a systematic approach to organizational development

A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

ALAN J. DALE

ONE of the things which bedevils attempts at organization development is the lack of any real theory to use in assessing a situation and designing an appropriate strategy. Typically, consultants already have their preferred strategies, which reflect their own theoretical backgrounds and biases. They tend to bring these into the organization with them and the data (if any) which they collect in their diagnoses frequently relate only to the dimensions of their strategies, whilst ignoring other possibilities. Thus, a common approach is to concentrate on assessing the effectiveness of group process in an organization and to use a limited range of strategies (e.g. group dynamics training, team building and related methods) to influence it. On another tack, many practitioners plunge straight into trying to influence the mech- anics and/or processes by which those in leadership positions set objectives, determine performance standards and assess results. A further approach is to concentrate on the structure of the organization or of individual roles.

None of these approaches are necessarily good or bad (assuming they are competently carried out); they are merely more or less appropriate as the starting point of a strategy. Even the now unfashionable 'common skills' training or general education for managers may be perfectly suitable as a starting point in some situations. Indeed, it seems likely that all of these elements, and many more, may be necessary to an effective organization. The question is where (if anywhere) to intervene iirst and what sequences of activities to follow thereafter? Thus, practitioners in the field need a framework with which to assess situational variables and Iz rationale for devising appropriate strategies.

The author and K. E. Thurley of the London School of Economics have developed a simple model (Fig. I) which they are using to provide such a framework. It represents an attempt to integrate some diverse thinking about individual and organizational change, and thus its theoretical antecedents are numerous. Primary influences were Meigniez e t aL,1 Hesselling,2 Dienes,3 King4 and a large number of contributors to modern learning theories. It

Paris, 1962.

HolIand Van Gorcum, 1966.

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'Meigniez, R. et al,, Evalution of Supcryirory and Management Training Methods, O.E.C.D.:

'Hesselling, P., The Strateg of Evaluation Research in Managtmmt and SupmVsov Training,

a Dienes, 2. P., and Jeeves, M. A., Thinking in Sttuctlas, London: Hutchinson, 1965. 4 Kine. S . D. M., Training witbin the Or~anbatian London: Tavistock, 1964.

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1972 A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 59

is intended to be a ‘systems’ view, in that Werent elements in the change process are identified and described to show how one relates to another. Blocks I, 2 and 3 on the model represent the organization as it is in the ‘here and now’. The three levels (individual behaviour, job performance and organizational effectiveness) can be ‘short-circuited’ to indicate that little is known about how they actually interact. It is often assumed that certain behaviour results in predictable kinds of job performance or organizational effectiveness. This has led to strategies in which attempts are made to influence such behaviour (e.g. ‘consideration’ shown to employees) and even to measure changes in it in order to ‘evaluate’ the strategy. If the real aim was to influence job performance or organizational effectiveness, then such an approach is meaningful only if the interventions can be related to these expected, or hoped for, outcomes. As the theory in this field will not often allow us to predict such a relationship, it is likely to prove more effective for the consultant in the field to intervene at the level of behaviour if that is what he wants to influence, job performance if that is what he wants to change, and organizational effectiveness if that is his target. Studies on the relationships between these levels are clearly a rewzrch priority and, indeed, there has recently been a little encouraging progress in this field (see, for example, Litwin and Stringer5 and Likert).S

Blocks xa, 2a and 3a on the diagram represent an ‘ideal state’ for the organization as compared to its ‘actual state’ (Blocks I , 2 and 3). They are the product of interaction with external systems, such as markets, the tech- nology, the political situation and other influences as they affect the thinking of the leaders of the organization.

To adequately assess ‘needs’ for change, the consultants should have data about both the ‘ideal’ and ‘actual’ state of the organization; the ‘gap’ between them representing possible aims for change. In the model as presented, the aims (and subsequent stages) are shown as individual trainiag aims, but they might equally well relate to, say, selection or job methods. Not all change can be effected by influencing individual behaviour directly1

The remainder of the model describes the parts of the system concerned with achieving the aims. Block 4 expresses the aims as the ‘terminal behaviour’ (a concept taken from programmed learning) to be achieved; that is, what the individual will actually be doing - and could be seen to be doing - at the end of his learning experience. Block j represents the determination of the knowledge and skill inputs which are required to achieve such an aim. Block 6 represents the actual individual learning experience, and is really four distinct substages. First, the individual has to perceive a need to

Business School, Division of Research, 1968. 6 Litwin, G., and Stringer, A., Motivution and Organipfionuf Climafe, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard

6 Likert, R., The Human Organirution; Its Managcmmt und Vufue, New York McGraw-Hill, 1967.

60 THE JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES FEBRUARY

learn, a point which is usually assumed! But the most elementary textbook on learning would show us the vital importance of checking whether the learner really does perceive a need before proceeding further. Ensuring that he does may be a vital part of a strategy. Secondly, comes the actual learning and testing of new skills, understanding and attitudes. Thirdly, a stage which is at the very heart of achieving organi~ational change; can the learner see for himself what he has to do with his new learning when he is back on the job; can he make the conceptual leap (transfer) from one environment to another? The fourth stage is frequently confused with the third, but is quite distinct; will the environment l e t the learner; has the learner adequate resources to behave differently, will his behaviour be reinforced by suitable rewards ?

The model shows a series of stages which is cyclical in nature. It shows how (as far as we know) individual learning can be related to outcomes for the organization. The complete cycle can be seen as a process of orgatz~atioonal learning.

Now in devising a strategy for organization change one never has ‘enough’ data; some action must be taken in order to gather more, and the very process of collecting it is equivalent to organizational learning. For example, in striving for an improvement in job performance it may initially be impossible to define what ‘better’ performance is. Perhaps individual skill training in aim-setting and the determination of standards would help individuals to set improvement targets. Such an input of skill could be seen as an input from outside our organizational learning system; an educational input related to an analysis of needs common to all organizations (see Fig. 2). This example illustrates the important fact that a change strategy may start at a y point in the sysfem, but that once started, its implications need to be followed around the system.

The decision ‘where to start’ depends on the data one has about the various parts of the system, and &a stbout the situation in which the ‘sy&m is embedded. These initial stages of data collection and feedback are complex and little understood at present, and it is not proposed to deal in detail with them here. Suffice it to say that, although there are certain criteria of a healthy organization to consider (see Clark,’ Argyris,* Seashore9 or Lawrence and Lorschlo) the decision rests mainly on the interaction of three sets of variables; the aims of the change, the resources available and the constraints. In

Clark, J. V., ‘A Healthy Organization’ Cahymia Managment Review, Vol. IV, No. 4, 1962. hgyris, Chris., Inferpersonaf Cornpetma and Orgaeafionaf Effecfimq London: Tavistock,

1962. D Seashore, S., and Yuchtman, E., ‘The Elements of Organizational Performance’, November

1966, and ‘Organizational Effectiveness’, March 1967, Institute for Social Rmarcb, University of Michigan.

Lawrence, P. R., and Lorsch, J. W., O r g a n ~ a f j o n a ~ E ~ i r o ~ e n f , Cambridge, Mass.: Harpaid University Press, 1967.

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systems terms, this can be seen as the interaction of the organizational learning systems with other systems within and without the organization. For most consultants, the assessment of this interaction is frequently by hunch rather than reason.

The remainder of this paper is devoted to four cases showing how the model has been used to devise and also to monitor change programmes which have started at various points in the system. The interaction of aims, resources and constraints is mentioned briefly in each case to illustrate how it influenced the strategy. The analysis of aims, resources and constraints is not described. In the first two cases, the model was not used until part-way through the project; in the others it was used from the beginning. With the advantage of hindsight, the author may make the determination of the strategies sound a more rational affair than it really was.

Case z The senior administrator in a large psychiatric hospital discussed with his

headquarters training staff what could be done to ‘improve supervision’. They had no clear idea of what improvement was possible; merely an image in their minds of considerable potential. It was agreed that training would be provided to introduce the subject of management to those in leadership positions. The training officer advised that research results available at that time (which were extremely scanty) indicated that, to stand any chance of Muencing behaviour on the job, a majority of those in leadership positions should attend a common experience, over as short a time period as possible and with active support from senior management. A one-week course was arranged, which was held off the job but on hospital premises. It attempted to impart knowledge about the environment, the subject of management generally and, specifically to develop an understanding of the dynamics of communications and a little skill in improving work methods. It was thus a completely conventional course for its day (1963), with typically woolly and generalized aims.

The course was attended by groups of fifteen or so leaders at a time. Within the space of about six months, virtually all those in any leadership position except the most senior level had attended. The most senior staff visited courses for at least three hours. The chief administrator who hadinstigated thecourses participated enthusiastically; others with less enthusiasm and considerable anxiety.

There were two features of the course which, retrospectively, were much more important than its content. First, people from all departments attended in mixed groups. Secondly, the training staff used very informal methods involving a lot of student participation. Both features were previously unknown in the life of the hospital.

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The courses had a dramatic and immediate effect, which was characterized by various observers as ‘blowing the roof off ’. Course members showed a greatly enhanced awareness of problems and opportunities, with a strong desire for action. Action was mainly seen as something which should be taken by ‘them’.

At about this time, senior staff who had not attended the courses were beginning to attend similar courses with colleagues from other hospitals, held in centres away from work situations. For the most part they were ‘encouraged’ to go, but the senior administrator sent himself on a four-week course run by a staff college. The courses had little apparent influence on the other senior staff, unless it was to make them more anxious.

As soon as the courses were over, the chief administrator formed working groups drawn from various departments at supervisory levels. Their brief was to look at problems which they had in common and to work them through to a satisfactory conclusion. The groups met regularly for short periods and individual members were supposed to do preparatory work between meetings.

It soon became apparent that the members of the groups, while they were acutely aware of the signs and symptoms of organizational problems, had little skill in recognizing, dehning and solving actual problems, in determin- ing the aims which lay behind them, or in techniques which were needed to deal with some of them. More importantly, it was clear that some of the senior staff (those who had only been to courses held outside the hospital) were not giving them active support and, in some instances, were actually hindering progress. The groups continued for a few months and one or two achieved some worthwhile changes in practices and policies in the hospital. However, they were for the most part unsuccessful, and the momentum began to give way to frustration. At this point the administrator wound them up.

Shortly afterwards, two key members of the senior staff (who had been showing particularly apparent signs of anxiety about the project) resigned, and were replaced by one more senior person from another hospital who had already had some management education and was in sympathy with the outlook of the chief administrator. He effected some fairly radical restruc- turing of his part of the organization (more than half the employees) and showed a considerable concern to ‘improve performance’.

The chief administrator now discussed again with the training staff what should be done to harness the energy and enthusiasm which was still being displayed by many in leadership positions. It was agreed to try ‘management by objectives’ as a means of helping them define aims and problems better (with the help of a management consultant). The training staff used the model for the first time in advising this strategy. Specific behavioural change aims were certainly not clear, and it seemed that an attempt to define the ‘performance gap’ would help to identify them. The consultant was brought in to

1972 A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 6 j

help supervisors deal with the constraints of their situation, particularly in getting support from others for change, and he worked in this respect as a team with the No. z administrator in the hierarchy. A further role for him was as a coach to supervisors in analysing their work, defining aims and problems and identifying training needs.

The consultant started work with the leaders of a team of doctors, nurses and administrators. He realized almost at once that his brief was impossible because of the lack of systematic data in the organization. He could not assist in defining the (performance gap’ because no usable measures were available and ideas in the organization about performance were extremely nebulous.

The training officer (who by this time was acting, in effect, as an ‘inside’, as opposed to the consultant’s ‘outside’, change-agent role) now used the model consciously. He suggested that further action could be taken at two points on the model. At Block 6, an educational input could be devised to help supervisors develop and apply skills in handling data for purposes of aim-setting, problem-solving and performance measurement. This could be done relatively quickly and easily, using packaged material generally available. It would be financially expensive and the development of performance measures would take some time after the courses were m. The supervisors seemed somewhat unlikely to be keen on ‘another dose’ of training before they had achieved anything much on the job.

The alternative was to put all the available resources into gathering data at Blocks 2, za, 3 and 3a on the model, using the consultant as an expert resource to do the work, with the aid of the No. z administrator. This would be no less expensive, but promised to produce some useful data relatively quickly since (by chance) the consultant had had a lot of experience of such work. Furthermore, the approach would overcome reluctance to take more training, although leaving supervisors in a position where they would still be doing nothing new.

The second alternative was chosen and produced results very rapidly. Some fairly simple manipulation of existing data sources showed up some patterns which indicated some ways in which the organisation could vary its performance by taking Werent kinds of decisions about the admission and discharge of patients. A conference of senior staff, taking a day and a half off the job, was called to consider the data and decide what aims and decisions they helped to illuminate. The conference included a limited educational input in the form of simple guidelines to aim-setting and performance measurement. Unexpectedly, some of the senior staff, who had previously done little about the project, subsequently changed their decision-making radically, and this had a sudden and marked effect on the performance of their departments.

5


Encouraged by this, the hospital then commissioned the consultant to develop a total information system. This work is still in progress at the time of writing and has shown many ways of controlling and improving the performance of the hospital. More than two years after the attempt at management by objectives first aborted, the hospital now feels ready to try again (i.e. Blocks 2, za and 4 on the model), armed with much more data. It is expected that this will lead to the defining and meeting of further specific training needs (Blocks 4, j and 6 ) and subsequent changes in behaviour.

Meanwhile, further research effort is being devoted to a study of the organizational systems and controls in the hospital, which is also proving useful in defining roles and organizational structure, in indicating information flows required, and in throwing up numerous problems and needs for change. This work is reported elsewhere by King.l’

Case 2 Case 2 concerns a large and very busy general hospital. The project started

shortly after Case I, and in a similar way, up to the point where ‘follow-up’ working groups had proved relatively unsuccessful, and for similar reasons. At this point the model was again used to assist in devising the strategy. The key situational variables were that the staff seemed unlikely to react favourably to further training and that the hospital was in serious difficulties which required urgent attention. The most pressing of these were that there was a chronic shortage (and high wastage) of staff, coupled with a very poor public image. Internal relationships between departments were bad, and aggravated by a heavy workload. There was an apparent lack of managerial skills in performing certain technical functions, such as work scheduling. Morale was generally poor.

It was agreed that the key to a successful strategy would be to produce quick success in solving some s m a l l problems, so as to arouse the motivation to tackle bigger things. A second crucial point was thought to be the involvement of senior staff in all departments, so as to generate some widespread organizational commitment to ‘achievement’ rather than ‘survival’ from day to day. This ruled out individual skill training for a few individuals ( i e . starting at Block 4) because it was felt that, although this might produce quick results (for example by improving recruitment methods) the causes of the problems lay much deeper and, without more widespread changes in outlook and policies, would produce no lasting results. Thus, it was decided to start at Block 3 (organizational effectiveness) on the model and to collect data primarily about immediate problems rather than more fundamental

l1 King, S. D. M., ‘Organizational Development: Is there a “Psysiology” of Hospital Organ- ization?,’ Nursing Times, June I rth, 1970.

I 9 7 2 A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 67

issues like aims and standards. It was agreed to set up a steering group consisting of senior representatives of each department and to pursue a policy of ‘cycling’ as rapidly as possible from data collection (Block 3) to feedback (Block 4 - the aim being for senior staff to perceive the ‘performance gap’) action (Blocks 4, and 6) and further data collection. With each cycle the learning needs, whether organizational or individual, would become more apparent and precisely defined.

To make a quick impact, four consultants interviewed (in the space of a few days) all the staff in leadership positions. They then summarized the content of the interviews into categories of problems identified and fed the data back to the steering group, asking them to determine the priorities for action. Four widespread and urgent problem areas were identified, and the steering group set up four working/learning groups. Each consisted of representative supervisors and managers from departments concerned with the problem area. The results were fed back to them and to all other inter- viewees in half-day seminars, which were also used to explain how the groups would work.

Each group had a consultant acting as coach. His role was to help the group learn how to collect data relevant to the problem area, analyse the data and devise appropriate solutions, both for the short and long term. Each consultant met with his group about one day each month (more at first) for about a year. Each such meeting was used to plan work to be done by the next meeting, to review progress and to deal with learning difficulties. In addition, each group met many times in between seeing its consultant.

The life of the groups became largely independent of the steering group, which never performed its intended function of planning and committing the organization to the change programme. The key member of the steering group became the focus for the four learning/working groups, but the others played little part. RetrospectiveIy, this was probably because he was the only member vitally concerned with the changes being made or suggested by the working groups.

Each workingflearning group went through continuous cycles of the model; collecting data, setting learning (or other types of) aims, taking action, reviewing the results and starting again. Two were demonstrably successful in identifying problems and solving them. The other two had some success, but this was limited by minimal support from their superiors and, due to changes in the senior staff, these difficulties were not adequately dealt with. However, the groups did generally achieve their aims of producing fairly quick success. At the time of writing they are working to define continuing a i m s and standards for their areas of concern. These should prove helpful in producing some fundamental improvements now that, in systems terms,


some of the ‘noise’ has been got rid of. In particular, they show a need for detailed skill training for some individuals and for some team building activities at the interfaces between departments and levels.

A further, and more ambitious, group is now being set up, consisting of more senior staff, in an attempt to deal with some of these issues. As somewhat better data are available to them, it is hoped to focus their attention on the determination of performance standards (Block z), leading thence to other parts of the organizational learning system.

This project is being monitored as it proceeds by an independent university team.

Case 3 In this case, the organizational learning model was used from the start to

determine the strategy. The organization consists of a headquarters admin- istration which makes policy and provides management services centrally, and twelve operational units with a considerable degree of day-to-day independence. About twenty thousand people are employed in all. Each of the twelve operational units has similar functions.

Surveys of training needs and discussions had revealed a widespread ‘performance gap’, which was characterized by an evident lack of program- ming of work, resulting in a ‘crisis management’ climate in which information was produced haphazardly and without regard to purpose. The same problems recurred constantly and most decisions were made on an ad hoc basis.

Thus, the training staff in the headquarters organization were presented with some fairly clear data in Blocks z and za of the model (job performance) and with some indications as to what sort of behaviour (Blocks I and la) would be more appropriate. They subsequently defined the training aims (Block 4) as follows:

‘after training, delegates will have: refined their skills in recognizing and defining management problems

and the information necessary to solve them; acquired knowledge of and skill in using appropriate techniques to

solve their problems; demonstrated their ability to apply their learning both generally and in

their own work situation, by selecting and solving appropriate management probIems in their jobs.’

The key situational variables were that the training needs were widespread, that they particularly concerned senior managers who were unable to leave their normal activities for long, and that relatively little environ- mental support was required for learners to change their behaviour in the

I 9 7 2 A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 69

work situation. It was, therefore, decided that a training course run centrally would be appropriate, even though this raised certain difficulties of conceptual transfer to the work situation.

The model was used in the following way to design the learning system, focusing on the four detailed sub-stages of Block 6.

Perceptioti of need to learn. The course started with a two-day session off- the-job. The first activity for participants was a number of exercises, some abstract and some using case material, designed to arouse perception of a need to learn.

The exercises were of Werent types; some required a definition of under- lying aims, some required collection of data relevant to the problem, others a precise specification of problem and cause, s t i l l others needed just imagina- tion! The participants experienced some ‘unlearning’ - a realization that they were not effective at solving what appeared to be very simple problems. Each student’s results were checked, and none had solved all the problems.

Learning and tesfing. The tutor then explained some simple procedures for handling such problems and showed participants how they could use them on the exercise material. Case material was then used to provide some exercises nearer to the student’s practical experience, They practised using the procedures on the cases and the tutor checked that each student was able to solve them successfully.

Each student was then issued with a larger case exercise, analogous to a problem known to exist in his own work situation. He made plans, with the aid of the tutor, to tackle the problem in his own time, with a brief to return with a solution one week later.

Concepfual tranger to the work Situation. Also, during that week, the student was asked to select a live problem from his own work situation and do a preliminary analysis of it using the procedures suggested during the first two-day session.

When the students returned, they attended a further two-day session off-the-job. During this session, the group discussed each student’s attempt at solving the case exercises, thus each demonstrating the extent of his understanding and retention of the procedures learnt. The tutor then exam- ined each of the problems produced by the participants, and discussed them with the class, who evaluated the extent to which each had been successful in recognizing and defining a real problem. Thus, there was a built-in and immediate check of each student’s success in transferring the first part of his learning to the work situation.

Each student then worked individually on his own problem, with the tutor moving from m e to another coaching them in the use of the procedures and suggesting appropriate techniques or further reading which would


be relevant. At the end of the two-day session, each student had equipped himself with a detailed plan to tackle his problem in the field.

Dealing with the constraints. The students returned to their work situation for one month and worked on their plans. If they experienced difficulty with constraints they were encouraged to contact their tutor, who would assist in removing them where possible, For example, he would visit a student at his work place and assist him to explain his project to colleagues and superiors to win their co-operation.

Behauiour on thejob (Black r) . Finally, the students reported back to a final day’s session off-the-job, recounting how they had tackled the problem and what progress they had made. If the problem had been solved then the objectives (as demonstrated by behaviour in the job and their results) had been achieved.

Case 4 The same organization was, as a result of persistent criticisms of its

efficiency by outsiders, anxious to ‘improve the performance’ of its junior and middle level managers. There was little conception of what ‘better performance’ meant, but a study group had recommended formal management training, including a very vague syllabus. It had also recommended changes in the job content of certain managers, defined by job descriptions.

The central training department was asked to provide training for all the managers (about two thousand) working at the levels concerned. The training staff felt unable to do so in the absence of any real knowledge of the learning needs, although they regarded the widespread expectation of training, and the willingness to commit resources to it, as a ‘natural opportunity’ for organizational development. They persuaded the line managers to commit resources initially to a widespread study of real training needs and decided to tackle the definition of the ‘performance gap’ at all three levels - individual behaviour, job performance and organizational effectiveness - blocks I ,

2 , 3, Ia, za and 3a on the model. To this end they commissioned a consultant to design the study and a subsequent strategy to use its results for organizational improvement.

A questionnaire was produced consisting of open-ended questions designed to get respondents own perceptions of the ‘performance gap’ at all three levels. It was administered to a sample of three hundred and fifty managers and supervisors from all parts of the organization. Six to twelve managers at a time (aU of the same status) were gathered together while one of the staff explained the purpose of the questionnaire and how to complete it. After discussing any uncertainties with the respondents, he then asked them to complete the questionnaire individually and without reference to each other. Afterwards, he invited all the group to discuss how effective the

1972 A SYST’EMATIC APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 71

questionnaire had been in assisting them to clarify the ‘performance gap’. This discussion was tape-recorded.

Both the questionnaires and the tape-recordings were subsequently analysed by the training staff, with the aid of the consultant. It proved possible to classify answers into categories of needs. Inconsistencies between the categories themselves seemed to indicate some rather fundamental learning needs, particularly a need for role clarification. For example, in answer to questions about the crucial activities and results in their jobs (behaviour and job performance) managers at all levels nearly all emphasized the technical rather than the managerial content. (At the most senior level, there appeared to the training staff to be practically no technical content.) The same people, in response to direct questions about their functions, tended to say that they were managerial. In response to questions about the problems they faced (an indicator of organizational effectiveness), the same people gave answers indicating an inability to separate problems from causes. The causes, in fact, appeared to be lack of managerial skills. In addition to the self-perceptions of the managers holding particular

posts, the training staff also collected a number of prescriptions of the behaviour and job performance required from managers. These had been produced over a number of years by senior managers (for their juniors) and by work study staff. Finally, they also collected data through independent observations by technical college lecturers and management researchers. Thus, in the terminology of Brown and Jacques, the same roles were described in their

Manifest (Prescribed) Extant (Observed) and Assumed (Perceived) dimensions. l2

These three Werent views of the same roles were then fed back by the consultant and training staff to meetings of senior managers. The data were presented without evaluative comment, but the staff drew attention to the inconsistencies in it. The managers were then asked to resolve the inconsistencies and to specify the priority needs for change. Some of these proved to be not training needs (e.g. some were concerned with role definition or selection) but many were, and a fairly detailed list of training a i m s was agreed without difficulty. As Brown and Jacques have it, the learning situation created for the senior managers in the feedback meetings was resulting in some tentative definitions of reqm*.de roles and organization. Thus, the training aims (Block 4 on the model) had now been provisionally defined.

The training staff took the results of these meetings as a brief for fbrther, more formal, training and received a good deal of enthusiastic and (by now)

1% Brown, W., and Jacques, E., Explorations in Mattagtment, London: Heineman, 1960.


insightful support from the senior managers. Working closely with the technical college staff who had conducted observational studies in the work situations, they designed a series of learning experiences to achieve certain specified individual behaviour (e.g. the ability to recognize and solve problems in the work situation), certain specified job performance (e.g. achievement of job objectives and standards) and certain criteria of organizational effectiveness (e.g. elimination of widespread problems, accurate communications, aroused motivation of managers).

The learning experiences were based on four weeks of formal courses off-the-job, one in each of four successive terms in a technical college. The content of each week was decided by further analysis (Block 5 ) of the data which had been collected.

In week I, students learnt some ‘common skills’ which appeared to be required: the skills of problem recognition and solving, aim-setting and information-handling, plus group maintenance and individual process skills such as listening, observing and recognizing, and using attributes possessed by group members. Students applied these skills to practical tasks to test their learning. At the end of the week, each student was individually briefed by a tutor for a project. The project consisted of a brief to analyse their own jobs, using the methods learnt on the course, and identify problems and targets for improvement with their bosses. Each boss was briefed about the project and the tutor later visited both the student and his boss in the work situation, acting as coach and catalyst in assisting the student to make the conceptual transfer to the work situation and to deal with organizational constraints. (The pattern of visits had to be modified later because of the large amount of time they demanded from the tutors, who were a mixture of internal training staff and college lecturers. Students now visit the lecturer, and the constraints of the work situation have to be dealt with by letter or telephone.) The students had about three months to complete their first project, success in which provided a built-in check of the effectiveness of the learning system.

Thus, the design of week I (and of subsequent stages) was similar to that described above for Case 3, with built-in monitoring of each learning stage. Its content is described more fully el~ewhere.1~

Weeks two and three each consisted of opportunities for students to learn skills and understanding shown by the earlier studies to be specific to their situations. They tested these on simple tasks and problems on the course and each then made a plan with the aid of the tutor, to apply his new skills to achieving job performance improvements identified on the first project. The tutor assisted with the projects in the same way as before.

Vol. 3, No. 9, September 1968. la Dale, A. J., ‘Whatever Happened to Common Skills?’, Inahtrial Training Internutionul,

1972 A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 73

Week 4 was similar but was not followed by any tutorial assistance. Instead

The complete learning system is summarized in Fig. 3. In choosing the strategies described in this chapter, the author is conscious

that the choice has been dictated largely by an intuitive assessment of the situation and the forces in it. This is particularly true of the decision where to enter the learning system in the organization (that is, at which point on the model, Fig. I; should it be by analysis at blocks I, 2, 3, Ia, ra and 3a, by immediately aim-setting at block 4, by an educational input at block 6 , or where?). Research into the factors which determine the choice of strategy is now a priority, and work is currently proceeding along these lines.

each student made a plan to continue his self-development unaided.

Summar_y and Conclusions A hypothetical model of the ‘organizational learning’ process has been

used in a number of cases to guide actions taken to change and develop the organizations concerned. It has proved useful in this respect, particularly in devising strategies which are self-monitoring. It can take account of both expected and unexpected outcomes of attempts to induce change, since it concentrates on describing behaviours, performance and organizational effectiveness at different points in time. However, a major weakness is the lack of any coherent rationale to assist in the choice of ‘entry point’ for intervention, including the decision of what aspects of the organization to collect data about.

The strengths and weaknesses of the approach suggest a number of new avenues of research, First, a comparative study of attempts to induce change using similar entry points and strategies in different types of organization. Secondly, an attempt to devise a rationale for integrating the now considerable body of research findings on organizational analysis to assist in diagnosis of the state of an organizational system. Thirdly, an attempt to relate difler- ences in system types (and many frameworks for classification are now available) and system states to the choice of a change strategy.

a systematic approach to organizational development

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