untreated d�sease and �njur�es s�nce Syr�a's

��health care system has been a frequent target throughout the c�v�l war. Access to health was

s�gn�ficantly restr�cted, suggest�ng that many Syr�ans have not had access to mean�ngful health

care s�nce before the c�v�l war broke out. For �nstance, "maternal and ch�ld health serv�ces at the

pr�mary health care level are d�srupted" �n Syr�a wh�ch has contr�buted to h�gher "maternal and

��ch�ld morb�d�ty and mortal�ty" rates. In fact, the World Health Organ�zat�on (WHO) found that

��47.7% of Syr�an women "had a h�story of pregnancy loss" and access to reproduct�ve med�cal

serv�ces rema�ns �nsuffic�ent. Wh�le data on reproduct�ve health �s l�m�ted, some stud�es have

�nd�cated "a th�rd of pregnant Syr�an women were reg�stered w�th compl�cat�ons and �n need of

��reproduct�ve health serv�ces." WHO also d�scovered that "the major�ty of Syr�an refugees has at

least one mental health cond�t�on" and are more l�kely to be exposed to certa�n types of

commun�cable d�seases "shaped by pecul�ar exper�ences and s�tuat�ons �n the�r place of or�g�n,

�� Torun, Per�han, et. al. (2018). Health and Health Care Access for Syr�an Refugees L�v�ng �n Istanbul.

�� Brussels II Conference. (2018). Ass�stance to Syr�an Refugees �n Turkey.

�� Sharara, S�ma L. & Kanj, Souha S. (2014). War and Infect�ous D�seases: Challenges of the Syr�an C�v�l War.

�� Kherallah et. al. (2012). Health Care �n Syr�an Before and Dur�ng the Cr�s�s.

�� World Health Organ�zat�on. Health Status of Refugees and M�grants �n Turkey: An Ev�dence Rev�ew of Publ�shed Sc�ent�fic Papers.

�� Rohwerder, Br�g�tte. (2018). Syr�an Refugee Women, G�rls, and People w�th D�sab�l�t�es �n Turkey.

20

21

travel cond�t�ons dur�ng trans�t, and l�v�ng cond�t�ons found �n the�r eventual place of

��dest�nat�on."

Access barr�ers are present �n the d�str�but�on of soc�al serv�ce programs such as the cash-based

ass�stance program, Emergency Soc�al Safety Net (ESSN) program. ESSN prov�des rec�p�ents

"120 Turk�sh L�ra [roughly $21 USD] per fam�ly member every month" wh�ch can cover var�ous

��expenses �nclud�ng rent, food, and transportat�on. As of October 2017, an est�mated one m�ll�on

Syr�ans have rece�ved ESSN benefits wh�ch �s commendable g�ven �ts recent �mplementat�on.

However, concerns related to the effect�veness of these programs and the d�str�but�on of �ts

resources were noted throughout my research. Some Syr�ans and NGOs had �nd�cated that only a

port�on of the ESSN benefits they qual�fied for were d�str�buted wh�le others had d�fficulty

access�ng �t altogether. The �mpact of these cases �s enhanced by the "lack of financ�al resources to

��,��adequately address refugee needs" at the mun�c�pal level. As I w�ll d�scuss �n the follow�ng

sect�on, I bel�eve these �ssues can be addressed �f a suffic�ently broad and �nclus�ve mechan�sm �s

establ�shed to �ncorporate the �nput and perspect�ves of Syr�ans �nto the dec�s�on-mak�ng

processes and operat�onal funct�ons of a�d organ�zat�ons.

The th�rd challenge I w�ll d�scuss �n th�s paper �s the lack of �nst�tut�onal mechan�sms that

mean�ngfully engage refugees so as to �mprove the�r well-be�ng and access to programs and

serv�ces. Throughout my research, I had the opportun�ty to meet w�th representat�ves from over

�� Ib�d. p.v��, 15

�� Rel�efWeb. (2017). EU-Funded Cash Ass�stance Programme Reaches 1 M�ll�on Refugees �n Turkey.

�� Erdoğan, Murat, M. (2017). Th�nk�ng Outs�de the Camp: Syr�an Refugees �n Istanbul.

�� Most mun�c�pal�ty fund�ng comes from two sources: "self-generated �ncome and transfers from general budget tax revenues" (Erdoğan, 2017). The latter �s

t�ed to the mun�c�pal�ty's populat�on exclud�ng refugees and fore�gners. Consequently, the fund�ng has not accounted for the �nflux of Syr�ans wh�ch feeds �nto

the percept�on of compet�t�on or favor�t�sm ment�oned �n the prev�ous sect�on.

Insuffic�ent Mechan�sms for Engagement

25 organ�zat�ons �nclud�ng Small Projects Istanbul, Red Crescent, UNHCR, and the M�n�str�es of

Fore�gn Affa�rs, Health, Just�ce, and Fam�ly and Soc�al Pol�cy. For each meet�ng, I presented one of

three quest�ons. The first query was whether the organ�zat�on had a mechan�sm that �ncorporated

refugees �nto the dec�s�on-mak�ng processes of the organ�zat�on's a�d operat�ons. Th�s could take the

form of refugee focus groups, adv�sory comm�ttees, commun�ty outreach, or membersh�p. Second, I

asked �f the organ�zat�on had a procedure that gathered and analyzed refugee feedback on a�d

operat�ons. Th�rd, I expl�c�tly asked �f the organ�zat�on had refugees as part of �ts membersh�p, e�ther

��formally or �nformally.

My research revealed that most organ�zat�ons d�d not have a mechan�sm to �ncorporate

refugees �nto �ts dec�s�on-mak�ng processes or operat�onal funct�ons related to a�d d�str�but�on. The

research hypothes�zed that the organ�zat�ons would recogn�ze the need to �nvolve refugees �n some

aspect of the�r operat�onal procedures. Efforts could �nclude develop�ng and regularly us�ng some

form of adv�sory comm�ttee and feedback process to contr�bute to the organ�zat�on's execut�ve

dec�s�ons and evaluat�on of current projects. One representat�ve suggested that generally, refugees are

�nvolved �n the operat�onal work of some organ�zat�ons by way of needs assessments, focus group

meet�ngs, and commun�ty outreach. However, refugees have no d�rect �nvolvement �n government

programs and affa�rs nor are they �nvolved �n the execut�ve dec�s�on-mak�ng processes of �nternat�onal

organ�zat�ons and fore�gn NGOs. Th�s pos�t�on was corroborated �n other �nterv�ews where most

organ�zat�ons �nd�cated they d�d not have a formal mechan�sm to �ncorporate refugees.

A notable �mpl�cat�on could be found by compar�ng my meet�ng w�th a representat�ve from the

WHO and several meet�ngs w�th CSOs and Syr�an refugees. W�th the former, the representat�ve was

proud to share the WHO's �mpact �n Turkey through the d�str�but�on and

�� Note that th�s quest�on �s more appl�cable to NGOs and UN agenc�es than �t may be for government offices.

22

prov�s�on of med�cal equ�pment, med�c�ne, suppl�es, and staff. Wh�le WHO has been undoubtedly

p�votal �n �mprov�ng the l�ves of Syr�an refugees, the other meet�ngs revealed another d�mens�on.

Spec�fically, several organ�zat�ons �nd�cated that they subm�tted requests for med�cal equ�pment

(e.g. umb�l�cal cord clamps) only to rece�ve sh�pments that conta�n mostly suppl�es they could not

use. As a consequence, most of the equ�pment was not effect�vely used and sat �n storage. It �s my

content�on that c�rcumstances l�ke th�s could be allev�ated �f refugees were g�ven a greater role �n

the organ�zat�ons that prov�de a�d to the�r commun�t�es.

Includ�ng refugees �n dec�s�on-mak�ng processes could prove valuable to organ�zat�ons �n

key aspects of the�r operat�ons. The first �s a matter of pract�cal�ty and based �n ep�stemology wh�ch

��"�s the study of knowledge and just�fied bel�ef." W�thout gett�ng too far down the ph�losoph�cal

rabb�t hole, suffice �t to say that there are certa�n �nherent l�m�tat�ons to our ab�l�ty to d�scern the

real�t�es and exper�ences of others. We can have firsthand knowledge (th�ngs we learn and

exper�ence d�rectly), secondhand knowledge (th�ngs we learn and exper�ence �nd�rectly or through

�� ��others) , and ep�stem�c bl�nd spots (th�ngs we do not know about). The further removed one �s

from a part�cular exper�ence, the harder �t would be for them to conceptual�ze �ts �mpl�cat�ons and

the smaller the �mpact �t w�ll have on them. To apply th�s framework, cons�der the follow�ng

example. In the context of the Syr�an c�v�l war, only a Syr�an refugee w�ll know the traumas

assoc�ated w�th the war and the challenges of start�ng a new l�fe �n Turkey (firsthand knowledge). A

Turk�sh c�t�zen and an Amer�can researcher may learn of the c�v�l war and hear the stor�es told by

Syr�an refugees (secondhand knowledge). A person �n a d�stant country pays

�� Steup, Matth�as. (2018). Ep�stemology.

�� Lockhart, Kr�st� L. et. al. (2015). What Could You Really Learn on Your Own? Understand�ng the Ep�stem�c L�m�tat�ons of Knowledge Acqu�s�t�on.

�� Dodd, Jordan. (2014). Hope, Knowledge, and Bl�ndspots.

The Case for Includ�ng Refugees �n the Dec�s�on-Mak�ng Process

23

l�ttle attent�on to �nternat�onal news and �s unaware there �s a c�v�l war that has forced some Syr�ans

to relocate �n Turkey (ep�stem�c bl�ndspot). These concepts can be appl�ed to many d�fferent

c�rcumstances (e.g. gender-spec�fic �ssues, wealth, culture, and employment).

W�th the stage set through th�s crash course �n ep�stemology, let's apply the log�c to the

dec�s�on-mak�ng processes of those organ�zat�ons prov�d�ng a�d Syr�ans �n Turkey. If my example

�s sound, th�s task should be manageable. An organ�zat�on's operat�onal effect�veness �s generally

correlated to the qual�ty and quant�ty of �nformat�on ava�lable. For �nstance, an organ�zat�on's

ab�l�ty to �dent�fy the d�st�nct locat�ons of Syr�an refugees, the�r spec�fic needs and �nterests, or to

correct shortcom�ngs of a�d d�str�but�on efforts �s dependent on the degree to wh�ch the

organ�zat�on �s connected to the target populat�on. Of course, these tasks can be accompl�shed �n

the absence of what I am about to recommend. However, I argue that do�ng so creates l�ab�l�t�es and

�neffic�enc�es by way of overs�ght and �gnorance. In add�t�on, �nd�v�duals operat�ng organ�zat�ons

"necessar�ly make m�stakes, have b�ases, and ep�stem�c l�m�tat�ons" wh�ch �mpact the

��organ�zat�ons' a�d operat�ons. The proposed format �s a form of commun�ty-based �ntervent�on

where organ�zat�ons not only work �n the same geograph�cal space as the�r target commun�t�es, but

they also act�vely �ncorporate and partner w�th them. The Amer�can Journal of Publ�c Health, for

�nstance, recogn�zed that commun�ty-based �ntervent�ons could "ass�st �n ta�lor�ng �ntervent�ons to

��spec�fic target groups or to adapt programs to commun�ty character�st�cs." Such �ntervent�ons also

develop a sense of ownersh�p and strengths commun�ty organ�zat�ons and members' ab�l�t�es to

��collaborate.

The second argument for creat�ng more act�ve roles for refugees �n a�d operat�ons �s �ts

cons�stency w�th the ex�st�ng goals of soc�al cohes�on and commun�ty empowerment. Part�ally

�� Joshua Eb�ner. (2018). Global Just�ce: Pract�cal Approaches to D�scharge Respons�b�l�ty. Forthcom�ng.

�� Amer�can Journal of Publ�c Health. (2003). Commun�ty-Based Intervent�ons. p.530.

�� Ib�d. p.530.

24

due to the protracted nature of the c�v�l war, a�d programs �n Turkey have started to emphas�ze

soc�al cohes�on between the host commun�t�es and Syr�an refugees. The ESSN program, for

example, translates �nto Engl�sh as "'Soc�al Cohes�on Ass�stance programme' [underl�n�ng] the

�dea that prov�d�ng bas�c needs ass�stance to refugees �s �ntended to support the soc�al cohes�on of

��refugees w�th�n Turk�sh commun�t�es." W�th respect to commun�ty empowerment, s�nce 2001,

the UNHCR �nd�cated that �t should place "people of concern at the center of operat�onal dec�s�on-

mak�ng," a sh�ft wh�ch emphas�zes refugees as "equal partners who have an act�ve role �n

��protect�ng themselves and organ�z�ng for the�r own bas�c needs." Th�s approach �s bu�lt upon the

"pr�nc�ples of part�c�pat�on and empower�ng �nd�v�duals and commun�t�es to promote change and

��enable them to exerc�se the�r r�ghts."

Along these l�nes, �ncorporat�ng refugees �nto the dec�s�on-mak�ng and operat�onal

processes of var�ous a�d organ�zat�ons are pos�t�oned to promote soc�al cohes�on and empower

local commun�t�es. There �s emerg�ng l�terature that suggests the empowerment of refugees has

long-term mutual benefits for them and the�r commun�t�es. The Brook�ngs Inst�tute, for �nstance,

ma�nta�ns that "the presence of more fore�gners �n the labor force doesn't hurt nat�ves" part�cularly

��because the latter generally tend to compete for d�fferent types of and h�gher pay�ng jobs.

Khoudour and Andersson s�m�larly assert refugees "contr�bute to development by prov�d�ng sk�lls

��and resources, and spurr�ng product�on capac�ty and consumpt�on demand." Perhaps the b�ggest

challenge to effic�ently and effect�vely leverag�ng the resources and sk�ll sets of both the refugee

and host commun�t�es �s sound management and coord�nat�on. These tasks

�� World Food Programme. (2017). Soc�al Cohes�on �n Turkey: Refugee and Host Commun�ty Onl�ne Survey. p.3.

�� UNHCR. (2008). A Commun�ty-Based Approach �n UNHCR Operat�ons.

�� Ib�d. p.16.

�� Brook�ngs Inst�tute. (2018). Why Accept�ng Refugees �s a W�n-W�n-W�n Formula.

�� Khoudour, Dav�d & Andersson L�sa. (2017). Assess�ng the Contr�but�on of Refugees to the Development of The�r Host Countr�es. p.2.

25

are only poss�ble �f both commun�t�es are act�vely and mean�ngfully �nvolved �n the dec�s�on-

mak�ng processes.

Accord�ng to my research, the refugee commun�ty �s almost categor�cally removed from

and unrepresented �n the dec�s�on-mak�ng processes of a�d organ�zat�ons. Th�s �s a h�ndrance to the

abovement�oned goals as the organ�zat�ons' �neffic�ency and �gnorance prolong the need for a�d

programs and projects. In the process, m�spercept�ons, b�ases, and prejud�ces contr�bute to

grow�ng tens�ons between the host and refugee commun�t�es wh�ch stym�e and underm�ne soc�al

cohes�on efforts. Arguably, the more effect�ve a�d programs are, the qu�cker �ts benefic�ar�es are

able to become self-suffic�ent. And the sooner a commun�ty becomes self-suffic�ent, the sooner �t

can lead product�ve l�ves and contr�bute measurable benefits to the host commun�ty.

To a s�m�lar end, �nternat�onal organ�zat�ons l�ke the Un�ted Nat�ons need to do a better job

at �ntegrat�ng refugee-led organ�zat�ons �n the�r a�d d�str�but�on efforts. The Internat�onal Refugee

Congress �nd�cated �n a 2018 report that there were low levels of engagement w�th organ�zat�ons

���nvolved �n refugee a�d operat�ons at the nat�onal and �nternat�onal levels. Refugee-led

organ�zat�ons were s�gn�ficantly underrepresented �n the dec�s�on-mak�ng processes as only 2 of

��39 part�c�pants were d�rectly engaged by �nternat�onal organ�zat�ons. These find�ngs corroborate

an �nterv�ew I had w�th representat�ves from (Insert) who shared w�th me that they were the only

two part�c�pants �n �nternat�onal conferences on ass�st�ng Syr�an refugees.

The lack of opportun�t�es to part�c�pate �n and transparency of a�d rel�ef and development

efforts �s not just�fiable. A th�rd reason for �nvolv�ng the refugees �n the dec�s�on-mak�ng processes

�s that th�s pract�ce would l�kely better al�gn project and operat�onal goals to the needs and �nterests

of the benefic�ar�es. By work�ng �n close partnersh�p w�th benefic�ary commun�t�es,

�� Internat�onal Refugee Congress. (2018). Internat�onal Refugee Congress 2018 Consultat�on Report. p.3

�� Ib�d. p.3.

26

nat�onal and �nternat�onal a�d and government organ�zat�ons w�ll develop a better understand�ng

of the un�que challenges those commun�t�es exper�ence and the norms and cond�t�ons that

��“mot�vate or d�scourage certa�n behav�ors.” The organ�zat�ons would also have ample

opportun�t�es to develop, refine, and test d�fferent a�d projects, tak�ng �nto cons�derat�on the un�que

real�t�es of Syr�an refugees. In the absence of the proposed format, projects are more l�kely to

overlook key deta�ls wh�ch w�ll have last�ng effects. For �nstance, �n several of my �nterv�ews,

NGO representat�ves and Syr�an refugees �nd�cated frustrat�on over the bureaucrat�c red tape that

delayed or prevented the�r ab�l�ty to access v�tal resources and serv�ces. Conversely, my �nterv�ews

w�th government offic�als and pro-government NGOs revealed a near categor�cal den�al of such

d�fficult�es. S�m�larly, several representat�ves �nd�cated that government enforcement and

overs�ght of �ts ant�-d�scr�m�nat�on laws were lax, creat�ng an env�ronment wh�ch enabled ent�t�es

to operate off an ent�rely d�fferent and exclus�ve set of pol�c�es.

As I ment�oned earl�er �n th�s paper, many Syr�an refugees have �nd�cated both the�r

�ntent�on to rema�n �n Turkey �n the long-term and the�r ab�l�ty to accl�mate �nto Turk�sh soc�ety. I

bel�eve that �f they are g�ven adequate resources, they can �ntegrate and contr�bute to soc�ety �n a

pos�t�ve way. But unt�l refugees are g�ven those resources and opportun�t�es, the challenges I

ment�oned �n the prev�ous sect�ons w�ll cont�nue to fester. Th�s paper contends that a necessary

cond�t�on to enabl�ng Syr�ans to lead successful l�ves �n Turkey �s �nvolv�ng them �n the dec�s�on-

mak�ng processes. Of course, carry�ng out th�s recommendat�on w�ll have �ts challenges and there

w�ll certa�nly be grow�ng pa�ns assoc�ated w�th accommodat�ng a large �nflux of refugees. Wh�le

the long-term prospects of the refugee cr�s�s are uncerta�n, �t seems l�kely that many Syr�ans w�ll

rema�n �n Turkey even after the c�v�l war concludes. The amount of �nternat�onal a�d, though

generally �nadequate to th�s po�nt, w�ll l�kely beg�n to decrease wh�ch

�� Joshua Eb�ner. (2018). Global Just�ce: Pract�cal Approaches to D�scharge Respons�b�l�ty. Forthcom�ng.

27

puts the onus on Turk�sh government offic�als to develop and fund projects and resources to

support Syr�ans and Turk�sh commun�t�es. If my pred�ct�ons are correct, �mprov�ng the operat�ons

of current a�d and development projects are cr�t�cally t�me-sens�t�ve. If refugees cont�nue to

exper�ence barr�ers that prevent the�r part�c�pat�on �n the dec�s�on-mak�ng processes, the task of

successfully �ntegrat�ng and eas�ng soc�al tens�ons w�ll be d�fficult. However, �f refugees are

appropr�ately and adequately �nvolved, refugees are l�kely to lead more product�ve l�ves at a

qu�cker rate. If refugees lead more product�ve l�ves at a qu�cker rate, the tens�ons and

m�spercept�ons ment�oned �n prev�ous sect�ons are l�kely to d�ss�pate as well. Turkey has done a lot

of �mportant human�tar�an work, but the road ahead has many challenges. I bel�eve that my

recommendat�ons could better prepare government leaders and NGO workers �n the�r efforts to

develop best pract�ces to address those challenges.

28

"Deal. Breakthrough w�th Turkey," spokesman for the pres�dent of the European Comm�ss�on,

th �Mart�n Selmayr, announced on Tw�tter late �n the even�ng of March 7 , 2016. The meet�ng

between EU leaders and the then Pr�me M�n�ster of Turkey, Ahmet Davutoğlu, was held �n

��response to the arr�val of 888,537 m�grants from Turkey to Greece and Bulgar�a �n 2015. As part

of that agreement, dubbed the "Grand Barga�n," the EU pledged 3 b�ll�on Euros to Turkey, 1.4

b�ll�on of wh�ch allocated for human�tar�an purposes. In d�str�but�ng the funds the EU comm�tted

to "�ncrease the rout�ne use of cash" and "�nvest �n new del�very models wh�ch can be �ncreased �n

���scale" �n the del�very of that a�d. E�ght months later, �n keep�ng w�th the agreement, on November

th28 2016, the Emergency Soc�al Safety Net (ESSN) was �ntroduced. The ESSN �s hosted on the

K�z�lay Card, a deb�t l�ke card that the EU, through the D�rectorate-General for European C�v�l

Protect�on and Human�tar�an A�d Operat�ons (ECHO) d�str�butes monthly cash depos�ts ava�lable

to qual�fy�ng refugees �n Turkey. Amb�t�ously b�lled as the b�ggest human�tar�an project the

�vEuropean Un�on has conducted, �t �s surpr�s�ngly s�mple: qual�fy�ng refugees are d�str�buted

"unrestr�cted" cash on the card. ESSN came w�th bold prom�ses: �ntegrat�on w�th nat�onal

ass�stance programs; g�v�ng refugees "normalcy and empower[�ng] [refugees] to manage the�r

fam�ly's pr�or�t�es to meet the�r essent�al needs"; "promot�ng soc�al cohes�on and pos�t�vely

v�mpact�ng host commun�t�es"; and a pledge to reach 1 m�ll�on refugees. Two years on, we rev�s�t

th�s pledge: Is the program meet�ng �ts amb�t�ous goals and reach�ng the most vulnerable?

v�Large waves of �ncom�ng m�grat�on led to d�sease outbreaks and drove up rent and food pr�ces.

Salar�es for the day labor work these m�grants would find weren't h�gh enough for surv�val. In

response an amb�t�ous pol�t�c�an, often descr�bed as a popul�st, announced a plan to offer all �n the

v��c�ty a small monthly allocat�on of gra�n free of charge. Wh�le the plan was br�efly popular, �t had

un�ntended consequences and gra�n pr�ces became very expens�ve.

Red Moon: An Evaluat�on of the K�z�lay Card �n Turkey

By Ryan McCarthy

Background on Cash Based Transfer

29

Subsequent pol�t�c�ans tr�ed to reform the program capp�ng the gra�n d�str�but�ons at 200,000 of

the need�est res�dents, and most �nnovat�vely, �ssu�ng t�ckets that can used by the rec�p�ent for a

v��� rat�on of gra�n, allow�ng them to sell the t�cket �f they needed cash more than food. The �ssu�ng of

the t�ckets, however, was qu�ckly r�fe w�th nepot�sm and corrupt�on and left out the most needy.

The human�tar�an response challenge be�ng descr�bed �s Rome �n 58 BC, first w�th the programs of

Publ�us Clod�us Pulcher and then the reforms of Ceaser and Augustus' Cura Annonae wheat token

program. As we can see, manag�ng m�grat�on and d�str�but�ng a�d �s not a challenge new to

pol�cymakers. In-k�nd a�d programs, where a good �s d�rectly del�vered to the benefic�ary, come

w�th a host of �ssues: the good not meet�ng the need of the benefic�ary, dupl�cat�on of goods

del�vered, cost of transport and d�str�but�on, and the effects of an �nflux of goods on the local

market. In response to these challenges, g�v�ng money, as opposed to a good, d�rectly to

benefic�ar�es, though not a new �dea, has grown �n popular�ty �n the last 15 years �n the form of

�xCash Transfer Programs (CTP).

Cash transfer programs (CTP) address a stra�ghtforward �ssue: The lack or �rregular�ty of an

�ncome stream �s central to the �ssue of urban poverty. A constant cash transfer scheme can help

cover bas�c necess�t�es and promote �nvestment �n educat�on and healthcare. Cash transfer can,

accord�ng to a DFID study, both "protect l�v�ng standards (allev�at�ng dest�tut�on) and promote

xwealth creat�on (support�ng trans�t�on to more susta�nable l�vel�hood)."

x�CTPs were trad�t�onally found to be problemat�c. Programs d�str�but�ng phys�cal cash have been

found to �ncrease the l�kel�hood benefic�ar�es are targeted for v�olence, espec�ally when travel�ng

from a d�str�but�on s�te to home.x�� Add�t�onally, a study of a program �n Zamb�a that d�str�buted

cash over-the-counter found that benefic�ar�es had lost potent�al wages forego�ng �ncome-

x��� generat�ng act�v�t�es to wa�t �n long l�nes to rece�ve cash.

30

The �ncreas�ng coverage of ATMs and mob�le networks worldw�de, however, has made cash

transfer a more v�able opt�on as cash can be electron�cally transferred to benefic�ar�es. Cash can be

depos�ted to a bank account the benefic�ary can access or sent v�a mob�le network and w�thdrawn

at des�gnated stores. Even very low �ncome or fa�led states today l�kely have mob�le coverage �n

urban areas: cash transfer programs over mob�le networks have been conducted �n war-town x�vMogad�shu.

A�d agenc�es and governments have �ncreas�ngly looked to cash transfer to amel�orate urban xv poverty. Poverty �s �ncreas�ngly exper�enced �n urban sett�ngs; half the world's populat�on, �t �s

xv�pred�cted, w�ll l�ve �n urban areas �n low and m�ddle-�ncome countr�es by 2030. Barr�ers to

access�ng food, bas�c needs, and shelter �n urban areas are usually financ�al, rather than problems

of commod�ty ava�lab�l�ty. Th�s �s espec�ally true for refugees as they are often restr�cted from

employment.

CTP programs can be des�gned �n three ways: cond�t�onal, uncond�t�onal and through

vouchers.xv�� Cond�t�onal cash transfer programs d�str�bute money only on the cond�t�on that a

benefic�ary performs an act�on. The act�on could be enrolment �n vocat�onal tra�n�ng or formal

school�ng, rece�v�ng vacc�nat�ons, perform�ng work, for example, clear�ng rubble after a d�saster,

or an effort to find employment. Uncond�t�onal cash transfer programs d�str�bute money to any

qual�fy�ng benefic�ary w�th no requ�red act�on on the part of the benefic�ary. A voucher �s a coupon

electron�c card that can be exchanged for a set quant�ty or value of goods. These vouchers are

typ�cally redeemable w�th selected vendors.

Turkey and Cash Transfer

Turkey developed an uncond�t�onal cash transfer program �n 1976 prov�d�ng a monthly st�pend for xv���the elderly and d�sabled poor. Coverage was low as the government struggled to ra�se awareness

and access the needy. The government addressed the coverage gap �n 1986 by creat�ng Soc�al

Ass�stance and Sol�dar�ty Foundat�ons (SASFs), tasked w�th prov�d�ng soc�al ass�stance to x�xd�sadvantaged c�t�zens.

31

The AK Party, after becom�ng the first Turk�sh party �n 11 years to w�n an outr�ght major�ty �n 2002

on a platform of �ncreas�ng soc�al ass�stance programs, started the country's first cond�t�onal cash xxtransfer program the follow�ng year. The cash payouts, �mplemented by local SASFs, were g�ven

xx�to needy fam�l�es on the cond�t�on that the�r ch�ldren regularly attend school. Turkey d�g�t�zed �ts

cash transfer programs �n 2010; all benefic�ar�es rece�ve monthly payouts on a deb�t l�ke card that xx��can be used at ATMs or �n stores.

Al�gnment

The ESSN program, and subsequent EU funded CTPs on the K�z�lay Card, were des�gned to al�gn

w�th Turkey's already establ�shed nat�onal �nst�tut�ons and gu�del�nes.

The ESSN program marr�es the already ex�st�ng Turk�sh soc�al welfare system w�th ass�stance for

refugees �n three ways: the al�gnment of the transfer values w�th ass�stance for Turk�sh nat�onals,

the al�gnment of soc�al ass�stance appl�cat�on and assessment procedures, and us�ng already xx��� establ�shed government databases to host a profile of refugees.

The first �s fa�rly stra�ghtforward: the cash amounts g�ven to refugees are the same as amounts

g�ven to Turk�sh nat�onals �n local government run ass�stance schemes.

To al�gn appl�cat�on and assessment procedures, el�g�b�l�ty for benefits requ�res refugees to be

reg�stered w�th the D�rectorate General of M�grat�on Management (DGMM) and rece�ve an xx�v�dent�ty card known �n Turk�sh as a k�ml�k. Refugees must also reg�ster the�r address �n

MERNIS, Turkey's Central C�v�l Reg�strat�on System. These reg�strat�on databases ex�sted before

the refugee cr�s�s �n Turkey for �ts c�t�zens and fore�gn res�dents, a un�que case �n refugee

resettlement. "We typ�cally have to bu�ld reg�strat�on systems from the ground up," a TRC offic�al xxv

sa�d, "Hav�ng databases already �n place �s an asset."

32

W�th EU support, Turkey has expanded and updated �ts government databases for stor�ng

�nformat�on on fore�gners �n Turkey gathered dur�ng reg�strat�on. Beg�nn�ng �n 2015, the system, xxv�"Göç-Net," run by DGMM, stores b�ometr�c data on every reg�stered refugee. Th�s data can be

accessed by mult�ple government agenc�es, �nclud�ng the Turk�sh Pol�ce and the Turk�sh Red

Crescent.

The ESSN and the Turk�sh Government soc�al ass�stance procedures al�gn through a partnersh�p

w�th the M�n�stry of Labor, Soc�al Serv�ces and Fam�ly (MoLSSF) �ntegrat�ng the SASFs �nto

ESSN procedures. Refugees can apply for benefits at the�r local SASF or Turk�sh Red Crescent

(TRC) Serv�ce Centers, however the number of serv�ce centers have been reduced from 17 �n 2016 xxv��to 9 at the beg�nn�ng of 2018 to promote the usage of the SASFs. The rema�n�ng TRC serv�ce

centers are located �n areas of the country w�th h�gh numbers of refugees to reduce the workload of

the SASFs. The staff at the SASFs that process ESSN appl�cat�ons and make home v�s�ts are xxv��� funded by ECHO and act as temporary h�res of the SASFs.

K�z�lay Card

The K�z�lay Card �s offered to refugees that qual�fy for at least one a�d program compat�ble w�th the

card. Coord�nator of the Turk�sh Red Crescent Cash Based Ass�stance Programs, Orhan xx�xHacımehmet, descr�bed the K�z�lay Card as a "mult�-wallet platform." The card �s ass�gned one

to a fam�ly, g�v�ng them access to mult�ple cash d�str�but�on ass�stance programs. Cash can be

w�thdrawn at an ATM or the card can be used at any shop that uses an electron�c payment term�nal.

Cards are d�str�buted to fam�l�es through branches of Halk Bank, a commerc�al Turk�sh bank xxxcontracted to serv�ce the K�z�lay Card or TRC serv�ce centers.

Hav�ng one card on wh�ch mult�ple programs are hosted on consol�dates and s�mpl�fies cash

ass�stance �n Turkey. In 2012 the World Food Program (WFP) and the TRC launched an e-card for xxx�refugees �n camps that can be used for food �n des�gnated shops. Th�s program was extended to a

small number of Syr�ans l�v�ng outs�de of camps �n July 2015, and l�ke the on-camp e-card, wh�ch xxx�� ran l�ke a voucher, was restr�cted to the purchas�ng of food �n select locat�ons.

33

Human�tar�an agenc�es and Turk�sh banks at the t�me were uncerta�n of the legal�ty of prov�d�ng

financ�al serv�ces and financ�al ass�stance to refugees. Th�s uncerta�nty from banks and xxx���human�tar�an agenc�es prevented unrestr�cted CTPs be�ng �mplemented.

Add�t�onally, mult�ple NGOs and the Internat�onal Organ�zat�on for M�grat�on (IOM) were

runn�ng the�r own cash ass�stance programs. Accord�ng to Orhan, the state of cash ass�stance �n

2016 was "a b�g mess" w�th many NGOs do�ng d�fferent small projects that d�dn't coord�nate w�th xxx�v each other.

The �ntroduct�on of the K�z�lay card encouraged the gradual d�scont�nuat�on of other cash based

d�str�but�on programs �n Turkey or the�r �ntegrat�on w�th the Card.

ESSN

The Emergency Soc�al Safety Net (ESSN) �s at the core of the EU's cash transfer program �n

Turkey. From the start of d�str�but�ons �n December 2016 to June 2018 the program has d�str�buted

541.6 m�ll�on USD to 1.3 m�ll�on benefic�ar�es—over ECHO's stated goal of 1 m�ll�on xxxvbenefic�ar�es. The program began w�th a monthly d�str�but�on of 100 Turk�sh L�ra (TL) per

xxxv�person �n the household. The amount per person �ncreased to 120TL �n June of 2017.

xxxv�� An add�t�onal quarterly "top up" supplementary payment was �ntroduced �n August 2017. Th�s

payment �s on a sl�d�ng scale, w�th larger amounts go�ng to smaller fam�l�es. The supplementary

payment was �mplemented as a response to compla�nts that smaller fam�l�es had s�m�lar rent xxxv��� expenses as large fam�l�es yet rece�ved smaller monthly d�str�but�ons.

Break-down of quarterly "top up"

Ÿ Household s�ze 1-4 persons: 250TL

Ÿ Household s�ze 5-8 persons: 150TL

Ÿ Household s�ze 9+ person 50TL

34

El�g�b�l�ty

CTP programs are des�gned to ass�st the most vulnerable �n a commun�ty, however, d�scern�ng

who qual�fies as the most vulnerable �s a challenge. The presence of a CTP program ava�lable to xxx�xone segment of a populat�on and not to another can lead to fr�ct�ons between groups.

Stud�es have recommended aga�nst a�d programs that target only a certa�n group of people out of

concern for the tens�ons the exclus�ons can exacerbate.

Target�ng groups for ass�stance by �ncome levels �s problemat�c as �ncome �s often h�ghly �rregular

for refugees and d�fficult to determ�ne. Unpred�ctable �ncome streams cause refugees to fall �nto

and out of poverty qu�ckly. Poverty also goes beyond �ncome, w�th �ntang�bles l�ke soc�al cap�tal

factor�ng �nto vulnerab�l�ty.

Stud�es have also found that vulnerab�l�ty assessments can be shaped by western presuppos�t�ons

that aren't necessar�ly correct �n the local context �n wh�ch the a�d program �s operat�ng. A Tufts

Un�vers�ty Study of a cash transfer program for Syr�an refugees �n Turkey found that, desp�te

prev�ous assumpt�ons, undocumented female-headed households were not necessar�ly more xlvulnerable than other refugee households. The study found, �nstead, that stakeholders should be

consulted when develop�ng cr�ter�a for benefits and for a feedback mechan�sm once the program xl�

has been developed. When surveyed, benefic�ar�es noted those w�th the most dependents tended

to be the most vulnerable, and should be first �n l�ne for cash d�str�but�on. Dependency rat�os have

the added benefit of be�ng object�ve and eas�ly ver�fiable, reduc�ng compla�nts of fraud and

feel�ngs of unfa�rness when benefits are den�ed.

The ESSN program �s largely based on dependency rat�os, w�th s�x cr�ter�a for el�g�b�l�ty. Th�s �s a

d�vergence from Turkey's soc�al welfare system where el�g�b�l�ty �s based off soc�o-econom�c data xl�� of the�r appl�cant fam�ly.

35

One of the follow�ng must be met to qual�fy for benefits:

Ÿ S�ngle Female

Ÿ A s�ngle parent w�th no other adults �n the fam�ly and at least one ch�ld under 18

Ÿ Elderly people above 60 w�th no other adults between 18 and 59 �n the fam�ly

Ÿ Fam�l�es w�th four or more ch�ldren

Ÿ Fam�l�es w�th one or more d�sabled people (They must have a d�sab�l�ty of 40 % or more,

ev�denced by a d�sab�l�ty health board report from an author�zed state hosp�tal).

Ÿ Fam�l�es that have a h�gh number of dependents, defined as at least 1.5 dependents for every

able-bod�ed adult between 18-59.

The flex�b�l�ty of the K�z�lay Card allows these cr�ter�a to change based on feedback from the

commun�ty. For example, the s�xth cr�ter�a's language was mod�fied at the beg�nn�ng of 2018 from,

"at least four dependents for every two healthy adults" to the current language to �nclude fam�l�es xl���w�th three dependents for every two healthy adults. Fam�l�es that were den�ed ass�stance under

the prev�ous rules can reapply.

D�squal�fy�ng Factors

Ÿ Reg�strat�on of a car under one of the household members' name xl�v

Ÿ A household member possess�ng a work perm�t

Benefic�ar�es can also be k�cked out of the program �f they cannot be found at the�r address dur�ng a

home v�s�t by a SASF, �f they don't use the card for s�x months, or �f they return to Syr�a outs�de of

prescr�bed hol�day v�s�ts.

The Cond�t�onal Cash Transfer for Educat�on (CCTE)

The CCTE �s a cash transfer program that rewards fam�l�es for the�r ch�ldren's regular school

attendance. CCTE d�ffers from the ESSN as the cash d�str�but�on �s cond�t�onal on an act�on of the

benefic�ary: a student must attend, "80% of school days," wh�ch translates as no more than four

absences a month.

36

Payments are made d�rectly on to the K�z�lay card once every two months. Fund�ng largely comes

from ECHO, but has also had contr�but�ons from the US State Department, Bureau of Populat�on,

Refugees and M�grat�on and the government of Norway.xlv The CCTE model follows a Turk�sh xlv�Government cond�t�onal cash d�str�but�on program reward�ng fam�l�es of attendant students.

The CCTE program, wh�ch began �n May 2017, currently has 272,031 ch�ldren as potent�al xlv��benefic�ar�es. A fam�ly qual�fy�ng for ESSN do not necessar�ly qual�fy for CCTE; however,

there �s substant�al overlap, 80% of fam�l�es w�th CCTE also rece�ve benefits from ESSN.

El�g�b�l�ty for CCTE �s based on an �ncome and asset test m�rror�ng the standards of the Turk�sh .xlv���program Th�s allows for a broader base of potent�al benefic�ar�es than the ESSN program.

Amounts

Boys:

K�ndergarten – 8th Grade: 35 TL

9 – 12th Grade: 50 TL

G�rls:

K�ndergarten – 8th Grade: 40 TL

9 – 12th Grade: 60 TL

There �s a 100 TL per term top up for every student attend�ng 80% or more of the school days �n a

term.

CCTE also cons�sts of a protect�on component. All benefic�ar�es are expected to rece�ve a home

v�s�t from outreach teams w�th�n one year of enrollment �n the program. Outreach teams

compensated through ECHO funds also conduct home v�s�ts to students w�th attendance rates xl�xbelow the threshold for the CCTE cash d�str�but�ons. There are currently 15 prov�nces w�th

loutreach teams mak�ng home v�s�ts. Outreach teams can refer the fam�ly for ass�stance or refer l� them for a soc�al worker from the MoLSSP.

37

Severe D�sab�l�ty Allowance

The Severe D�sab�l�ty Allowance begun �n August 2018 for fam�l�es w�th a severely d�sabled

fam�ly member.l�� Dur�ng home v�s�ts SASFs have the ab�l�ty to recommend a fam�ly to a hosp�tal

to conduct a D�sab�l�ty Health Report. If the report finds a member of the fam�ly �s "severely

�mpa�red", defined as a d�sab�l�ty of over 50%, the fam�ly �s el�g�ble for the program. El�g�ble

fam�l�es rece�ve 600 TL a month loaded on the�r K�z�lay Card.l��� Th�s program started �n response

to fam�l�es hav�ng to cut back on work hours to care for a needy member of the fam�ly, accord�ng to l�v a Turk�sh Red Crescent Offic�al.

Percept�on

Percept�ons of unfa�rness �n the CTPs on the K�z�lay Card are pervas�ve amongst both refugees and

the local populat�on. Many Turk�sh nat�onals expressed frustrat�on that refugees are el�g�ble for a

benefit that �s not ava�lable to them. "When there �s external support, local people are fur�ous" a

soc�al act�v�st noted, "workers are work�ng the same hours but the refugees get more money lvbecause of ESSN." Others noted that the soc�al programs for Turks were not as generous, "Turks

lv�only rece�ve 60 L�ra a month," noted TEPAV, a Turk�sh th�nk tank, "th�s has caused tens�ons."

A common refra�n amongst boosters of cash d�str�but�on �s that benefic�ar�es w�ll �n turn spend the lv��cash st�pend �n the local commun�ty benefit�ng all stakeholders. Wh�le th�s may be true �n a

purely econom�c d�scuss�on, th�s does not necessar�ly translate to a more harmon�ous soc�ety. An

exper�ment �n Kenya randomly chose certa�n households for cash d�str�but�on and excluded

others. Desp�te be�ng no worse off mater�ally, the study found the households not selected for the

cash d�str�but�on reported h�gher levels of unhapp�ness due to the�r perce�ved lower status �n the lv���commun�ty.

Confus�on over where the money came from and the amounts pa�d out for the program are

pervas�ve amongst Turk�sh nat�onals and government offic�als. "There �s a lot of fake news over l�xESSN," noted an offic�al from TESEV, a Turk�sh th�nk tank.

38

"The program �s presented to publ�c as the Turk�sh government pay�ng for K�z�lay Cards," noted an

offic�al w�th IGAM, m�grat�on research agency. "Th�s creates an �dea that the Turk�sh government lx favorably d�scr�m�nates towards refugees."

Th�s �ssue �s �ntens�fied by the Turk�sh Government's uneven �ssuance of welfare to �ts own

c�t�zens. The European Comm�ss�on found that cr�ter�a for the grant�ng of benefits to Turk�sh lx�c�t�zens �s largely at the d�scret�on of local SAFS and amounts vary w�th�n the country.

Refugees themselves have compla�ned of unfa�rness �n the grant�ng of ESSN benefits, "a lot of

people who deserve the ESSN card don't have �t," noted a benefic�ary from Syr�a l�v�ng �n Istanbul.

"Some are struggl�ng w�th 5 ch�ldren, but because those ch�ldren are 18 and above can't get a card, lx��yet those w�th a h�gh salary have the card. The grant�ng of benefits �s arb�trary." A focus group of

ESSN benefic�ar�es led by the UNHCR found s�m�lar percept�ons from refugees. The focus group

found benefic�ar�es unaware of the cr�ter�a for benefits and frustrat�on over vulnerable refugees lx��� be�ng den�ed ass�stance.

A study of cash transfer programs �n Turkey found greater transparency expla�n�ng why a fam�ly lx�vwas den�ed or approved a�d helped ease tens�ons around fund�ng dec�s�ons. The study also

recommended work�ng w�th stakeholders to expla�n the rat�onale beh�nd el�g�b�l�ty cr�ter�a.

In conversat�ons w�th Red Crescent and other �mplement�ng partners, �t �s clear that they are aware

that very vulnerable refugees can st�ll fall outs�de the el�g�b�l�ty cr�ter�a and those w�thout need

have been granted benefits. In address�ng th�s �ssue, as of August 2018, the SASFs are allowed,

based on the�r home v�s�ts, to recommend fam�l�es to rece�ve benefits that fall outs�de the

el�g�b�l�ty cr�ter�a and recommended benefits term�nate for those who are self-suffic�ent w�thout

access to the program but fall �ns�de the el�g�b�l�ty cr�ter�a.

39

Recommendat�ons

The ESSN program has helped over 1.3 m�ll�on refugees, g�v�ng them the guarantee of a bas�c

�ncome. Susta�nable �ntegrat�on and l�vel�hood, however, comes from employment. Wh�le

refugees are not barred from formal employment �n Turkey, there are restr�ct�ons and barr�ers to

refugees work�ng �n the formal economy. An employer must apply for a spec�al work perm�t for the

refugee, requ�r�ng the employer to demonstrate that an attempt was made at find�ng a Turk�sh lxvc�t�zen for the job and pay 537 TL (about USD $138). Even �f an employer �s able to sat�sfy these

lxv�requ�rements, refugees must not make up more than 10 percent of the employer's workforce.

Restr�ct�ons on reg�stered refugees work�ng outs�de the�r prov�nce of or�g�nal reg�strat�on also

prevents refugees from mov�ng to markets w�th more opportun�ty.

The ESSN and other CTPs on the K�z�lay Card should serve as a counterbalance to these barr�ers,

prov�d�ng ass�stance for refugees to enter the formal labor market. The ESSN, however, prov�des a

d�s�ncent�ve to formal employment by term�nat�ng benefits for fam�l�es w�th at least one member lxv��hold�ng a work perm�t. Th�s does not mean that refugees w�thout a work perm�t are not work�ng;

�t means they are work�ng �n the �nformal economy. An offic�al from a profess�onal agency �n

Turkey tasked w�th secur�ng employment for refugees noted that, "Many cl�ents don't want to find

work because they w�ll lose benefits. People can make more from under the table work �n add�t�on

to the�r benefits…we have begged 'at least let them keep the�r benefits for a year after gett�ng a lxv���work perm�t,' but the current pol�c�es rema�n."

Most pecul�ar about th�s arrangement �s that th�s pol�cy also runs counter to the stated a�m of the

ESSN program to m�rror the establ�shed Turk�sh ass�stance reg�me. In 2015, Turkey mod�fied �ts

cash transfer programs so a benefic�ary cont�nues rece�v�ng benefits for a year after find�ng lx�xemployment. The ESSN should adopt the same approach for �ts benefic�ar�es.

The ESSN program has left large gaps �n �ts coverage. Requ�r�ng a Turk�sh �dent�ty number and a

reg�stered address to be el�g�ble for benefits leaves out an est�mated 400,000 unreg�stered refugees lxx �n Turkey.

40

A prom�nent m�grat�on scholar noted that, "Th�s leaves out the most vulnerable of the most lxx� vulnerable: refugees who work �n seasonal agr�culture and the homeless."

The number of unreg�stered refugees �s grow�ng. Turkey has stopped, or severely slowed, the

reg�strat�on of refugees �n areas of the country w�th large refugee populat�ons, �nclud�ng Istanbul lxx��and the southern prov�nces. Turkey's reason�ng for the halt�ng of reg�strat�on �s understandable:

Turkey's resources are under enormous stra�n w�th the �ncrease �n refugees; cont�nued unfettered

acceptance of refugees �s unsusta�nable. Refugees turned away from reg�strat�on are often told to

go to a part of the country that �s st�ll reg�ster�ng refugees. These unreg�stered refugees, however,

have often moved to jo�n members of the�r fam�ly, who are, paradox�cally, t�ed to that prov�nce by

the�r reg�strat�on. These unreg�stered refugees should have the�r statuses normal�zed �n Turkey.

The �nternat�onal commun�ty should work collaborat�vely w�th Turkey �n find�ng an acceptable

path to reg�ster these refugees. If proper reg�strat�on �s not pol�t�cally feas�ble, there should be

ways for unreg�stered refugees to rece�ve dependable and cons�stent ass�stance.

Even �f a refugee has a Turk�sh �dent�ty number, they st�ll need to reg�ster an address to rece�ve

benefits. The lack of a phys�cal address, often brought about from not hav�ng a source of �ncome,

paradox�cally prevents refugees from access�ng a source of �ncome. Complex�t�es �n �dent�fy�ng a lxx���phys�cal address for some appl�cants have caused delays for some ESSN appl�cat�ons.

A prom�nent member of the MoLSSF noted the �ssue, "We are try�ng to find them but they move

often, espec�ally for agr�cultural work" and noted efforts have been made to make "a tent or lxx�vunfin�shed bu�ld�ng can be an address." Refugees should be allowed to l�st a commun�ty center

or fixed place they frequent as the�r address. A home v�s�t can be scheduled at these locat�ons for

the SASFs to conduct the�r v�s�t.

Add�t�onally, the ESSN program should use the exper�ence �t's ga�ned to ass�st Turk�sh

Government ass�stance programs become more robust to ease tens�ons between the Turk�sh and

refugee commun�t�es. IGAM, a Turk�sh m�grat�on th�nk tank, noted the cash d�str�but�on programs

41

for refugees should be advert�sed to Turks as prevent�ng homelessness and dest�tut�on amongst lxxvrefugees, wh�ch �f left unaddressed, would harm Turk�sh soc�ety. Asp�rat�ons for the program

beyond that, l�ke financ�al �ndependence for refugees, are l�kely to lead to an�mos�ty, as many lxxv�Turks themselves w�sh to be financ�ally �ndependent yet rece�ve no outs�de ass�stance.

The 'd�sab�l�ty report score' �ssued by hosp�tals �s an �ntegral part of the grant�ng of fund�ng

dec�s�ons of the ESSN and the Severe D�sab�l�ty Allowance. Wh�le offic�ally th�s test �s performed

�n Turk�sh hosp�tals for free, some have reported hav�ng to pay 200 TL, an unaffordable sum for the lxxv��most vulnerable. Offic�als should mon�tor hosp�tals charg�ng for th�s report and make sure the

test �s e�ther prov�ded for free or expenses pa�d by ECHO.

Lastly, wh�le the financ�al �nfrastructure of the program �s outs�de the scope of th�s �ssue br�ef, a

recent EU report has ra�sed some troubl�ng concerns w�th funds go�ng to what may be corrupt�on.

The report noted that funds for the ESSN program go through a "local �mplement�ng partner"

before be�ng depos�ted �n the bank for benefic�ar�es' use. Th�s local �mplement�ng partner,

"rece�ves a 'cash transfer fee', amount�ng to €8.9 m�ll�on (calculated on the bas�s of 1 % of the total

transfers to be made)." The report �s unable to find a serv�ce prov�ded by th�s local-�mplement�ng

partner and notes that funds for the CCTE program go d�rectly to the bank w�thout pass�ng through lxxv���the local �mplement�ng partner.

The EU should demand greater transparency go�ng forward to avo�d m�suse of funds. Use of a

d�str�buted ledger, otherw�se known as blockcha�n, could be used to transfer funds, wh�ch would

el�m�nate many bank fees.

Lessons Learned

Stud�es of CTP programs �n Turkey and elsewhere have shown modest �mprovements to d�etary

d�vers�ty, school attendance, �nvestment �n product�ve assets, and ch�ld labor rates.lxx�x

Benefic�ar�es have been shown to be less rel�ant on negat�ve cop�ng strateg�es and accumulate less

debt than non-benefic�ar�es. Benefic�ar�es were also shown to be more res�l�ent to emergenc�es,

42

lxxx advanc�ng the�r cash payment to cover emergency med�cal expenses.

The largest benefit reported by benefic�ar�es, however, across mult�ple stud�es was the lxxx�lxxx�� psycholog�cal wellbe�ng the certa�nty of cash prov�ded. Parents reported the ab�l�ty to meet a

lxxx���ch�ld's needs �mproved the�r psycholog�cal health due to the feel�ng of be�ng a better parent.

Men reported hav�ng more confidence and better soc�al stand�ng as a result of be�ng able to g�ve lxxx�vZakat, a donat�on that �s one of the five p�llars of Islam.

Benefic�ar�es are reported to feel more stable �n the�r hous�ng and soc�al stand�ng. Rent �s the

largest expense of a major�ty of refugees and the ab�l�ty to pay cons�stently decreases the amount of lxxxvt�mes benefic�ar�es move hous�ng.

Conclus�on

The European Un�on, at the announcement of the K�z�lay Card's CTP programs, pledged to

prov�de refugees, "normalcy and empower[�ng] [refugees] to manage the�r fam�ly's pr�or�t�es to

meet the�r essent�al needs"; "promot�ng soc�al cohes�on and pos�t�vely �mpact�ng host

commun�t�es"; and a pledge to reach 1 m�ll�on refugees. On the first prom�se the program has done

well, prov�d�ng normalcy and regular�ty to a l�fe depr�ved of normalcy and regular�ty at home. As

d�scussed, refugees move hous�ng less frequently, have h�gher rates of school�ng, and report better

psycholog�cal health. Due to the unprecedented number of refugees that have fled Syr�a to Turkey,

EU funded cash d�str�but�on has extended well beyond 1 m�ll�on refugees. As for promot�ng soc�al

cohes�on and pos�t�vely �mpact�ng host commun�t�es, work rema�ns to be done. Many Turks

expressed frustrat�on w�th the program; they deserve better messag�ng about the nature and goals

of the program from both the EU and the�r own leaders.

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64

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Refugees." Cash Learn�ng. October 2015. Accessed November 9, 2018. http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/address�ng-vulnerab�l�ty-cash-

transfer...syr�an-refugees-2015.pdf.

1 Ulr�chs, Mart�na, Jess�ca Hagen-Zanker, and Rebecca Holmes. "Cash Transfers for Refugees An Opportun�ty to Br�dge the Gap between

Human�tar�an Ass�stance and Soc�al Protect�on." Overseas Development Inst�tute. January 2017. Accessed November 9, 2018.

https://www.od�.org/s�tes/od�.org.uk/files/resource-documents/11252.pdf.

1 Ib�d,.

1 Berg, M., & Sefer�s, L. (2015). PROTECTION OUTCOMES IN CASH BASED INTERVENTIONS: A LITERATURE REVIEW. Retr�eved from

http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/erc-protect�on-and-cash-l�terature-rev�ew-jan2015.pdf

1 Holmes, R., Hagen-Zanker, J., & Ulr�chs, M. (2017). Cash transfers for refugees: An opportun�ty to br�dge the gap between human�tar�an ass�stance

and soc�al protect�on. Retr�eved from https://www.od�.org/s�tes/od�.org.uk/files/resource-documents/11252.pdf

46

Abstract: In the context of Turkey's response to the mass �nflux of refugees, a human secur�ty

framework proves to be part�cularly useful �n understand�ng the �mmed�ate �nd�v�dual secur�ty

challenges of refugees, and the most appropr�ate correspond�ng methods by wh�ch to address

them. Dr�ven by a gender approach, th�s report evaluates �f and how organ�zat�ons work�ng w�th

refugees �n Turkey cons�der the role of gender when develop�ng and �mplement�ng human secur�ty

serv�ces for refugees.

Turkey presents an �nterest�ng case �n study�ng �ssues related to refugees, part�cularly s�nce the

offset of the Syr�an c�v�l war �n 2011. Currently, Turkey holds the largest number of Syr�ans flee�ng

war at approx�mately 3.5 m�ll�on (UNHCR, 2018).

Human secur�ty first ga�ned prom�nence �n the Un�ted Nat�ons Development Programme

(UNDP)'s 1994 Human Development Report. The report descr�bed the sh�ft �n secur�ty concerns

from state-based to �nd�v�dual-based and outl�ned the components of human secur�ty. It argued

that human secur�ty could be defined as "freedom from fear" and "freedom from want." These

secur�t�es could be categor�zed under the follow�ng: econom�c secur�ty, food secur�ty, health

secur�ty, env�ronmental secur�ty, personal secur�ty, commun�ty secur�ty, and pol�t�cal secur�ty

(Un�ted Nat�ons Development Programme, 1994). In confl�ct scenar�os, these are the more

�mmed�ate secur�ty needs for �nd�v�duals. In a refugee cr�s�s, a human secur�ty framework allows

for a more su�table exam�nat�on of refugees' secur�ty concerns.

Apply�ng a gender approach to human secur�ty recogn�zes that gender, gender �dent�t�es, and

gender roles s�gn�ficantly �mpact human secur�ty. Furthermore, a gender approach calls attent�on

to the ways �n wh�ch systems of power and oppress�on d�rectly affect one's human secur�ty (Tr�pp,

2013).

A Report on Gender, Human Secur�ty, and Refugees �n Turkey

By K�nga H. Karlowska

INTRODUCTION

Sect�on: Refugees �n Turkey

Sect�on: Human Secur�ty Framework

Sect�on: Gender Approach to Human Secur�ty

47

For the scope of th�s study, I concentrated on refugee women. Although "gender" �s often narrowly

m�sread as "women," �t �s �mportant to note that the category of "women" make up only a part of a

gender approach. Therefore, wh�le a gender approach to secur�ty �ncludes more d�mens�ons, I

central�zed on one aspect. I pr�mar�ly looked at refugee women w�th less focus on other gender

�dent�t�es. Therefore, th�s project seeks to find whether or not organ�zat�ons cons�der the role of

gender when develop�ng and �mplement�ng human secur�ty serv�ces. In the context of refugees �n

Turkey, I look at the challenges refugee women face, whether organ�zat�ons' serv�ces are

access�ble and appropr�ate for refugee women, and whether organ�zat�ons speak to and rece�ve

feedback from refugee women.

Research Quest�on 1: To what extent, �f any, do organ�zat�ons and �nst�tut�ons wh�ch work w�th

refugees and asylum-seekers �n Turkey, apply a gender approach to human secur�ty �n the�r

pract�ces?

Research Quest�on 2: How do refugees and asylum-seekers �n Turkey v�ew and evaluate human

secur�ty pol�c�es of organ�zat�ons wh�ch work w�th refugees and asylum-seekers, espec�ally �n

regard to gender?

Th�s research �s based upon 46 �nterv�ews w�th representat�ves of U.S. government offices,

Turk�sh government offices, non-governmental organ�zat�ons (NGOs), �nternat�onal

organ�zat�ons (IOs), Turk�sh academ�c and research �nst�tutes, and bus�nesses who work w�th

refugees and asylum-seekers. The �nterv�ews also �ncluded refugees �n Turkey, and one focus

group of refugee women �n Turkey. Two of the organ�zat�ons �nterv�ewed emphas�zed work�ng

spec�fically w�th refugee women.

The 46 �nterv�ews prov�ded ample data on the human secur�ty serv�ces and pract�ces of

organ�zat�ons work�ng w�th refugees and asylum-seekers �n Turkey. In add�t�on, the refugee

�nterv�ews, two women-centered organ�zat�on �nterv�ews, and refugee women focus group

�llum�nated the role of gender �n human secur�ty of refugees. Data gathered from refugees, and

espec�ally refugee women, were d�rectly relevant for the second research quest�on, but also requ�re

further �nvest�gat�on.

Sect�on: Research quest�ons

Sect�on: Methodology

48

In desperat�on for any means to prov�de for themselves and the�r fam�l�es, refugees work�ng w�th�n

the �nformal economy �n Turkey face a number of econom�c �nsecur�t�es that �nclude mak�ng

enough money to surv�ve, potent�ally explo�tat�ve cond�t�ons, and lack�ng guarantee of

employment.

To address these econom�c �nsecur�t�es, organ�zat�ons have presented a var�ety of approaches to

allev�ate them. The Turk�sh government has �ntroduced a work perm�t pol�cy for employers to

use. However, organ�zat�ons and refugees cla�m the process to be too long and not prov�d�ng

enough �ncent�ve for employers to adopt �t. Furthermore, bus�nesses h�r�ng Syr�an refugees must

h�re 10 Turk�sh c�t�zens for each refugee they h�re. Several organ�zat�ons noted th�s rat�o as a

ser�ous obstacle to formally employ Syr�ans w�sh�ng to work �n Turk�sh bus�nesses.

Another approach to br�ng�ng refugees �nto the economy has been through vocat�onal tra�n�ng.

Organ�zat�ons offer tra�n�ng on a var�ety of trades �n order to prov�de refugees w�th sk�lls for jobs

currently demanded by the Turk�sh workforce.

Lastly, cash ass�stance has been another method to address the econom�c �nsecur�ty of refugees.

The E.U. runs the largest and most popular program, the Kızılay Kart, an Emergency Soc�al Safety

Net (ESSN) card wh�ch works as a deb�t card and prov�des 120 l�ra per person every month �f

fam�l�es meet the el�g�b�l�ty requ�rements. Yet, a member of an organ�zat�on ded�cated to find�ng

jobs for Syr�an refugees �n Turkey sa�d, "There �s no clear system. They say yes �t's work�ng, but

the people we serve say �t shuts off after they apply for a work perm�t…[for th�s reason,] job-

seekers don't want to work �n the formal economy because they w�ll lose the Kızılay Kart."

Desp�te these serv�ces prov�ded to help refugees econom�cally, refugee women also encounter

add�t�onal obstacles to fully rece�v�ng these serv�ces. For example, most refugee women reported

to perform reproduct�ve labor at home, also known as unpa�d act�v�t�es assoc�ated w�th

domest�c household work such as cook�ng, clean�ng, and watch�ng over any ch�ldren or

dependents. As a result, access to econom�c support serv�ces were �mpacted.

ECONOMIC SECURITY

Sect�on: Econom�c Secur�ty Concerns for Refugees �n Turkey

Sect�on: Gender Cons�derat�ons for Econom�c Secur�ty Concerns for Refugees �n Turkey

49

Therefore, for refugee women to part�c�pate �n programs created to support econom�c

secur�ty, add�t�onal cons�derat�ons are necessary. Because refugee women typ�cally look after

ch�ldren, they had to be g�ven ch�ld care ass�stance �n order to attend vocat�onal tra�n�ngs. Several

organ�zat�ons recogn�zed th�s challenge and prov�ded ch�ld care space and serv�ces.

Furthermore, refugee women find means of transportat�on to be another obstacle �n the�r pursu�t of

employment s�nce they travel far d�stances or through host�le ne�ghborhoods to get to jobs and job

tra�n�ngs. To allev�ate th�s problem, shuttle bus serv�ces or money for publ�c transportat�on

a�ded �n br�ng�ng women to programs. Lastly, because refugee women had reproduct�ve labor

respons�b�l�t�es at home, �t was also necessary to cons�der t�m�ng of programs, so that �t would

work to encourage and not deter part�c�pat�on.

After pass�ng the Temporary Protect�on Regulat�on �n 2014, the Turk�sh government prov�des free

pr�mary care and emergency health serv�ces to refugees who v�s�t the publ�c refugee health

cl�n�cs �n the d�str�ct they are reg�stered �n. Accord�ng to a pol�cy br�ef from the M�grat�on

Research Center at Koç Un�vers�ty �n Turkey, the reg�strat�on requ�rement poses a challenge for

access s�nce many refugees have left the c�t�es they first reg�stered �n, mostly for econom�c reasons

(Mard�n, 2017). Consequently, they cannot obta�n these serv�ces �n c�t�es they have moved to. At a

refugee health center �n Turkey, they have taken an �n�t�at�ve to tra�n Syr�an doctors at these

fac�l�t�es to make care and serv�ces more effect�ve. However, refugees and organ�zat�ons wh�ch

work w�th refugees descr�be long l�nes, doctor burnout, and l�m�ted access to spec�alty doctors as

barr�ers to rece�v�ng effic�ent treatment.

In l�ne w�th healthcare, refugees also requ�re med�c�ne. One researcher sa�d "although the Turk�sh

government says �t covers 80% of the cost of med�c�ne, some pharmac�sts are skept�cal and refuse

to g�ve [med�c�ne] because they feel they w�ll not be re�mbursed by the government." In add�t�on, a

representat�ve from the Turk�sh M�n�stry of Health expla�ned that �mmun�zat�ons were prov�ded

for refugees whether or not they had a reg�stered ID, and that they "focused on vacc�nat�ng ch�ldren

under 15 and women ages 15-49." Desp�te th�s, another researcher stated that because of soc�al

tens�ons, some refugees are hes�tant to rece�ve vacc�nes, due to fear that "the government wants to

ster�l�ze them."

Sect�on: Health Secur�ty Concerns for Refugees �n Turkey Pr�mary, preventat�ve, chron�c �llness, and psycholog�cal care are all

essent�al for health secur�ty of refugees �n Turkey.

HEALTH SECURITY

50

Furthermore, �n flee�ng war and resettl�ng �n a fore�gn locat�on w�th uncerta�nty about the future,

refugees exper�ence severe psycholog�cal health problems. Many organ�zat�ons recogn�ze th�s

health concern and prov�de psycho-soc�al support, therapy sess�ons, or counsel�ng l�nes.

By and far, across all �nterv�ews, language barr�ers stood out as the greatest obstacle to

rece�v�ng health serv�ces. Wh�le the Turk�sh government says �ts cl�n�cs are staffed w�th

�nterpreters, refugees and organ�zat�ons report that �nterpretat�ons lack proper vocabulary and are

not spec�fic enough. One refugee shared he went to a pr�vate Arab�c-speak�ng cl�n�c, after not

rece�v�ng adequate �nterpretat�on at a publ�c cl�n�c, wh�ch he bel�eves �s a common pract�ce.

On top of these health �ssues, women's health must be g�ven proper attent�on to ensure health

secur�ty. A representat�ve of an �nternat�onal organ�zat�on located �n Turkey reported that

OBGYNs see an average of 100 refugee women pat�ents per day, lead�ng to burnout from h�gh

volume work on �ntense �ssues. So far, there have been 350,000 ch�ldb�rths from Syr�ans accord�ng

to a representat�ve of AFAD (D�saster and Emergency Management Author�ty), the government

organ�zat�on pr�mar�ly tasked w�th handl�ng the �nflux of Syr�an refugees when the war started.

Furthermore, organ�zat�ons overwhelm�ngly conveyed that a greater number of women doctors

were necessary for conservat�ve refugee women to feel comfortable see�ng a doctor.

In extens�on of psycholog�cal health serv�ces, �t �s essent�al to �nclude psycho-soc�al support

serv�ces for surv�vors of sexual and gender-based v�olence. Other reported examples of these

serv�ces �nclude women's shelters �n all mun�c�pal�t�es and one-t�me emergency fund�ng for

women to leave the�r abusers.

Moreover, organ�zat�ons remarked that refugee women have a more d�fficult t�me �ntegrat�ng �n

the host country sett�ng. Refugee women show to be less �nvolved �n publ�c da�ly l�fe, whereas

refugee men handle offic�al affa�rs and work �n the publ�c among members of host commun�t�es.

Greater part�c�pat�on w�th�n the host commun�ty �n turn grants more exposure to language and

people, thus fac�l�tat�ng better �ntegrat�on. Organ�zat�ons wh�ch purposefully created programs

for conversat�on and cross-cultural exchange between refugee and host commun�t�es

reported h�gh turnout and mean�ngful results.

Sect�on: Gender Cons�derat�ons for Health Secur�ty Concerns for Refugees �n Turkey

OTHER GENDERED HUMAN SECURITY CONCERNS Sect�on: Commun�ty Integrat�on

51

On the top�c of ch�ld labor, a gender approach h�ghl�ghts how gender norms negat�vely �mpact

human secur�ty for both boys and g�rls. A representat�ve of an �nternat�onal organ�zat�on expressed

that adolescent boys were most vulnerable for ch�ld labor, s�nce �t was expected they be the ones

to work to help econom�cally support the fam�ly. Women refugees from the focus group descr�bed

hav�ng the�r ch�ldren work as one of the most d�fficult exper�ences �n resettl�ng, but felt the

add�t�onal �ncome was v�tal for the�r fam�ly's surv�val. One organ�zat�on added that young g�rls

were also expected to perform product�ve labor, �n add�t�on to ass�st�ng w�th reproduct�ve

labor at home. Consequently, they were prone to greater wage d�screpancy and h�gher l�kel�ness

of early marr�age. A UNHCR report found Syr�an refugee ch�ldren to be at a greater r�sk for ch�ld

labor and early marr�age wh�le �n Turkey, compared to when they had l�ved �n Syr�a (UNHCR,

2016).

L�v�ng under uncerta�n c�rcumstances, organ�zat�ons not�ced a r�se �n early and forced marr�ages

among refugee g�rls. They expla�ned these developments as a means of �mprov�ng the refugees'

financ�al s�tuat�on, keep�ng daughters safe, and rel�ev�ng themselves of be�ng respons�ble for the

ch�ld as some of the reasons for parents choos�ng to wed daughters off at an early age.

However, early and forced marr�age �mpacts long-last�ng human secur�ty �ssues, �nclud�ng

but not l�m�ted to legal, health, and personal secur�ty. Because ch�ld marr�age and polygamous

marr�ages are �llegal �n Turkey, these m�nors do not have r�ghts as a legal spouse. Under these

c�rcumstances, m�stakenly bel�ev�ng they have c�v�l r�ghts accorded to them through the marr�age,

they may struggle w�th d�vorce and custody �ssues. W�thout legal protect�on, they may be d�vorced

at any t�me, potent�ally w�thout the means to securely take care of themselves �ndependently.

Add�t�onally, organ�zat�ons descr�bed damag�ng health effects of early marr�age l�ke ch�ldb�rth

compl�cat�ons, h�gher maternal mortal�ty rate, and psycholog�cal trauma.

In response, organ�zat�ons produced awareness ra�s�ng tra�n�ng w�th mun�c�pal�t�es and

organ�zat�ons, along w�th awareness brochures for the publ�c. It �s �mportant to note that �t �s

unknown the effect�veness of these measures, and therefore a po�nt of further �nvest�gat�on.

Sect�on: Ch�ld Labor

Sect�on: Early and Forced Marr�ages

52

In look�ng at human secur�ty serv�ces and pol�c�es put forth by var�ous organ�zat�ons work�ng w�th

refugees and asylum-seekers �n Turkey, th�s study has shown that gender plays a role �n shap�ng

refugees'(�n)secur�t�es. For th�s reason, �t �s essent�al that organ�zat�ons cons�der gender when

develop�ng and �mplement�ng human secur�ty serv�ces to ensure secur�ty �s ava�lable to all and not

just to some.

Subsect�on: Part of a greater p�cture of human secur�ty

It �s �mportant to note a gender approach g�ves a fuller, but not a complete p�cture of human

secur�ty. Human secur�ty stresses the secur�ty of all �nd�v�duals, �nclud�ng �nsecur�t�es related to

�dent�ty, of wh�ch gender �s only one �dent�ty. Marg�nal�zed groups wh�ch face other systems of

oppress�on face add�t�onal �nsecur�t�es. Moreover, �t must be underl�ned that �nd�v�duals belong to

a var�ety of groups and may subsequently exper�ence var�ous �nsecur�t�es, of wh�ch gender �s only

one element. One worker from ASAM (Assoc�at�on for Sol�dar�ty w�th Asylum Seekers and

M�grants), the ma�n �mplementat�on partner of the UNHCR �n Turkey, �llustrated both these po�nts

well. She expla�ned, "The 'popular' th�ng for organ�zat�ons to support �s fam�l�es and ch�ldren.

Recently, LGBT ass�stance became popular, and now there are m�ll�ons of projects on the same

subject and compet�t�on among NGOs…groups l�ke the elderly and d�sabled are forgotten." Thus,

we see other marg�nal�zed groups w�th un�que �nsecur�t�es g�ven less attent�on. Furthermore, we

must also understand that women belong to these groups as well, encounter�ng �nsecur�t�es as

women and as members of these groups.

Therefore, analyz�ng the (�n)secur�t�es of marg�nal�zed groups must complement a gender

approach to human secur�ty. For secur�ty requ�res the secur�ty of all, �nclus�ve of �nsecur�t�es

related to all �dent�t�es. Although th�s study was unable to go �nto greater depth on these �ssues, �t

offers a gl�mpse of the value of look�ng at human secur�ty from groups often neglected from

trad�t�onal d�scourse and encourages add�t�onal stud�es to complement th�s work.

Subsect�on: Creat�ng and evaluat�ng human secur�ty pol�cy based on who �t �s meant to serve

Above all, wh�le th�s study shows the myr�ad of ways organ�zat�ons address gender and human

secur�ty, �t holds to the central pr�nc�ple of �nd�v�dual agency �n a human secur�ty framework.

Therefore, wh�le organ�zat�ons �n Turkey have many human secur�ty serv�ces, further

�nvest�gat�on �s requ�red �nto how they are rece�ved by the refugees they are �ntended to serve.

Sect�on: Lessons from a Gender Approach to Human Secur�ty of Refugees �n Turkey

CONCLUSION

53

The ma�n l�m�tat�on �n th�s study was the emphas�s on �nterv�ew�ng members of organ�zat�ons

work�ng w�th refugees and asylum-seekers, w�thout as much data from refugees and asylum-

seekers themselves. However, due to log�st�cal, t�me, and language barr�ers, th�s study centered on

the organ�zat�onal perspect�ve. An add�t�onal research study focus�ng on �nd�v�dual perspect�ves

from refugee and asylum seekers �n Turkey would complement th�s study well.

Thank you to the Turk�sh Her�tage Organ�zat�on for financ�ng and arrang�ng th�s research tr�p. I am

also grateful for the academ�c ass�stance of Dr. Jul�ette Tolay throughout th�s research program.

Lastly, a spec�al thanks to my mentor and thes�s adv�sor, Dr. Le�la Farsakh, for her cont�nuous

gu�dance and support.

Mard�n, F. D. (2017). R�ght to Health and Access to Health Serv�ces for Syr�an Refugees �n Turkey.

Istanbul: M�ReKoc.

Tr�pp, A. M. (2013). Toward a Gender Perspect�ve on Human Secur�ty. In A. M. Tr�pp, M. M.

Ferree, & C. Ew�g, Gender, V�olence, and Human Secur�ty (pp. 3-32). New York: New York

Un�vers�ty Press.

UNHCR. (2016). Evaluat�on of UNHCR's Emergency Response to the Influx of Syr�an Refugees

�nto Turkey. Geneva: UNHCR.

UNHCR. (2018). UNHCR Turkey Factsheet. Geneva: UNHCR.

Un�ted Nat�ons Development Programme. (1994). Human Development Report. Oxford: Oxford

Un�vers�ty Press.

Sect�on: L�m�tat�ons and Further Study

Sect�on: Acknowledgements

Sect�on: References

54

I. Introduct�on

As the �nternat�onal commun�ty faces �ts largest flow of d�splaced persons s�nce the Second 61World War , �t �s �mperat�ve to assess how the current legal mechan�sms are work�ng properly for

refugees and asylum-seekers. One such mechan�sm that has ga�ned cons�derable attent�on (and r�ghtly so) recently �s the temporary protect�on scheme that has been notably adopted by the U.S. and Turkey. Temporary protect�ons are not a new concept espec�ally �n the Amer�can context

62wh�ch has been us�ng the�r Temporary Protected Status (TPS) program s�nce 1990. It has however ga�ned more scrut�ny w�th the Trump adm�n�strat�on's dec�s�on to end such protect�ons

63 64 65that were granted to N�caraguans , Ha�t�ans , and Salvadorans . Most recently �n 2014 Turkey, ��

the top refugee-host�ng country �n the world , granted temporary protect�ons to the over 3 m�ll�on 67

Syr�an refugees l�v�ng w�th�n �ts borders . Arguably w�th Turkey enter�ng �nto th�s part�cular r�ghts scheme, temporary protect�ons has transformed th�s �ssue �nto a s�gn�ficant �nternat�onal one.

What these temporary protect�on systems a�m to do and what they actually prov�de are the ma�n object�ves of th�s art�cle. The precar�ous nature of these temporary protect�ons w�ll also be shown through the lack of sol�d legal and pol�t�cal ground w�th wh�ch th�s scheme stands on �n both countr�es. Th�s art�cle w�ll prov�de not only a compar�son of both the Amer�can and Turk�sh systems but also an analys�s of whether temporary protect�ons are generally an effect�ve remedy for targeted benefic�ar�es cons�der�ng the�r uncerta�n and often r�sky form.

II. Theoret�cal and H�stor�cal Background

In the Amer�can context the recogn�t�on of temporary protect�ons and the TPS program can trace �ts or�g�ns back to 1960. Before the TPS program, the U.S. government used an adm�n�strat�ve procedure known as "extended voluntary departure" (EVD), wh�ch stalled any deportat�on act�on to be taken to nat�onals of a part�cular country due to dangerous, unsettled

The Precar�ous State of Temporary Protect�ons

By Lawrence Cenk Laws

A. U.S. and the Temporary Protected Status Program (TPS)

61 The world's forc�bly d�splaced populat�on �s at a record h�gh of 68.5 m�ll�on. Global Trends: Forced D�splacement �n 2017. UNHCR, June 25, 2018.

http://www.unhcr.org/5b27be547.pdf 62 8 U.S.C. § 1254(a), Temporary protected status. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/USCODE-2011-t�tle8/USCODE-2011-t�tle8-chap12-subchapII-partV-

sec1254a 6 3 Te r m � n a t � o n o f t h e D e s � g n a t � o n o f N � c a r a g u a f o r Te m p o r a r y P r o t e c t e d S t a t u s , 8 2 F R 5 9 6 3 6 , D e c e m b e r 1 5 , 2 0 1 7 .

https://www.federalreg�ster.gov/documents/2017/12/15/2017-27141/term�nat�on-of-the-des�gnat�on-of-n�caragua-for-temporary-protected-status 6 4 Te r m � n a t � o n o f t h e D e s � g n a t � o n o f H a � t � f o r Te m p o r a r y P r o t e c t e d S t a t u s , 8 3 F R 2 6 4 8 , J a n u a r y 1 8 , 2 0 1 8 .

https://www.federalreg�ster.gov/documents/2018/01/18/2018-00886/term�nat�on-of-the-des�gnat�on-of-ha�t�-for-temporary-protected-status 6 5 Te r m � n a t � o n o f t h e D e s � g n a t � o n o f E l S a l v a d o r f o r Te m p o r a r y P r o t e c t e d S t a t u s , 8 3 F R 2 6 5 4 , J a n u a r y 1 8 , 2 0 1 8 .

https://www.federalreg�ster.gov/documents/2018/01/18/2018-00885/term�nat�on-of-the-des�gnat�on-of-el-salvador-for-temporary-protected-status 66 http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/figures-at-a-glance.html 67 Temporary Protect�on Regulat�on, 22 October 2014. http://www.refworld.org/doc�d/56572fd74.html

55

68cond�t�ons such as c�v�l war, �nvas�on or repress�on. Th�s pract�ce was adm�n�stered by the Attorney General and at the request by the State Department but there was no statutory bas�s for these act�ons. EVD was meant to prov�de temporary refuge for an �ndefin�te per�od of t�me to al�ens who would probably not be granted asylum wh�le the�r countr�es of or�g�n were too hazardous to return to.

In 1990, the Imm�grat�on Act was passed and s�gned �nto law and w�th �t the TPS program 6970was created. The law �tself prov�des al�ens of certa�n nat�onal�t�es temporary res�dence and work

71author�zat�on w�th�n the Un�ted States. S�m�lar to the EVD before �t, the law allows the Attorney General (now however the Secretary of Homeland Secur�ty has th�s author�ty) to determ�ne that a part�cular country �s suffer�ng through an ongo�ng armed confl�ct, env�ronmental/natural d�saster, or any other extraord�nary cond�t�on that has rendered the part�cular fore�gn government unable to

72adequately process or guarantee the safe return of the�r nat�onals. Des�gnat�ons can even be requested by fore�gn governments and are rev�ewed every 18 months for e�ther an extens�on or

73term�nat�on. The program was �mmed�ately first used to grant temporary protected status to Salvador�ans flee�ng v�olence from the c�v�l war that had been ravag�ng the country s�nce 1980. Currently, there are about 320,000 �nd�v�duals from 10 des�gnated nat�ons that have "t�me-l�m�ted

74perm�ss�on to l�ve and work �n the U.S." through th�s program. Syr�a was granted TPS-des�gnat�on �n March 29, 2012 and there are a l�ttle over 8,000 Syr�an nat�onals l�v�ng �n the U.S.

75under th�s program. Syr�a's TPS des�gnat�on �s set to last through September 30, 2019 barr�ng 76another extens�on.

The Turk�sh path to temporary protect�ons �s a relat�vely new one compared to the U.S. but �s by far a larger and more complex �ssue for the republ�c. The or�g�ns of the current legal scheme perta�n�ng to refugees and asylum-seekers �n Turkey can be traced back to the European Un�on (EU) and Turkey's cand�dacy to the pol�t�cal and econom�c organ�zat�on. Temporary protect�ons were first addressed �n Europe follow�ng the 1991 breakup of Yugoslav�a and

B. Turkey and the Temporary Protect�on Regulat�on

68 Imm�grat�on and Nat�onal�ty Act of 1952 Sect�on 103. See Schuck, Peter H. C�t�zens, Strangers, and In-Betweens: Essays on Imm�grat�on and C�t�zensh�p,

1998. 69 8 U.S.C. § 1254(a), Temporary protected status. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/USCODE-2011-t�tle8/USCODE-2011-t�tle8-chap12-subchapII-partV-

sec1254a 70 The adm�n�strat�ve EVD pract�ce granted to the State Department �s st�ll allowed under the most recent Act but �s now called Deferred Enforced Departure

(DED). DED �s however rarely pract�ced and currently �s granted to nat�onals from L�ber�a. See https://www.usc�s.gov/�l�nk/docV�ew/AFM/HTML/AFM/0-0-

0-1/0-0-0-16606/0-0-0-16764.html. See also https://www.usc�s.gov/human�tar�an/temporary-protected-status/deferred-enforced-departure. 71 Id. at Sect�on 1254(a) 72 Id. at Sect�on 1254(b) 73 Id. 74 Passel, Jeffrey S. and Cohn, D'Vera. More than 100,000 Ha�t�an and Central Amer�can �mm�grants face dec�s�on on the�r status �n the U.S., Pew Research

Center, November 8, 2017. http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/08/more-than-100000-ha�t�an-and-central-amer�can-�mm�grants-face-dec�s�on-

on-the�r-status-�n-the-u-s/ 75 Passel and Cohn 76 83 FR 9329. Extens�on of the Des�gnat�on of Syr�a for Temporary Protected Status https://www.federalreg�ster.gov/documents/2018/03/05/2018-

04454/extens�on-of-the-des�gnat�on-of-syr�a-for-temporary-protected-status

56

succeed�ng confl�cts wh�ch ravaged the southeastern port�on of the cont�nent. Worr�ed that the standard asylum system may not be able to cope w�th the demands of a mass �nflux of d�splaced persons, the EU publ�shed a Counc�l D�rect�ve �n 2001 wh�ch deta�led the Member States' "m�n�mum standards for g�v�ng temporary protect�on �n the event of a mass �nflux of d�splaced

77persons".

Coupled w�th efforts to harmon�ze the�r laws to EU standards and the mass�ve �nflow of 78Syr�an refugees, Turkey enacted �ts first ever asylum law �n 2014 , wh�ch set up the republ�c's

79current nat�onal asylum system. Art�cle 91 of the Law on Fore�gners and Internat�onal Protect�on states that "temporary protect�on may be prov�ded for fore�gners who have been forced to leave the�r country, cannot return to the country that they have left and have arr�ved at or crossed the

80borders of Turkey �n a mass �nflux s�tuat�on seek�ng �mmed�ate and temporary protect�on." The 81

determ�nat�on of wh�ch country's nat�onals th�s appl�es to was made by the Counc�l of M�n�sters. 82In 2014, based on Art�cle 91, Turkey adopted the Temporary Protect�on Regulat�on wh�ch grants

temporary protect�ons to v�rtually all of the 3.5 m�ll�on Syr�an nat�onals that have entered �nto the country.

As we see, the European/Turk�sh and Amer�can context d�ffer �n how they have �n�t�ally approached temporary protect�ons. In the U.S., temporary protect�ons were seen as a delay �n deportat�on proceed�ngs for al�ens they bel�eve were probably (but not defin�t�vely) go�ng to be excluded from asylum. For Europe and Turkey these protect�ons were seen as a safety gap to allow the asylum system t�me to process a mass �nflux of d�splaced persons, w�thout prov�d�ng a full refugee status. In the next sect�on a br�ef overv�ew of both systems w�ll be drawn focus�ng pr�mar�ly on the follow�ng areas: Hous�ng, Labor/Employment, Educat�on, Healthcare, Soc�al Serv�ces/Welfare, Freedom of Movement (Domest�c/Internat�onal), and Access to C�t�zensh�p or Asylum.

III. Current Frameworks and Protect�ons/R�ghts

In regards to r�ghts and protect�ons granted for �nd�v�duals under TPS, the most pert�nent and far-reach�ng sect�on of the law �s Sect�on 1254(f)(1) of the INA, wh�ch states that the part�cular al�en under temporary protect�on "shall not be cons�dered to be permanently res�d�ng �n the

77 Counc�l D�rect�ve 2001/55/EC of 20 July 2001 on m�n�mum standards for g�v�ng temporary protect�on �n the event of a mass �nflux of d�splaced persons

and on measures promot�ng a balance of efforts between Member States �n rece�v�ng such persons and bear�ng the consequences thereof. Offic�al Journal

of the European Commun�t�es. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUr�Serv/LexUr�Serv.do?ur�=OJ:L:2001:212:0012:0023:EN:PDF 78 Law No. 6458 on Fore�gners and Internat�onal Protect�on, 11 Apr�l 2013. http://www.goc.gov.tr/files/files/eng_m�n�kanun_5_son.pdf 79 Before th�s law the only legal framework for refugees that Turkey had was from the 1951 Refugee Convent�on �n wh�ch they appl�ed the or�g�nal

geograph�cal l�m�tat�on of the Convent�on that only allowed �nd�v�duals from European nat�ons to be able to seek asylum �n Turkey. 80 Law No. 6458 Art�cle 91(1) 81 Id. at 91(2). Please note that the Counc�l of M�n�sters do not ex�st anymore s�nce the Apr�l 2017 Const�tut�onal Referendum and the subsequent June

2018 General Elect�on �n Turkey, wh�ch has brought a new pres�dent�al system to the republ�c. The body that w�ll replace the Counc�l of M�n�sters �n

mak�ng th�s determ�nat�on �s unclear for the t�me be�ng. 82 Temporary Protect�on Regulat�on, 22 October 2014. http://www.refworld.org/doc�d/56572fd74.html

A. U.S. TPS Program

57

83Un�ted States under color of law." Th�s means that TPS �nd�v�duals are not cons�dered to have legal permanent res�dence (LPR) status, wh�ch bars them from �nel�g�b�l�ty from numerous serv�ces, both publ�c and pr�vate. Th�s �ncludes h�nder�ng ch�ldren and adults from be�ng el�g�ble for federal student a�d, res�dent�al mortgage loans, certa�n jobs, and poss�bly healthcare plans. Sect�on 1254(f)(2) states

84that TPS �nd�v�duals "may be deemed �nel�g�ble for publ�c ass�stance by a State" wh�ch opens the door for state governments to not allow such �nd�v�duals to benefit from Med�care and Soc�al Secur�ty programs even though the�r wages and taxes go �nto such programs along w�th other government

85serv�ces. Although the freedom of �nterstate and �ntrastate travel �s not restr�cted, TPS �nd�v�duals must get pr�or approval from the Just�ce Department to travel abroad, wh�ch �s known as "advance

86parole". The relevant statute does not make ment�on of any access to the asylum process for these �nd�v�duals. It does however make �t clear that th�s status by no means allows for a pathway to

87natural�zat�on/c�t�zensh�p s�nce �t labels such al�ens as "non�mm�grants".

R�ghts and protect�ons granted to �nd�v�duals under the Turk�sh temporary protect�on system are predom�nantly outl�ned under Part S�x of the 2014 Temporary Protect�on Regulat�on. The fact that Turkey �s deal�ng w�th over 3 m�ll�on refugees (versus just over 300,000 under the U.S.'s TPS program) and that the regulat�on w�th �ts reg�strat�on requ�rements were only placed just 4 years ago

88should be taken �nto account. Therefore, Turkey has been play�ng "catch-up" when �t comes to reg�ster�ng, allocat�ng funds and serv�ces to the Syr�ans �t has w�th�n �ts borders. Although there are numerous execut�ve and enforcement hurdles fac�ng Turkey, the regulat�on can generally be seen as more expans�ve than the US TPS program �s �n many respects. L�ke TPS, the regulat�on states that �nd�v�duals w�th temporary protect�on are able to stay �n the country but does "not grant the r�ght for trans�t�on to long term res�dence perm�t" or allow them to

89apply for Turk�sh c�t�zensh�p. However, th�s prov�s�on has been relaxed and a number of Syr�ans have been able to apply for c�t�zensh�p even though they were under the temporary protect�on program. Temporary protect�on benefic�ar�es are granted access to the labor market through the Regulat�on's Art�cle 29 but must separately apply for a work perm�t. Even w�th the work perm�t there are certa�n profess�ons restr�cted to only Turk�sh c�t�zens that Syr�ans cannot apply for. In terms of healthcare (Art�cle 27) and soc�al serv�ces/welfare (Art�cle 30) temporary protect�on benefic�ar�es enjoy generally the same treatment as Turk�sh c�t�zens. W�th regards to educat�on, temporary educat�on centers were set up �n�t�ally to fac�l�tate the educat�onal needs of the temporary protect�on

90benefic�ar�es . These fac�l�t�es are now be�ng phased out and �t �s now settled pol�cy for Syr�ans to have access to publ�c and pr�vate Turk�sh educat�on �n the same

83 8 U.S.C. Sect�on 1254(f)(1) 84 Id. at (f)(2) 85 Baran, Amanda and Jose Magana-Salgado w�th Tom K. Wong. Econom�c Contr�but�ons by Salvadoran, Honduran, and Ha�t�an TPS Holders: The Cost to

Taxpayers, GDP, and Bus�nesses of End�ng TPS. Imm�grant Legal Resource Center (ILRC), Apr�l 2017.

https://www.�lrc.org/s�tes/default/files/resources/2017-04-18_econom�c_contr�but�ons_by_salvadoran_honduran_and_ha�t�an_tps_holders.pdf 86 Id. at (f)(3) 87 Id. at (f)(4) 88 F�rst Syr�an refugees arr�ved to the Turk�sh �n Apr�l 2011 89 Temporary Protect�on Regulat�on Art�cle 25 90 Id. at Art�cle 28

B. Temporary Protect�on Regulat�on �n Turkey

58

fash�on as Turk�sh c�t�zens and �nternat�onal students. Freedom of movement �s more l�m�ted �n the Turk�sh context s�nce Syr�ans are often l�m�ted to the part�cular prov�nces they are reg�stered under. Th�s �s �mportant because often work perm�ts are also reg�stered and l�m�ted to certa�n prov�nces and rout�ne reg�strat�on checks are made �f Syr�an fam�l�es are seek�ng publ�c ass�stance. The restr�ct�on for �nternat�onal travel �s s�m�lar to the TPS benefic�ar�es �n that the Turk�sh government must have advance not�ce of such movement. Turkey does also place a restr�ct�on for �nterprov�nc�al movement �n that Syr�ans must g�ve not�ce to the government �f they w�ll be �n another prov�nce for more than 30 days. As ment�oned before, the access to c�t�zensh�p �s proh�b�ted by the regulat�on but �n some cases that prov�s�on has been relaxed. However, access to the asylum procedure �s not ment�oned at all just l�ke �n the TPS program.

IV. Conclus�on As can be seen, both systems not only ensure temporary protect�ons for relevant benefic�ar�es but also l�m�ted r�ghts and access to the host country's serv�ces. Th�s would not be so unjust �f TPS benefic�ar�es were not already pay�ng taxes and w�th some �nd�v�duals hav�ng l�ved

91and part�c�pated �n the Amer�can system for numerous years. In both cases, the des�gnat�on for temporary protect�ons can be taken as eas�ly as they are g�ven. In the US, th�s des�gnat�on rests solely on the d�scret�on of the Secretary of Homeland Secur�ty �.e. the Execut�ve Branch. In recent news we see that th�s has led to abrupt term�nat�ons by the Trump Adm�n�strat�on that has been

92 93 94controvers�al �n the N�caraguan , Ha�t�an , and Salvador�an cases. Currently the federal courts �n 95the U.S. are figur�ng out �f these execut�ve act�ons are const�tut�onal. For Turkey, these spec�fic

protect�ons are only covered by a regulat�on and not even law per se, wh�ch make them subject to poss�ble arb�trary execut�ve act�on as well. The most str�k�ng component to both systems however �s the complete lack of access to the asylum process. Temporary protect�ons were never meant as an alternat�ve to th�s process but a precaut�onary measure to the system �n order for �t run more smoothly but at the same t�me ensure the benefic�ar�es' �mmed�ate safety as they go through such process. These current systems not only run contrary to such object�ve but place these �nd�v�duals �n a much more precar�ous s�tuat�on. In terms of such cr�ses l�ke the Syr�an case at the moment, refugees at a certa�n soc�oeconom�c level are left w�th l�m�ted opt�ons but to choose th�s one when �t comes to Turkey and the U.S. Choos�ng th�s route should not leave �nd�v�duals �n such a precar�ous state and therefore these schemes need to be exam�ned and doctored accord�ngly to ensure that benefic�ar�es have an appropr�ate amount of legal secur�ty and certa�nty when under temporary protect�on. Much l�ke what the EU Counc�l D�rect�ve was try�ng to accompl�sh, an �nternat�onal

91 N�caragua has had �ts des�gnat�on s�nce 1998, wh�le El Salvador has been des�gnated s�nce 2001 and Ha�t� s�nce 2010.

https://www.nyt�mes.com/2018/01/08/us/salvadorans-tps-end.html 92 Term�nat�on of the Des�gnat�on of N�caragua for Temporary Protected Status, 82 FR 59636, December 15, 2017.

https://www.federalreg�ster.gov/documents/2017/12/15/2017-27141/term�nat�on-of-the-des�gnat�on-of-n�caragua-for-temporary-protected-status 93 Term�nat�on of the Des�gnat�on of Ha�t� for Temporary Protected Status, 83 FR 2648, January 18, 2018.

https://www.federalreg�ster.gov/documents/2018/01/18/2018-00886/term�nat�on-of-the-des�gnat�on-of-ha�t�-for-temporary-protected-status 94 Term�nat�on of the Des�gnat�on of El Salvador for Temporary Protected Status, 83 FR 2654, January 18, 2018.

https://www.federalreg�ster.gov/documents/2018/01/18/2018-00885/term�nat�on-of-the-des�gnat�on-of-el-salvador-for-temporary-protected-status 95 See Ramos v. N�elsen, Case No. 18-cv-01554-EMC and Centro Presente v. Trump, C�v�l Act�on No. 18-10340

59

cod�fied standard should be set up to ensure domest�c schemes l�ke the U.S. and Turkey's have appropr�ate temporary protect�ons r�ghts reg�mes �n place for �nd�v�duals that need them.

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2018. Accessed November 9, 2018. http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/calp-sowc-report-annexes-web.pdf. xxx�v Hacımehmet, Orhan. "Interv�ew w�th Coord�nator Of K�z�laykart Cash Based Ass�stance. Programmes, Turk�sh Red Crescent." Interv�ew by author.

August 2018. xxxv Ib�d,. xxxv� "ESSN Coord�nat�on Meet�ng, Hatay." Proceed�ngs of ESSN Coord�nat�on Meet�ng, Support to L�fe (STL) Prem�ses, Antakya. July 10, 2017. Accessed

November 9, 2018. https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/download/62592. xxxv�� "Emergency Soc�al Safety Net (ESSN) Market Bullet�n." World Food Program. September 2017. Accessed November 9, 2018.

https://docs.wfp.org/ap�/documents/WFP-0000039744/download/. xxxv��� Hacımehmet, Orhan. "Interv�ew w�th Coord�nator Of K�z�laykart Cash Based Ass�stance. Programmes, Turk�sh Red Crescent." Interv�ew by author.

August 2018. xxx�x Sm�th, Gabr�elle, and L�l� Moh�dd�n. "A Rev�ew of Ev�dence of Human�tar�an Cash Transfer Programm�ng �n Urban Areas." A Rev�ew of Ev�dence of

Human�tar�an Cash Transfer Programm�ng �n Urban Areas, December 2015. Accessed November 9, 2018. http://pubs.��ed.org/10759IIED/. xl Armstrong, Paula, and Karen Jacobsen. "Cash Transfer Programm�ng for Syr�an Refugees." Tufts Un�vers�ty - FIC. February 2016. Accessed November

9, 2018. http://fic.tufts.edu/assets/FIC-DRC-publ�cat�on-karen-2-2016.pdf. xl� Ib�d,. xl�� "THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S CASH REPORT CASH TRANSFER PROGRAMMING IN HUMANITARIAN AID." Cash Learn�ng. February

2018. Accessed November 9, 2018. http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/calp-sowc-report-annexes-web.pdf. xl��� Hacımehmet, Orhan. "Interv�ew w�th Coord�nator Of K�z�laykart Cash Based Ass�stance. Programmes, Turk�sh Red Crescent." Interv�ew by author.

August 2018. xl�v "Quest�on and Answer Sess�on." Proceed�ngs of ESSN Techn�cal D�scuss�on, D�van Hotel, Gaz�antep. October 25, 2016. Accessed November 9, 2018.

http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/2016.10.25m�nutesqaessn-sess�onatsfdm.docx. xlv "THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S CASH REPORT CASH TRANSFER PROGRAMMING IN HUMANITARIAN AID." Cash Learn�ng. February

2018. Accessed November 9, 2018. http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/calp-sowc-report-annexes-web.pdf. xlv� "EU and UNICEF to Reach Thousands of Refugee Ch�ldren �n Turkey w�th Cond�t�onal Cash Transfer for Educat�on." UNICEF. March 2016. Accessed

November 10, 2018. https://www.un�cef.org/press-releases/eu-and-un�cef-reach-thousands-refugee-ch�ldren-turkey-cond�t�onal-cash-transfer. xlv�� Respondent A. "Interv�ew w�th UNICEF Offic�al." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. xlv��� "THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S CASH REPORT CASH TRANSFER PROGRAMMING IN HUMANITARIAN AID." Cash Learn�ng. February

2018. Accessed November 9, 2018. http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/calp-sowc-report-annexes-web.pdf. xl�x Respondent A. "Interv�ew w�th UNICEF Offic�al." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. l "Protect�on through Educat�on for Ch�ldren �n Turkey." Un�cef.org.tr. February 2018. Accessed November 10, 2018.

http://un�cef.org.tr/bas�nmerkez�detay.aspx?�d=32842&d=1&d�l=en. l� Respondent A. "Interv�ew w�th UNICEF Offic�al." Interv�ew by author. August 2018.

l�� Hacımehmet, Orhan. "Interv�ew w�th Coord�nator Of K�z�laykart Cash Based Ass�stance. Programmes, Turk�sh Red Crescent." Interv�ew by author.

August 2018. l���Hacımehmet, Orhan. "Interv�ew w�th Coord�nator Of K�z�laykart Cash Based Ass�stance. Programmes, Turk�sh Red Crescent." Interv�ew by author.

August 2018. l�v Ib�d,. lv Respondent A. "Interv�ew W�th A Soc�al Act�v�st at a Café �n Istanbul." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. lv� Respondent A. "Interv�ew at TEPAV." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. lv�� Skovdal, M., L. Robertson, P. Mushat�, L. Dumba, L. Sherr, C. Nyamukapa, and S. Gregson. "Acceptab�l�ty of Cond�t�ons �n a Commun�ty-led Cash

Transfer Programme for Orphaned and Vulnerable Ch�ldren �n Z�mbabwe." Health Pol�cy and Plann�ng 29, no. 7 (2013): 809-17. Accessed November 9,

2018. do�:10.1093/heapol/czt060.

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lv��� Haushofer, Johannes, James Re�s�nger, and Jeremy Shap�ro. "Your Ga�n Is My Pa�n: Negat�ve Psycholog�cal External�t�es of Cash Transfers." Pr�nston

Un�vers�ty. October 31, 2015. Accessed November 9, 2018.

https://www.pr�nceton.edu/~joha/publ�cat�ons/Haushofer_Re�s�nger_Shap�ro_Inequal�ty_2015.pdf. l�x RESPONDANT B. "Interv�ew at TEPAV." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. lx RESPONDANT A. "Interv�ew at IGAM." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. lx� Adaman, F�kret, D�lek Aslan, Burçay Erus, and Serdar Sayan. "ESPN Themat�c Report on M�n�mum Income Schemes Turkey 2015." European

Comm�ss�on. 2016. Accessed November 9, 2018. ec.europa.eu/soc�al/BlobServlet?docId=15178&langId=en. lx�� RESPONDANT A. "Interv�ews w�th refugees conducted at LIFE �n Istanbul." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. lx��� "Update of ESSN (WFP/TRC)." In UNHCR. Proceed�ngs of ESSN Task Force Istanbul, ASAM Dolapdere Cok Yonlu Destek Merkez� Bostan Mah.

Küçük Odalar Sok. No:9, Istanbul. June 11, 2018. Accessed November 9, 2018. https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/download/64761. lx�v Armstrong, Paula, and Karen Jacobsen. "Address�ng Vulnerab�l�ty? Cash Transfer Programm�ng and Protect�on Outcomes for Out-of-Camp Syr�an

Refugees." Cash Learn�ng. October 2015. Accessed November 9, 2018. http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/address�ng-vulnerab�l�ty-cash-

transfer...syr�an-refugees-2015.pdf. lxv Leghtas, Izza, and Ann Holl�ngsworth. ""I AM ONLY LOOKING FOR MY RIGHTS" LEGAL EMPLOYMENT STILL INACCESSIBLE FOR

REFUGEES IN TURKEY." Refugees Internat�onal. December 2017. Accessed November 9, 2018.

https://stat�c1.squarespace.com/stat�c/506c8ea1e4b01d9450dd53f5/t/5a256cd30d92971cbf01879a/1512402132711/Turkey Report F�nal.pdf. lxv� Ib�d,.

lxv�� Al She�kh, Anas Ka�ss. "Interv�ew W�th R�z�k D�rector �n Gaz�antep." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. lxv��� Ib�d,. lx�x Alcan, Den�z, Ra�f Can, Temel Task�n, and W�ll�am W�seman. "Impact of Soc�al Ass�stance on Labor Market Mob�l�ty: The Case of Turkey." Pol�cy

Research Work�ng Papers, August 2016. Accessed November 9, 2018. do�:10.1596/1813-9450-7801. lxx We�se, Z�a. "Syr�an Refugees �n Turkey Face Calls to Return as Publ�c Mood Changes." IRIN. March 28, 2018. Accessed November 10, 2018.

https://www.�r�nnews.org/feature/2018/03/27/syr�an-refugees-turkey-face-calls-return-publ�c-mood-changes. lxx� Respondent A. "Interv�ew at a Un�vers�ty �n Ankara." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. lxx�� Alcan, Den�z, Ra�f Can, Temel Task�n, and W�ll�am W�seman. "Impact of Soc�al Ass�stance on Labor Market Mob�l�ty: The Case of Turkey." Pol�cy

Research Work�ng Papers, August 2016. Accessed November 9, 2018. do�:10.1596/1813-9450-7801. lxx��� "THE STATE OF THE WORLD'S CASH REPORT CASH TRANSFER PROGRAMMING IN HUMANITARIAN AID." Cash Learn�ng. February

2018. Accessed November 9, 2018. http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/calp-sowc-report-annexes-web.pdf. lxx�v Karakas, Sal�ha. "Interv�ew w�th M�n of Labor, Soc�al Serv�ces and Fam�ly." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. lxxv RESPONDANT B. "Interv�ew at IGAM." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. lxxv� RESPONDANT B. "Interv�ew at IGAM." Interv�ew by author. August 2018. lxxv�� "Quest�on and Answer Sess�on." Proceed�ngs of ESSN Techn�cal D�scuss�on, D�van Hotel, Gaz�antep. October 25, 2016. Accessed November 9, 2018. lxxv��� Mattfolk, Katja, Flor�n-Alexandru Farcas, Bett�na Jakobsen, Andrej M�narov�c, Cyr�l Messe�n, and K�m Storup. 2018. "The Fac�l�ty For Refugees In

Turkey: Helpful Support, But Improvements Needed To Del�ver More Value For Money". Eca.Europa.Eu.

https://www.eca.europa.eu/L�sts/ECADocuments/SR18_27/SR_TRF_EN.pdf. lxx�x Holmes, R., Hagen-Zanker, J., & Ulr�chs, M. (2017). Cash transfers for refugees: An opportun�ty to br�dge the gap between human�tar�an ass�stance and

soc�al protect�on. Retr�eved from https://www.od�.org/s�tes/od�.org.uk/files/resource-documents/11252.pdf lxxx Ib�d,. lxxx� Armstrong, Paula, and Karen Jacobsen. "Address�ng Vulnerab�l�ty? Cash Transfer Programm�ng and Protect�on Outcomes for Out-of-Camp Syr�an

Refugees." Cash Learn�ng. October 2015. Accessed November 9, 2018. http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/address�ng-vulnerab�l�ty-cash-

transfer...syr�an-refugees-2015.pdf. lxxx�� Ulr�chs, Mart�na, Jess�ca Hagen-Zanker, and Rebecca Holmes. "Cash Transfers for Refugees An Opportun�ty to Br�dge the Gap between Human�tar�an

Ass�stance and Soc�al Protect�on." Overseas Development Inst�tute. January 2017. Accessed November 9, 2018.

https://www.od�.org/s�tes/od�.org.uk/files/resource-documents/11252.pdf. lxxx��� Ib�d,. lxxx�v Berg, M., & Sefer�s, L. (2015). PROTECTION OUTCOMES IN CASH BASED INTERVENTIONS: A LITERATURE REVIEW. Retr�eved from

http://www.cashlearn�ng.org/downloads/erc-protect�on-and-cash-l�terature-rev�ew-jan2015.pdf lxxxv Holmes, R., Hagen-Zanker, J., & Ulr�chs, M. (2017). Cash transfers for refugees: An opportun�ty to br�dge the gap between human�tar�an ass�stance

and soc�al protect�on. Retr�eved from https://www.od�.org/s�tes/od�.org.uk/files/resource-documents/11252.pdf

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"I strongly bel�eve that photography and film are �mportant tools for br�ng�ng both soc�al �mpact and pol�cy reform �nto a coherent catalyst for change. Through my explorat�on of places where Syr�an refugees felt most at home I traveled to Fat�h. Fat�h �s descr�bed to be l�ttle Syr�a w�th Arab�c translat�ons of shop names and mosques decorat�ng the d�str�ct. The access�b�l�ty of the Arab�c language �n add�t�on to the grow�ng Syr�an populat�on peaked my �nterest from the conversat�ons that I've had w�th refugees. I sought to capture how exactly th�s old d�str�ct became a place of comfort and refuge through captur�ng the econom�c opportun�t�es, soc�al l�fe, and pol�t�cal act�v�sm that brought the area to l�fe. *In add�t�on to photograph�ng Fat�h- there are also photographs �ncluded of places where refugees seek serv�ces from government and c�v�l soc�ety organ�zat�ons/ places that prov�de sanctuary �n Istanbul, Ankara, and Gaz�antep." Mer�am Salem

NIZIP 2 CONTAINER CITY

Only 6% of Syr�an refugees l�ve �n camps. Refugees are able to freely move outs�de of the camps and travel �nto ne�ghbor�ng c�t�es. The camps are guarded by pr�vate secur�ty. Fac�l�t�es �nclude: A med�cal center, school, and grocery store.

A Collect�on on Photographs

By Mer�am Salem

63

FATIH, ISTANBUL

I was photograph�ng a group of young men parad�ng the flags of the Syr�an revolut�on. The men were exc�ted and called over to the�r fr�ends to have the�r photos taken as well. I saw th�s elderly man w�th a young boy and thought how powerful the photograph would, however, I d�d want to �ntrude so I �n�t�ally walked past them.

The elderly man called over to me and mot�oned that I take h�s photo. To be seen �n a world that would have you erased �s the most powerful love there �s. I see you. I hear you. Now they see too.

FATIH, ISTANBUL

What �s your favor�te place �n Istanbul? Fat�h, espec�ally �n the upper ne�ghborhood next to the mosque. Who �s the most �nfluent�al person �n your l�fe? R�ght now �t �s my husband. He �nsp�res me not to g�ve up and supports me to start my own project.

When d�d you feel most at home �n Turkey? I never felt completely at home �n Turkey, but I real�zed that learn�ng the Turk�sh language removed some barr�ers �n my l�fe, and I now feel less of a stranger than before. What are the dreams you have for your ch�ldren? I just want them to grow �n a more just cond�t�ons than us, and to be very educated and able to take better charge of the�r l�ves.

Translat�on: Bashar �s the b�ggest cr�m�nal �n the world.

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FATIH, ISTANBUL Where �n Istanbul �s a place that rem�nds you of home?

Fat�h, because �t has a large number of Syr�ans and �s very s�m�lar to the arch�tecture of old Damascus where I used to l�ve. I dream to bu�ld a future for my ch�ldren here �n Turkey and elsewhere. I dream to return back home to Damascus If you could tell your younger self anyth�ng what would �t be? Don't worry too much, and stand for what you bel�eve �n, always Ÿ Female PhD lecturer �n b�ochem�stry, �n her 50's. Syr�an.

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FATIH, ISTANBUL We are a group of young people �n Istanbul who jo�n �n the name of coord�nat�ng the Syr�an revolut�on �n Istanbul. We jo�ned th�s protest for the 8,000 martyrs k�lled by Bashar Assad's reg�me �n Syr�a. Ÿ Protestor

FATIH, ISTANBULWhere �n Istanbul �s a place that rem�nds you of home? Fat�h, I have most of my fr�ends there. Also because �t �s a central area and has most of the serv�ces that a Syr�an could need. Even though �t was necessary, I used to regret leav�ng Syr�a too soon, but now I understand �t was for my general good and I can st�ll offer someth�ng to my people. If you could tell your younger self anyth�ng what would �t be? Don't study account�ng, and try to open your bus�ness early. Ÿ Male work�ng �n a consultancy firm, �n h�s 30's. Syr�an.

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D.C. Or�entat�on Day One

July 20, 2018

To say that today (Thursday, July 19th) was a marathon would be an understatement.

I had an easy dr�ve down from Harr�sburg on Wednesday. I spent that even�ng re-read�ng my IRB & th�nk�ng, �n an attempt to relax my type-A yet �ntroverted self from be�ng so nervously exc�ted.

It was wonderful to finally meet the coord�nators of the THO (Turk�sh Her�tage Organ�zat�on) Summer Research Program, Cays�e Myers & Audrey W�ll�ams, as well as the major�ty of my fellow research scholars! Be�ng the nerd that I am, �t was really great walk�ng between meet�ngs & hear�ng �mpromptu conversat�ons about Turkey's "temporary protect�on" status between my new fr�ends.

The first stop of the day was at the THO office �n a fancy bu�ld�ng on Connect�cut Ave. We had a qu�ck breakfast & met the Execut�ve D�rector, Elv�r Klemp�c.

We next headed to the Longworth House Office Bu�ld�ng to meet w�th Rep. Brendan Boyle (D-PA). Fun fact: the group & I also met the youngest Ch�ef of Staff on the H�ll & found out how he got to that pos�t�on!

Then �t was a meet�ng at the State Department. We met w�th representat�ves from the Bureau of Populat�on, Refugees, and M�grat�on (PRM) & d�scussed a w�de var�ety of �ssues related to Turkey's response to the Syr�an refugee cr�s�s.

After scarfing down a plate of pork fr�ed r�ce over lunch alongs�de conversat�on about var�ous exper�ences �n Turkey, our group met w�th representat�ves from UNHCR (Un�ted Nat�ons H�gh Comm�ss�oner for Refugees) & USAID (U.S. Agency for Internat�onal Development). Even though I d�dn't get any new �nformat�on that spec�fically relates to my thes�s & even though I'm fam�l�ar w�th both agenc�es because of Dr. Tolay's classes, these meet�ngs were extraord�nar�ly helpful to better understand the complex�t�es of the s�tuat�on & I learned a lot of updated �nformat�on on concepts that I had heard of before!

So ended day one of or�entat�on �n D.C.! The next t�me that I blog, �t'll be "merhaba" from a hotel �n Istanbul, Turkey!

P.S. my next post could be rather �nterest�ng w�th jet lag & overst�mulat�on, so you should defin�tely check �t out! hahaha… thanks so much for read�ng & car�ng!

Summer Research Program Blog: The Long Road to Turkey

A Select�on of Blog Posts

By Lyd�a W�ll�ams

67

Let's Get Down to Bus�ness!

July 23, 2018

Today was our first b�g day of meet�ngs & s�te v�s�ts! I'm actually glad to finally do what I'm here to do, wh�ch �s research, just �n case you're confused by my vacat�on-l�ke p�ctures!

Our group started �n the m�d-morn�ng v�s�t�ng a local un�vers�ty & meet�ng w�th a coord�nator of research projects related to m�grat�on. L�ttle was sa�d about my thes�s top�c. Wh�le the coord�nator alluded to the theory that I have towards my thes�s, the coord�nator appeared to know only the bas�cs of my top�c, so I d�dn't press w�th any quest�ons. However, I learned that there are many projects that focus on soc�al cohes�on between m�grants and Turk�sh c�t�zens, so I w�ll have to check those out �n the near future �n the case that they could support my thes�s.

The coord�nator also ment�oned another educat�on opt�on that I hadn't come across �n my l�terature, so I took some notes on what was sa�d & w�ll have to figure out the deta�ls before poss�bly �ncorporat�ng that �nto my thes�s.

Phase two of the day led us to another un�vers�ty that �s well-located close to the Bosphorus. Because Cays�e spent s�x months study�ng abroad here several years ago, she was able to get us a classroom to use throughout th�s week. W�th a v�ew s�m�lar to th�s, I'd be too d�stracted to go to college here, haha!

After a qu�ck lunch where I scarfed down 3 m�n� hamburgers wh�le hear�ng the call to prayer, we walked to the office of the Turk�sh Econom�c & Soc�al Stud�es Foundat�on (TESEV). I really enjoyed th�s meet�ng; the representat�ves were well-spoken, well-prepared, & well-�nformed. I got updated stat�st�cs, data, & anecdotes from cred�ble sources, wh�ch w�ll prepare me for my very �mportant �nterv�ews w�th government m�n�stry offic�als next week. For example, �t absolutely blows my m�nd that over 563,000 Syr�an refugees alone are currently �n the same c�ty that I am �n now!

The TESEV representat�ves were extremely helpful & gave enl�ghten�ng �ns�ght after I asked them my thes�s quest�on. Unfortunately, TESEV sa�d that they have no data of the�r own about my spec�fic �nterests. Th�s means that I have to seek more �nformat�on (stats, data, reports, etc) from the 2 actors that are most relevant to my research (AFAD & DGMM (don't worry, they'll get plenty of blog coverage next week)), but �t �s d�fficult to obta�n that �nformat�on. Ugh…

Our next meet�ng was the most fun research-related exper�ence of the tr�p so far. We v�s�ted a commun�ty center that helps Syr�an women & ch�ldren establ�sh themselves w�th a new l�fe �n Istanbul. I loved the energet�c atmosphere of th�s place.

The last meet�ng of the day was my favor�te. We met w�th an academ�c who shed l�ght on some complex �ssues, �nclud�ng m�ne. My theory was affirmed aga�n & I also wrote down potent�al quest�ons to ask spec�fic government m�n�str�es next week.

68

D�ffer�ng Perspect�ves & News Updates

July 27, 2018

Those who do not have separately arranged �nd�v�dual meet�ngs for Thursdays & Fr�days are expected to attend the prearranged meet�ngs, so th�s �s what I d�d th�s both days th�s week.

Thursday (7/26) was a t�r�ng marathon of a day. In the morn�ng, a smaller group of 6 (�nclud�ng me) met w�th several representat�ves from the Internat�onal Cathol�c M�grat�on Comm�ss�on (ICMC). We took an �nformat�ve tour of a Resettlement Support Center (RSC). 9 RSCs around the world are funded & managed by the DOS's PRM Bureau, wh�ch contracts ICMC as the only author�ty to operate the Istanbul RSC & to resettle refugees to the US. Wh�le th�s meet�ng d�dn't teach me anyth�ng new about educat�on pol�cy change, �t d�d teach me more deta�ls about the rather compl�cated & un�que resettlement process �n Turkey.

Next we chatted w�th a fr�end of Cays�e who has worked w�th the UN Development Programme.

We then drove an hour to Koç Un�vers�ty to meet w�th representat�ves w�th the M�grat�on Research Center there (M�ReKoç). They have several research projects that relate to m�ne & a large onl�ne database that I w�ll have to check out.

Our requ�red-attendance meet�ng w�th UNHCR Istanbul was great; the staff there cleared up some concepts that I was vaguely fam�l�ar w�th. I took four pages of notes & they gave me leads to find other helpful �nformat�on for my thes�s as well! On the way to our next meet�ng, we had an �ns�ghtful group debr�ef & d�scuss�on about how we should be extra careful to behave �n publ�c & about some other �tems.

In the even�ng, P�nar Dost-N�yego of the Atlant�c Counc�l gave us an �nformat�ve presentat�on about the�r work & the EU-Turkey deal.

As we were about to walk out of the hotel for d�nner �n the even�ng, there was a surpr�se on the TV. Al�, the THO Pres�dent, was part of an �nterv�ew on recent news about Trump �mpos�ng sanct�ons on Turkey unt�l the release of Pastor Andrew Brunson.

Fr�day (7/27) was another day where some d�d the�r own th�ng, but I stuck to the meet�ngs on the schedule. Another smaller group & I met w�th Dr. Amaar Khaf of the Syr�an Forum �n the morn�ng. I spent the afternoon catch�ng up on th�s blog after slack�ng for four days (oops), packed my su�tcase, & started prepar�ng for my b�g meet�ngs next week.

69

MoNE Research F�nd�ngs & Commentary

August 1, 2018

Merhaba!

As a 2018 THO Summer Research Program Scholar, I wanted to showcase spec�fic aspects of my find�ngs on the evolut�on of Turk�sh pol�cy towards the educat�on of Syr�an refugee ch�ldren �n Turkey �n a separate post.

In case you aren't already fam�l�ar w�th my project of blogg�ng dur�ng the program, these find�ngs w�ll also be �ncluded �n my honors thes�s later th�s year, alongs�de find�ngs from l�terature on the same top�c. Throughout th�s ent�re research program so far, there were only 3 meet�ngs that I was most ant�c�pat�ng: 1 of these was w�th the M�n�stry of Nat�onal Educat�on (MoNE).

The MoNE �s a key actor �n the narrat�ve of my thes�s, wh�ch �s exam�n�ng the reasons beh�nd the trans�t�on of Syr�an refugee ch�ldren from the Temporary Educat�on Centers (TECs) to the Turk�sh publ�c schools.

After scann�ng dozens of scholarly art�cles & bra�nstorm�ng spec�fic quest�ons, I was finally prepared to hear the MoNE's perspect�ve. The follow�ng �s a summary of what I learned from the MoNE presentat�on that w�ll be eventually �ncluded �n my thes�s, alongs�de some commentary of my own (denoted by an aster�sk).

The MoNE's pol�cy towards Syr�ans �s to prov�de �ntegrat�on & to �ncrease Turk�sh language classes.

Nearly 62% (or 610,278) Syr�an ch�ldren are �n school. 90% attend pr�mary school, but only 30% attend secondary school.

*The MoNE offic�al attr�buted the latter stat�st�c to the lack of compulsory secondary educat�on �n Syr�a as a cultural barr�er that �nh�b�ts Syr�an ch�ldren access�ng secondary educat�on �n Turkey.

There are 3 opt�ons of school�ng �n Turkey. 1. The TECs: 222,000 Syr�an ch�ldren attend the 300 TECs across Turkey, grant�ng them the r�ght to study �n Arab�c. 2. The Turk�sh publ�c schools: the path to �ntegrat�on �nto the larger Turk�sh soc�ety. 3. Open schools/d�stance educat�on: 14,000 Syr�an ch�ldren chose th�s opt�on.

*In regards to my research �nterests & thes�s mater�al, I w�ll only cover the first 2 opt�ons & the ongo�ng trans�t�on from the first to the second.

It has been clear that a free & publ�c Turk�sh educat�on has always been open & access�ble to Syr�an refugee ch�ldren. However, a major�ty of these ch�ldren d�d not take advantage of th�s for a myr�ad of reasons. The bel�ef that the Syr�an c�v�l war would end after a few months & the language barr�er (from Arab�c to Turk�sh) serve as the ch�ef reasons.

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The TECs popped up across the country. Wh�le the TECs prov�de a Arab�c language-&-culture-based curr�culum that resemble the curr�culum �n Syr�a Arab�c, the TECs are cr�t�c�zed for the�r lack of qual�ficat�ons. For example, 12,943 Syr�ans volunteer w�th the TECs.

There has been grow�ng concern about the educat�onal s�tuat�on of Syr�an refugee ch�ldren enrolled �n the TECs �n recent years. To address th�s, the Turk�sh government dec�ded to gradually phase out the TECs �n favor of publ�c schools.

Currently, the TECs have 15 hours of Turk�sh language courses per week. Th�s �s to prepare the Syr�an ch�ldren already �n the educat�on system for the trans�t�on from the TECs to Turk�sh publ�c schools �n the com�ng years.

*Why �s the government phas�ng out the TECs?

*Th�s �s the central quest�on wh�ch concerns me. W�th�n the very broad top�c on educat�on, I'm most cur�ous about the mot�vat�on for the trans�t�on. D�d someth�ng spec�fic happen to st�mulate a change �n m�ndset?

*Based on ex�st�ng l�terature & feedback, my theory �s that because the Syr�an c�v�l war lasted longer than Turk�sh government offic�als expected, pol�cy has evolved towards permanently �ntegrat�ng ("harmon�zat�on"/"uyum" & "soc�al cohes�on" are alternat�ve terms that prov�de a d�fferent, preferred connotat�on) Syr�an ch�ldren �nto the larger Turk�sh soc�ety through educat�on �n a Turk�sh publ�c school.

*Wh�le th�s reason may seem obv�ous, I have found that th�s part�cular reason appears most frequently throughout my extens�ve research. Th�s conv�nced me that �ts s�mpl�c�ty was just a façade.

Teşekkürler for your �nterest & support �n read�ng these find�ngs & commentary of the MoNE �nformat�on! My most genu�ne hope �s that you learned someth�ng, as I have learned many th�ngs!

(All above stat�st�cs & �nformat�on are from the Turk�sh M�n�stry of Nat�onal Educat�on.)

The Program Ends but the Research Cont�nues

August 15, 2018

Th�s blog post �s brought to you by my sl�ghtly jet lagged self at the fifth hotel �n four weeks.

Here �s a summary of our last days �n Gaz�antep, our return to Istanbul & our return to D.C.

My second-to-last post left you off after our v�s�t to N�z�p 2, a conta�ner camp for Syr�ans near the border. That was such a humbl�ng & provok�ng exper�ence that I st�ll haven't processed what I saw & felt there a week later.

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The rest of our week �n Gaz�antep was very busy & I had l�ttle t�me or ab�l�ty to post. On Wednesday (8/8) morn�ng, our group met w�th two branches of the Syr�an Forum. These were R�zk, the profess�onal development branch, and Ihsan, the rel�ef and development branch. We had already met w�th the Omran branch �n Istanbul.

In the afternoon, we met w�th several representat�ves from the Internat�onal Organ�zat�on for M�grat�on (IOM).

That even�ng, several prom�nent scholars and pol�cymakers hosted our group for d�nner at a beaut�ful, brand-new restaurant outs�de of town.

On Thursday (8/9) morn�ng, half of our group met w�th the Turk�sh M�n�stry of Fore�gn Affa�rs' M�ss�on to Gaz�antep.

Our ent�re group then met w�th representat�ves from the Gaz�antep Metropol�tan Mun�c�pal�ty (GMM). I had heard of Gaz�antep's well-loved & act�ve mayor, Fatma Sah�n, before & soon found out why.

GMM bel�eves that development beg�ns at the local level. They are cooperat�ng w�th other local governments, the central government, NGOs, & others on projects work�ng on b�g top�cs �nvolv�ng educat�on & soc�al cohes�on.

It was a surpr�se for me to learn that the c�ty of Gaz�antep had the first two TECs establ�shed �n 2012 & 2013. Even though not many Syr�an ch�ldren attended these TECs �n the early years, GMM thought ahead, try�ng to el�m�nate the r�sk of a "lost generat�on" & pred�cted that th�s cr�s�s was not go�ng to be short-term.

In 2014, Mayor Sah�n had 15 meet�ngs w�th the MoNE, concerned about poss�ble future problems w�th�n the Syr�an and Turk�sh commun�t�es. She conv�nced the MoNE to adopt Gaz�antep's model & to establ�sh TECs all over Turkey later that year.

The prov�nce of Gaz�antep now has 15 total TECs & the 2 or�g�nal TECs �n Gaz�antep c�ty st�ll ex�st.

I was able to ask GMM for add�t�onal �nformat�on about the ongo�ng trans�t�on of Syr�an ch�ldren from the TECs to the Turk�sh publ�c schools.

The trans�t�on started 2 years ago. Due to Turkey's 4+4+4 system, the 1st, 5th& 9thgrades enrolled �n publ�c school dur�ng the 2016-17 school year. When the 4th, 8th& 12thgrades make the move to the publ�c schools �n the fall of 2019, the TECs w�ll be completely phased out.

Later that day, we had 2 excellent meet�ngs w�th several representat�ves from the UNHCR office �n Gaz�antep and w�th Ravda Nur.

On Fr�day (8/10), we toured an ASAM Women's Only Center.

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In the afternoon, we learned about the personal exper�ences of two men from rural Damascus.

We then networked w�th several academ�cs and researchers knowledgeable on the refugee s�tuat�on �n Turkey & our top�cs.

Due to a schedul�ng confl�ct on Saturday (8/11), I was d�sappo�nted that we couldn't v�s�t an orphanage.

Our group �nstead meandered through mult�ple museums, h�ked to the top of the Gaz�antep castle dur�ng the heat of the day, & shopped �n the local bazaar 't�l we dropped.

Then the travel days… ugh. Our group had a qu�ck 2-hour fl�ght from Gaz�antep to Istanbul on Saturday (8/12). On Sunday (8/13), we had a long 11-hour fl�ght from Istanbul to Dulles. I was super proud of how product�ve I was to rearrange my notes �n a more eas�ly understandable format so that I can start work�ng on �ncorporat�ng my research �nto my thes�s & th�s blog! I was also very exc�ted to finally have cellular data when we landed.

Yesterday (Monday, 8/14) was our last day of the THO Summer Research Program. We had 2 pleasant meet�ngs; a follow-up w�th Rep. Pete Sess�ons's leg�slat�ve d�rector & a conversat�on w�th Islam�c Rel�ef USA. We then wrapped up some other �tems & sa�d goodbye.

D�scla�mer: Th�s �s not the last blog post, just because the program �s over. I st�ll have qu�te a b�t of read�ng to do, �n order to supplement what I've already �ncluded �n th�s blog. Before October, I w�ll be wr�t�ng at least a dozen more research-based posts that are related to my thes�s top�c on the evolut�on of Turk�sh pol�cy towards the educat�on of Syr�an ch�ldren.

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The Turk�sh Her�tage Organ�zat�on would l�ke to express �ts deepest grat�tude to all of our supporters. Thanks to you, we have been able to prov�de a var�ety of programs and events that focus on our s�x cr�t�cal �ssue areas that serve to �nform and promote a pos�t�ve d�alogue about US-Turkey relat�ons. The Summer Research Program was a culm�nat�on of months of research by part�c�pants from our �naugural 2018 Summer Research Program. The program, "Refugees and Asylum-Seekers �n Turkey: Challenges, Opportun�t�es and Approaches," offered students from un�vers�t�es �n the Un�ted States the opportun�ty to travel to Wash�ngton D.C. and Turkey to conduct research on a var�ety of top�cs w�th�n the scope of the program.

Thanks to your support, programs l�ke the 2018 Summer Research Program are made poss�ble.

S�ncerely,

THO Staff

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Thanks for the�r support.

1250 Connect�cut Ave, NW -Su�te 700Wash�ngton, DC 20036

(202) 261-6506

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