a study of the land - vro | agriculture...
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AA SSTTUUDDYY OOFF TTHHEE LLAANNDDIINN TTHHEE CCAATTCCHHMMEENNTTSS OOFF TTHHEE
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TC – 14
By A J Pitt
Victoria, Australia, 1981
SOIL CONSERVATION AUTHORITY
378 Cotham Road, Kew, VictoriaAustralia 3101
Chairman:
A. Mitchell, M.Agr.Sc., D.D.A.
Deputy Chairman:
D.N. Cahill, B. Agr. Sc., Dip.Ag.Ex.
Member:
J. S. Gilmore
Secretary:
D. M. Aughterson
ISBM 0 7241 1908 6
CONTENTS
FOREWORD .......................................................................................................................................................................7SUMMARY..........................................................................................................................................................................8ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................................91. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................................11
Methods of Study.............................................................................................................................................................112. CLIMATE ..................................................................................................................................................................12
Rainfall12Average Annual Rainfall .............................................................................................................................................12Seasonal Distribution...................................................................................................................................................12Intensity .......................................................................................................................................................................12Temperature.................................................................................................................................................................14Effects on Plant Growth...............................................................................................................................................14Frost .............................................................................................................................................................................14Seasonal Moisture Availability....................................................................................................................................16
3. GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY ...............................................................................................................18Mesozoic Sedimentation..................................................................................................................................................18
Tertiary Developments ................................................................................................................................................18The Wangerrip Group Equivalents ..............................................................................................................................18Continental deposits.....................................................................................................................................................19Heytesbury Group and equivalents..............................................................................................................................19Pliocene Lateritization .................................................................................................................................................19Tectonic Movements ...................................................................................................................................................20
Quaternary Developments ...............................................................................................................................................20Basaltic Extrusions ......................................................................................................................................................20Lake Deposits ..............................................................................................................................................................21Alluvial Terraces .........................................................................................................................................................21Coastal Land Forms.....................................................................................................................................................21Surface Sediments .......................................................................................................................................................22
4. SOILS .........................................................................................................................................................................23Soils of Uniform Texture.................................................................................................................................................23
Soils with Gradational Profile Forms ..........................................................................................................................24Soils with Duplex Profile Forms..................................................................................................................................27Miscellaneous Soils .....................................................................................................................................................28
Physical and Chemical Analyses .....................................................................................................................................30Particle Size Analysis ..................................................................................................................................................30Soil Reaction................................................................................................................................................................30Electrical Conductivity ................................................................................................................................................30Organic Carbon and Nitrogen......................................................................................................................................31Free Ferric Oxide.........................................................................................................................................................31Phosphorus...................................................................................................................................................................31Potassium.....................................................................................................................................................................31Exchangeable Cations..................................................................................................................................................31
5. NATIVE VEGATION ...............................................................................................................................................32Closed Forest ...................................................................................................................................................................32
Nothofagus cunninghamii and associated species. ......................................................................................................32Leptospermum juniperinum and associated species.....................................................................................................32
Tall Open Forest ..............................................................................................................................................................32Eucalyptus regnans and associated species .................................................................................................................32Eucalyptus cypellocarpa and associated species .........................................................................................................33Eucalyptus globulus and associated species ................................................................................................................33Eucalyptus viminalis and E. obliqua............................................................................................................................34
Open Forest......................................................................................................................................................................34Eucalyptus obliqua and associated species..................................................................................................................34Eucalyptus baxteri and associated species...................................................................................................................35Eucalyptus ovata and associated species .....................................................................................................................35Eucalyptus aromaphloia and associated species .........................................................................................................36Eucalyptus sideroxylon and associated specie .............................................................................................................36Eucalyptus pauciflora and associated species .............................................................................................................36
Low Open Forest .............................................................................................................................................................37Melaleuca lanceolata and associated species ..............................................................................................................37
Woodland ........................................................................................................................................................................37Eucalyptus radiata and associated species ..................................................................................................................37
Eucalyptus camaldulensis and associated species ....................................................................................................... 37Eucalyptus leucoxylon and associated species............................................................................................................. 37Eucalyptus viminalis.................................................................................................................................................... 38
Low Woodland ................................................................................................................................................................ 38Eucalyptus nitida and associated species..................................................................................................................... 38Eucalyptus kitsoniana and associated species ............................................................................................................. 38Casuarina littoralis and associated species ................................................................................................................. 38
Other Species................................................................................................................................................................... 39Closed Scrub.................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Melaleuca squarrosa and associated species............................................................................................................... 39Leptospermum lanigerum and associated species........................................................................................................ 39
Open Scrub ...................................................................................................................................................................... 39Low Shrubland ................................................................................................................................................................ 40Grasslands and Herbfields ............................................................................................................................................... 40
6. LAND USE................................................................................................................................................................. 41Agriculture....................................................................................................................................................................... 41Forestry............................................................................................................................................................................ 42Water Supply................................................................................................................................................................... 43Nature Conservation........................................................................................................................................................ 43Recreation........................................................................................................................................................................ 46Residential Uses .............................................................................................................................................................. 46Extractive Industries........................................................................................................................................................ 46
7. LAND SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................................................................... 47Tabular Descriptions ....................................................................................................................................................... 477.1 Aire Land System ................................................................................................................................................ 497.2 Anglesea Land System ........................................................................................................................................ 517.3 Bald Hills Land System....................................................................................................................................... 537.4 Barongarook Land System .................................................................................................................................. 557.5 Barrabool Land System ....................................................................................................................................... 577.6 Barwon River Land System................................................................................................................................. 597.7 Beech Forest Land System .................................................................................................................................. 617.8 Bellbrae Land System.......................................................................................................................................... 637.9 Birregurra Land System....................................................................................................................................... 657.10 Bunker Hill Land System .................................................................................................................................... 677.11 Cape Otway Land System ................................................................................................................................... 697.12 Carlisle Land System........................................................................................................................................... 717.13 Chapple Vale Land System ................................................................................................................................. 737.14 Connewarre Land System.................................................................................................................................... 757.15 Deepdene Land System ....................................................................................................................................... 777.16 Ferguson Hill Land System ................................................................................................................................. 797.17 Forrest Land System............................................................................................................................................ 817.18 Freshwater Creek Land System........................................................................................................................... 837.19 Gellibrand River Land System ........................................................................................................................... 857.20 Gherang Gherang Land System........................................................................................................................... 877.21 Hordern Vale Land System ................................................................................................................................. 897.22 Junction Track Land System ............................................................................................................................... 917.23 Kawarren Land System ....................................................................................................................................... 937.24 Kennedys Creek Land System............................................................................................................................. 957.25 Lorne Land System.............................................................................................................................................. 977.26 Moggs Creek Land System.................................................................................................................................. 997.27 Mooleric Land System....................................................................................................................................... 1017.28 Mount Mackenzie Land System ........................................................................................................................ 1037.29 Mount Sabine Land System............................................................................................................................... 1057.30 Paraparap Land System ..................................................................................................................................... 1077.31 Pennyroyal Land System’................................................................................................................................. 1097.32 Point Roadknight Land System ......................................................................................................................... 1117.33 Porcupine Creek Land System........................................................................................................................... 1137.34 Redwater Creek Land System ........................................................................................................................... 1157.35 Rivernook Land System .................................................................................................................................... 1177.36 Simpson Land System ....................................................................................................................................... 1197.37 Thompson Creek Land System.......................................................................................................................... 1217.38 Tomahawk Creek Land System......................................................................................................................... 1237.39 Waarre Land System ......................................................................................................................................... 1257.40 Winchelsea Land System................................................................................................................................... 127
7.41 Wonga Land System..........................................................................................................................................1297.42 Yahoo Creek Land System ................................................................................................................................1317.43 Yeodene Land System .......................................................................................................................................133
8. SOIL CONSERVATION ........................................................................................................................................135Types of Deterioration...................................................................................................................................................135
Sheet erosion..............................................................................................................................................................135Gully erosion .............................................................................................................................................................135Mass movement .........................................................................................................................................................136Salting........................................................................................................................................................................136Soil nutrient decline...................................................................................................................................................137Soil structure decline .................................................................................................................................................137Wind erosion..............................................................................................................................................................137Deterioration of streams.............................................................................................................................................137
Soil Conservation and Land Use ...................................................................................................................................138Grazing ......................................................................................................................................................................138Cropping ....................................................................................................................................................................139Forestry......................................................................................................................................................................139Residential use ...........................................................................................................................................................139Recreation..................................................................................................................................................................140Roads and tracks ........................................................................................................................................................140Extractive industries ..................................................................................................................................................141Water supply protection.............................................................................................................................................141
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................................142
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 – Maximum rainfall (mm) in 24 hours at selected stations.................................................................................12Table 2 – Average February, July and Annual Temperature (0o C) ................................................................................14Table 3 – Soils of the Otway Range and Adjacent Plains................................................................................................29Table 4 – Agricultural Land Uses, Pasture Species and Fertilizer requirements of the Land System .............................44
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 – Study area.......................................................................................................................................................10Figure 3 – Seasonal distribution of rainfall at selected sites ............................................................................................12Figure 2 – Average Annual Rainfalls ..............................................................................................................................13Figure 4 – Occurrence of Frosts ......................................................................................................................................15Figure 5 – Comparisons of precipitation and potential evapotranspiration .....................................................................17
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX I – Analytical Data for Soil Profiles..........................................................................................................144APPENDIX II – Methods of Soil Analysis ...................................................................................................................154APPENDIX III – Soil Profile Descriptions ...................................................................................................................155APPENDIX IV – Minor Components of Land Systems................................................................................................165APPENDIX V – Floristic List .......................................................................................................................................167
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The stability of land, and hence its sustained productivity depends on its nature as well as its use and management. Somekinds of land withstand drastic modification by Man, while others degenerate under slight pressure.
Inherent feature – the climate, geology, topography, vegetation and soils – largely determine the forms of soildeterioration occurring in an area; for example, erosion by water, wind and gravity, salting, waterlogging, nutrient declineand structure decline. Such deterioration will, in turn, affect the quality and regulation of surface and undergroundwaters.
In order to develop a systematic approach to soil conservation, we need information on the inherent features of the land,their interrelations and their interactions.
These interactions affect the nature of the land, the processes of land deterioration and the responses to land management.
Integrated surveys of land to provide such information have been carried out by the Soil Conservation Authority since1952. They have evolved from ecological principles put forward by Downes (1949), Christian and Stewart (1953),Costin (1954), Gibbons and Downes (1964) and others. Techniques of survey have been developed over the years. Arecent account of the principles and techniques is given by Gibbons and Haans (1976).
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This study examine the nature and interactions of the features of the natural environment. It covers the land both in andsurrounding the Otway Range, a total area of 3,685 km2.
The climate is generally cool and wet. Annual rainfall ranges between 500 and 2,000 mm, with a strong seasonal peak inwinter. Coastal areas reflect a maritime influence – they have fewer frosts and less variation between winter and summertemperatures.
The Otway Range is a prominent feature of the landscape, rising some 500 – 700 m above sea level. It comprises LowerCretaceous sandstones and mudstones and, except for some of the higher parts, has been deeply dissected into a ruggedseries of valleys and ridges. Surrounding foothills and plains to the east, west and north have been formed largely fromtertiary sands and clays, with smaller areas of marl, limestone and siltstone. Flows of Quaternary basalt have formedplains in the extreme north and east.
Soils vary widely, but show certain broad trends. Deep friable profiles are found in the higher parts of the Otway Rangeon the relatively nutrient-rich Cretaceous sandstones. In contrast, fertile sands are common on the Tertiary sediments.Sodic duplex soils predominate in the drier areas, and most profiles on the basaltic plains have heavy-textured subsoils.
Tall open forests of Eucalyptus regnans and other species cover much of the Range. The surrounding foothills carry lowopen forests of E. baxteri and E. nitida. A great diversity of vegetation structural formations and species colonize theexposed coastal localities.
Agriculture is the predominant land use on the northern plains and in the more fertile foothills, while forestry dominatesin the Range. Large parts of the Range serve as domestic water supply catchments. Coastal areas are used principally forrecreation and holiday developments.
The hazard of soil deterioration is severe in certain landscapes, but the resultant damage that has occurred varies. Theform and intensity of land use, together with management methods, are important in determining the damage to sensitiveareas. Landslips and sheep erosion are widespread on cleared land. Gullying and soil salting are common on the drierplains to the north and east. Wind erosion occurs on coastal dunes.
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Grateful acknowledgment is made of the support of the Soil Conservation authority and of the keen interest expressed bythe Chairman, Mr A. Mitchell.
The compilation and production of this report would not have been possible without the enthusiastic assistance of manypeople. Within the staff of the Authority, Mr. F. R. Gibbons and Mr A. A. Thornley (now with Town & CountryPlanning Board) did much of the initial field work and collected many soil samples for laboratory analysis. They haveboth provided valuable comments for the preparation of this report. Mr J. N. Rowan has examined the technical materialand provided many constructive comments. Mr T. I. Leslie directed the laboratory analyses and prepared Appendix II.
Field assistance was provided by Messrs P. Jeffrey, B. Evans, A. Jakimoff and P. Klutke. Miss L. Caruana re-drew theblock diagrams for publication. Mr B. A. Young prepared the bibliography and the land system legend and co-ordinatedthe production of successive drafts. Mr A. R. Beasley co-ordinated the printing and publishing details. Mr R. Noonanprepared the photographs for publication.
Mrs Y. Roberts acted as technical editor. Mr J. LasGourgues of the Ministry for Conservation prepared map anddiagrams for publication. Mr A. Conley, Department of Agriculture, provided pasture species recommendations and MrD. Linforth, Bureau of Meteorology, provided the average annual isohyets. Many other people, too numerous to mention,have helped in both the collection and compilation of the data presented in the report.
The assistance and encouragement of all these people is gratefully acknowledged.
Figure 1 – Study area
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The Otway Range is a major feature of the landscape in south-western Victoria. Bass Strait forms its southern boundary,and inland a series of hills, dissected plateaux and alluvial plains separates it from the basaltic landscapes further north.The inland limits of the study area have been defined as the catchment boundaries of the Gellibrand River, the BarwonRiver upstream from Winchelsea and Thompson Creek (see Figure 1).
Methods of StudyThe information presented in the following chapters has been derived from several sources. Land systems have beendelineated (as shown on the map), and described according to the methods outlined in the land system chapter.Information on the native vegetation and soils, including detailed profile descriptions, has been collected in the area.Much of the geological information has been collated from a review of the literature and published maps, with someminor alterations to that of the more remote areas after field examination. Descriptions of the climatic characteristics ofthe area are based on records from the Bureau of Meteorology. Land use and soil conservation chapters are partly derivedfrom field observations and partly from discussions with officers of the Soil Conservation Authority and the Departmentof Agriculture in Victoria.
In the following pages the environmental features are described both separately in separate chapters and together in theland system, further details of each characteristic may be obtained by referring to the relevant chapter. Conversely, thetabular descriptions outline the interactions between the characteristics.
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Rising some 500 –700 m above sea level directly inland from the coast, the Otway Range exerts a major influence on thispart of Victoria. Wide variations in climate are associated with the changes in topography – from the coast to the highestparts of the Range and to the flat extensive plains further inland. Accompanying changes in the dependent variables ofsoil and vegetation can be observed.
Rainfall
Average Annual RainfallThe study area is well serviced by rainfall stations, and the records illustrate the marked variation in annua rainfall, asshown in Figure 2. The main ridge receives an annual average in excess of 1,800 mm, with some areas receiving close to2,000 mm. Off the main ridge the amount drops rapidly, and in some areas the average halves within a distance of only10 km. To the north-east lies a marked rainshadow (Linforth 1977), with Winchelsea receiving less than 600 mm. Afurther rainshadow is formed by the smaller ridge extending north through Barongarook to Colac. This ridge sheltersBarwon Downs and Gerangamete Flats from moisture-bearing southerly and westerly air streams.
Seasonal DistributionRainfall varies according to the season at most stations, with the wettest month being August (sometimes July in coastallocalities) and the driest being January (see Figure 3). The strongest trends occur in the wetter localities such asWeeaproinah, Forrest, Cape Otway and Simpson. The depression of seasonal trends in June at some stations iscommonly found in coastal areas in Victoria.
IntensityAlthough summer rainfall is relatively low, heavy rain can fall during this part of the year. The warmer atmosphere insummer can hold more moisture, and heavy rain results when a rain-producing mechanism does occur (Linforth 1977).The heaviest rainfalls in any 24-hour period occur during the summer months at most recording stations, as shown inTable 1. Coastal areas appear to be particularly susceptible to these summer storms.
Table 1 – Maximum rainfall (mm) in 24 hours at selected stations
Station Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov DecAireys Inlet 69 170 80 52 80 74 36 85 50 80 101 44Barwon Heads 55 61 65 56 62 38 66 51 63 54 51 69Beech Forest 102 108 117 98 152 99 82 101 80 87 72 75Birregurra 47 70 52 36 43 32 36 56 50 58 59 59Camperdown 88 51 57 50 41 47 34 49 51 39 30 38Cape Otway 92 55 93 61 43 61 42 36 48 68 90 44Colac 69 81 48 50 55 34 35 51 40 34 61 56Forrest 51 118 72 81 93 68 51 54 52 54 95 94Geelong 73 89 67 48 114 68 63 61 66 33 52 74Irrewillipe East 127 46 44 43 41 82 47 52 41 81 40 40Lorne 71 180 73 93 124 61 86 61 71 152 115 116Pennyroyal 63 118 56 89 111 123 55 122 53 51 69 72Port Campbell 114 50 79 74 46 47 38 51 55 46 41 70Princetown 102 65 78 57 41 65 36 47 51 51 39 41Winchelsea 51 76 71 29 60 44 47 74 59 43 69 70
Italicized figures are the highest values for each station.Source: Central Planning Authority 1957, 1971.
Figure 3 – Seasonal distribution of rainfall at selected sites
Figure 2 – Average Annual Rainfalls
TemperatureClimatic stations that record temperatures are to be found at Forrest, Gellibrand, Cape Otway and Lorne (Pier Head).Table 2 lists the averages from these, from several stations outside the study area and from three discontinued stations.
In summer, inland areas experience higher temperatures than coastal areas. During winter the converse applies, withinland areas being generally 2o C cooler.
Extreme maxima in excess of 40o C do occur on rare occasions in summer, when warm air spreads over the entire areaand sea breezes have no effect (Linforth 1977). All stations have recorded such maxima, with the exception of BeechForest. This station is the only site from which temperature data for the higher parts of the Otway Range have beenrecorded. The records show a marked lowering of the temperature with the increased elevation.
Effects on Plant GrowthEach species has its own minimum, maximum and optimum temperature requirements, and thus it is difficult to specifygeneralized values for these. Some temperate grass species show signs of growth when the temperature is below 0o C,while some tropical plants practically cease growth at temperatures below 16o C. However, a generally accepted valuebelow which active growth of cool temperate pasture and crop species ceases is 6o C (Martin and Leonard 1967). Thevalue of 10o C has been accepted in southern Australia as the borderline between moderate and slow growth (Trumble1939).
Most of the survey area experiences slow growth n the three winter months, as sown on the land system tables in Chapter7. At coastal localities the period below 10o C is restricted to July. Only the most elevated parts of the Otway Rangehave average monthly temperatures below 6o c.
FrostFrost is likely to have little effect on the native vegetation, which is usually well adapted to it (Foley 1945). However itmay result in death or severe damage to the introduced pastures and crops.
Estimating the occurrence of frost from measured screen temperatures is not simple. The relation between groundtemperatures and screen temperatures varies widely between different climatic stations. Caution is required ininterpreting regional temperatures figures for predicting local frost damage. Other factors, such as the drainage of coldair to local depressions ad the placement of windbreaks that may disrupt and ‘pond’ the movement of cold air, have amajor influence. Aspect is also important, as fast thawing on north- and east-facing slopes is more dangerous to the planttissues than slow thawing.
Despite these variations, screen temperatures of 2o C provide a fair general basis for prediction of light to moderate frostsat ground level, while a screen temperature of 0o C may be adopted to indicate a heavy frost on the ground. Figure 4indicates the occurrence of light and heavy frosts for each month of the year for several stations. Coastal areas such asCape Otway and Lorne are almost frost-free. Frost frequency increases with distance from the coast. A similar tendwould be likely with increasing altitude, but no minimum temperature figures are available for the higher parts of theRange.
Table 2 – Average February, July and Annual Temperature (0o C)
Monthly AveragesStationFeb Jul
Annual average
�Apollo Bay 18.2 10.2 14.1�Beech Forest (Forestry camp)
(Jan)*Camperdown 20.0 8.5 13.7Cape Otway 17.6 9.9 13.6*Colac 17.5 7.6 12.6Forrest 18.3 7.2 12.4*Geelong (Cheetham Salt Works) 18.9 8.7 13.8Gellibrand 18.2 7.8 12.6Lorne (Pier Head) 19.5 10.9 14.8�Lorne 17.6 9.7 13.7*Point Londsale 18.8 9.7 14.1*Terang 19.3 8.4 13.4
�Discontinued stations*Stations adjacent to surveyed areaSource: Bureau of Meteorology 1977
Figure 4 – Occurrence of Frosts
Seasonal Moisture AvailabilityEstimates of the availability of soil moisture for plant growth can be made from the rainfall, the potential rate ofevapotranspiration and the capacity of the soil to store water within the root zone. A number of empirical methods existfor the calculation of evapotranspiration from meteorological data (Thornthwaite 1948, Leeper 1950, Fitzpatrick, 1963).Fitzpatrick’s method uses constants derived from comparison with measured evaporation rates from class ‘A’ pans. Thismethod, together with evaporation data from Wurdiboluc, has been used to derive the potential monthlyevapotranspiration for climatic stations at Apollo Bay, Beech Forest, Colac, Cape Otway, Gellibrand, Forrest, Geelongand Lorne, as shown in Figure 5. These monthly rates are compared with the monthly rainfall to derive estimates ofseasonal moisture availability.
Rainfall generally exceeds evapotranspiration in the autumn. At first this excess recharges soil moisture storage, butduring the winter months it either enters drainage lines as run-off or replenishes groundwater reserves. Its magnitude is ameasure of the potential of an area to supply run-off for water supply catchments. During spring, the potentialevapotranspiration again rises and exceeds precipitation. Moisture remains available for plant growth for some time afterthis happens, as the soil moisture stored above wilting point is used up.
At moister sites with deep soils likely to store more than 200 mm of water, for example around Beech Forest, deep-rootedspecies do not normally suffer moisture stress. By contrast, the shallow soils, or sands with low water-holding capacities,will not support plant growth into the summer. In the drier north around Colac the soils have adequate water-holdingcapacities, but pastures, being shallower-rooted than native perennials, tend to dry off in November or December.
Figure 5 – Comparisons of precipitation and potential evapotranspiration
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The geology and geomorphology of the Otway Range and adjacent plains form the basis of many of the land systemseparations. This chapter gives a chronology of the area in terms of sedimentation, tectonic movements, major climaticchanges and igneous activity, all of which have an important influence on the present nature of the landscape.
Mesozoic SedimentationIn the Lower Cretaceous epoch some 100 – 140 million years ago, the southern parts of south-eastern Australia arethought to have been a vast depositional plain, with rapid sedimentation keeping pace with subsidence and resulting inseveral thousand metres of interbedded sandstones and mudstones (Edwards and Baker 1943). Douglas (1969) suggestedthat these sediments were ‘largely deposited on extensive flood plains with braided streams contributing homogeneoussands and clays, possibly supplemented by volcanism’. The environment of sedimentation probably resembled thatexisting today on the riverine plain north of the Great Divide in south-eastern Australia.
These Lower Cretaceous sediments outcrop in various parts of Victoria, the most notable areas being the South GippslandHighlands, the Merino Tablelands, the Barrabool Hills and the Otway Range. The sediments of the study area were laiddown in the eastern part of the Otway Basin and these have been described and analysed by Edwards and Baker (1943),and reviewed by Douglas et al. (1976). They are composed mainly of fine- to medium-grained feldspathic sandstonesinterbedded with dark, dense mudstones and minor associated sediments. Quartz content is low in comparison with theolder Palaeozoic rocks in Victoria, and the matrix cement is mainly chlorite with small amounts of calcite. Chemicalanalyses show that these sediments are moderately well endowed with most cations required for plant nutrition and evencontain detectable levels of phosphates (Edwards and Baker 1943).
Towards the end of the period, a slight but significant change in the nature of the sediments occurred. Defined by Baker(1950) as the Moonlight Head beds, these sediments are exposed on the northern and western margins of the OtwayRange. Douglas (1969) considers that they were laid down in large swamplands. The beds are characterized by fine-grained highly feldspathic sandstone inter-bedded with light-coloured mudstones. Their major mineralogical differencesfrom the older beds are higher levels of feldspar and possibly of phosphates. They tend to weather more rapidly then theolder beds and are usually present as friable, light-coloured, weathered sandstones and mudstones in surface exposuresand have high clay contents.
Tertiary DevelopmentsMarginal marine conditions at the close of the Mesozoic era signalled the commencement of successive transgressionsand regressions of the sea, resulting several depositional cycles (Abele et al. 1976, Bock and Glenie 1966).
The Wangerrip Group EquivalentsThe oldest series of these marine transgressions and regressions has been associated with deposition of unconsolidatedsands, silts, clays and gravels of the Wangerrip Group and equivalents. The most widespread deposits are those of theDilwyn Formation and the Eastern View Formation, which occupy much of the western and eastern margins of the Rangerespectively. Deposition ranged from Upper Cretaceous to Lower Eocene times in a variety of marine and continentalenvironments. Some coal deposits were laid down in the continental phase of the Eastern View Formation. Grain size isvariable in these sediments, and the outcrops of fine or coarse material have influenced the location of land systemboundaries (see the map).
Reserves of coal in the Eastern View Formationto the east of the Range are actively mined atAnglesea.
Fringing the western margin of the Lower Cretaceous surface exposures, sediments with moderate levels of clay and siltsize particles with copious rounded quartz pebbles are found. Adjacent to these sediments, unconsolidated quartz sandand occasional gravel predominate in a wide belt stretching from Chapple Creek to Lardner Creek, with many outcrops inother localities. Slightly further west again and to the south, from Mount Mackenzie to the lower reaches of theGellibrand River, the sediments have moderate to high levels of clay and silt size particles, moderate amounts of sand,and little gravel. These finer deposits also dominate the outcrops at Ferguson Hill and along the top of the ridgeseparating Tomahawk Creek and the Gellibrand River.
To the north of the Lower Cretaceous surface exposures, outcropping unconsolidated sediments of the Wangerrip roupcontainer intermixed beds of finer and coarser material. No areas exist where sand or finer material dominates.
Immediately adjacent to exposures of Lower Cretaceous sediments on the eastern margin of the Range, clays, silts andsilica-cemented siltstones predominate around Moggs Creek. Further east and apparently overlying these finer beds arethe coarse quartz sands of the Bald Hills. In the central section of the Range, flat-topped hills in the Redwater Creek areaare capped with deposits of coarse quartz sand and gravel. They shallowly overlie the Lower Cretaceous sandstones at arelatively even depth of about 6 m.
Continental depositsDuring the early Eocene epoch, the sea retreated and some continental deposition with associated erosion and dissectionbecame widespread. Basaltic extrusions occurred in restricted areas around Gellibrand during this continental phase.
Heytesbury Group and equivalentsThe second major Tertiary depositional cycle began in the late Eocene epoch and, with minor oscillations, the sea reachedits maximum advancement in the early Miocene. By the end of late Miocene the sea had regressed. Sediments laid downduring tis cycle are referred to as the Heytesbury Group in the western part of the study area and as the Demons BluffFormation and the Torquay Group in the east.
Sediments from this second cycle are found further from the main body of the Range. In the west, widespreadunconsolidated clays, silts and sands are found in the catchment of Kennedys Creek and further south towardsPrincetown. Around Princetown itself are found calcareous clays, marls and limestone belonging to the Gellibrand Marl.This formation is exposed on in the south-western corner of the study area, but is widespread in the neighbouringcatchments of Scotts and Cooriemungle Creek (Pitt, Jakimoff & Evans, internal report).
On the eastern side of the Range a similar pattern emerges. The Anglesea Member of the Demons Bluff Formationcontains carbonaceous clay, silt and very fine sand, with thin coarse quartz sand and gravel beds that were apparentlydeposited in a marine-marginal environment. Further from the Range lie sediments of the Torquay Group includingcalcareous clays, marls and limestone, these being exposed along the valleys of Spring Creek and Jan Juc Creek. TheAngahook Member of the Demons Bluff Formation contains basalt, tuffs and volcanic breccias together with clays andsand (Abele et al. 1976).
West and east of Cape Otway, a similar pattern again occurs, with unconsolidated clays, silts and sands dominating theexposures of Tertiary sediments. Some remnants of Tertiary sediments have been uplifted to moderately high elevations.A complex pattern of marls and limestones is found in the lower part of the former depositional basin at Hordern Vale.
Pliocene LateritizationDuring the Lower Pliocene epoch, climatic conditions promoted widespread lateritization over western Victoria (Gill1964). The Timboon Surface is well preserved in plateau remnants near Simpson, where deeply weathered profilescomprise an indurated ironstone layer up to a metre thick overlying kaolinitic mottled zones. A layer of siliceous sand isoften present below the lateritic profile, possibly representing the initial stages of a minor marine transgression. Theupper fine sediments have been altered by the lateritic weathering.
To the north and east of the Range, other lateritic remnants may belong to this same Timboon Surface. They are commonto the south and east of Birregurra, and to the north of Anglesea. Flat or gently undulating lateritic landscapes wereprobably continuos over most of the study area. Rejuvenation of these landscapes with subsequent dissection has leftonly minor lateritic plateau remnants.
Some areas apparently related to the Timboon Surface exhibit deep weathering, but do not possess indurated ironstonelayers. Examples can be found near Irrewillipe, Barwon downs, Birregurra and Paraparap.
Coarse quartz sand and gravel from distinctive road cuttingsalong the Gellibrand River valley. This one shows windscalding, scree slopes and original bedding.
Tectonic MovementsUplift of the Otway Range has continued since the Cretaceous period. However, it is likely that the largest period ofuplift occurred during the major tectonic movements in south-eastern Australia in Upper Pliocene times, referred to as theKosciusko Uplift. Major movements occurred along the Chapple Vale, Bambra, Johanna and many other Faults, givenrise to the main structure of the Otways. These movements resulted in rejuvenation of the landscape. Rapid downcuttingremoved many hundreds of metres of Tertiary unconsolidated sediments and Lower Cretaceous sandstones andmudstones, to form deep, steep-sided valleys with rapidly flowing creeks and numerous waterfalls. Some pockets ofTertiary sediments remain high up on the Range, in localities such as Lorne, Cape Patton, Benwerrin and Lavers Hill.
In some central parts of the Otways, down-cutting and deep dissection have not yet advanced back to the old surfacedeveloped before uplift. Undulating landscapes with rounded rolling hills remain, similar to the high plains of the Alps ineastern Victoria and southern New South Wales. These rolling hills are well preserved between Lavers Hill and BeechForest, and they continue as isolated patches north-east to Gentle Annie Hill and south towards Cape Otway,
Movement along the Love Creek and Bunker Hill Faults has exposed Lower Cretaceous sediments to the north of theGellibrand River. Landscape with unconsolidated sands and clays on the higher parts and interbedded sandstones andmudstones in the lower positions occur intermittently along the northern margin of the Range from west of Bunker Hill toeast of Wormbete Creek. Further from the Range, less dramatic faulting has occurred in the Tertiary sediments. ThePaaratte Fault west of Princetown has exposed areas of fresh limestone. The Bambra Fault forms the northern edge of thelateritic plateau inland from Anglesea and marks the edge of an old elongate alluvial plain (Currey 1964).
Quaternary Developments
Basaltic ExtrusionsVolcanic activity increased towards the close of Tertiary times. Soil weathering properties indicate that three majorperiods of activity occurred.
The most weathered and thus probably the oldest flow is that in the northern parts of the Thompson Creek catchment.Only occasional outcrops of weathering basalt remain, although east of Mount Duneed some retreating scarps are found.
Apparently younger flows extend from near Mount Gellibrand to Winchelsea. Here the soils are deep but not highlyweathered (see Chapter 4). Occasional retreating scarps are present in a gently undulating landscape.
The youngest flows are those found south of Mount Gellibrand. They are chracterized by numerous stony rises, withbasaltic wash filling depressions between these. The soils are often shallow and are not deeply weathered (Leeper,Nicholls and Wadham 1936).
The Otway Range contains many steep and narrow valleys, often withpicturesque waterfalls.
The retreating scarp of the PaaratteFault, west of Princetown
Lake DepositsCurrey (1964) postulated that basalt flows east of Winchelsea were instrumentalin the formation of a vast inland lake during the Pleistocene by blocking the pathof the Barwon River. He suggests that the river formerly flowed along thefluviatile plain to the north of the eastern part of the Bambra Fault, and wasresponsible for deposition of the lateritic alluvium referred to above. Basaltvalley flows have since obliterated most remnants of its former course.
The almost flat plain to the north-east and north-west of Birregurra comprises the remnants of the sediments laid down inthis lake. Eventually the lake overflowed and cut a new path to the north of the Barrabool Hills, and the alluvium leftbehind has been mainly derived from basalt with some influence from surrounding Tertiary sediments. Slightrejuvenation and mild dissection have occurred. These high-level calcareous lake deposits are in sharp contrast tosurrounding siliceous deposits of Tertiary marine or Recent alluvial origin.
Alluvial TerracesAlluvial terraces are common in the upper reaches of the Barwon River system, and along the Gellibrand River,particularly at Carlisle River and Gellibrand. Here terraces at different levels can be found. Weathering patterns in soilson the highest terraces indicate considerable age. In addition, some apparently alluvial material is found occasionallyperched as terrace remnants on sides of hills, suggesting deposition before the last major tectonic movements.
Coastal Land FormsAt Cape Otway an to the west, including Johanna Beach and the Princetown coastline, elevated area of aeolian dune sandhave been variably lifted by internal deposition of calcium carbonate. The degree of cementation of this calcarenitedepends on the proportion of calcareous material in the parent sand (Bird 1976). A basement of calcarenite also exists inthe dune system between Torquay and Breamlea, but elsewhere it is rare.
To the west of Cape Otway, the calcarenite often form cliffs almost 100 m high, or overlies buried soils developed onolder Tertiary deposits. The weathering pattern of the palaeosols supports the theory that this coastline emerged duringPleistocene times (Abele et al. 1976). Cliff erosion has left the coastal dune deposits high above the present sea level.
Most of the seaward slopes of the Lower Cretaceous sediments have been steepened by wave undercutting and are thusprone to landslides (Joyce and Evans 1976). Emerged shore platforms with overlying boulder beds and colluvium foundat intervals along the coasts are also inherently unstable.
Coastal erosion of unconsolidated Tertiary sediments has often been even more active, producing vertical cliffs, massivelandslides and earth flows at various localities along the coastline, particularly near Anglesea. The development of adune system in front of some of these landslides indicates temporary stability.
Further modifications of land forms in the coastal vicinity have been initiated by minor fluctuations in sea level (Bird1976, Gill 1977). Recent rises in sea level have drowned the river mouths of the Gellibrand, Aire, Barham and AngleseaRivers and Thompson Creek, creating extensive estuaries.
The Otway Range has been formed onCretaceous sandstones and mudstones, whichhave been uplifted and deeply dissected to form asteep and rugged terrain.
Calcarenite cliffs are common along the coast to the west of CapeOtway; here, a layer of buried soil or palaeosol lies between thecalcarenite and underlying Tertiary sediments.
The most notable is at Thompson Creek, where tidal salt marches have developed on the lee side of the coastal dunesystem. Occasional higher surfaces in this salt marsh are thought to be due to deposition under previous higher sea levels,some 1-2 m above the present level.
Surface SedimentsWidespread redistribution of coarse surface material by both wind and water is commonly observed. In the eastern parts,deep sand sheets overlie older soils, particularly north and west of Torquay. In the west, deposits are usually thinner andoverlie an older deeply weathered profile. A hardpan often develops between the two layers (see Chapter 4).
444... SSSOOOIIILLLSSS
The nature of the soils reflects the interactions of the various soil-forming factors, such as climate, parent material,position in the landscape, age of formation and vegetation. Variations in these factors have led to a wide range of soils inand adjacent to the Otway Range.
In the wetter areas of the Range, strongly acid, well-drained gradational profiles with high levels of organic matter arefound. Textures on Cretaceous sandstones and mudstones are moderately heavy, while soils on Tertiary sediments rangefrom sands to clay loams.
On the surrounding plains, soils may be acid, alkaline or close to neutral, but their organic matter contents are low. Mostof them possess duplex properties and have heavy or medium clay subsoils. Those developed on basalt, or alluviumderived from basalt, have the heaviest textures and the lowest permeabilities.
The soils developed on Cretaceous sediments have moderate levels of most plant nutrients, although calcium is often lowand high acidities decrease the availability of these nutrients for plant growth. Deficiencies of phosphorus, potassium andnitrogen are widespread on Tertiary sediments, with occasional exceptions. Minor and trace elements such as copper,molybdenum, zinc, cobalt and selenium are also often required for active plant growth. Phosphate fertilizers are requiredon the basaltic plain in the north.
Soils recognized as entities in the field have been given descriptive names based on subsoil colour and the nature oftextural change with depth. Other features may also be used, as described in Appendix III. When linked with parentmaterial, these grouping serve to differentiate soils at the series level (U.S.D.A. 1951). The soils are listed in Table 3,together with their place in the classifications of Northcote (1974) and Stace et al. (1968).
Altogether, 48 soils have been recognized, some widespread and other localized. They are described below in terms oftheir occurrence, organic content, soil reaction trend (Northcote 1974), drainage characteristics and other aspects relevantto land use.
Soils of Uniform Texture
1. Yellow calcareous sandsoils. Inherently unstable coastal dunes formed for aeolian sand and shell grit possessoils with little or no profile development. Most areas regularly receive or lose sand through the action of strong onshorewinds. Apart from occasional darkening by organic matter, yellow coarse sands and grit of high alkalinity are foundthroughout. Permeabilities are high and water-holding capacities low, presenting a generally unfavourable medium forplant growth. On exposed sites, coastal winds also severely restrict plant growth.
2. Brown calcareous sand soils. On stable coastal dunes, organic matter has accumulated and some weatheringhas occurred. Dark-brown loamy sand A horizons overlie brown or yellowish brown calcareous sands at about 30 cmdepth. Moderate levels of organic matter in the A horizons improve the moisture-holding capacity and fertility of thesealkaline sands, but conditions are still unfavourable for plant growth.
3. Red-yellow calcareous sand soils. Older coastal dunes with well-differentiated soil profiles are found at CapeOtway and to the west of the Aire River mouth. Black loamy sand A horizons about 30 cm deep overlie B horizons ofreddish yellow or light-red sands. At about 1 m, deeply weathered yellow sands are encountered. In some areas,calcarenite replaces the yellow sand C horizons. Profiles usually have alkaline trends and are again excessively drained,with low water-holding capacity and low fertility.
4. Stony black calcareous sand soils. Old coastal dunes to the east of Torquay overlie calcarenite. Where it isexposed on some of the steeper slopes, shallow stony soils have developed. They are known to occur elsewhere alongVictoria’s coastline (Gibbons and Downes 1964). Surface horizons are black loamy sands interspersed with calcarenitestones and gravel. At about 20 cm there is a gradual change to brown sands with carbonate deposition around rootchannels. Infiltration is restricted by the stone layers near the surface, and rapid surface run-off with resulting severesheet erosion occurs in areas without protective vegetation.
5. Grey sand soils. Freely drained slopes of Tertiary sand with these soils are widespread throughout the studyarea, and are particularly common along the western edge of the Range. Profiles are well differentiated and consist ofblack loamy sands some 30 cm thick overlying bleached grey sand A2 horizons. In drier areas, particularly where thesand appears to be partly aeolian in origin, the B horizons are weakly developed and non-columnar.
Permeabilities are high, with soil water draining through the grey sand channels separating the B horizon columns. Thereaction is acidic, with particularly low pH values at the surface. Low nutrient levels in the parent material and intenseleaching of the permeable profiles have led to severe nutrient deficiencies. Limitations to plant growth also come fromlow water-holding capacities.
6. White sand soils. On the coarser Tertiary deposits in high-rainfall areas, practically all traces of iron andorganic compounds have been leached from the subsoils. Black or dark-grey coarse loamy sands, rich in organic matter,overlie light-grey or white bleached coarse sands at about 20 cm. These A2 horizons continue for several metres,occasionally with weak silica cementation at about 1.5 m depth.
The reaction is acidic throughout and severe nutrient deficiencies occur. Water-holding capacity below the A1 horizon isvery low and drainage is excessive.
7. Grey sand soils with hardpans. Hardpans, rich in iron and organic compounds, have been formed in outcropsof coarse Tertiary deposits. Dissection has brought many of them close to the surface. They are usually covered by awash of sand approximately 60 cm deep. The surface horizon comprises black loamy sand, which overlies mildlybleached dark-grey sands at about 25 cm. An organic-rich loamy sand about 15 cm thick is encountered just above thehardpan. Cemented sand and gravel varies in thickness from 30 cm to several metres, and below this are yellow sand andgravel layers.
8. Yellow sand soils. Steep slopes on corse Tertiary deposits have yellow sand with only weak surface darkeningdue to organic matter accumulation. They appear to be formed on B horizons exposed by erosion of adjacent uniformlytextured grey sand soils. Brownish yellow loamy sands at the surface merge to yellow or yellowish red sands at about 1m. Organic matter levels and water-holding capacities are low. Despite high permeabilities, the reaction trend is neutralwith a mildly acidic surface reaction and this appears to be reflected in the nutrient supply. The native vegetation isnoticeably taller with a dense crown cover than in surrounding areas of uniformly textured grey sand soils.
9. Black sand soils. Where water accumulates in landscape on Tertiary sand deposits, a permanent anaerobicenvironment causes organic matter to accumulate. These conditions exist in many drainage lines around the borders ofthe Otway Range, and on flat hilltops in higher-rainfall areas where weakly developed hardpans impede the profiledrainage. Silty loam O horizons with up to 30% organic matter overlie black loamy sand A1 horizons at about 20 cm. Indrainage lines, layers of sand a peat alternate at depths greater than 60 cm. Elsewhere the black sands continue to a depthof 1 m or so, underlain by a weakly cemented hardpan developed in yellow sand. These hardpans do not appear tosignificantly impede root penetration or permeability. Plant nutrient levels are sometimes high, but the strong acidity (pHvalues are frequently below 4) decreases their availability.
High levels of sulphide are found in the most acidic horizons of these soils. They can have corrosive effects on concreteor metal structures.
10. Red sandy loam soils. Iron-rich Tertiary sediments outcrop in the southern and western part of the study area.Some of these outcrops have soils with black sandy loam surface horizons overlying dark-red sandy loam or sandy clayloam B horizons. These merge into permeable yellow sands, frequently with ferruginous gravel or stones, at about 1 m.The reaction trend is usually acidic, and the relatively vigorous growth of native vegetation indicates a better supply ofplant nutrients than is usually found in light-textured highly permeable soils.
11. Grey calcareous sodic clay soils. The basaltic plains in the north possess many complicated patterns ofmicrorelief. Solution of calcium carbonate in the lowers parts of the landscape is the most probably reason for thedevelopment of ‘sink holes’ some 5 – 12 m across south of Mount Gellibrand and north-east of Birregurra. Water tendsto pond in these descriptions for long periods after rain.
The soils are weakly structured gleyed clays with prominent oxidation along root channels. Textures range from siltyclays at the surface to heavy clays at about 50 cm. Levelling of paddocks in many areas had led to a layer of lighter-textured material from surrounding duplex soils being deposited over the surface. Soil reaction trends are usuallyalkaline. Restricted permeability and the low position in landscape result in poor drainage and waterlogging severelyrestricting plant growth.
12. Black calcareous clay soils are found on the basaltic plains in the north, often demarcated by the presence ofthistles. They occur on gentle scarps and crests of ancient lava flows and around the periphery of ‘stony rises’. Surfacehorizons are dark brownish grey self-mulching clays. Black heavy clays are found below 15 cm and these merge togreyish yellow clays with soft accumulations of free lime. Gilgai microrelief is common, with a vertical variation ofabout 40 cm. Textures are slightly lighter in the shelf position. Apart from phosphorus, nutrient levels are moderate, butpermeability is low. Soil depth, although variable, is usually about 120 cm, with basalt floaters throughout the profile.Leeper, Nicholls and Wadham (1936) termed these soils ‘mooleric clay’.
Soils with Gradational Profile Forms14. Brown gradational soils with weak structure are the more common soils on the alluvial plains, particularly inareas where much of the alluvium is derived from Cretaceous sediments. Surface textures range from fine sandy loams toclay loams, which merge into dark-brown silty clay loams or light clay at about 50 cm depth. Structure in the subsoil isweak or absent, but the surface has a moderate to strong crumb structure. Nutrient levels are relatively high, as the parent
material is mainly derived from Cretaceous sediments. However, soil reaction is acidic, calcium levels are low andcarbon-nitrogen ratios are unfavourable high.
15. Grey gradational soils. On flood plains throughout the study area, and extending back up many river valleys tonarrow drainage lines, alluvial deposits derived from Tertiary sediments have poorly drained heavy-textured soils. Verydark-brown sandy clay loams at the surface grade into slowly permeable medium or heavy clays, which are usually greywith yellow mottles. Seasonally high water tables lead to weak coarse structural development. Nutrient levels aremoderately low.
16. Mottled yellow and grey gradational soils. High alluvial terraces and lower slope positions in the west haveprofiles that are relatively well structured and well drained when compared with the adjacent soils of the above-mentioned grey gradational soils. Dark greyish brown sandy loams overlie mildly bleached A2 horizons. Yellow andgrey mottled clays occur from 50 to 120 cm, below which are alluvial deposits of sandy clays and silts. The reaction isusually acidic. Permeability is moderate, but the subsoils tend to be dispersible and some gully erosion occurs underagricultural use.
17. Yellow gradational soils with weak structure. On steep outcrops of Tertiary clays, silts and sands, profileswith weak differentiation and minimal structure development are encountered. They occur around the margins of theRange and are particularly common near Mount Mackenzie and Bunker Hill in the west, and the Bald Hills in the east.The A1 horizons are grey sandy loams of variable depth. Loamy sand A2 horizons are sometimes present. Yellow oryellowish brown sandy loam B horizons occur at 5 – 50 cm depth, and these grade into sandy clay loams of highpermeability at about 1 m. Floaters of ironstone are common throughout the profile. Sandy loam C horizons are foundbelow approximately 150 cm.
Profiles are acidic and water-holding capacities are low, particularly in the A horizons. Soil nutrient levels are moderatein the western areas with notably high available phosphorus values, frequently concentrated into the surface 10 cm. In theBald Hills area, nutrient levels are extremely low, with particularly low values for potassium and calcium and a highcarbon-nitrogen ratio.
18. Stony yellow gradational soils. Where outcropping Tertiary sediments contain a large proportion of quartzgravel, profiles are weakly structured ad weakly differentiated. They are most common near the Gherang Camp in theeast, but are also found in isolated areas to the north-west of the Otway Range and on steep exposures of quartziticsandstones and siltstones near Moggs Creek. Textures are dominated by the gravel fraction, moisture-holding capacity islow. On steep slopes, and particularly where they overlie impermeable sandstones and siltstones, the weak structuredsurface soils are prone to sheet erosion.
19. Red gradational soils with weak structure, in association with the weakly structured yellow gradational soils,occur in the iron-rich Tertiary sediments near Mount Mackenzie, Ferguson Hill and other locations west of the Range.The distribution of the two soils may be related to the form and quantity of iron oxide in the parent material. Textures ofthe red soils are often somewhat heavier. Black or dark-brown sandy loams into light clay B horizons. Below about 130cm, yellowish red sandy loams are usually encountered, but along Pipeline Road to the west of the Gellibrand Riverlayers of ironstone are found. Profiles are permeable, with moderate nutrient levels.
20. Pale-brown gradational soils with weak structure. On Tertiary sediments just inland from Cape Otway, highpoints in the landscape have poorly drained gradational soils supporting rare stands of Eucalyptus kitsoniana. The parentmaterial is silty clay, containing high proportions of kaolin. Surface horizons are black silty loams with high organicmatter content. These grade into pale-brown silty clay loams with marked oxidation of root channels and gleying,indicating high seasonal water tables. Both surface and subsoils have low mechanical strength, tending to form a slurrywhen disturbed. Nutrient levels and permeabilities are low.
21. Grey-brown gradational soils with well-developed B horizons are found surrounding Ferguson Hill and onsome steeper concave slopes further east. Dark-grey sandy loam A1 horizons overlie greyish brown sandy loam A2horizons. Textures grade through sandy clay loams at about 30 cm to fine-structured grey clays with brown and yellowmottles. Red mottles occur at depth. Sandy clay C horizons occur at about 120 cm. The reaction is mildly acidic, andprofiles are well drained.
22. Mottled yellow and red gradational soils with ironstone have formed on weathered remnants of Tertiarylateritic profiles on coastal plains in moderately high-rainfall areas. The main areas are around Simpson, with isolatedpockets near Hordern Vale and Rivernook. A1 horizons of shallow greyish brown sandy clay loams overlie brownstructureless clay loams, grading into yellow and red mottled silty clays at about 40 cm. Very stable fine angular blockystructures are characteristic of the B horizons. Ironstone gravel is present throughout and, at approximately 150 cmdepth, horizontal bands of sheet ironstone alternating with bands of kaolinitic clay restrict water movement through thesoil. Soil reaction is acidic and intense leaching has resulted in low levels of many plant nutrients. High sesquioxidelevels lead to fixation of applied phosphate.
23. Mottled yellow and red gradational soils occur at comparable levels in the landscape to previous soils; theirprofiles are similar but lack ironstone. They are found in the moderately high-rainfall areas in the west near WongaRoad, Ferguson Hill, Barongarook and Kawarren and also on the highest alluvial terraces at Carlisle River andGellibrand. The variation in ironstone context may be due to variation in parent material or weathering history. Below150 cm red, yellow and grey mottled clays continue to indefinite depths. Profiles are acidic and fertility is again low.
24. Yellow-brown gradational soils with coarse structure. Along the hillslopes into Tomahawk Creek, KennedysCreek and other tributaries of the Gellibrand River closer to the coast, the intensely weathered mottled clays mentionedabove have been stripped away. This has exposed less-weathered underlying Tertiary sands and clays and occasionallysome gently sloping outcrops of Cretaceous sandstones. Very dark grey fine sandy loams overlying greyish brown sandyloams merge into yellowish brown clay B horizons, with grey mottles at about
26. Brown gradational soils are the most common ones in the study area, occurring on steep slopes and crests ofthe Otway Range under a wide variety of rainfall. At rainfalls of about 1,000 mm they are confined to the wetter southernand eastern aspects, while in the highest-rainfall areas they are often associated with more resistant strata where the depthof weathering is comparatively shallow. Although mainly on Cretaceous sediments, they also occur on Tertiary claysnear Hordern Vale and Cape Otway.
Dark-brown loam surface soils grade into brown or yellowish brown medium clays or silty clays at 20 cm. Weatheringparent material is encountered between 80 and 130 cm depth. Structure is well developed and rock floaters are commonon Cretaceous sediments. The reaction trend is acidic and nutrient levels are relatively high by Australian standards.Although soil permeability is moderate, heavy rainfall leads to considerable surface run-off and erosion of surface soillayers when disturbed. Landslips are common on steep slopes, even under native vegetation.
27. Brown friable gradational soil. Deep profiles have developed on gentle crests in the high-rainfall parts of theRange, particularly on the more weathered outcrops of Cretaceous sediments. A continuum exists between these profilesand the previous soils. Well-structured dark-brown loams or clay loams about 30 cm deep grade into friable dark-brownlight clay B horizons, continuing to depths of more than 2 m in places. Brown clay loams or light clays with evidence oforiginal bedding constitute the C horizons. The reaction is acidic. Organic matter levels and fertility are high. Good sitedrainage and high permeability contribute to the salinity of these soils for plant growth.
28. Dark-brown gradational soils. Most of the minor drainage lines and many of the larger streams and rivers inthe Otway Range are bounded by colluvial-alluvial slopes of variable grade. The soils contain varying amounts of graveland stones, with occasional boulders. Textures range from black loams or clay loams at the surface to dark-brown lightclays below about 30 cm. Below about 120 cm, parent material occurs as chaotic mixtures of soil, gravel and stone.Although most plant nutrients have high levels, acidic reactions restrict their availability. Profiles are permeable, butwater tables are close to the surface for much of the year.
29. Stony brown gradational soils. On drier exposures of Cretaceous sediments, steep slopes prone to soil losshave young profiles developed on colluvium. The coastal parts of the Range and the steep slopes near Yahoo Creek arethe main areas of occurrence. Surface horizons are thin dark-brown fine sandy loams overlying weakly structuredyellowish brown sandy clay loams with varying amounts of gravel and stone. Profiles are shallow and weatheringsandstones frequently occur within 60 cm of the surface. On some slopes, clay layers are found below the mantle ofcolluvium. Levels of organic matter and soil nutrients are notably lower than in other soils on Cretaceous sediments.Reaction is acidic and moisture holding capacity is also low.
30. Stony red gradational soils. On the edges of some of the lateritic plateaux, steep concave scarps have colluvialdeposits of ironstone with shallow stony or gravelly soils. Such soils are found around the edge of the Timboon Surface(Gill 1964), along the top of the scarp west of the Gellibrand River at Carlisle River, and in some of the coastal areas nearAnglesea.
Profiles consist of dark reddish brown sandy loams with gravel overlying weakly structured red gravelly clay loams andlight clays at about 30 cm depth. Lateritic ironstone underlies the soils at depth ranging from 60 to 120 cm. The drierareas near Anglesea have frequent ironstone outcrops. Lower down the scarps, unconsolidated Tertiary sedimentsunderlie the soils. Fertility and moisture-holding capacity are low, although the frequent emergence of springs fromaquifers below the laterite often promotes good growth of deep-rooted native vegetation.
31. Stony red-brown gradational soils are widespread on the scarps and stony rises of basaltic landscapes south ofMount Gellibrand. Pockets of soil between basalt outcrops consist of dark-brown loams overlying rock or reddish brownclay loams and clays. Depth varies, but seldom exceeds 40 cm. Deeper profiles do occur on some of the isolated Tertiarybasalt outcrops in the higher-rainfall areas near Gellibrand. The reaction is neutral and nutrient levels are moderatelyhigh. Shallowness and stoniness are the main limitations for most uses.
32. Red calcareous gradational soils. Outcrops of Tertiary limestone near Bellbrae and of calcarenite east ofTorquay have red gradational soils on well-drained sites. Surface horizons consist of brown sandy clay loams grading towell-structured red clays at about 15 cm. Weathering limestone occurs at depths of 30 – 80 cm. The reaction is alkalinealthough the surface is usually neutral. Nutrient levels are moderate, but the shallow depths result in low water-holdingcapacities.
33. Black calcareous gradational soils. Exposures of limestone and calcareous clays occur on steep well-drainedslopes near Hordern Vale and along Curdies Fault north of Princetown. The soils are shallow black fine sandy clay loamsor light clays overlying dark-brown clays. Structure is strong throughout and aggregates are stable. At a depth of 40 – 80cm weakly consolidated limestone and marl occur. The reaction trend is alkaline, although the surface soil is close toneutral. Fertility is moderate, but the shallowness leads to low moisture-holding capacity.
Soils with Duplex Profile Forms34. Yellow sodic duplex soils. The lower positions of the landscape on Tertiary and Quaternary sediments in thenorth and east are frequently occupied by colluvial-alluvial deposits on which strongly differentiated soils havedeveloped. Surface horizons are usually dark-grey sandy loams overlying bleached sandy loam or sandy clay loam A2horizons at about 15 cm. Ironstone nodules may occur at the base of the A2 horizon. Yellow or yellowish brown clayswith earthy fabric and occasional brown and grey mottles are found at 30 cm. Strong mottling in some profiles indicatespoor drainage. At about 110 cm, sandy clay parent material is encountered. The reaction has a strong alkaline trend,ranging from acidic at the surface to a pH greater than 8 in the subsoils.
Most of these soils occur in reasonably well-drained positions, and soluble salts tend to accumulate in the subsoil. Theyare sodic, sodium comprising as much as 30% of total exchangeable cations. Rising groundwater may tend to concentratethese salts at the surface. The clay subsoils are dispersible and are thus also susceptible to gully and tunnel erosion.
35. Red-yellow duplex soils. In the steeply dissected hills on the eastern margin of the Range, Tertiaryunconsolidated sediments with some areas of silica-cemented quartzitic siltstones and sandstones have well-differentiatedduplex profiles. The main occurrence is in the catchment of Moggs Creek. Profiles are well drained, and consist of dark-brown fine sandy loams overlying mildly bleached greyish brown sandy loam A2 horizons at about 10 cm depth. Surfacestructure is weak. Weakly mottled reddish yellow clays of moderate dispersibility are encountered at 25 cm depth andcontinue with increased mottling to about 90 cm. These B horizons have moderate structure and an earthy fabric. The Chorizons are apedal silty clays, frequently containing quartzitic siltstones and sandstones.
The reaction trend is acidic, becoming close to neutral in the subsoil. Nutrient levels are moderately low, but these soilshave not been as intensively weathered and leached as other older soils on Tertiary sediments.
36. Brown duplex soils are widespread on Cretaceous sediments in drier parts of the Range. The Barrabool Hillshave similar profiles. Along the coastal strip of the Range, the effect of high atmospheric salt levels passing through thesoil appears to have extended the range of duplex profiles into higher-rainfall areas.
Surface soils are well-structured black loams to fine sandy clay loams, overlying sporadically bleached loams or clayloams at about 15 cm depth. On gentle less freely drained slopes such as those of the Barrabool Hills, these A2 horizonsare often absent. At 30 cm depth, brown or yellowish brown medium to heavy silty clays with strongly developedstructure and low dispersibility are encountered. Weathering sandstones and mudstones are found at a depth ofapproximately 1 m. Profiles are acidic and fertility levels moderate.
37. Grey calcareous sodic duplex soils with coarse structure characterise large parts of the basaltic plains inwestern Victoria, and within the study area they occur on gentle slopes and flat plains in the north and east. Dark-greyfine sandy loam to clay loam surface horizons overlie mildly bleached grey fine sandy clay loam to clay loam A2 horizonsat 15 cm. Ironstone gravel is abundant at the base of the A2 horizon and the top of the B horizon. At approximately 35cm depth there is an abrupt change to grey, yellow and black mottled heavy clays with coarse angular blocky pedsseparated by large shiny ped faces. Paler B2 horizons with more mottled and less ironstone gravel are often present. Softaccumulations of calcium carbonate are visible at 70 cm and may become abundant with depth. These accumulations aremore prominent in the stony rise landscapes south of Mount Gellibrand. Weathering basalt floaters are common and theparent rock is usually encountered between 1 and 3 m depth.
The reaction trend is alkaline, with mildly acidic surface soils. The plains are usually gilgaied and may be interspersedwith unusual microrelief features such as sink holes. Plant growth is limited by the low permeabilities of the clays,leading to seasonal waterlogging.
38. Yellow-brown calcareous sodic duplex soils with coarse structure occur on calcareous clays in ancient lakedeposits around Birregurra and on deeply weathered Tertiary sediments at Bellbrae. Surface horizons are black mildlyacidic fine sandy loams. Near Birregurra, dark-grey sandy clay loam A2 horizons are present. An abrupt change toyellowish brown medium or heavy clays occur at between 25 and 35 cm. The heavier textures occur where the parentmaterial has been derived from basalt, and here the soils are gilgaied. The B horizons have coarse angular blocky peds
with shiny faces and these clays are quite dispersible. At about 120 cm, calcareous clay parent material is encountered.The B horizons are sodic and the permeability is low. Seasonal waterlogging occurs on the flat or gently sloping sites.Nutrient levels are generally low.
39. Yellow-brown sodic duplex soils with coarse structure. On more siliceous deposits of clay and silt in theeastern and north-central parts of the study area, well-differentiated duplex soils are again encountered. They havesimilar profiles to the previous soils, but the B horizons are not calcareous. The reaction trend is alkaline with mildlyacidic surfaces. Yellow and red sandy clays are found below yellow, brown and grey mottled heavy clays at about 170cm. Permeabilities of the dispersible sodic clays are low.
40. Yellow-brown duplex soils with coarse structure occur on similar parent material to the previous soils, but onbetter-drained foothill slopes of the Range near Pennyroyal an Anglesea. Dark-brown fine sandy loams overlie greyishbrown A2 horizons at about 10 cm. An abrupt change to heavy clay B horizons with coarse structures occurs at 30 cm.Sandy clays, or sometimes sandstones, are generally encountered below 120 cm, although sandstones may be as shallowas 60 cm. The dispersible clays have slow permeabilities and the reaction trend is usually acidic. Nutrient levels are low.
41. Brown duplex soils with coarse structure. On high parts of the landscapes at Bellbrae and Princetown,strongly differentiated soils have developed on the base of former lateritic profiles developed from calcareous material.Black fine sandy loams overlie strongly bleached loamy sand or sandy loam A2 horizons. Abrupt boundaries mark thechange to brown dispersible medium clays with coarse structures and large shiny ped faces at approximately 35 cm.Below about 1 m, red and grey mottled become abundant and the soil reaction changes from mildly acidic to alkaline.Ironstone gravel and stone occurs in this B2 horizon, which merges into structureless mottled zones below 2 m.Permeability is restricted by the dense nature of the clay B horizons and fertility levels are low.
42. Mottled yellow and red duplex soils. Older soils with finely structured subsoils are encountered on highergentle parts of the landscape in the eastern and north-central plains. They occur on Tertiary sediments, alluvium anddeeply weathered basalt. Shallow brown sandy loam A1 horizons overlie bleached sandy loams or loamy sands, oftenwith ironstone gravel. Finely structured yellow and red mottled clays are encountered at approximately 40 cm, themottling becoming stronger and coarser with depth. The clays are prone to slaking, but seldom disperse readily. At about140 cm depth, the structure becomes weaker and mottled red and grey sandy clays or mottled weathered basalt continueindefinitely.
43. Mottled yellow and red duplex soils with ironstone similar to the previous soils, but with lateritic ironstonethroughout, are encountered on remnants of lateritic plateaux on the north and east of the Range. Large blocks ofironstone may form a discontinuous layer at about 90 cm. More commonly, abundant ironstone gravel occurs in the Bhorizons, merging to horizontal bands of sheet ironstone with while kaolinitic lay in the interstices below 120 cm.Permeabilities are often severely restricted by the ironstone layers.
Miscellaneous Soils44. Grey sand soils with weak-structured clay underlay. As mentioned in the discussion of geomorphology,surface redistribution of sand has been common in many parts of the Gellibrand catchment, and to a lesser degree in thecentral and eastern parts of the study area. Dark-grey sandy loam A1 horizons with abundant organic matter overlie greyloamy sand A2 horizons at about 25 cm depth. Depths of the sand vary, but at about 50 cm depth a weak hardpan hasfrequently developed.
The underlying weakly structured layers are yellow and grey mottled clays and clay loams. They merge into structurelesssandy clays and sandy clay loams with depth. Permeability is often restricted by the clay layers, and this combines withbad site drainage to result in seasonal waterlogging.
45. Grey sand soils with structured clay underlay are found mainly in the Gellibrand catchment and again owetheir origin to redistribution of sand. However, the clays are well structured and the overlying hardpans are more stronglydeveloped. These buried clays frequently resemble the subsoils of the mottled yellow and red gradational soils.
Black sandy loams, rich in organic matter, overlie dark-grey sandy loam A2 horizons at about 15 cm depth. Shallowhardpans about 20 cm thick are found from 25 to 60 cm below the surface. These hardpans are cemented by iron andorganic matter forming coffee rock, or ‘wombat’ as it is locally known. Dense well-structured clays are found below thehardpan.
The reaction trend is acidic with highly acidic surface horizons. Nutrient levels are low, with slight concentrations at thetop of the hardpan as well as at the surface. Carbon-nitrogen ratios are particularly unfavourable. The hardpans oftenseverely restrict drainage, and waterlogging is common in the wetter months. During summer, however, the hardpansserve to hold water within the root zone.
46. Grey sand soils with kaolinitic clay underlay. The Tertiary sediments outcropping in the Bald Hills west ofAnglesea are particularly variable. Some beds appear to consist of kaolinitic clays that weather to pale-brown clay
horizons. The surface horizons consist of coarse sandy loams or loamy sands of variable depth. The absence ofsignificant quantities of sand in the kaolinitic clays indicates that this sand is sheet wash derived from sands furtherupslope. Abrupt boundaries mark the change to B horizons, which contain large weakly developed peds. Roots appearunable to penetrate the peds and confined to the cracks between them. Nutrient levels are extremely low in these soils, asis the case with other soils in the Bald Hills.
47. Variable sodic duplex soils. In some coastal areas, accretions of aeolian calcareous sand and continualleaching with salt spray have resulted in partial salting of soils of variable organic morphology. This has occurred mostwidely along cliff tops and seaward-facing slopes of the Anglesea area and on similar outcrops of Tertiary clays nearCape Otway. Surface horizons are black sandy loams, rich in organic matter, and these persist to about 25 cm wherevariably coloured, mottled and structured clays are found.
The reaction ranges from highly alkaline at the surface to neutral in the subsoil. Clay subsoils, and often surfacehorizons, have high levels of sodium on the exchange complex and are highly dispersible. Levels of soluble salts are alsohigh.
48. Saline soils occur in estuarine swamps along the coast and in isolated saline lakes and drains in the northernparts of the study area. The major examples are at the mouths of Thompson Creek, Painkalac Creek, Aire River andGellibrand River. Grey and yellow mottled silty clays high in organic remains and lacking structure occur throughout.The surface may show polygonal cracking when dry.
Table 3 – Soils of the Otway Range and Adjacent Plains
ClassificationSoil Parent Material Sampled ProfileNo.
(Appendix I)Northcote (1974) Stace et al. (1968)
Soils of uniform texture1. Yellow calcareous sand soils Recent aeolian sand - Uc1.13, Uc1.11 Calcareous sands2. Brown calcareous sand soils Recent aeolian sand 415 Uc5.11 Calcareous sands3. Red-yellow calcareous sand soils Recent aeolian sand - Uc5.114. Stony black calcareous sand soils Recent aeolian sand - Uc5.12 Lithosols5. Grey sand soils Tertiary sand 742 Uc2.33, Uc2.31, Uc2.32 Podzols6. White sand soils Tertiary sand 426 Uc2.2 Siliceous sands7. Grey sand soils with hardpans Tertiary sand 608 Uc4.33, Uc4.32, Uc3.32 Humus podzols8. Yellow sand soils Tertiary sand 740 Uc5.11 Yellow earths9. Black sand soils Recent alluvium, plant
remains609,739 Uc4.0 Peaty podzols
10. Red sandy loam soils Tertiary sands and clay - Uc6, Uc5.21 Red earths11. Grey calcareous sodic clay soils Recent alluvium plaint
remains- Uc6.4 Grey clays
12. Black calcareous clay soils Quaternary basalt - Uc5.14 Black earths13. Brown sandy loam soils Recent alluvium - Uc1.23 Alluvial soils
Soils with gradational profile forms14. Brown gradational soils, weakstructure
Recent alluvium 607 Gn2.41, Gn2.44, Um5.52 Prairie soils
15. Grey gradational soils Recent alluvium 733 Gn4.52 Wiesenboden16. Mottled yellow and grey gradationalsoils
Tertiary sand and clay,alluvium
- Gn4.55 Yellow podzolic soils
17. Yellow gradational soils, weakstructure
Tertiary sand and clay 497, 741 Gn2.51, Gn1.41, Gn2.44 Yellow podzolic soils
18. Stony yellow gradational soils Tertiary sandstone,gravel
- Gn1.24, Gn2.21, Gn2.44 Lithosols
19. Red gradational soils, weak structure Tertiary sand and clay 749 Gn2.11, Gn4.11 Red podzolic soils20. Pale-brown gradational soils, weakstructure
Tertiary sand and silt,plain remains
- Gn2.84 Humic greys
21. Grey-brown gradational soils Tertiary sand and clay - Gn4.52, Gn4.55 Yellow podzolic soils22. Mottled yellow and red gradationalsoils with ironstone
Tertiary lateritized sandand clay
782 Gn3.94, Gn3.51 Lateritic podzolicsoils
23. Mottled yellow and red gradationalsoils
Tertiary sand and clay 746 Gn3.94, Gn3.51, Gn3.54,Gn3.841
Lateritic podzolicsoils
24. Yellow-brown gradational soils,coarse structure
Tertiary sand and clay,Cretaceous sediments
750 Gn3.54, Gn3.24, Gn4.71 Yellow podzolic soils
25. Brown calcareous gradational soils,coarse structure
Tertiary marl, limestoneand calcareous clay
784 Gn2.21 Chernozems
26. Brown gradational soils Cretaceous sandstone,mudstone and siltstone,Tertiary clay
414, 416, 748 Gn3.51, Gn3.91, Gn3.54 Brown podzolic soils
27. Brown friable gradational soils Cretaceous sandstone,mudstone and siltstone
418, 736 Gn4.31 Brown podzolic soils
28 Dark-brown gradational soils Cretaceous sandstone,mudstone and siltstone
428 Gn4.71 Brown podzolic soils
29. Stony brown gradational soils Cretaceous sandstone,mudstone and siltstone
732 Gn2.41, Gn2.81 Lithosols
ClassificationSoil Parent Material Sampled ProfileNo.
(Appendix I)Northcote (1974) Stace et al. (1968)
30. Stony red gradational soils Tertiary lateritized sandand clay
- Gn2.11 Lithosols
31. Stony red-brown gradational soils Quaternary basalt - Gn4.12 Lithosols32. Red calcareous gradational soils Tertiary limestone and
marl, Quaternarycalcarenite
489 Gc2.21 Terra rossa soils
33. Black calcareous gradational soils Tertiary limestone andmarl
- Gc2.21 Redzinas
Soils with duplex profile forms34. Yellow sodic duplex soils Tertiary sand and clay,
alluvium734 Dy5.33, Dy5.32, Dy5.43 Solodic soils
35. Red-yellow duplex soils Tertiary sand, silt, clayand sandstone
- Dy5.21, Dy5.31m Dy4.21 Red podzolic soils
36. Brown duplex soils Cretaceous sandstone,mudstone and siltstone
424, 735 Db3.31, Db3.21, Db4.21 Yellow podzolic soils
37. Grey calcareous sodic duplex soils,coarse structure
Quaternary basalt - Db4.23 Solodic soils
38. Yellow-brown sodic duplex soils,coarse structure
Tertiary calcareous claysand marl
490, 743 Db4.23, Dy5.23 Solodic soils
39. Yellow-brown sodic duplex soils,coarse structure
Tertiary clay and sand,alluvium
606 Dy5.22, Db4.31, Db4.22 Solodic soils
40. Yellow-brown duplex soils, coarsestructure
Tertiary clay, sand andsandstone
499 Db4.31, Dd4.22, Dy5.22,Dd4.21
Soloths
41. Brown duplex soils, coarse structure Tertiary lateritized sandand clay
783 Db4.43, Db4.33 Solodic soils
42. Mottled yellow and red duplex soils Tertiary clay and sand 492, 744 Dd4.41, Dy5.41, Dy5.31,Dy5.21, Db4.31
Lateritic podzolicsoils
43. Mottled yellow and red duplex soilswith ironstone
Tertiary lateritized sandand clay
601 Dy5.21, Dy5.31, Db4.21 Lateritic podzolicsoils
Miscellaneous soils44. Grey sand soils, weakly structuredclay underlay
Quaternary sand,Tertiary sand and clay
- Uc4.1/Gn2.8 (polygenetic soils)
45. Grey sand soils, structured clayunderlay
Quaternary sand,Tertiary clay and sand
737 Uc4.1/Gn3 (Polygenetic soils)
46. Grey sand soils, kaolinitic clayunderlay
Quaternary sand,Tertiary clay
500 Uc4.1/Dy4.21, Dy4.21 (polygenetic soils)
47. Variable sodic duplex soils Recent aeolian sand,Tertiary clay and sand
- Db4.32, Db4.33 Solodic soils
48. Saline soils Recent marine clay andsilt, plant remains
- - Solonchaks
Physical and Chemical AnalysesA range of representative profiles was sampled for laboratory analysis. In an attempt to achieve a standard unmodifiedconditions, samples were taken from sites where the soils and native vegetation had had little disturbance, usually onCrown land. The results of the analyses and descriptions of the profiles are given in Appendices I and III respectively.Appendix II lists the laboratory techniques.
Particle Size AnalysisThere is general agreement between particle size analyses and field textures. The main departures are in the surfacehorizons of many of the poorly drained sands, where high levels of organic matter impart a loamy or silty feel.
Fine-sand fractions generally exceed coarse-sand fractions except in the infertile Tertiary deposits to the east and west ofthe Range. Coastal dune sands are also dominated by the coarse fraction. Extreme changes in the coarse sand, or thefine-sand fraction down the profile, can indicate polygenesis. The soils developed on Cretaceous sandstones andmudstones tend to have high silt contents, and the lateritic profiles have the highest clay contents of the soils examined.
Soil ReactionMany of the soils in the high-rainfall areas are sufficiently acidic to strongly restrict the availability of plant nutrients andto impede plant germination and growth. Some of the poorly drained sand soils have exceptionally low values (pH 4 orlower). Concrete and metal structures need to be heavily protected for durability in these areas.
High pH values are encountered in calcareous sands and in areas subject to soil salting in the northern and western partsof the study area.
Electrical ConductivityValues in excess of 500 – 1,000 microsiemens per cm will reduce the growth of many plants and favour salt-tolerantspecies with values of about 12,000 microsiemens per cm and in the lower parts of the variable sodic duplex soils. Metalstructures corrode rapidly in these areas.
Isolated patches of secondary soil salting occur in the drier parts of the study area on soils of low permeability or on areasreceiving saline seepage and drainage.
High electrical conductivity in the subsoils of the Anglesea area indicates the sensitivity of this area to soil salting.
Organic Carbon and NitrogenMany of the soils have low organic carbon levels. Those with high levels have high carbon-nitrogen ratios, indicatingstrong competition between plant roots and micro-organisms for the available nitrogen.
Biological activity by micro-organisms tends to decrease the organic matter; they use the organic carbon to provideenergy and release it as carbon dioxide. This activity depends on the soil environment. As the soils become wetter inhigh-rainfall areas and soil temperatures fall, the biological activity declines and organic matter levels increase. Thistrend can be observed in the general increase in organic carbon with elevation in the soils on Cretaceous sediments, fromthe brown duplex soils through brown gradational soils to the friable brown gradational soils.
The taller and more luxuriant vegetation on these last soils supplies plant litter at a higher ate for decay.
Other trends in organic matter can also be related to the soil environment. High water tables decrease the oxygen supplyfor soil microorganisms and lead to a build up of organic matter in poorly drained areas. High electrolyte concentrationin the surface soil along the coast are presumed to restrict biological activity, resulting in high organic matter levels,particularly in soils on seaward-facing slopes.
Free Ferric OxideSome of the soils developed on lateritic profile remnants show extremely high values of free ferric oxide. Associatedhigh levels of sesquioxide clays and ironstone combine with these to make the soils particularly prone to fixation ofapplied phosphate into complex insoluble compounds.
With the exception of the leached sands, the more acidic soils tend to have higher levels of free ferric oxide.
PhosphorusValues of available phosphorus below 10 parts per million (ppm) are considered to be generally limited to plant growth.These apply in the surface horizons of many soils in the study area. Of particular note are the very low values for soils inthe Bald Hills and surrounding areas near Anglesea. Soil developed on remnants of lateritic profiles are also verydeficient in phosphorus.
Comparatively high values of available phosphorus are found in soils developed on Cretaceous sediments, particularly inthe higher-rainfall areas. The reserves of phosphorus, as indicated by the hydrochloric acid extract, are generally higherthan in the soils developed on surrounding Tertiary sediments.
The soils of the alluvial flats of the Gellibrand River that have been analysed have shown some exceptionally high valuesof available phosphorus.
PotassiumPotassium is present in the soil in soluble salts and as exchangeable cations on colloidal clays and organic complexe3s.Both forms are available to plants. It is generally considered that levels of available potassium below 200 ppm will limitplant growth. Again, many soils in the study area have values below this in the surface horizon.
Very low values of available potassium are found on leached sands on the eastern and western flanks of the Range. Soilsdeveloped on lateritic profile remnants also have very low values.
The soils developed on Cretaceous sediments are marginally deficient in the lower- and middle-rainfall areas, butavailable potassium is high in the wetter areas. Alluvial soils are also well supplied. Some of the highest values arefound on the calcareous soils at Bellbrae and Princetown.
Exchangeable CationsExchangeable cations are generally available for plant growth and are a guide to fertility. High exchangeable sodiumadversely affects soil structure and permeability. Most of the sand soils in the study area have very low cation exchangecapacities, organic complexes in the surface horizons providing almost the entire source of colloidal particles. They areusually almost saturated with hydrogen ions.
Soils developed on lateritic profile remnants and those on Cretaceous sediments in high-rainfall areas are also virtuallyhydrogen-ion-saturated. Calcium is often limiting and this deficiency may be corrected by adding lime and raising thepH, the amount required being dependent on the cation exchange capacity.
555... NNNAAATTTIIIVVVEEE VVVEEEGGGAAATTTIIIOOONNN
The wettest areas of the Otway Range with fertile soils, the dry basaltic plains in the north and infertile sands to the eastand west carry a wide diversity of vegetative communities. Tall open forest with trees almost 100 m high and closedforests with dense mesophytic understoreys in adjacent drainage lines are characteristic of the uncleared land aroundBeech Forest. Eucalyptus regnans abounds on these sites, but E. obliqua is the most common dominant stratum speciesfound throughout the Otway Range and adjacent plains. Various stunted communities such as the open scrubs ofLeucopogan parviflorus along the coast or the low woodland of E. nitida and E. baxteri on the acidic sands havedeveloped where adverse environments prevail.
Field investigations have yielded data on the nature of the vegetative communities and their correlation with soils, sitedrainage, climate, aspect, geology and other features. The structural classification used is based on the height and crowncover of the dominant stratus (Specht 1970). The different species present in each structural formation are discussedbelow.
Closed ForestThese communities are dominated by trees with a crown cover greater than 70%. The dense foliage filters out most of theincident light, and understorey species are usually mesophytic shrubs or herbaceous creepers and ferns in a fairly opencommunity.
Nothofagus cunninghamii and associated species.In the wetter parts of the Range and on the southern side of the major ridge, closed forests dominated by N. cunninghamiicommonly colonize drainage lines and valley floors. These communities sometimes spread to sheltered middle and lowerslopes in the wettest areas, preferring sites that are permanently moist with fertile soils. Tree heights are generally about30 m, although some trees may have attained heights of 60 m (Parsons et al 1977).
Acacia melanoxylon is almost co-dominant and some pure strands are found along minor drainage lines in the Aire Rivercatchment. E. regnans may also be present. The understorey tends to be open and contains ferns, staghorns, creepers andmesophytic shrubs.
Leptospermum juniperinum and associated species.Closed forests of L. juniperinum in the upper reaches of Redwater Creek catchment occupy sites that are almostpermanently moist. Soils have low to moderate fertility and are highly acidic. Stands growth to about 15 m and arenormally pure, although some colonization by Melaleuca sparrosa does occur. The understorey is usually sparse, butmoisture-loving ferns such as Blechnum nudum are found. In adjacent areas, unusually tall stands of L. juniperinumcontinue as a second tree stratum below tall open forests of eucalypts.
Tall Open ForestThe dominant stratus of tall open forests comprises trees taller than 30 m with elongated interlacing crowns. A shrublayer of mesophytic species may or may not be present, but a continuous ground cover of ferns, creepers, grasses andherbs with copious litter is always present. The communities are found in areas highly favourable to plant growth.
Eucalyptus regnans and associated speciesE. regnans forms pure stands of tall open forests in those parts of the Range with an annual rainfall above 1,500 mm.Fertile, well drained soils are preferred. The heights of mature trees invariably exceed 30 m, and reports list some trees asbeing more than 100 m (Thornley 1974). Trees growing today in the Arkins Creek catchment and parts of the CalderRiver catchment certainly approach this height.
Tall open forest formation containing mainly E. regnans. This regrowth standnear Mount Cowley contains some old stags, manifesting the former height ofsome of the older forests.
Understorey species of Acacia melanoxylon, Phebalium squameum, Bedfordia salician, Olearia argophylla, Hedycaryaangustifolia and many others. Blecnum nudum and Microsorium diversifolium, among other species, form a denseground cover. Dicksonia antarctica and Cyathea cunninghamii are also very common, the latter occupying the moistersites.
Mixed stands are not uncommon, and combinations of E. regnans with E. obliqua, E. cypellocarpa and E. viminalis canall be found. Associations between E. regnans and E. obliqua exhibit widespread hybridization, these hybrids beinglocally known as ‘Otway messmate’.
The occurrence of E. regnans growing on quartz sand in the Redwater Creek area is possibly unique. Here it is presumedto gain its nutrients through deep roots that penetrate below the layers of quartz sand into the more fertile weatheringCretaceous sandstones and mudstones. By extracting nutrients from this lower depth and returning them to the soilsurface by leaf litter drop and decay, it probably performs an indispensable function in maintaining soil fertility atmoderate levels – much higher than would otherwise be found on deposits of quartz sand.
Where weak hardpans have developed, leaching of these nutrients is impeded to some degree and the build-up in fertilitylevels has led to the invasion by shrubs such as Bossiaea cinerea, Plutenaea muelleri and Acrotriche serrulata.Elsewhere, however, where the sands are deeper and coarser, and where hardpans are not present, intense leaching in thishigh-rainfall environment remove most nutrients as quickly as they are released from the decaying organic matter. Thedensity of E. regnans and other tall and fast-growing eucalypts on these sites is much reduced, and open forests of E.baxteri with occasional taller trees occur.
During the early years of settlement, clearing of these tall open forests for agriculture or purely for their timber waswidespread. Many of the partially cleared areas have been allowed to regenerate to native vegetation. However, E.regnans needs full sunlight and no initial dominance in order to regenerate, and several communities of A. melanoxylonhave become established in its place. It would require clear-felling or wildfire together with seeding to produce theoriginal climax community.
Eucalyptus cypellocarpa and associated speciesMore widespread through the Otway Range, and penetrating into lower-rainfall areas then E. regnans, are the tall openforests of E. cypellocarpa. This eucalypt is very common in the medium-rainfall parts of the Range. It is alsowidespread in some of the drier parts, where its presence delineates exposures of Lower Cretaceous sediments.(Exceptions to this occur near Hordern Vale and Moggs Creek, where presumably the Tertiary sediments are of higherfertility than normal). E. cypellocarpa shows a strong preference for freely drained soils of high or moderate fertility withmoderate to high annual rainfalls. In the lower-rainfall range of its occurrence, it is confined to moister sites as drainagelines and southern aspects.
Tree heights occasionally exceed 60 m, particularly in the wetter areas. However, in the lower-rainfall parts of itsdistribution it often occurs in open forest formations. Understorey species include a wide range of mesophytic shrubs andsmall trees. Ferns and mosses are also abundant. Pure stands are found, such as along Grey River, but generally it growsin mixed stands with E. obliqua, E. regnans, E. viminalis, E. globulus and E. ovata. There is evidence of hybridization atcertain sites between E. cypellocarpa and the last two species (Parsons, Kirkpatrick and Carr 1977).
Eucalyptus globulus and associated speciesThe distribution of E. globulus in this part of Victoria has been closely studied (Kirkpatrick 1971). The species growsalmost exclusively on soils derived from Cretaceous sediments in a narrow climatic range along the coastal sections ofthe Otway Range. Its only known occurrence on Tertiary sediments is in the Hordern Vale area just north of RottenPoint.
Its general ecological requirements in this study area are well-drained soils of high fertility, moderate high annualrainfalls, and a mild climate (essentially maritime in the study area). It should be noted that in the more inland frost-prone parts of the Otway Range, E. globulus is replaced by E. cypellocarpa.
Tree heights may occasionally exceed 50 m, but an average of 35 – 40 m is more normal. One some of the exposed sitenear the coast, salt pruning has stunted growth to an open forest or low open forest formation. It often occurs in purestands, but in drainage lines and most other sites it usually shares dominance with E. cypellocarpa, E. ovata, E. obliqua,Acacia melanoxylon or, to a lesser extent any other of the many eucalypt species that occur in the study area.
Tall open forest, with moisture-loving species in the understoreyand a continuous ground cover of ferns and creepers.
Kirkpatrick (1971) revealed that the whole population in the Otway Range is itself a cline between E. globulus subsp.globulus and E. globulus subsp. pseudoglobulus. Trees close tot he coast are closely related to subsp. globulus, whilethose further inland possess variable characteristics often intermediate between the two subspecies. E. globulus is alsoknown to hybridize with E. cypellocarpa in some areas (Parsons, Kirkpatrick and Carr 1977).
Understorey species are closely related to fire history. In coastal areas, it is common to find and open understorey withonly occasional shrubs such as Cassinia aculeata and Acacia verniciflua. Danthonia spp. and Stipa spp. form a denseground cover. In moister sites, particularly along drainage lines, mesophytic species invade the understorey and shadeout these grasses.
Eucalyptus viminalis and E. obliquaE. viminalis and E. obliqua often dominate tall open forest formations in the Otway Range and along the flood-plains ofthe Barwon and Gellibrand Rivers. It is interesting to note that E. viminalis is confined to the western parts of the Rangedespite the presence of similar sites in the eastern parts. Heights up to 40 m for both species are not uncommon. Themain requirement for luxurious growth of E. viminalis appears to be a plentiful supply of moisture within rooting depth.In the Chapple Vale area, E. viminalis will colonize deep acidic sands immediately adjacent to alluvial flood-plains with awater table close to the surface. Higher up the landscape, E. viminalis quickly disappears as the depth to the water tablethrough the sand increases.
Open ForestOpen forests cover a wide ecological range. Towards the wetter limit, they contain dense, tall mesophytic species in theunderstorey and the dominant stratum contains trees usually with a single main stem and well-developed interlacingcrowns. Towards the drier limit, trees are lower and spreading, with sclerophyllous understoreys. Soil characteristics,exposure to coastal winds, aspect and fire history as well as annual rainfall determine the structure and floristics.
Eucalyptus obliqua and associated speciesE. obliqua is the most commonly encountered tree species in the study area. It occurs both in the high rainfall parts of theRange and in areas that receive only 600 m of rainfall, such as the flat-topped hills just inland from Torquay. It is notablycommon on phosphate-fixing soils exhibiting lateritic weathering. In such areas E. obliqua normally dominates, but E.baxteri is common and the two species frequently hybridize. On heavier, coarse-structured soils in adjacent areas, E.obliqua is again either dominant or co-dominant, but commonly associated with E. viminalis and E. ovata. The onlyareas where E. obliqua is not found are on excessively drained sands and on heavy-textured poorly drained soils.
Open forests formation of E. obliqua and E. viminalis is one of the rare remnants of the Heytesbury forest.
Eucalyptus baxteri and associated speciesE. baxteri occurs in areas of moderate rainfall on soils developed from Tertiary sediments. It is widespread on theoutcrops of Tertiary sediments to the west of the Otway Range, and also grows in the Moggs Creek and Anglesea areasand near Hordern Vale and Redwater Creek. Its occurrence is favoured by acidic soils of low natural fertility.
The absence of E. baxteri on soils developed from Cretaceous sediments suggests that it is unable to capatilize on thesebetter growing conditions to the same extent as other eucalypts such as E. obliqua. A change in dominance from E.obliqua to E. baxteri in many parts of the study area is frequently associated with changes in soil properties – such aslightening of texture, poorer internal drainage or an increase in acidity. Development of hardpans in polygenetic soils inthe northern parts of the Gellibrand River catchment creates a combination of all three.
Heights are generally around 18 m; rarely, trees reach 30 m on particularly favourable sites. Along the ridge to the westof the Gellibrand River near Carlisle River are found tall woodlands of E. baxteri and E. obliqua. Other eucalyptscommonly occurring with E. baxteri are E. radiata and E. viminalis, although E. obliqua is the most common. Purestands are found near Carlisle River, Ferguson Hill and Mount Mackenzie, usually in a woodland formation. Openwoodlands and low woodlands also occur on poorly drained acidic sands with hardpans in the Chapple Vale area.Understorey species include Spyridium parvifolium, Acacia verticillata, Leptospermum juniperinum, Platylobiumobtusangulum, Epacris impressa and Prostanthera lasianthos.
Eucalyptus ovata and associated speciesE. ovata is also widespread, but its occurrence in any area is usually confined to either heavily textured, coarse-structuredsoils or low positions in the landscape that are frequently waterlogged. It grows on both acidic soils (near Paraparap) andon calcareous soils (near Princetown and Bellbrae).
Heights sometimes exceed 30 m in the higher-rainfall limits of its occurrence in the Otway Range, but most are closer to20 m.
E. ovata is very rarely found in pure stands and is often the subordinate species in an association dominated by othereucalypts such as E. viminalis and E. obliqua. In very waterlogged drainage lines, however, pure stands do occur, oftenin a woodland formation (near Barongarook and Yeodene). Understorey species in these formations include Melaleucasquarrosa, Leptospermum juniperinum and other shrubs tolerant of poor drainage. Elsewhere, understorey species varyfrom site to site and are similar to those found under E. obliqua associations on hillslopes, while some mesophytic speciesoccur in drainage lines.
Eucalyptus aromaphloia and associated speciesE. aromaphloia is found on the older terraces along the Gellibrand River, on exposures of Cretaceous sediments nearYahoo Creek and, occasionally, on some of the older soils on Tertiary sediments around the margins of the Otway Range.On these sites it is seen to prefer heavy-textured soils with poor drainage and moderate to high annual rainfall. Wherefree water frequently ponds at the surface, however, E. aromaphloia rarely occurs, other species such as E. ovata beingmore common.
Tree heights are normally 20 m, with a few specimens reaching more than 25 m. On the tablelands, inland fromAnglesea, heights are considerably lower than 20 m, reflecting the low fertility of the soils there.
Understoreys consist of typical sclerophyllous shrubs such as Acacia verticillata, A. mucronata, A. myrtifolia andLeptospermum juniperinum. Other eucalypts commonly associated with E. aromaphloia are E. obliqua, E. ovata and E.baxteri.
On dry north- and west-facing slopes, sclerophyllous scrubs formopen understoreys in open forests.
Eucalyptus sideroxylon and associated specieOpen forests of E. sideroxylon occur in the eastern section of the Otway Range and extend along the coastal plains as faras Bells Beach near Torquay. These environments range from north-facing slopes of Cretaceous sediments east of Lornewith shallow stony gradational soils to more sheltered valley floors and drainage lines inland from Point Addis. Thus atthe higher-rainfall limits of distribution the driest sites are colonized, while at the lower-rainfall limits the species prefersmoist sites.
Freely drained soils of low natural fertility are preferred, and many of the soils on which E. sideroxylon thrives are highlysodic. Seaward-facing slopes near Anglesea exposed to salt-laden coastal winds carry stunted communities including E.sideroxylon.
Heights of trees are generally around 20 m. Pure stands are most common, but associations between E. sideroxylon, E.obliqua and E. baxteri are common in fringe areas. East of Lorne, associations between E. sideroxylon and E. globulusare common with the former dominating the northern aspect and the latter dominating the southern.
Understoreys are usually quite open, with Acacia vernicuflua common in the shrub stratum and Poa spp., Danthonia spp.and Themeda australis forming a ground cover.
Eucalyptus pauciflora and associated speciesE. pauciflora can be found at several sites in the Paraparap area, and was probably originally reasonably common. Itoccurs on phosphate-fixing duplex soils of low fertility with light-textured topsoils and moderate drainage. The averageannual rainfall is about 650 mm.
One clump of trees south of Lake Modewarre suggests a former pure stand, but elsewhere the species grows inassociation with E. ovata and E. viminalis. Tree heights are around 20 m with a spreading habit. Understoreycommunities have become greatly modified, but Banksia marginata may have been common.
Low Open ForestUnder environmental stress, tree heights and crown cover are reduced. Low communities with a moderate crown cover(about 30%), where the dominant stratum consists of a species with an obvious main stem and little or no branching closeto the ground, are classified as low open forests. The environmental stress is seldom related to strong competitionbetween species. Factors such as highly calcareous soils, proneness to waterlogging, exposure to severe winds and saltspray are responsible for the reduced mature height. Factors related to competition, such as extremely low fertility or lowmoisture availability, seem to result in decreased crown cover as well as lower heights.
Melaleuca lanceolata and associated speciesM. lanceolata is most commonly encountered on coastal dunes, but is also colonizes the most exposed seaward-facingslopes of various Tertiary outcrops. Although it is frequently found on excessively drained soils, the particularenvironmental characteristics that give M. lanceolata and associated species their advantages over other colonists aretheir abilities to withstand intense salt pruning and to survive on highly calcareous soils.
Some trees in forest remnants to the east of Torquay reach 12 m, but average heights are around 6 m. On the mostexposed sites, trees become almost prostrate, hugging the ground surface at less than 1 m and leaning sharply away fromthe direction of the salt-laden winds.
Other species commonly found in association with M. lanceolata and Leucopogon parviflorus, Leptospermum laevigatumand Acacia longifolia. In fringe area, M. lanceolata may share dominance with such species as E. obliqua, Casuarinastricta and E. sideroxylon. Understoreys are usually sparse, with large areas of leaf litter and bare ground. Theunderstorey species that do grow vary considerably, but Helichrysum paralium, Tetragonia tetragoniodies and Spyridiumparvifolium are common.
WoodlandWoodlands have less than 30% crown cover and the trees are more spreading, with rounded crowns emanating frombranching and typically crooked trunks. The branching occurs closer to the ground than in open forest formations.Understoreys are usually dense because of the higher light penetration through the more open crown, and consist of eithersclerophyllous shrubs or native trees.
Eucalyptus radiata and associated speciesE. radiata woodlands are common on the foothills of the Range, where well-drained soils of low fertility have developedon Tertiary sediments. The acidic sands in the west, which suffer severe moisture stress in summer, are mainly colonizedby E. radiata in association with E. nitida, E. obliqua and E. baxteri.
In many areas, E. radiata exists as a minor member of open forest associations, particularly those dominated by E.obliqua. It may attain heights of 20 m or more in open forests, but in woodland communities it seldom reaches more than15 m. Understoreys are usually moderate dense and include Leptospermum juniperinum, L. myrsinoides, Banksiamarginata, Xanthorrhoea australis, Platylobium obtusangulum, Dillwynia glaberrima and Hakea ulicina. In drier areas,Acacia suaveolens, Epacris impressa and Leucopogon glacialis become common.
Eucalyptus camaldulensis and associated speciesE. camaldulensis was formerly common in the northern drier parts of the study area, but most stands have been clearedfor agriculture. It is confined to either basaltic plains or alluvial flats largely derived from basalt. It normally occupiespoorly drained duplex soils with heavy clay subsoils, but is also observed in well-drained soils on river banks. It is notfound in areas with annual rainfall above 650 mm, where other eucalypts such as E. ovata and E. viminalis become toocompetitive.
E. camaldulensis usually attains heights of about 20 m and has a spreading habit. Pure stands are most common,although at times E. ovata may occur in association with it, particularly on alluvial plains. Original understoreysprobably consisted mainly of native grasses such as Themeda australis, Danthonia spp. and Stipa spp. Open woodlandformations with dense grass ground cover were probably originally common around Winchelsea.
Eucalyptus leucoxylon and associated speciesIn the north-eastern part of the study area, woodlands of E. leucoxylon were formerly common. Most of these areas havebeen cleared and the species is now confined to road reserves and occasional clumps in agricultural land, notably onslowly permeable heavy soils with coarse-structured subsoils with alkaline reaction trends. Annual rainfalls here are inthe vicinity of 700 mm.
The tallest trees reach about 15 m and are found on the edges of Thompson Creek, but more stunted ones are normallyencountered. E. leucoxylon appears to be very sensitive to salt spray and trees south of Thompson Creek severalkilometres from the sea are severely salt-pruned. Understorey species include Acacia pycnantha, which is particularlycommon in the few remaining communities in road reserves. Associated species in the dominant stratum include E. ovataand Casuarina stricta, but it is likely that pure stands of E. leucoxylon were formerly common.
Woodlands typically contain trees with crooked trunks,which branch close to ground level.
Eucalyptus viminalisPure stands of E. viminalis in woodland formation are found on calcareous dunes at Cape Otway. The excessivelydrained soils of these areas contrast with those at other sites with taller stands of E. viminalis, where plentiful moistureseems to be required. A ground cover of native grasses with occasional shrubs such as Bursaria spinosa occupies theunderstorey.
Low WoodlandLow woodland communities occur on sites that experience fairly extreme environmental stress. The tree stratum consistsof twisted, stunted and branching specimens exerting little or no shading effect on the understorey. Competition for lightis not crucial, as other factors such as severe seasonal moisture stress, high acidity or alkalinity, or very low inherent soilfertility are the important ones to overcome for survival.
Eucalyptus nitida and associated species.E. nitida occurs widely in association with E. radiata; they hybridize often, so it is difficult to distinguish between them.However, at the environmental extreme of acidic excessively drained soils with extremely low fertility, E. nitida isdominant and may form pure stands. As such, it is widespread on the acidic sands of the Bald Hills, and in similarlandscapes between Gellibrand and Chapple Vale. Other areas include Bunker Hill, the catchment area of PorcupineCreek and the foothills east of Forrest.
E. nitida tolerates a wide range of adverse environments. As well as colonizing excessively drained acidic sands, it alsogrown on sites where hardpans persist close to the surface. Severe waterlogging restricts growth during winter and springon these sites, and then water stress further impedes survival during summer. Heavy-textured calcareous soils exposed tosalt-bearing winds near Princetown also support E. nitida, and it is occasionally encountered on shallow stony gradationalsoils in the eastern part of the study area.
Trees usually reach only around 6 m and often lack a main stem. Taller trees have been observed, and in the OtwayRange south of Bambra one stand of E. nitida – E. radiata hybrids reaches 15 m. Understoreys contain all those speciespreviously listed with E. radiata, but Leptospermum juniperinum and Xanthorrhoea australis are particularly common.These associations between E. nitida and E. radiata occasionally contain E. baxteri on moister sites.
Eucalyptus kitsoniana and associated speciesConfined to only three recorded areas in Victoria, E. kitsoniana occupies swampy sites with moderately textured acidicsoils near Cape Otway. Trees generally grow to about 9 m, but some achieve heights of up to 15 m. Pure stands are mostcommon, although fringe areas possess associations of E. baxteri. The tall understoreys are thick impenetrable strands ofMelaleuca ericifolia, which also seems to be confined to these communities in this part of Victoria.
Casuarina littoralis and associated speciesC. littoralis occupies widely different environments in the study area. As a tree in low woodland formations it grown ondry steep slopes with shallow infertile soils near Moggs Creek. It also occurs in similar formations near Paraparap,although its occurrence there has probably increased since settlement.
Tree heights are around 8 m, and understorey specimens include Hakea ulicina, Leucopogon glacialis and Isopogonceratophyllus. Associated species are quite variable, the most notable being C. stricta and E. nitida. C. littoralis is also acommon member of the closed scrub formations found on the black acidic sands in parts of the Gellibrand catchment. Itshabit here is quite different, as the trees spread into a number of main erect stems close to the ground and rarely growhigher than 4 m.
Other SpeciesEucalyptus obliqua, E. baxteri and even E. ovata have also been observed to grow in low woodland formations. Of someinterest are the low woodlands of E. gonioclayx in the study area at sites just north of the Anglesea coal mine and nearDemons Bluff.
Closed ScrubClosed scrubs in the study area consist of dense communities of branching, erect, moisture-loving species. Restrictions toplant growth come from a permanently high water table, and sometimes high acidity. Competition for light is strong, andonly a few species such as mosses and ferns exist beneath the canopy.
Melaleuca squarrosa and associated speciesM. squarrosa is common in all the wetter sites on Tertiary sediments, and is most common in the Gellibrand Rivercatchment to the west of the Otway Range. It occupies wet sites with black acidic sand soils. The nutrient status is oftenhigh, except for strong deficiencies of calcium.
These communities grow to about 4 m. Pure stands are rare, and associated species include Leptospermum juniperinum,Casuarina littoralis, Gleichenia circinnata and Bauera rubioides. L. juniperinum is suppressed on the wetter sites, whilehillside swamps prone to occasional drying out have closed heath formations containing some of the above species butalso Sprengelia incarnata, Xanthorrhoea australis and Aotus ericoides.
Leptospermum lanigerum and associated speciesMore localized than the M. squarrosa associations are the occurrence of L. lanigerum, found in wet, broad drainage linesin three areas – Princetown, Hordern Vale and the Bald Hills. The soils are heavily textured with the water table at thesurface for much of the year. Tree heights are between 4 and 6 m. Pure stands are most common although L.juniperinum and E. ovata may be present.
Like sentinels on perpetual guard, the flowering stems of Xanthorrhoea australis dominate the understorey of thislow woodland of E. nitida.
Open ScrubOn exposed coastal sites, salt pruning of the vegetation severely restricts growth and the range of species. Trees andshrubs that do survive are often twisted and branch close to the ground. They usually lean strongly away from thedirection of prevailing winds, forming a salt-planed surface due to successive dieback on the windward side. Manyspecies such as Eucalyptus obliqua, E. nitida, E. sideroxlyon and E. baxteri persist right to the edge of coastal cliffs or thebase of sand dunes, but the habit of the trees differs markedly from that normally exhibited further inland.
The more open communities caused by dieback permit the invasion of many other salt-spray-tolerant species notnormally found in associations, such as Melaleuca lanceolata, Casuarina stricta, Leucopogon parviflorus and a richlydiverse heath stratum. These vegetative communities are sensitive to disturbance and difficult to re-establish in theseharsh environments. Care is needed in management of these areas.
Coastal dunes have various associations of species adapted to living on calcareous, infertile excessively drained sands.Of those in the study area, the most common dominant species is Leucopogon parviflorus, but others are Helichrysum
paralium, Alyxia buxifolia, Melaleuca lanceolata and Leptospermum laevigatum. These form stunted salt-pruned openscrubs and open heaths on the leeward side of the primary dune and on most secondary dunes. Communities aregenerally around 3 m in height, although some species may achieve heights of up to 10 m in sheltered areas.Understoreys are usually very open with large areas of bare ground, the most common species being Tetragoniatetragonioides.
Salt-pruned open scrubs are often very sensitive todisturbance
Low ShrublandLow shrublands occur in extremely adverse environmental conditions. Crown cover is sparse, usually below 30%, andplants are generally below 2 m in height with semi-succulent leaves.
The estuarine swamps near Breamlea and in other isolated parts of the coastline support communities of Arthrocnemumarbusculum, often in pure stands. The height of the community depends on microrelief and hence on the elevation abovemean tide level, with the tallest communities reaching 2 m. Samolus repens and Frankenia pauciflora become morecommon on lower parts of the swamp. Inland, where the waters are less saline, Gahnia filum becomes dominant.
Grasslands and HerbfieldsGrasses and halophytic plants less than about 1 m in height form various grasslands or herblands. Individual plants areoften in such close contact that their canopies interlace. Conditions – such as shifting sands subject to salt spray andhigh-velocity sand-laden winds, high water tables or soils prone to excessive shrinking and swelling – are unfavourablefor the growth of woody plants.
Swampy depressions on the basalt plains support sedgeland communities containing Juncus spp., Ranunculus spp. andothers. The heavy clay soils are strongly alkaline, only rarely dry out and are strongly gleyed right to the surface.Anaerobic conditions presumably restrict the root development necessary for colonization by larger vegetation. Leeper,Nicholls and Wadham (1936) studied these communities in some detail, but now little remains of them because oflevelling of paddocks, draining of larger swamps and pasture improvement.
Spinifex hirsutus is confined to shifting coastal dunes, where it has the ability to survive an actively grow on excessivelydrained infertile sands regularly blasted by sand and salt spray. Spreading by rhizomes, it quickly colonizes recent sandaccretions to the dunes. However it is susceptible to damage by trampling, the roots breaking easily under the loose sand,and many areas have become devoid of this valuable stabilizing species. The stability of coastal dunes has beenmaintained by hand planting of the vegetatively propagated Ammophila arenaria, introduced to Australia from WesternEurope. Other primary colonists of these unstable dunes are Tetragonia tetragonioides and Carpobrotus rossii.
666... LLLAAANNNDDD UUUSSSEEE
Tow major periods of settlement occurred in and around the Otway Range in the 19th Century. In the 1840s, squattersrealized the grazing potential of the plains west of Geelong, and large holdings of 8,000 – 10,000 ha were established(Thornley 1974). Within a decade most of the land had been taken up. The Otway Range, however, continued to remaina remote area, where the only two settlements, at Apollo Bay and Loutit Bay, depended mainly on ships for supplies.
Towards the end of the gold rush era in the 1860s and 1870s, men leaving the diggings created a strong demand for land.With most of the land on the plains locked up by squatters, the selectors were forced to other areas. In the 1870s and1880s, vast areas of the Otway forests were opened up for selection (Thornley 1974).
Many of the selectors faced enormous problems. Most of them bought blocks site-unseen, and when they arrived at theirselection they were confronted with impenetrable forest, non-existent transport and often extremely steep slopes. Apromised railway did not eventuate until 1902. After 1980, the Crown started to resume blocks of land that wereunoccupied and these were subsequently permanently reserved for forest production.
At the beginning of the 20th Century, transport services in the Otways improved dramatically. This allowed agriculturalindustries such as dairying and potato-growing to develop, and resulted in a boom in timber production. Some of the lessproductive farms were abandoned by farmers joining the timer industry, and in 1930 the Forests Commission purchasedmuch of the abandoned farmland in the Aire valley and planted it to softwoods.
Beef cattle grazing on recentlycleared land in the HeytesburySettlement area.
The most recent major development was initiated in 1956 when the Rural Finance and Settlement Commission (then theSoldier Settlement Commission) began to clear 50,000 ha of the Heytesbury forest to be developed as dairy farms.
The main forms of land use at present depend in part on the history of settlement, but more importantly on the nature ofthe land. The steep hills of the Otway Range are mainly used for forestry, water supply, nature conservation andrecreation. The adjacent plains and some flatter areas on top of the Range mainly support agriculture. The coastal areascater for recreation and residential subdivision. Minor areas throughout the study area are used for the extraction ofminerals, service easements, refuse disposal and water storage.
AgricultureWell over half the farms in the study area are dairy farms, particularly in the higher-rainfall districts. Milk is sold bothfor manufacturing and as whole milk for the large residential populations of Colac and Geelong. Supplementary feedingis practised – generally with hay and silage, but fodder crops of oats, rape, turnip and millet are also grown. Pastures arebased on perennial grass-legume mixtures. The main grass species are Lolium perenne, Dactylis glomerata, Phalaristuberosa and Festuca arundinacea cv. Demeter, while the main legumes are Trifolium repens, T. pratense and T.subteraneum (see Table 4). Most farms rely on natural rainfall to maintain vigorous pasture growth, but some of thosealong the Gellibrand River do supplement summer growth by irrigation. Some dairy-farmers run a sideline beefenterprise to supplement their income.
Sheep and beef cattle grazing are normally combined, as these enterprises tend to make the best use of pastures. Sheepare grown for both wool and prime lamb production. Wool growing is the main industry in the drier northern areas on thebasalt plains, while the prime lamb industry is concentrated in the medium-rainfall belt north of the Otway Range. Someof the farms on the steep hill country in and around the Range are primarily beef producers. In the high-rainfall country,breeding cows produce calves that are sold as vealers. Further north, beef production relies on the calves being kept untilone and a half to two years of age and sold as mature beef. Fodder conservation is practised on most farms.
The Victorian Department of Agriculture has recommended fertilizer requirements and pasture species for different areas.As a rule, phosphorus, potassium and molybdenum are necessary for vigorous pasture growth. Nitrogen is also lacking,but the inclusion of legumes in pasture mixtures has overcome the need to apply nitrogen fertilizers. Although copper insoils is at a sufficiently high level for plant growth, it is often not sufficient for animal nutrition and is included infertilizer recommendations. Lime is required for pasture establishment on the highly acidic soils and is mainly appliedwith the superphosphate at sowing time or as lime-coating on inoculated clover seed.
The high rainfall, cool climate and free-draining soils are highlyregarded for their capacity to produce seed potatoes.
Both the highest-rainfall areas at Beech Forest and the middle- and lower-rainfall areas to the north and east of the OtwayRange support cropping. Potatoes are grown at Beech Forest, where the isolation, soils and climate confer decidedadvantages for the production of disease-free tubers. Pears are grown near Winchelsea, Deans Marsh and Birregurra on acontract basis for frozen-food companies. The area sown to oilseed crops such as rape, linseed, sunflowers and mustardincreases each year with large enterprises around Birregurra.
ForestryHardwood forestry. The Forest Commission manages large areas of reserved forest in the Otway Range for hardwoodproduction. Some additional hardwood supplies come from the clearing of privately owned land during pine conversionoperations. The tall open forests supply the best timber, preferred species being Eucalyptus regnans, E. obliqua, E.cypellocarpa and E. globulus. Sawlogs are used for general construction purposes such as house-framing, whilepulpwood is used for the production of paper and hardwood. Growth rates are high. The drier parts of the Range and thesurrounding foothills support slower-growing open forests of E. obliqua, E. viminalis, E. baxteri, E. cypellocarpa, E.globulus, E. sideroxylon and E. ovata. Sawlogs and pulpwood are the main products. Harvesting of E. baxteri andLeptospermum juniperinum saplings for ‘tea tree’ stakes is a minor industry. The infertile sands on the eastern andwestern sides of the Range support low open forests suitable only for use as fuel.
Softwood forestry. The Forests Commission manages softwood plantations in the Aire valley and at Webster Hill,Boonah and Forrest. Pinus radiata is the main species planted, although significant areas carry P. laricio, Pseudotsugamenziesii and Picea sitchensis in the Aire valley. Harvested timber supplies both sawlogs and pulpwood.
Private softwood companies operate mainly on disused farmland. Collectively, they control a more extensive area forpresent and future plantings of softwoods than government-owned plantations. Their operations are located throughoutthe Otway Range, mainly on the steep hills and upper gentle slopes of the Cretaceous sediments and, less commonly, onthe outlying foothills of the Tertiary sediments.
Softwood plantations are being established by private companies on both disusedfarmland and privately owned forested land.
Water SupplyDifferent parts of the study area vary in their potential a water supply catchments, as shown in Figure 5. At Beech Forest,in the middle of the Otway Range, the excess of precipitation over potential evapotranspiration is far greater than at anyother site. Here groundwater stored during winter can continue to supply creeks during the summer, thus maintainingflow. In other areas, only major rivers that lie deep in the landscape at levels below the regional water table continue toflow during the summer, but at a much reduced rate.
Many towns draw supplies of water from the Range for domestic and industrial uses. The Upper Barwon dam at Forrestcontributes to Geelong’s water supply, with additional reserves being tapped when needed from several north-flowingcreeks to the east of the dam. Birregurra, Winchelsea, Forrest, Anglesea, Torquay and settlements on the BellarinePeninsula also derive their water from this Geelong Waterworks Trust system.
The Gellibrand catchment is another major source of domestic water. Colac is supplied from dams on the WestGellibrand River and Olangolah River, while Warrnambool, Cobden, Camperdown, Terang and several other towns aresupplied from offtake on Arkins Creek and on the middle reaches of the Gellibrand River.
The townships of Lorne, Apollo Bay, Skenes Creek and Wye River derive their water from creeks and rivers on thesouthern side of the main ridge. Only Lorne has a supply that includes a reservoir.
Water quality from these supply systems varies. The water in the Gellibrand River is discoloured and turbid and willeventually require expensive treatment as usage increases. The black sand soils in many of the drainage lines in themiddle and lower reaches of the catchment impart organic stains to the water. Thus the high organic content of thesesoils, although it helps to mains perennial flow, also imparts undesirable colour.
Contour ripping and planting has recently been tried in some pineconversion programs on an experimental basis in an effort to reducesurface run-off and associated erosion.
Nature ConservationSome areas of land provide habitats for rare and endangered species. Forexample the hills west of Chapple Vale provide one of the few nesting sites
for the rare ground parrot, Pezoporus wallicus, and the sheltered gullies of the Parker River catchment from the majorhabitat for Victoria’s endemic tree fern, Cyathea marcescens (Land Conservation Council 1976).
Other areas have been reserved as parks where people can enjoy the spiritual wealth of the natural environment. Closelyrelated areas with landscape conservation values have scenery of exceptionally high standard. The study area containslarge park reserves at Lorne and Aireys Inlet. Smaller flora and fauna reserves exist at localities such as Bambra,Anglesea and Gellibrand.
The Olangolah Weir supplies good-quality water to Colac.
The coastal margins of thestudy are provide manyexceptional views
Tabl
e 4
– A
gric
ultu
ral L
and
Use
s, Pa
stur
e Sp
ecie
s and
Fer
tiliz
er re
quir
emen
ts o
f the
Lan
d Sy
stem
Lan
d Sy
stem
sA
nnua
l Rai
nfal
lM
ajor
Soi
lsM
ain
Agr
icul
tura
lL
and
Use
sPa
stur
e Sp
ecie
sFe
rtili
zer
Req
uire
men
tsM
ain
Wee
ds
Air
e, B
eech
For
est,
Mou
nt S
abin
e,Fo
rres
t, Lo
rne,
Yah
ooC
reek
1,00
0 –
2,00
0 m
mB
row
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls;
brow
n fr
iabl
e gr
adat
iona
lso
ils; d
ark-
brow
n gr
adat
iona
lso
ils; b
row
n du
plex
soils
.
Dai
ryin
g, g
razi
ng,
pota
to c
ropp
ing
Loliu
m p
eren
neD
acty
lis g
lom
erat
aTr
ifoliu
m re
pens
Fest
uca
arun
dina
cea
cv. D
emet
er
Supe
rpho
spha
te,
pota
sh, l
ime,
cop
per
mol
ybde
num
Pter
idiu
m e
scul
entu
m,
Sene
cia
jaco
baea
,Ru
bus s
pp.
Cha
pple
Val
e, C
arlis
le,
Yeo
dene
, Fer
guso
n H
ill,
Porc
upin
e C
reek
,B
aron
garo
ok
750
– 1,
200
mm
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rmte
xtur
e; g
rey
sand
soils
with
hard
pan,
uni
form
text
ure;
blac
k sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rmte
xtur
e; g
rey
sand
soils
,st
ruct
ured
cla
y un
derla
y; g
rey
sand
soils
, wea
kly
stru
ctur
edcl
ay u
nder
lay.
Gra
zing
, dai
ryin
gL.
per
enne
Ph
asar
is tu
bero
sa
D. g
lom
erat
a F.
aru
ndin
acea
cv.
Dem
eter
T.
subt
erra
neum
T.
repe
ns
T. fr
agife
rum
Supe
rpho
spha
te,
pota
sh, l
ime,
cop
per,
mol
ybde
num
(hea
vyra
tes r
equi
red
for
esta
blis
hmen
t and
mai
nten
ance
)
P. e
scul
entu
m,
Agro
stis
spp.
Ferg
uson
Hill
, Mou
ntM
acke
nzie
, Hor
dern
Val
e
1,00
0 –
1,20
0 m
mR
ed sa
ndy
loam
soils
,un
iform
text
ure;
yel
low
grad
atio
nal s
oils
, wea
kst
ruct
ure;
red
grad
atio
nal
soils
, wea
k st
ruct
ure
Gra
zing
, dai
ryin
gL.
per
enne
D. g
omer
ata
P. tu
bero
saF.
aru
ndin
acea
cv
Dem
eter
Mai
nly
T. su
bter
rane
umbu
t als
o T.
frag
iferu
man
d T.
repe
ns
Supe
rpho
spha
te,
poss
ibly
pot
ash,
copp
er, m
olyb
denu
m
P. e
scul
entu
m
Cap
e O
tway
900
– 1,
100
mm
Bro
wn
calc
areo
us sa
nd so
ils,
unifo
rm te
xtur
e; re
d-ye
llow
calc
areo
us sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rmte
xtur
e
Gra
zing
P. tu
bero
saD
. glo
mer
ata
L. p
eren
neT.
subt
erra
neum
T. in
carn
atum
Med
icag
o sa
tiva
Supe
rpho
spha
te, p
otas
h,co
pper
, mol
ybde
num
Ken
nedy
s Cre
ek,
Sim
pson
, Tom
ahaw
kC
reek
, Waa
reB
aron
garo
ok,
Kaw
arre
n, C
arlis
le,
Hor
dern
Val
e, M
ount
Mac
kenz
ie, W
onga
750
– 1,
100
mm
Yel
low
-bro
wn
grad
atio
nal
soils
; coa
rse
stru
ctur
e; b
row
nca
lcar
eous
gra
datio
nal s
ols,
coar
se st
ruct
ure;
mot
tled
yello
w, r
ed g
rada
tiona
l soi
ls;
mot
tled
yello
w, r
edgr
adat
iona
l soi
ls w
ithiro
nsto
ne; m
ottle
d ye
llow
,gr
ey g
rada
tiona
l soi
ls
Dai
ryin
g, g
razi
ngL.
per
enne
D. g
lom
erat
aF.
aru
ndin
acea
cv
Dem
eter
P. tu
bero
saT.
repe
nsT.
subt
erra
neum
T. fr
agife
rum
Supe
rpho
spha
te,
pota
sh, c
oppe
r,m
olyb
denu
m
R. e
scul
entu
mR
ubus
spp.
Lan
d Sy
stem
sA
nnua
l Rai
nfal
lM
ajor
Soi
lsM
ain
Agr
icul
tura
lL
and
Use
sPa
stur
e Sp
ecie
sFe
rtili
zer
Req
uire
men
tsM
ain
Wee
ds
Dee
pden
e, P
arap
arap
,Pe
nnyr
oyal
, Bar
rago
ol,
Bel
lbra
e, T
hom
pson
Cre
ek, F
resh
wat
erC
reek
, Birr
egua
rra
600
– 75
0 m
m(s
ome
area
up
to1,
000
mm
)
Mot
tled
yello
w, r
ed d
uple
xso
ils; m
ottle
d ye
llow
, red
dupl
ex so
ils w
ith ir
onst
one;
yello
w-b
row
n du
plex
soils
,co
arse
stru
ctur
e; y
ello
wbr
own
sodi
c du
plex
soils
,co
arse
stru
ctur
e; y
ello
w so
dic
dupl
ex so
ils; y
ello
w-b
row
nca
lcar
eous
sodi
c du
plex
soils
,co
arse
stru
ctur
e; g
rey
calc
areo
us so
dic
dupl
ex so
ils,
coar
se st
ruct
ure.
Gra
zing
, dai
ryin
g,ve
geta
ble
crop
ping
,oi
lsee
d cr
oppi
ng
L. p
eren
neD
. glo
mer
ata
P. tu
bero
saF.
aru
ndin
acea
cv
Dem
eter
T. su
bter
rane
umT.
repe
nsT.
frag
iferu
m
Supe
rpho
spha
te,
pota
sh, c
oppe
r,m
olyb
denu
m
Agro
stis
spp
Moo
leri
c, W
inch
else
a55
0 –
650
mm
Bla
ck c
alca
reou
s cla
y so
ils,
unifo
rm te
xtur
e; g
rey
calc
areo
us so
dic
clay
soils
,un
iform
text
ure;
yel
low
-br
own
calc
areo
us so
dic
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure;
grey
cal
care
ous s
odic
dup
lex
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
e; st
ony
red-
brow
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls.
Gra
zing
; cer
eal a
ndoi
lsee
d cr
oppi
ngL.
per
enne
P. tu
bero
saF.
aru
ndin
acea
cv.
Dem
eter
T. su
bter
rane
umT.
frag
iferu
m
Supe
rpho
spha
teSi
lybu
m m
aria
num
Cir
sium
vul
gare
Car
duus
tenu
iflor
us
Bar
won
Riv
er,
Gel
libra
nd R
iver
,ot
her
drai
nage
line
san
d al
luvi
al fl
ats
600
– 1,
000
mm
Bro
wn
sand
loam
soils
,un
iform
text
ure;
bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
, wea
kst
ruct
ure;
gre
y gr
adat
iona
lso
ils.
Dai
ryin
gL.
per
enne
P. tu
bero
saF.
aru
ndin
acea
cv
Dem
eter
T. su
bter
rane
umT.
frag
iferu
m
Supe
rpho
spha
teAg
rost
is sp
p.Ju
ncus
spp.
Car
ex sp
p.
Ghe
rang
Ghe
rang
,A
ngle
sea
600
– 80
0 m
mM
ottle
d ye
llow
, red
dup
lex
soils
with
iron
ston
e; y
ello
w-
brow
n du
plex
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
e, y
ello
w-b
row
n so
dic
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure;
mot
tled
yello
w, r
edgr
adat
iona
l soi
ls.
Gra
zing
D. g
lom
erat
aL.
per
enne
F. a
rund
inac
ea c
v.D
emet
erP.
tube
rosa
T. su
bter
rane
um
Supe
rpho
spha
te,
pota
sh, c
oppe
r,m
olyb
denu
m
P. e
scul
entu
m
Sour
ce:
D. C
onle
y, D
epar
tmen
t of A
gric
ultu
re, C
olac
Cost cutting development methods in sensitive coastal areas threatento destroy the natural landscape that prospective owners of holidayhomes seek to capture.
RecreationRecreational pursuits include bushwalking, camping, picnicking, pleasure driving, fishing, water sports, all-terrain vehicledriving. The last category is often incompatible with other pursuits and can cause severe damage to tracks andvegetation, with resulting soil deterioration. It may involve trail bikes, dune buggies and four-wheel-drive vehicles.
The most popular recreational areas are along the coast, particularly the eastern parts, which are closer to the populationcentres of Geelong and Melbourne. However, people use the whole of the Otway Range in a variety of pursuits. Theplains to the north also provide for picnickers and pleasure drivers.
Residential UsesThe larger towns are Anglesea, Lorne, Torquay, Winchelsea, Birregurra, Forrest, Apollo Bay and Simpson. Some ofthese have large transient populations during the holiday season. However, holiday homes are not confined to townships;any are built along the coastal strip from Apollo Bay to Breamlea, with particular concentrations between Lorne andAireys Inlet. Because of the scattered nature of these communities, normal services such as reticulated water, sewerage,roading and fire protection are not adequately supplied.
Extractive IndustriesMany of the Tertiary deposits of sand and gravel on the western and eastern flanks of the Otway Range have beendeveloped as extraction sites. The material is mainly used for road construction, although some deposits have been testedand used for glass-making. Other sources of gravel come from colluvial lateritic ironstone. Many disused pits have notbeen properly reclaimed, and remain as scars on the landscape. The compacted sand in many pits have been deeplyscoured by run-off waters, which had led to siltation problems elsewhere.
Coal reserves at Anglesea are at present being mined by open cut. A former mine also exists at Wensleydale, andreserves have been located at Benwerrin, Deans Marsh and Kawarren (Land Conservation Council 1976).
Other extractive industries include the mining of bentonite just south of Gellibrand, calcarenite near Princetown andCretaceous sandstone at Lorne.
Large extraction pits are common in the unconsolidated Tertiarysands and gravels.
777... LLLAAANNNDDD SSSYYYSSSTTTEEEMMMSSS
Land systems are areas of land each with a characteristic pattern of the environmental variables climate, geology,topography, soil and vegetation.
They comprise land components, within which these five variables have uniform values within narrow limits. Changes inthe dependent variables of soil and native vegetation usually distinguish land component boundaries. The different landsystems are distinguished by a change in the pattern or nature of the land components, usually accompanied by a majorchange in one or more of the independent variable such as geology and topographic pattern.
The land systems of the study area have been delineated by a combination of aerial photo interpretation and fieldexamination. Black and white aerial photographs at a scale of 1:80,000 were examined stereoscopically to revealgeomorphic patterns. Each areas was examined in the field to check the accuracy of the aerial photo interpretation and tocollect data on the nature of the soils, the native vegetation, the angle and shape of slopes and the nature of the parentmaterial. With the addition of climatic data, correlations were made to draw up a full representation of each land system.Representative sites were chosen for each of the most commonly occurring land components to examine in detail thenature of the soils, the structure and floristics of the associated native vegetation, and their interrelations with othervariables.
The 43 land systems recognized in the study area range in size from 8 sq km to 762 sq km. Some of the smaller ones nearthe edge of the study area are widespread in adjacent regions.
Aerial photo show land systems near the junction of the Gellibrand and Carlisle RiversThis air photograph is Crown Copyright and has been reproduced by courtesy of the Director, Division of National Mapping, Department of NationalDevelopment, Canberra.
Dendritic drainage patterns are a typical feature of the Otway landsystem.
Tabular DescriptionsData collected on each land system are presented in tabular form.
Components are allotted numbers to aid in identification. Representative parts of each land system have been mapped onphotomosaics at a scale of approximately 1:15,000 to measure the areas of the individual components. These areas have
been extrapolated to give an estimation of the relative proportions of each component. For land systems near the edge ofthe study area, these proportions may not be relevant to adjacent areas. Components of minor occurrence are listed inAppendix IV.
Bureau of Meteorology data show the annual rainfall for each land system, including the range from its driest to itswettest parts. The wettest month and the driest month, with the average precipitations received then, are also given.
Temperature data refers to average daily value and not to extreme maximums and minimums. The annual range on amonthly basis lists the average temperature for July (coldest month) and February (hottest month).
Major climatic limitations to plant growth are listed in Chapter 2. Restrictions to potential plant growth occur to varyingextents in winter, due to low temperatures, an in summer, due to lack of available water. It should be noted that soilmoisture storage extends the growing season beyond the point where potential evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation.
Local relief is a measure of the average change in elevation from the top of a hill or ridge to the nearest drainage linewithin the land system. Aerial photographs and large-scale topographic maps have been used to determine drainagepatterns (Thornbury 1969) and their density.
The native vegetation has been classified according to the structure of the dominant stratum (Specht 1970). The speciescommonly found in the dominant stratum are listed in their normal order of abundance.
A five-class system has been used for the estimation of permeability based on profile characteristics such as porosity andtexture. The estimate refers to the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the solum, which is limited by the least-permeablehorizon. Sands with no compacted layers have very high permeabilities while clays, with few pores or cracks, have verylow ones. Soil depth refers to the distance below the surface to solid rock or to a cemented layers that severely restrictsroot penetration and water movement.
The main existing land uses have been listed. Active recreation includes the use of vehicles such as trail bikes, dunebuggies and four-wheel drive vehicles. Passive recreation refers to less potentially destructive pursuits such aspicnicking, camping and bushwalking.
The forms of soil deterioration found to occur in each component, the critical features of the landscape and the processesleading to these forms of soil deterioration are outlined.
7.1
Air
e La
nd S
yste
m
The
stee
ply
diss
ecte
d sp
urs
and
ridge
s in
the
wet
ter p
arts
of t
he O
tway
Ran
ge c
ompr
ise
the
Aire
Lan
d Sy
stem
, the
larg
est
land
sys
tem
in
the
stud
y ar
ea.
Rap
id d
ownc
uttin
g of
stre
ams
follo
win
g up
lift
of t
he R
ange
has
bee
nre
spon
sibl
e fo
r for
min
g th
is ru
gged
land
scap
e, w
ith m
any
slope
s m
ore
than
60%
and
clif
fs a
nd b
luff
s in
the
cent
ral
part
north
of A
pollo
Bay
.
The
soils
are
you
ng a
nd m
oder
atel
y fe
rtile
. Ta
ll op
en fo
rest
s of
Euc
alyp
tus
regn
ans
reac
h he
ight
s ap
proa
chin
g 10
0m
in th
e C
alde
r Riv
er c
atch
men
t, bu
t mos
t of t
he ta
llest
tree
s hav
e no
w b
een
mill
ed.
E. o
bliq
ua a
nd E
. cyp
ello
carp
aar
e al
so c
omm
on, w
hile
E. v
imin
alis
occ
urs i
n th
e w
est a
nd E
. glo
bulu
s is f
ound
clo
se to
the
coas
t.
Pine
for
ests
cov
er l
arge
are
as o
f th
is l
and
syst
em a
nd o
ther
par
ts h
ave
been
cle
ared
for
agr
icul
ture
. T
he m
ain
haza
rds
to la
nd u
se a
re la
ndsl
ips
and
shee
t ero
sion
. Lo
sses
in o
rgan
ic m
atte
r an
d so
il st
ruct
ure
are
ofte
n ap
pare
ntfo
llow
ing
clea
ring.
Som
e ar
eas o
f the
Air
e la
nd sy
stem
hav
e be
en c
lear
ed fo
r agr
icul
ture
, bu
t the
terr
ain
is di
ffic
ult t
o m
anag
e an
d m
any
area
s hav
e be
com
e co
vere
d in
bra
cken
an
non-
prod
uctiv
e sc
rub.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
AIR
EA
rea:
762
km
21
10%
280
%3
10%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 1
,100
– 1
,750
, low
est J
anua
ry (6
0), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (17
0)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
1, lo
wes
t Jul
y (7
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
6)T
empe
ratu
re: l
ess t
han
10o C
(av.
) May
– S
epte
mbe
rSe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
Dec
embe
r – F
ebru
ary
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Low
er C
reta
ceou
s fel
dspa
thic
sand
ston
e an
d m
udst
one
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eD
eepl
y di
ssec
ted
hills
of t
he O
tway
Ran
geEl
evat
ion,
m90
– 5
60Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
165
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Trel
lis p
atte
rn w
ith is
olat
ed ra
dial
are
asD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
4.7
Land
form
Hill
Land
form
ele
men
tC
rest
Upp
er a
nd m
iddl
e sl
ope
Low
er sl
ope,
dra
inag
e lin
eSl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
20 (5
-30)
40 (2
5-80
)25
(5-4
0)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xLi
near
Con
cave
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Tall
open
fore
stTa
ll op
en fo
rest
to ta
ll cl
osed
fore
stD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
obl
iqua
, E. c
ypel
loca
rpa,
E. r
egna
ns, E
. ova
ta,
E. g
lobu
lus,
E. v
imin
alis,
Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
E. r
egna
ns, E
. cyp
ello
carp
a, E
. obl
iqua
, E. o
vata
,E.
vim
inal
is, E
. glo
bulu
sE.
re
gnan
s, E.
ob
liqua
, Ac
acia
m
elan
oxyl
on,
Not
hofa
gus
cunn
ingh
amii,
E.
cype
lloca
rpa,
E.
ovat
a, E
. vim
inal
is, E
. glo
bulu
sSO
ILPa
rent
mat
eria
lIn
-situ
wea
ther
ed ro
ckIn
-situ
wea
ther
ed ro
ckA
lluvi
um a
nd c
ollu
vium
Des
crip
tion
Bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Dar
k br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Loam
Loam
Loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Mod
erat
eM
oder
ate
Hig
hD
epth
, m1.
41.
2>2
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
for s
cant
lings
, pos
ts, p
ole
and
pulp
woo
d; so
ftwoo
d pl
anta
tions
for s
awlo
gs a
nd p
ulpw
ood;
nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
wat
ersu
pply
; pas
sive
recr
eatio
n.M
inor
cle
ared
are
as:
Bee
f cat
tle g
razi
ng a
nd d
airy
farm
ing
on m
ainl
y im
prov
ed p
astu
res;
row
cro
ppin
g on
gen
tler s
lope
s.SO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZAR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
, for
ms
Hig
h ra
infa
ll, m
oder
ate
perm
eabi
lity
and
leac
hing
plus
loss
of o
rgan
ic m
atte
r and
soil
stru
ctur
e up
ondi
stur
banc
e le
ad
to
nutri
ent
decl
ine
and
soil
com
pact
ion,
als
o sh
eet e
rosi
on o
n st
eepe
r slo
pes.
Cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
n st
eep
slop
es s
ubje
ct to
per
iodi
csa
tura
tion
are
pron
e to
land
slip
s. S
teep
slo
pes a
repr
one
to s
heet
and
rill
ero
sion
. H
igh
rain
fall,
mod
erat
e pe
rmea
bilit
y an
d le
achi
ng p
lus
loss
of
orga
nic
mat
ters
an
d so
il st
ruct
ure
upon
dist
urba
nce
lead
to
nu
trien
t de
clin
e an
d so
ilco
mpa
ctio
n.
Rap
id s
urfa
ce r
un-o
ff f
rom
adj
acen
t hill
s le
ad to
scou
r gu
llyin
g,
silta
tion
and
flood
ing.
Hig
hra
infa
ll, h
igh
perm
eabi
lity
and
leac
hing
plu
s lo
ssof
or
gani
c m
atte
r an
d so
il st
ruct
ure
upon
dist
urba
nce
lead
to
nu
trien
t de
clin
e an
d so
ilco
mpa
ctio
n.
7.2
Ang
lese
a La
nd S
yste
m
Stre
tchi
ng in
land
from
the
coas
t bet
wee
n B
ells
Bea
ch a
nd M
oggs
Cre
ek li
es a
dis
sect
ed p
lain
on
Terti
ary
sedi
men
ts.
Long
stra
ight
slo
pes
eman
ate
from
spu
rs a
nd r
idge
s. T
he c
oast
al m
argi
ns a
re r
etre
atin
g an
ofte
n ab
ut th
e se
a in
stee
p cl
iffs o
r mas
sive
land
slip
s and
ear
thflo
ws.
The
pare
nt m
ater
ial
is v
ery
varia
ble,
ran
ging
fro
m l
ater
itize
d se
dim
ents
on
the
ridge
s to
rel
ativ
ely
unw
eath
ered
allu
vium
in th
e dr
aina
ge li
nes.
Thu
s the
soils
are
par
ticul
arly
var
iabl
e.
In g
ener
al, p
lant
nut
rient
leve
ls a
re lo
w a
nd s
urfa
ce h
oriz
ons
are
wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed.
Plan
t com
mun
ities
are
mai
nly
open
for
ests
les
tha
n 15
m i
n he
ight
; th
e he
ight
dec
reas
es t
owar
ds t
he c
oast
und
er t
he i
nflu
ence
of
salt-
bear
ing
win
ds.
The
area
is h
ighl
y re
gard
ed f
or it
s di
vers
ity o
f flo
ra.
Som
e pa
rts h
ave
been
cle
ared
for
agr
icul
ture
. Th
em
ain
haza
rds t
o la
nd u
se a
re g
ully
ero
sion
and
shee
t ero
sion
.
Exp
osed
coa
stal
site
s car
ry sa
lt-pr
uned
ope
n sc
rubs
that
are
sens
itive
to d
istu
rban
ce, a
nd re
vege
tatio
n of
ero
ded
area
s is d
iffic
ult.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
AN
GL
ESE
AA
rea:
74
km2
125
%2 5%
310
%4
30%
5%
25%
6 2%7 3%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 6
00 –
800,
low
est J
anua
ry (3
5), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (80
)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 14
, low
est J
uly
(9),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(17)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
uly
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n m
id O
ctob
er –
ear
ly A
pril
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Hig
hly
varia
ble
Eoce
ne se
dim
ent c
onsi
stin
g m
ainl
y of
unc
onso
lidat
ed c
laye
y si
lt, sa
ndT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Mod
erat
ely
diss
ecte
d hi
lls ly
ing
belo
w a
nd o
n th
e se
awar
d si
de o
f the
late
ritic
pla
teau
xEl
evat
ion,
m0
- 195
Loca
l rel
ief,
m50
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Rec
tang
ular
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
21.
6La
nd fo
rmH
illLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Expo
sed
coas
tal s
lope
Slop
e, c
rest
Low
er
slop
, dr
aina
gelin
eM
iddl
e sl
opU
pper
slop
e, c
rest
Stee
p sl
opLa
ndsl
ip
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %20
(5-4
5)2
(5-1
5)8
(1-1
5)15
(5-3
5)10
(1-2
0)45
(25-
55)
(5-9
0)Sl
ope
shap
eLi
near
/irre
gula
rLi
near
Con
cave
Con
vex
Con
vex
Line
arIr
regu
lar
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eO
pen
scru
bW
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Low
woo
dlan
dD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
ob
liqua
, C
asua
rina
stri
cta,
E. s
ider
oxyl
onE.
vim
inal
is, E
. rad
iata
, E.
baxt
eri
E. si
dero
xylo
nE.
obl
iqua
E. si
dero
xylo
nE.
obl
iqua
E. o
bliq
uaE.
si
dero
xylo
n,
E.ba
xter
i
E. o
bliq
ua,
E. b
axte
ri,
E.si
dero
xylo
nE.
side
roxy
lon
E. o
bliq
uaM
elal
euca
la
nceo
lata
,C
asua
rina
stri
cta
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Cal
care
ous s
and,
cla
ysi
lt, sa
nd a
nd g
rave
lSa
nd a
nd g
rave
lC
lay,
silt
and
sand
Slay
, silt
and
sand
,sa
ndst
one
Dee
ply
wea
ther
ed c
lay,
silt
and
sand
Late
ritic
iron
ston
e,sa
ndst
one
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
nd; s
ome
aeol
ian
sand
Des
crip
tion
Var
iabl
e so
dic
dupl
exso
ilsG
rey
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Yel
low
-bro
wn
sodi
cdu
plex
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
e
Yel
low
-bro
wn
dupl
exso
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd re
ddu
plex
soils
Ston
y re
d gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsV
aria
ble
sodi
c du
plex
soils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Sand
y lo
amLo
amy
sand
Fine
sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Sand
y lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yM
oder
ate
Ver
y hi
ghV
ery
low
Ver
y lo
wM
oder
ate
Ver
y hi
ghM
oder
ate
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>2>2
>20.
2>2
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: N
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; a
ctiv
e an
d pa
ssiv
e re
crea
tion;
land
scap
e co
nser
vatio
n; g
rave
l ext
ract
ion
Cle
ared
are
as:
Bee
f cat
tle g
razi
ng o
n m
ainl
y un
impr
oved
pas
ture
s; re
side
ntia
l; ac
tive
recr
eatio
nSO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
,pr
oces
ses,
form
s
Nat
ive
vege
tatio
n is
sens
itive
to sa
lt pr
unin
gan
d di
stur
banc
e. H
ighl
ydi
sper
sibl
e so
ils o
n st
eep
slop
es a
re p
rone
to sh
eet
eros
ion,
gul
ly e
rosi
onan
d tu
nnel
ero
sion
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
yan
d hi
gh p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
nt d
eclin
e.
Sodi
c, h
ighl
y di
sper
sibl
esu
bsoi
ls a
re p
rone
togu
lly a
nd tu
nnel
ero
sion
.
Hig
hly
disp
ersi
ble
soils
are
pron
e to
gul
ly a
ndtu
nnel
ero
sion
. W
eakl
yst
ruct
ured
surf
ace
soils
over
slow
ly p
erm
eabl
esu
bsoi
ls o
n st
eep
slop
esar
e pr
one
to sh
eet
eros
ion.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity,
phos
phor
us fi
xatio
n an
dle
achi
ng o
f per
mea
ble
Aho
rizon
s lea
d to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Ston
y sh
allo
w so
ils w
ithlo
w o
rgan
ic c
onte
nt, w
eak
stru
ctur
e an
d lo
w w
ater
-ho
ldin
g ca
paci
ty o
n st
eep
slop
es a
re p
rone
to sh
eet
eros
ion.
Nat
ive
vege
tatio
n is
sens
itive
to sa
lt pr
unin
gan
d di
stur
banc
e. M
arin
eun
der-
cutti
ng o
f hig
hly
disp
ersi
ble
soils
mai
ntai
nsac
tive
land
slip
s and
ear
thflo
ws.
7.3
Bal
d H
ills L
and
Syst
em
Inla
nd f
rom
Ang
lese
a is
a d
eepl
y di
ssec
ted
land
scap
e w
ith v
ery
stun
ted
nativ
e ve
geta
tion,
ref
erre
d to
as
the
Bal
dH
ills.
The
Ter
tiary
sed
imen
ts e
xpos
ed h
ere
incl
ude
both
san
ds a
nd c
lays
and
are
cha
ract
eriz
ed b
y so
ils o
f ext
rem
ely
low
ferti
lity.
Hea
ths
and
low
woo
dlan
ds a
re fo
und
on th
e up
per p
arts
of t
he la
ndsc
ape,
whe
re th
e sa
nd s
oils
tend
to p
redo
min
ate.
Xan
thor
rhoe
a au
stra
lis is
par
ticul
arly
com
mon
and
tend
s to
dom
inat
e on
site
s w
ith h
ardp
ans
deve
lope
d in
the
soil
prof
ile.
Low
er d
own
in th
e la
ndsc
ape,
low
fore
sts o
r ope
n fo
rest
s of E
ucal
yptu
s niti
da a
nd E
. obl
iqua
tend
to o
ccur
.
Prod
uctiv
e la
nd u
ses
are
limite
d to
the
min
ing
of s
and
and
grav
el in
num
erou
s sh
allo
w e
xtra
ctio
n pi
ts, a
nd m
inin
g of
coal
nea
r Ang
lese
a. N
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n an
d re
crea
tion
are
othe
r for
ms o
f lan
d us
e.
Low
ope
n wo
odla
nds o
f E. n
itida
with
Xan
thor
rhoe
a au
stra
lis in
the
unde
rsto
rey
typi
fy th
is
land
syst
em, h
ardp
an a
reas
bei
ng d
emar
cate
d by
the
abse
nce
of th
e tr
ee st
ratu
m.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
ons o
f lan
d sy
stem
BA
LD
HIL
LS
Are
a: 9
2 km
21
10%
225
%3
10%
440
%5
15%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 7
00 –
1,0
00, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(35)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
100)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
13,
low
est J
uly
(8),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(18)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) m
id Ju
ne –
mid
Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n N
ovem
ber -
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPa
laeo
cene
unc
onso
lidat
ed q
uartz
sand
, gra
vel a
nd c
laye
y si
lt.T
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
0 –
210
Elev
atio
n, m
90Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
patte
rn2.
1D
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
Hill
Val
ley
floor
Land
form
Upp
er sl
ope,
cre
stU
pper
slop
e, c
rest
Bro
ad, s
light
ly d
epre
ssed
are
a of
impe
ded
drai
nage
Low
er sl
op-
Land
form
ele
men
t7
(3-1
5)15
(2-3
5)7
(3-1
2)19
(10-
35)
1 (1
0-3)
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %C
onve
xC
onve
xC
onca
veLi
near
Con
cave
Slop
e sh
ape
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eLo
w w
oodl
and
Low
ope
n w
oodl
and
Clo
sed
heat
hO
pen
fore
stC
lose
d sc
rub
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. n
itida
E. n
itida
Xant
horr
hoea
aus
tral
is, C
asua
rina
pusi
lla, P
laty
lobi
um o
btus
angu
lum
,Le
ptos
perm
um m
yrsi
noid
es
E. o
bliq
uaE.
niti
daE.
ova
ta, L
epto
sper
mum
juni
peri
num
, Lep
tosp
erm
umla
nige
rum
, Aca
cia
vert
icill
ata
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Kao
liniti
c si
lty c
lay;
surf
ace
laye
rsof
qua
rts sa
nd
Qua
rtz sa
nd a
nd g
rave
lQ
uartz
sand
and
gra
vel
Sand
, silt
and
cla
yPl
ant r
emai
ns; a
lluvi
al si
lt, sa
nd a
ndgr
avel
Des
crip
tion
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, k
aolin
itic
clay
unde
rlay
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eG
rey
sand
soils
with
har
dpan
s,un
iform
text
ure
Yel
low
gra
datio
nal s
ols,
wea
kst
ruct
ure
Gre
y gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls
Surf
ace
text
ure
Sand
y lo
amLo
amy
sand
Loam
y sa
ndLo
amy
sand
Silty
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Low
Ver
y hi
ghLo
wH
igh
Ver
y lo
wD
epth
, m>2
>20.
6>2
>2L
AN
D U
SEU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
ext
ract
ion
of g
rave
l an
sand
; act
ive
and
pass
ive
recr
eatio
n; so
me
atte
mpt
s at p
ine
esta
blis
hmen
t.M
inor
cle
ared
are
as:
Min
ing
for c
oal.
Som
e gr
azin
gSO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es,
form
s
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
e so
ils a
ndsl
owly
per
mea
ble
subs
oils
on
mod
erat
e sl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
tan
d ril
l ero
sion
. C
lay
subs
oils
subj
ect t
o pe
riodi
c sa
tura
tion
are
pron
e to
land
slip
s.
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
d hi
ghpe
rmea
bilit
y le
ad to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Ste
eper
slop
es w
ithco
mpa
cted
soils
are
pro
ne to
shee
t,ril
l and
gul
ly e
rosi
on (s
cour
ing)
.
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y w
ithso
me
leac
hing
of p
erm
eabl
e su
rfac
eso
ils le
ads t
o nu
trien
t dec
line.
Impe
rmea
ble
hard
pans
pre
vent
verti
cal d
rain
age
lead
ing
to se
ason
alw
ater
logg
ing.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e. S
teep
er sl
opes
with
wea
kst
ruct
ured
surf
ace
soils
are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tabl
e le
ads t
ow
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
Rap
id ru
n-of
f fro
m a
djac
ent h
ills
lead
s to
flood
ing,
silta
tion
and
gully
eros
ion.
7.4
Bar
onga
rook
Lan
d Sy
stem
Nor
th o
f For
rest
and
ext
endi
ng to
war
ds C
olac
, und
ulat
ing
plai
ns w
ith o
ften
deep
ly w
eath
ered
soils
are
foun
d. T
hege
olog
y is
mai
nly
Terti
ary
clay
with
min
or o
utcr
ops
of s
and.
R
edis
tribu
tion
of s
urfa
ce s
and
has
resu
lted
inpo
lyge
netic
soi
ls o
ver
muc
h of
the
land
scap
e, w
ith w
eak
hard
pan
deve
lopm
ent a
nd im
pede
d dr
aina
ge.
Surf
ace
soils
seem
to b
e na
tura
lly lo
w in
pla
nt n
utrie
nts.
Man
y ar
eas
rem
ain
uncl
eare
d an
d su
ppor
t op
en f
ores
ts d
omin
ated
by
Euca
lypt
us o
bliq
ua a
nd E
. ra
diat
a.
E.ba
xter
i is n
otab
ly a
bsen
t in
this
slig
htly
drie
r reg
ion.
Oth
er a
reas
hav
e be
en c
lear
ed fo
r agr
icul
ture
or c
onve
rted
topi
nes.
The
mai
n ha
zard
s to
land
use
are
loss
of s
oil s
truct
ure,
by
com
pact
ion,
and
leac
hing
of n
utrie
nts.
Poor
site
dra
inag
e an
d lo
w so
il pe
rmea
bilit
y le
ad to
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d pu
ggin
g of
the
soil
by st
ock
in m
any
part
s of t
his l
and
syst
em.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
ons o
f lan
d sy
stem
BA
RO
NG
AR
OO
KA
rea:
92
km2
1 8%2
55%
315
%4
15%
5 7%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
100
– 9
00, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(40)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
80)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
13,
low
est J
uly
(8),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(18)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– A
ugus
tSe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
late
Oct
ober
– e
arly
Apr
ilG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPl
ioce
ne u
ncon
solid
ated
cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndR
ecen
t san
d ve
neer
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eG
ently
und
ulat
ing
to ro
lling
pla
in in
the
wes
tern
par
ts o
f the
Bar
won
cat
chm
ent
Elev
atio
n, m
120
–280
Loca
l rel
ief,
m30
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
1.2
Land
form
Und
ulat
ing
plan
Land
form
ele
men
tSt
eep
slop
eC
rest
, upp
er sl
ope
Upp
er a
nd m
iddl
e sl
ope
Low
er sl
ope
Dra
inag
e lin
eSl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
25 (1
5-40
)5
(0-1
0)5
(0-1
0)7
(1-1
5)1
(10-
2)Sl
ope
shap
eLi
near
Con
vex
Con
vex
Line
arC
onca
veN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Woo
dlan
dW
oodl
and
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, E. v
imin
alis
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, occ
asio
nally
E. o
vata
, E. v
imin
alis
E. ra
diat
a, E
. obl
iqua
, E. n
itida
E. ra
diat
a, E
. niti
daE.
ova
ta, E
. rad
iata
occ
asio
nally
E.
arom
aphl
oia
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndC
lay,
silt
and
sand
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
nd w
ith q
uartz
sand
vene
erC
lay,
silt
and
sand
with
qua
rtz sa
ndve
neer
Allu
vium
Des
crip
tion
Yel
low
gra
datio
nal s
oils
, wea
kst
ruct
ure
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd re
d gr
adat
iona
lso
ilsG
rey
sand
soils
, stru
ctur
ed c
lay
unde
rlay
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, w
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
clay
und
erla
yM
ottle
d ye
llow
and
gre
y gr
adat
iona
lso
ilsSu
rfac
e te
xtur
eSa
ndy
loam
Loam
Sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Hig
hM
oder
ate
Low
Low
Mod
erat
eD
epth
, m>2
>2>2
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Cle
ared
are
as:
Shee
p an
d be
ef c
attle
gra
zing
; dai
ry fa
rmin
g.U
ncle
ared
are
as:
Har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r saw
logs
, pos
t and
pol
es; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; a
ctiv
e an
d pa
ssiv
e re
crea
tion;
softw
ood
fore
stry
; for
est g
razi
ng.
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
,fo
rms
Stee
per s
lope
s with
wea
k-st
ruct
ured
surf
aces
are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
.Lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
dph
osph
orus
fixa
tion
lead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
with
leac
hing
of p
erm
eabl
e su
rfac
e ho
rizon
s lea
dto
nut
rient
dec
line.
Low
per
mea
bilit
y an
d se
ason
alpe
rche
d w
ater
tabl
e le
ad to
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
il co
mpa
ctio
n.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tabl
e le
ads t
ow
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
7.5
Bar
rabo
ol L
and
Syst
em
Rol
ling
hills
with
fer
tile
soils
to th
e w
est o
f G
eelo
ng li
e m
ainl
y to
the
north
of
the
pres
ent s
tudy
are
a, b
ut a
sm
all
sect
ion
form
s th
e no
rther
n pa
rt of
the
cat
chm
ent
of T
hom
pson
Cre
ek.
The
se h
ills
are
on L
ower
Cre
tace
ous
sand
ston
es a
nd m
udst
ones
sim
ilar
to th
ose
outc
ropp
ing
exte
nsiv
ely
in th
e O
tway
Ran
ge, b
ut th
e la
ndsc
ape
is m
ore
subd
ued
and
the
rain
fall
is si
gnifi
cant
ly lo
wer
.
The
orig
inal
stru
ctur
e an
d sp
ecie
s co
mpo
sitio
n of
the
nativ
e ve
geta
tion
are
diff
icul
t to
dete
rmin
e.
The
are
has
been
exte
nsiv
ely
clea
red
for
crop
ping
and
gra
zing
and
sub
divi
ded
into
som
ewha
t sm
alle
r pa
ddoc
ks t
han
the
less
fer
tile
area
s to
the
sout
h. F
rom
the
pres
ence
of i
sola
ted
trees
, Euc
alyp
tus
glob
ulus
and
E. c
ypel
loca
rpa
form
ed p
art o
f th
eor
igin
al v
eget
ativ
e co
mm
unity
, and
it is
pro
babl
e th
at E
. rad
iata
was
als
o co
mm
on.
Thes
e ro
lling
hill
s hav
e be
en e
xten
sive
ly c
lear
ed, a
nd o
nly
sing
le
tree
s rem
ain
as in
dica
tors
of t
he fo
rmer
nat
ive
vege
tatio
n.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
port
ion
of la
nd sy
stem
sB
AR
RA
BO
OL
Are
a: 1
7 km
2
110
%2
60%
325
%4 5%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 6
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(30)
, hig
hest
Sep
tem
ber (
60)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
14,
low
est J
uly
(9),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(19)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
- Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n an
d O
ctob
er –
ear
ly A
pril
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Terti
ary
and
Qua
tern
ary
clay
, silt
and
sand
capp
ings
Low
er C
reta
ceou
s fel
dspa
thic
sand
ston
e an
d m
udst
one
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eR
ollin
g H
ills
Elev
atio
n, m
100
-170
Loca
l rel
ief,
m25
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
3.1
Land
form
Hill
Val
ley
Floo
rLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Cre
st, u
pper
slop
eC
rest
, slo
peLo
wer
slop
e-
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %4
(1-5
)11
(1-1
5)8
(2-1
0)2
(10-
4)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xC
onve
xLi
near
Con
cave
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eW
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
vata
, E. v
imin
alis
E. g
lobu
lus,
E. c
ypel
loca
rpa
E. g
lobu
lus,
E. c
ypel
loca
rpa
E. v
imin
alis
, E. c
ypel
loca
rpa
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndIn
-situ
wea
ther
ed sa
ndst
one
and
mud
ston
eC
ollu
vial
wea
ther
ed sa
ndst
one,
mud
ston
eA
lluvi
al
silt,
cl
ay,
sand
, sa
ndst
one,
mud
ston
eD
escr
iptio
n(V
aria
ble
soils
)B
row
n du
plex
soils
Bro
wn
dupl
ex so
ilsG
rey
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Sand
y lo
amLo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
clay
loam
Cla
y lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yH
igh
to m
oder
ate
Mod
erat
eM
oder
ate
Low
Dep
th, m
>21.
01.
4>2
LA
ND
USE
Dai
ry fa
rmin
g; c
ropp
ing;
bee
f and
cat
tle g
razi
ng.
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
N H
AZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es, f
orm
sLo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
d hi
gh p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
nt d
eclin
e.St
eepe
r slo
pes a
re p
rone
to sh
eet e
rosi
on.
Stee
per s
lope
s are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
.R
un-o
ff f
rom
adj
acen
t hi
lls m
ay r
esul
t in
gully
ero
sion
. H
igh
seas
onal
wat
er t
able
lead
s to
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
il co
mpa
ctio
n.
7.6
Bar
won
Riv
er L
and
Syst
em
The
flood
-pla
ins
of th
e B
arw
on R
iver
and
its
tribu
tarie
s ex
tend
from
the
foot
hills
of t
he n
orth
ern
side
of t
he R
ange
toth
e ba
salt
plai
ns n
ear
Win
chel
sea
and
enco
mpa
ss a
com
para
tivel
y w
ide
clim
atic
var
iatio
n.
The
vege
tatio
n re
flect
sth
ese
chan
ges,
with
tall
open
fore
sts
of E
ucal
yptu
s vi
min
alis
and
E. o
vata
occ
urrin
g in
the
sout
h an
d w
oodl
ands
of E
.ca
mal
dule
nsis
dom
inat
ing
in th
e no
rth.
The
soils
als
o sh
ow a
gra
dual
tran
sitio
n fr
om a
cid,
free
ly d
rain
ed p
rofil
es to
heav
ier n
eutra
l soi
ls a
s the
influ
ence
of b
asal
t-der
ived
allu
vium
incr
ease
s tow
ards
the
north
.
Floo
ding
and
silt
atio
n ar
e co
mm
on o
n th
ese
plai
ns.
Wat
erlo
ggin
g of
soi
ls is
a p
robl
em, p
artic
ular
ly o
n lo
w-ly
ing
area
s suc
h as
cut
-off
mea
nder
s and
infil
led
swam
ps.
Gul
ly e
rosi
on a
nd st
ream
-ban
k er
osio
n ar
e al
so c
omm
on.
Gul
ly e
rosi
on a
nd st
ream
-ban
k er
osio
n ar
e pa
rtic
ular
ly c
omm
on o
n th
ese
allu
vial
pla
ins,
whe
re st
ream
s em
erge
from
the
foot
hills
of t
he O
tway
Ran
ge.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
BA
RW
ON
RIV
ER
Are
a: 1
15 k
m2
1 5%2
85%
310
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
600
– 1
,000
, low
est J
anua
ry (3
0), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (80
)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
3, lo
wes
t Jul
y (8
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (9
)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e –
Aug
ust (
Als
o Se
ptem
ber i
n hi
gher
-rai
nfal
l are
as)
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pot
entia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n O
ctob
er –
Apr
il in
low
er-r
ainf
all a
reas
Nov
embe
r – M
arch
in h
ighe
r-ra
infa
ll ar
eas
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Rec
ent a
lluvi
um –
sand
, silt
, cla
y an
d gr
avel
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eA
lluvi
al fl
ood
plai
n of
the
Bar
won
Riv
er a
nd it
s trib
utar
ies w
ith n
umer
ous c
ut-o
ff m
eand
ers
Elev
atio
n, m
90 -
150
Loca
l rel
ief,
m3
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Der
ange
d w
ith m
ajor
mea
nder
ing
chan
nel
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
21.
6La
nd fo
rmPl
ain
Land
form
ele
men
tR
ise
Plai
nSt
ream
bank
, inf
illed
mea
nder
sSl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
4 (1
-6)
1 (0
-2)
2 (1
-8)
Slop
e sh
ape
Con
vex
Stra
ight
Con
vex
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eW
oodl
and
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
vata
, E. v
imin
alis
, Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
, in
north
E. c
amal
dule
nsis
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Sand
y al
luvi
umC
laye
y al
luvi
umSa
ndy
allu
vium
Des
crip
tion
Bro
wn
sand
y lo
am so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eG
rey
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Bro
wn
sand
y lo
am so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eSu
rfac
e te
xtur
eFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y cl
ay lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Ver
y hi
ghM
oder
ate
Ver
y hi
ghD
epth
, m>2
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Dai
ry fa
rmin
g; c
ropp
ing;
shee
p an
d be
ef c
attle
gra
zing
.SO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZAR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
, for
ms
Hig
h pe
rmea
bilit
y an
d le
achi
ng le
ad to
nut
rient
dec
line.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tab
le l
eads
to
wat
erlo
ggin
g, s
oil
com
pact
ion
and
salti
ng.
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
ls a
repr
one
to g
ully
and
tunn
el e
rosi
on.
Hig
h di
scha
rge
rate
sal
ong
som
e w
ater
cour
ses l
ead
to fl
oodi
ng a
nd si
ltatio
n.
Hig
h di
scha
rge
rate
s an
d w
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
soi
ls le
ad to
stre
amba
nk e
rosi
on a
nd s
iltat
ion.
H
igh
seas
onal
wat
erta
bles
lead
to w
ater
logg
ing.
7.7
Bee
ch F
ores
t Lan
d Sy
stem
Alo
ng th
e cr
est o
f the
wet
ter p
arts
of t
he O
tway
Ran
ge li
es a
rol
ling
plai
n w
ith ro
unde
d hi
lls a
nd s
hallo
w v
alle
ys.
This
are
a ha
s one
of t
he h
ighe
st a
nnua
l rai
nfal
ls in
Vic
toria
, ave
ragi
ng a
lmos
t 2,0
00 m
m a
t Wee
apro
inah
.
Prio
r to
set
tlem
ent l
ate
last
cen
tury
, tal
l ope
n fo
rest
s of
Euc
alyp
tus
regn
ans
and
asso
ciat
ed s
peci
es d
omin
ated
the
land
scap
es, b
ut n
ow m
ost a
reas
hav
e be
en c
lear
ed fo
r agr
icul
ture
. So
me
stan
ds o
f tim
ber d
o re
mai
n an
d ot
her a
reas
are
bein
g re
gene
rate
d to
form
clim
ax c
omm
uniti
es o
f E. r
egna
ns.
Agr
icul
tura
l use
s ar
e da
iryin
g, b
eef c
attle
gra
zing
and
crop
ping
. T
he c
ool
clim
ate,
rem
oten
ess
and
free
ly d
rain
ed s
oils
mak
e th
e ar
ea s
uita
ble
for
seed
-pot
ato
prod
uctio
n.
The
pere
nnia
l nat
ure
of m
any
of th
e cr
eeks
and
dra
inag
e lin
es g
ives
the
area
s hig
h w
ater
cat
chm
ent v
alue
s. C
onfli
ctal
so a
rises
bet
wee
n is
hig
h sc
enic
app
eal
as a
rur
al l
ands
cape
and
the
con
vers
ion
of f
arm
land
to
softw
ood
plan
tatio
ns.
The
rolli
ng h
ills o
f the
Bee
ch F
ores
t lan
d sy
stem
com
pris
e an
agr
icul
tura
l lan
dsca
pe o
f hig
h sc
enic
val
ue.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
BE
EC
H F
OR
EST
Are
a: 1
41 k
m2
1 5%2
85%
310
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
1,5
50 –
1,9
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(80)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
210)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
10,
low
est J
uly
(6),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(15)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) M
ay -
Oct
ober
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n la
te D
ecem
ber –
ear
ly F
ebru
ary
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Low
er C
reta
ceou
s fel
dspa
thic
sand
ston
e an
d m
udst
one
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eR
ollin
g hi
lls a
long
the
cres
t of t
he O
tway
Ran
geEl
evat
ion,
m34
0 –
560
Loca
l rel
ief,
m45
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
c w
ith so
me
trelli
s and
radi
al a
reas
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
25.
8La
nd fo
rmH
illLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Slop
eC
rest
and
slop
eLo
wer
slop
e, d
rain
age
line
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %12
(2-1
5)12
(1-2
0)5
(1-8
)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xC
onve
xC
onca
veN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Tall
open
fore
stTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Tall
clos
ed fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. re
gnan
s, E.
obl
iqua
, Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
E. re
gnan
s, E.
obl
iqua
, Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
Not
hofa
gus c
unni
ngha
mii,
Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
, E.
regn
ans
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Dee
ply
wea
ther
ed in
-situ
rock
In-s
itu w
eath
ered
rock
Allu
vium
and
col
luvi
umD
escr
iptio
nB
row
n fr
iabl
e gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsB
row
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsD
ark
brow
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsSu
rfac
e te
xtur
eLo
amC
lay
loam
Loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Hig
hM
oder
ate
Hig
hD
epth
, m2.
01.
6>2
LA
ND
USE
Cle
ared
are
as:
Dai
ry fa
rmin
g; b
eef c
attle
gra
zing
; row
cro
ps (s
eed
pota
toes
); w
ater
supp
lyU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Softw
ood
fore
stry
; har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r saw
logs
and
pul
pwoo
d; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; p
assi
ve re
crea
tion;
wat
er su
pply
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
N H
AZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es, f
orm
sH
igh
rain
fall,
hig
h pe
rmea
bilit
y an
d le
achi
ng p
lus
loss
of o
rgan
ic m
atte
r an
d so
il st
ruct
ure
upon
dis
turb
ance
lead
to
nutri
ent
decl
ine
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
St
eepe
rsl
opes
may
be
subs
eque
ntly
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
.
Hig
h ra
infa
ll an
d m
oder
ate
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to
leac
hing
of
nutri
ents
and
los
ses
in o
rgan
ic m
atte
r an
dso
il st
ruct
ure.
Ste
eper
slo
pes
are
subs
eque
ntly
pro
ne to
shee
t er
osio
n.
Cla
y su
bsoi
ls
on
stee
per
slop
es
are
subj
ect t
o fr
eque
nt sa
tura
tion
and
are
pron
e to
land
slip
s.
Hig
h se
ason
al
wat
er
tabl
es
and
run-
off
from
surr
ound
ing
slop
es
lead
to
w
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
7.8
Bel
lbra
e La
nd S
yste
m
Bel
ow th
e la
terit
ized
pla
teau
x to
the
east
of t
he O
tway
Ran
ge li
e a
serie
s of r
ollin
g hi
lls h
ave
form
ed b
y di
ssec
tion
alon
g th
e va
lleys
of
Sprin
g C
reek
and
Jan
Juc
Cre
ek.
Wea
ther
ing
of l
imes
tone
and
mar
l ex
pose
d al
ong
thes
eva
lleys
has
res
ulte
d in
cal
care
ous
soils
. F
ertil
ity i
s m
oder
ate,
and
thu
s co
ntra
sts
with
the
sur
roun
ding
impo
veris
hed
soils
of t
he la
terit
ic p
late
aux
and
acid
sand
s and
cla
ys.
The
red
soils
, or
thos
e de
eper
pro
files
tran
sitio
nal t
o th
e re
d so
ils, a
re th
e m
ost f
avou
red
for
agric
ultu
re a
nd a
reus
ed o
r cro
ppin
g as
wel
l as
dairy
-far
min
g. G
razi
ng o
f she
et a
nd b
eef c
attle
is a
lso
com
mon
. A
gric
ultu
ral u
se is
decr
easi
ng, h
owev
er, a
s th
e to
wns
hip
of T
orqu
ay e
xten
ds it
s ur
ban
limits
. Su
bdiv
isio
n in
t sm
all f
arm
lets
in o
ther
parts
of t
he v
alle
ys a
lso
tend
s to
decr
ease
agr
icul
tura
l pro
duct
ion.
Shee
t ero
sion
occ
urs o
n so
me
of th
e cr
oppe
d st
eepe
r slo
pes,
whi
le g
ully
ero
sion
and
slu
mpi
ng a
re p
robl
ems
of th
edi
sper
sibl
e du
plex
soils
.
Wid
e dr
aina
ge li
nes a
nd ro
unde
d hi
ll s
typi
fy th
is la
ndsc
ape,
as i
t ris
es to
the
late
ritic
pla
teau
in th
e di
stan
ce
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
BE
LL
BR
AE
Are
a: 2
5 km
21
25%
240
%3
20%
415
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
600
– 6
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(30)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
65)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
14,
low
est J
uly
(10)
, hig
hest
Feb
ruar
y (1
8)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jul
ySe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
early
Oct
ober
– e
arly
Apr
ilG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yM
ioce
ne li
mes
tone
and
mar
lT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Rol
ling
hills
dis
sect
ed o
ut b
elow
the
late
ritic
pla
teau
xEl
evat
ion,
m5
– 70
Loca
l rel
ief,
m60
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
3.0
Land
form
Hill
Land
form
ele
men
tU
pper
slop
eM
iddl
e sl
ope
Stee
per s
lope
Low
er sl
ope,
dra
inag
eSl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
5 (3
-9)
11 (5
-14)
15 (7
-20)
7 (1
-9)
Slop
e sh
ape
Line
arLi
near
Con
vex
Con
cave
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
vim
inal
is, E
. sid
erox
ylon
, E. o
bliq
uaE.
leuc
oxyl
on. E
. sid
erox
ylon
, E. v
imin
alis
E. v
imin
alis
, E. o
vata
, Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
E. v
imin
alis
, E. s
ider
oxyl
on, E
. leu
coxy
lon,
E. o
vata
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Trun
cate
d la
terit
ic re
mna
nts
Cal
care
ous
clay
an
d de
eply
w
eath
ered
limes
tone
Lim
esto
neC
ollu
vial
lim
esto
ne, c
lay,
late
ritic
mat
eria
l
Des
crip
tion
Bro
wn
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure
Yel
low
-bro
wn
calc
areo
us
sodi
c du
plex
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
eR
ed c
alca
reou
s gra
datio
nal s
oils
Yel
low
sodi
c du
plex
soils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Fine
sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y cl
ay lo
amLo
amy
sand
Perm
eabi
lity
Low
Mod
erat
eH
igh
Mod
erat
eD
epth
, m>2
>20.
7>2
LA
ND
USE
Cle
ared
are
as:
Dai
ry fa
rmin
g; b
eef c
attle
gra
zing
; res
iden
tial;
crop
ping
Min
or u
ncle
ared
are
as:
Fore
st g
razi
ng; a
ctiv
e an
d pa
ssiv
e re
crea
tion;
har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r fue
l, po
sts a
nd p
oles
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
N H
AZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es, f
orm
sD
ispe
rsib
le
subs
oils
re
ceiv
ing
seep
age
wat
er a
re p
rone
to
gully
ero
sion
, slu
mpi
ngan
d ril
ling.
Hig
hly
disp
ersi
ble
subs
oils
are
pro
ne t
ogu
lly e
rosi
on a
nd sl
umpi
ng.
Stee
per s
lope
s are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
.H
ighl
y di
sper
sibl
e su
bsoi
ls a
re p
rone
to
gully
ero
sion
and
tunn
el e
rosi
on.
7.9
Bir
regu
rra
Land
Sys
tem
Lyin
g be
twee
n th
e ba
salt
plai
ns to
the
north
and
dis
sect
ed la
terit
ized
land
scap
es to
the
sout
h, m
uch,
if n
ot a
ll, o
fth
is fl
at p
lain
app
aren
tly m
arks
the
east
ern
exte
nt o
f a la
rge
form
er la
ke in
wes
tern
Vic
toria
. Th
e la
ndsc
ape
slop
esve
ry g
ently
to th
e ea
st w
ith in
crea
sing
dis
sect
ion
as th
e he
ight
abo
ve th
e B
arw
on R
iver
floo
d pl
ain
incr
ease
s fr
om10
m to
abo
ut 4
0 m
.
The
lacu
strin
e de
posi
ts a
ppea
r to
be
mai
nly
calc
areo
us a
nd h
ave
form
ed s
oils
with
alk
alin
e re
actio
n tre
nds.
Dis
solu
tion
of c
alci
um c
arbo
nate
has
led
to th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
sink
hol
es in
som
e ar
eas,
alth
ough
leve
lling
of
padd
ocks
has
mad
e th
ese
less
app
aren
t.
The
nativ
e ve
geta
tion
has
been
alm
ost
com
plet
ely
rem
oved
for
agr
icul
tura
l us
e an
d its
orig
inal
stru
ctur
e an
dco
mpo
sitio
n ar
e di
ffic
ult t
o de
term
ine.
In
the
east
ther
e is
som
e ev
iden
ce o
f a fo
rmer
woo
dlan
d, b
ut fu
rther
wes
tth
e so
ils a
re le
ss w
ell d
rain
ed a
nd p
ossi
bly
the
com
mun
ities
wer
e m
ore
stun
ted.
The
wes
tern
par
ts o
f the
land
syst
em sh
ow v
ery
little
dis
sect
ion
and
form
a fl
at p
lain
bet
wee
n th
e Te
rtia
ry se
dim
ents
in th
e so
uth
and
the
basa
lt in
the
nort
h.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
BIR
RE
GU
RR
AA
rea:
81
km2
180
%2
10%
310
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
600
– 6
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(30)
, hig
hest
Feb
ruar
y (7
5)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
3, lo
wes
t Jul
y (8
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
9)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e - A
ugus
tSe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
Oct
ober
– la
te A
pril
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Plei
stoc
ene
clay
, silt
and
som
e sa
ndT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Flat
pla
in b
orde
ring
the
pres
ent f
lood
pla
in o
f the
Bar
won
Riv
erEl
evat
ion,
m11
0 –
130
Loca
l rel
ief,
m10
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
0.8
Land
form
Flat
pla
inLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Flat
pla
inSi
nkho
leY
oung
er te
rrac
eSl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
1 (0
-3)
0 (0
-1)
2 (1
-3)
Slop
e sh
ape
Line
arC
onca
veLi
near
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eW
oodl
and
Sedg
elan
dW
oodl
and
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. v
imin
alis
, E. o
vata
Car
ex sp
p. S
cirp
us c
aloc
arpu
s, Sc
hoen
us a
pogo
n,Ju
ncus
spp.
Ran
uncu
lus s
pp.
E. o
vata
, E. c
amal
dule
nsis
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Cal
care
ous c
lay
Sedg
elan
dW
oodl
and
Des
crip
tion
Yel
low
-bro
wn
calc
areo
us d
uple
x so
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure
Gre
y ca
lcar
eous
sodi
c cl
ay so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eG
rey
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Fine
sand
y lo
amC
lay
Cla
y lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yV
ery
low
Ver
y lo
wV
ery
low
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>2L
AN
D U
SESh
eep
and
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng; d
airy
farm
ing;
cro
ppin
g.SO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZAR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
, for
ms
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
f low
per
mea
bilit
y an
d pr
one
to g
ully
and
tun
nel
eros
ion.
Se
ason
ally
hig
h w
ater
tabl
es le
ad to
soil
salti
ng.
Hig
h w
ater
ta
bles
an
d lo
w
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to
wat
erlo
ggin
g, so
il co
mpa
ctio
n an
d so
il sa
lting
.H
igh
seas
onal
wat
er ta
ble,
low
per
mea
bilit
y an
d sa
line
grou
ndw
ater
lead
to w
ater
logg
ing,
soi
l com
pact
ions
and
soil
salti
ng.
7.10
Bun
ker H
ill L
and
Syst
em
Dee
ply
diss
ecte
d hi
lls n
orth
and
wes
t of
Gel
libra
nd p
osse
ss T
ertia
ry s
ands
and
cla
ys o
n th
e hi
gher
par
ts o
f th
ela
ndsc
ape
and
outc
rops
of C
reta
ceou
s sed
imen
ts o
n th
e st
eepe
r and
low
er p
arts
. Th
e so
ils b
ecom
e he
avie
r and
mor
efe
rtile
on
the
Cre
tace
ous
sedi
men
ts a
nd th
is is
ref
lect
ed in
the
occu
rren
ce o
f Eu
caly
ptus
obl
iqua
and
E. v
imin
alis
open
fore
sts w
ith d
ense
und
erst
orey
s.
Mos
t are
as a
re to
o st
eep
for a
gric
ultu
re, a
nd re
mai
n fo
rest
ed w
ith n
ativ
e ha
rdw
oods
or p
ines
. C
lear
ing
oper
atio
nsne
cess
ary
for
pine
con
vers
ion
and
hard
woo
d ha
rves
ting
may
res
ult i
n se
vere
sco
ur g
ully
ing
and
land
slip
s on
the
stee
p pa
rts o
f the
land
scap
e.
Acc
ess t
rack
s are
diff
icul
t to
site
and
pro
ne to
scou
ring.
In
gene
ral,
care
ful m
anag
emen
t is r
equi
red.
The
stee
p la
nd a
nd ir
regu
lar n
atur
e of
the
terr
ain
mak
es th
ese
area
s diff
icul
t to
man
age.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
BU
NK
ER
HIL
LA
rea:
41
km2
125
%2
20%
340
%4 9%
5 6%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
900
– 1
,050
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
5), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (13
0)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
2, lo
wes
t Jul
y (7
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
8)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e –
Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n ea
rly N
ovem
ber –
late
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPa
laeo
cene
unc
onso
lidat
ed sa
nd, s
ilt a
nd c
lay
Low
er
Cre
tace
ous
sand
ston
e an
dm
udst
one
Pala
eoce
ne u
ncon
solid
ated
sand
, silt
and
cla
y
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eD
eepl
y di
ssec
ted
hills
abu
tting
the
Gel
libra
nd R
iver
to th
e w
est o
f Lov
e C
reek
Elev
atio
n, m
60 –
290
Loca
l rel
ief,
m95
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
c w
ith so
me
radi
al a
reas
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
23.
2La
nd fo
rmH
illLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Cre
sts,
uppe
r slo
peSl
ope
Stee
p lo
wer
slop
eG
entle
slop
eC
rest
, upp
er sl
ope
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %20
(5-3
5)30
(20-
35)
45 (3
0-65
)15
(4-2
0)13
(1-2
0)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xC
onve
xLi
near
Con
cave
C
onve
xN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Woo
dlan
dO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stLo
w w
oodl
and
Woo
dlan
dD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
niti
da, E
. rad
iata
, E. b
axte
riE.
bax
teri
, E. o
bliq
uaE.
obl
iqua
, E.
ova
ta,
E. v
imin
alis
,E.
aro
map
hloi
a, o
n so
uthe
rn a
spec
tE.
cyp
ello
carp
a
E. n
itida
, E. o
vata
, E. b
axte
riE.
rad
iata
, E. b
axte
ri, E
. niti
da, E
.ob
liqua
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Sand
Sand
, silt
and
cla
yIn
-site
wea
ther
ed ro
ckSa
ndQ
uartz
gra
vel,
som
e cl
ay, s
and
and
silt
Des
crip
tion
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eY
ello
w
grad
atio
nal
soils
, w
eak
stru
ctur
eB
row
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsG
rey
sand
so
ils
with
ha
rdpa
ns,
unifo
rm te
xtur
eSt
ony
yello
w g
rada
tiona
l soi
ls
Surf
ace
text
ure
Loam
y sa
ndSa
ndy
loam
Loam
Loam
y sa
ndLo
amy
sand
Perm
eabi
lity
Ver
y hi
ghH
igh
Mod
erat
eV
ery
low
Ver
y hi
ghD
epth
, m>2
>20.
90.
5>2
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
for p
osts
and
pol
es, s
ome
saw
logs
on
bette
r soi
ls; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; w
ater
supp
ly; g
rave
l ext
ract
ion;
softw
ood
plan
tatio
nsC
lear
ed a
reas
: B
eef c
attle
and
shee
p gr
azin
g on
mai
nly
unim
prov
ed p
astu
res;
wat
er su
pply
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
,fo
rms
Low
in
here
nt
ferti
lity
and
high
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to
leac
hing
and
nutri
ent
decl
ine.
W
hen
dist
urbe
dan
d co
mpa
cted
, st
eepe
r sl
opes
are
pron
e to
ero
sion
(sco
urin
g).
Low
in
here
nt
ferti
lity
and
high
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to
nu
trien
tde
clin
e. W
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
sur
face
soils
are
pro
ne to
she
et e
rosi
on o
nst
eepe
r slo
pes.
Stee
per
slop
es a
re p
rone
to
shee
tan
d ril
l er
osio
n.
C
lay
subs
oils
subj
ect
to p
erio
dic
satu
ratio
n ar
epr
one
to la
ndsl
ips
Low
in
here
nt
ferti
lity
lead
s to
nutri
ent
decl
ine.
H
ardp
ans
rest
rict
verti
cal d
rain
age
lead
ing
to s
easo
nal
wat
erlo
ggin
g.
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt f
ertil
ity a
nd h
igh
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to
leac
hing
and
nutri
ent d
eclin
e.
7.11
C
ape
Otw
ay L
and
Syste
m
In th
e vi
cini
ty o
f Cap
e O
tway
and
ext
endi
ng d
isco
ntin
uous
ly to
the
wes
t is
an e
leva
ted
plai
n of
coa
stal
dun
es.
The
coas
tal m
argi
ns o
f the
pla
in a
re g
ener
ally
fron
ted
by 1
00 m
clif
fs o
f cal
care
nite
with
pos
sibl
y sm
all p
rimar
y du
nes a
tth
e ba
se o
f th
e cl
iffs.
Beh
ind
the
cliff
s, th
e pl
ain
has
an i
rreg
ular
dun
e to
pogr
aphy
tha
t m
ay e
xten
d se
vera
lki
lom
etre
s inl
and.
The
dem
arca
tion
to o
ther
land
syst
ems i
s ver
y sh
arp
and
easi
ly d
efin
ed.
Woo
dlan
ds o
f Eu
caly
ptus
vim
inal
is w
ith o
pen
gras
sy u
nder
stor
eys
used
to
cove
r m
ost
area
s, al
thou
gh s
hrub
sre
sist
ant t
o sa
lt- a
nd s
alt-l
aden
win
ds f
orm
erly
col
oniz
ed th
e co
asta
l loc
aliti
es.
Mos
t are
as h
ave
been
cle
ared
for
graz
ing,
but
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of
impr
oved
pas
ture
s pr
esen
t diff
icul
ties.
Ove
rgra
zing
has
res
ulte
d in
sev
ere
win
der
osio
n in
som
e ar
eas,
and
recl
amat
ion
is d
iffic
ult a
nd e
xpen
sive
.
Larg
e pa
rts o
f the
Cap
e O
tway
land
syst
em h
ave
been
cle
ared
and
pro
vide
roug
h gr
azin
g fo
r cat
tle o
n na
tive
gras
ses.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
CA
PE O
TW
AY
Are
a: 3
6 km
21 6%
2 4%3
20%
420
%5
10%
640
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
900
– 1
,100
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
5), h
ighe
st Ju
ly (1
05)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
14,
low
est J
uly
(10)
, hig
hest
Feb
ruar
y (1
8)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jul
ySe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
late
Nov
embe
r - F
ebru
ary
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Rec
ent s
and
and
shel
l grit
on
a ca
lcar
enite
bas
emen
tT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Elev
ated
long
itudi
nal c
oast
al d
unes
at a
nd to
the
wes
t of C
ape
Otw
ayEl
evat
ion,
m0
– 15
5Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
15D
rain
age
patte
rnM
ainl
y ab
sent
; som
e de
ndrit
ic a
reas
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
20.
7La
nd fo
rmFo
redu
neC
liff
Long
itudi
nal d
une
Inte
rdun
e co
rrid
orIn
land
dun
eLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
--
Win
dwar
d sl
opes
Leew
ard
slop
es-
-Sl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
20 (1
5-40
)65
(50-
100)
25 (5
-50)
20 (5
-50)
3 (0
-9)
25 (3
-60)
Slop
e sh
ape
Con
vex
Line
arC
onve
xC
onve
xC
onca
veC
onca
veN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Tuss
ock
gras
slan
dO
pen
scru
bO
pen
scru
bW
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Woo
dlan
dD
omin
ant s
peci
esSp
inife
x hi
rsut
us, S
cirp
usno
dosu
s, C
aloc
epha
lus
brow
nii
Cas
uarin
a st
rict
a, C
asua
rina
long
ifolia
, Aly
xia
buxi
folia
Alyx
ia b
uxifo
lia, L
euco
pogo
npa
rvifl
orus
, Cas
sinia
long
ifolia
, Aca
cia
vert
icill
ata,
Lept
ospe
rmum
juni
peri
num
,H
elic
hrys
um p
aral
ium
Cas
uarin
a st
rict
a, E
.vi
min
alis
, Leu
copo
gon
parv
iflor
us
E. o
bliq
uaE.
vim
inal
isE.
vim
inal
is
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Coa
rse
sand
, she
ll gr
itC
alca
reni
te, a
eolia
n sa
ndSa
nd w
ith c
alca
reni
teba
sem
ent
Sand
with
cal
care
nite
base
men
tSa
nd w
ith c
alca
reni
teba
sem
ent
Sand
with
cal
care
nite
base
men
tD
escr
iptio
nY
ello
w c
alca
reou
s san
d so
ils,
unifo
rm te
xtur
eY
ello
w c
alca
reou
s san
d so
ils,
unifo
rm te
xtur
eB
row
n ca
lcar
eous
sand
soils
,un
iform
text
ure
Bro
wn
calc
areo
us sa
nd so
ils,
unifo
rm te
xtur
eR
ed-y
ello
w c
alca
reou
s san
dso
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
e R
ed-y
ello
w c
alca
reou
s san
dso
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
e Su
rfac
e te
xtur
eC
oars
e sa
ndC
oars
e sa
ndLo
amy
sand
Loam
y sa
ndLo
amy
sand
Loam
y sa
ndPe
rmea
bilit
yV
ery
high
Ver
y hi
ghV
ery
high
Ver
y hi
ghV
ery
high
Ver
y hi
ghD
epth
, m>2
0.3
>2>2
>21.
9L
AN
D U
SEC
lear
ed a
reas
: B
eef c
attle
gra
zing
on
unim
prov
ed p
astu
res;
min
ing
of c
alca
reni
te; r
esid
entia
l; ac
tive
recr
eatio
n.U
ncle
ared
are
as:
Fore
st g
razi
ng o
f bee
f cat
tle; a
ctiv
e an
d pa
ssiv
e re
crea
tion;
nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
land
scap
e co
nser
vatio
n.SO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
,pr
oces
ses,
form
s
Dun
e in
here
ntly
uns
tabl
e du
eto
cyc
lical
mar
ine
eros
ion.
Low
ferti
lity,
low
wat
er-
hold
ing
capa
city
and
vege
tatio
n se
nsiti
ve to
dist
urba
nce
lead
to w
ind
eros
ion
and
leac
hing
of
nutri
ents
.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed sa
nd so
ilsof
low
wat
er-h
oldi
ng c
apac
ityon
stee
p sl
opes
with
vege
tatio
n se
nsiti
ve to
dist
urba
nce
and
salt
prun
ing
are
pron
e to
shee
t ero
sion
by
win
d an
d w
ater
.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed sa
nd so
ilsw
ith lo
w w
ater
-hol
ding
capa
citie
s, su
bjec
ted
to st
rong
on-s
hore
win
ds a
re p
rone
tow
ind
eros
ion.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity,
hig
h al
kalin
ity a
ndra
pid
leac
hing
lea
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed sa
nd so
ilsw
ith lo
w w
ater
-hol
ding
capa
citie
s are
pro
ne to
win
der
osio
n. L
ow in
here
ntfe
rtilit
y, h
igh
alka
linity
and
rapi
d le
achi
ng to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed sa
nd so
ilsw
ith lo
w w
ater
-hol
ding
capa
citie
s are
pro
ne to
win
der
osio
n. L
ow in
here
nt fe
rtilit
yan
d hi
gh p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
tonu
trien
t dec
line.
7.12
C
arlis
le L
and
Syst
em
Hig
h-le
vel r
iver
terr
ace
syst
ems
have
dev
elop
ed a
long
the
Gel
libra
nd R
iver
val
ley
at C
arlis
le R
iver
, Gel
libra
ndan
d C
happ
le V
ale.
U
p to
fou
r di
ffer
ent l
evel
s ca
n be
fou
nd, a
nd m
ild d
isse
ctio
n on
the
uppe
r le
vels
in q
uite
com
plic
ated
land
scap
es.
The
allu
vial
mat
eria
l var
ies
from
coa
rse
sand
s an
d gr
avel
s to
silt
s an
d cl
ays
and
a va
riety
of
soils
is f
ound
at
diff
eren
t le
vels
. R
edis
tribu
tion
of s
and
over
som
e ar
eas
has
resu
lted
in p
olyg
enet
ic s
oils
with
har
dpan
deve
lopm
ent.
Thi
s fur
ther
com
plic
ates
the
soil
and
vege
tatio
n pa
ttern
.
Mos
t of
thes
e te
rrac
e sy
stem
s ha
ve b
een
clea
red,
dai
ryin
g be
ing
the
maj
or la
nd u
se.
Seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
g is
com
mon
and
soil
com
pact
ion
may
resu
lt fr
om c
attle
gra
zing
thes
e ar
eas i
n w
et c
ondi
tions
.
Seve
ral l
evel
s can
be
foun
d in
this
land
syst
em, w
ith th
e hi
ghes
t lev
els b
eing
som
ewha
t dis
sect
ed.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
CA
RL
ISL
EA
rea:
19
km2
110
%2
10%
310
%4
10%
515
%6
25%
720
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
1,0
00 –
1,1
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(45)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
130)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
13,
low
est J
uly
(8),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(18)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– Se
ptem
ber
Seas
onal
gro
wth
limita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
mid
Nov
embe
r – la
te M
arch
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Rec
ent a
lluvi
al c
lay,
silt
and
sand
shal
low
ly o
verly
ing
unco
nsol
idat
ed P
alae
ocen
e sa
nd w
ith so
me
clay
and
silt.
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eEl
evat
ed a
nd, i
n pa
rts, u
plift
ed a
nd d
isse
cted
syst
em o
f anc
ient
cut
and
dep
ositi
onal
terr
aces
of t
he G
ellib
rand
Riv
er.
Elev
atio
n, m
30 –
180
Loca
l rel
ief,
m20
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
c pa
ttern
in d
isse
cted
are
as; i
nter
nal d
rain
age
else
whe
reD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
1.2
Land
form
Allu
vial
terr
ace
Scar
pV
alle
y flo
orSc
arp
Mild
ly d
isse
cted
allu
vial
terr
ace
Land
form
ele
men
tLo
w le
vel
--
-M
iddl
e le
vel
Hig
h le
vel
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %30
(0-8
)25
915
-40)
0 (0
-1)
15 (3
-35)
5 (0
-9)
3 (0
-5)
7 (1
-10)
Slop
e sh
ape
Line
arLi
near
Line
arC
onve
xLi
near
Line
arC
onve
xN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Tall
open
fore
stW
oodl
and
Low
ope
n w
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. ova
taE.
obl
iqua
, E. v
imin
alis
E. v
imin
alis
, E. o
bliq
ua,
Acac
ia m
elan
oxyl
on, E
.ov
ata
E. ra
diat
a, E
. niti
da, E
.ba
xter
i, E.
vim
inal
isE.
niti
da, E
. rad
iata
, E.
baxt
eri
E. a
rom
aphl
oia,
E.
radi
ata,
E. o
vata
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, E.
baxt
eri
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Allu
vial
cla
y, si
lt , s
ome
sand
Sand
, silt
and
cla
yA
lluvi
al c
lay,
silt
and
sand
Sand
Sand
Allu
vial
cla
y, si
lt w
ithsa
nd u
nder
lay
Allu
vial
cla
y, si
lt
Des
crip
tion
Yel
low
-bro
wn
grad
atio
nal
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
eY
ello
w g
rada
tiona
l soi
ls,
wea
k st
ruct
ure
Gre
y gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsG
rey
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils w
ithha
rdpa
ns, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eG
rey
sand
soils
,st
ruct
ured
cla
y un
derla
yM
ottle
d ye
llow
and
red
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Fine
sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Sand
y cl
ay lo
amLo
amy
sand
Silty
loam
Sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Low
Hig
hLo
wV
ery
high
Ver
y lo
wLo
wM
oder
ate
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>2>2
0.6
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Cle
ared
are
as:
Dai
ry fa
rmin
g; b
eef c
attle
gra
zing
; ope
n-ra
nge
pig
fatte
ning
; res
iden
tial;
wat
er su
pply
.U
ncle
ared
are
as:
Sand
and
gra
vel e
xtra
ctio
n; w
ater
supp
ly; m
inor
fore
st p
rodu
ceSO
ILD
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
,pr
oces
ses,
form
s
Low
per
mea
bilit
y an
dhi
gh ra
infa
ll le
ad to
seas
onal
ly h
igh
wat
erta
bles
with
resu
lting
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
ilco
mpa
ctio
n.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
per
mea
bilit
y le
ad to
leac
hing
of n
utrie
nts.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
eso
ils o
n th
e st
eepe
stsl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
ter
osio
n. S
atur
atio
n of
clay
subs
oils
on
stee
psl
opes
lead
s to
land
slip
s.
Floo
ding
and
seas
onal
wat
er ta
ble
deve
lopm
ent
lead
to w
ater
logg
ing,
soil
com
pact
ion
and
silta
tion.
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
yan
d hi
gh p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
nt d
eclin
e.St
eepe
r slo
pes w
ithco
mpa
cted
soils
of l
oww
ater
-hol
ding
cap
acity
are
pron
e to
shee
t ero
sion
.
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
yw
ith le
achi
ng o
fpe
rmea
ble
acid
ic su
rfac
esle
ads t
o nu
trien
t dec
line.
Har
dpan
s res
trict
drai
nage
, lea
ding
tose
ason
al w
ater
logg
ing.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
with
leac
hing
per
mea
ble
surf
ace
horiz
ons l
eads
tonu
trien
t dec
line.
Low
prof
ile p
erm
eabi
lity
and
perc
hed
seas
onal
wat
erta
bles
lead
tow
ater
logg
ing.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
phos
phor
us fi
xatio
n le
adto
nut
rient
dec
line.
7.13
C
happ
le V
ale
Land
Sys
tem
Low
woo
dlan
ds o
f Eu
caly
ptus
niti
da w
ith u
nder
stor
eys
of L
epto
sper
mum
jun
iper
inum
, L.
myr
sino
ides
and
Xant
horr
hoea
aus
tral
is c
hara
cter
ise
thes
e hi
lls o
n th
e w
este
rn p
erip
hery
of t
he O
tway
Ran
ge. T
he s
oils
are
mai
nly
deep
, inf
ertil
e an
d ex
cess
ivel
y dr
aine
d sa
nds,
whi
ch c
ontra
st s
harp
ly w
ith th
e ad
jace
nt g
rada
tiona
l pro
files
of
the
Low
er C
reta
ceou
s out
crop
s. T
hus,
alth
ough
rain
fall
is h
igh,
moi
stur
e st
ress
and
soil
infe
rtilit
y se
vere
ly re
stric
t pla
ntgr
owth
.
Som
e at
tem
pts
have
bee
n m
ade
to c
lear
trac
ts o
f th
is la
nd a
nd e
stab
lish
past
ures
for
cat
tle g
razi
ng.
Tria
l plo
ts o
fpi
ne s
peci
es h
ave
also
bee
n es
tabl
ishe
d.
Giv
en s
uffic
ient
fer
tiliz
er a
nd s
oil a
mel
iora
nts
such
as
lime,
pas
ture
s or
even
int
ensi
ve c
rops
cou
ld b
e su
cces
sful
ly g
row
n.
How
ever
, th
e ra
tes
of s
uch
chem
ical
s ne
eded
to
achi
eve
satis
fact
ory
prod
uctio
n ar
e hi
gh a
nd m
ost o
f th
e la
nd r
emai
ns in
its
natu
ral s
tate
. Th
e m
ain
activ
ity h
as b
een
the
open
ing
up o
f num
erou
s so
il an
d gr
avel
ext
ract
ion
pits
, mos
t of w
hich
hav
e fa
iled
to re
gene
rate
nat
ural
ly a
nd n
owre
mai
n as
scar
s on
the
land
scap
e.
The
com
pone
nts o
f thi
s lan
d sy
stem
are
wel
l dem
arca
ted
by th
e st
ruct
ure
and
spec
ies
com
posi
tion
of th
e na
tive
vege
tatio
n.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
CH
APP
LE
VA
LE
Are
a: 1
15 k
m2
115
%2
15%
355
%4
10%
5 5%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
1,0
00 –
1,3
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(45)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
130)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
12,
low
est J
uly
(7),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(18)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
- Sep
tem
ber
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n m
id N
ovem
ber –
late
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPa
leoc
ene
unco
nsol
idat
ed sa
nd a
nd g
rave
lT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Dis
sect
ed h
ills i
n th
e w
este
rn p
art o
f the
Otw
ay R
ange
Elev
atio
n, m
30 -
270
Loca
l rel
ief,
m60
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
c w
ith so
me
radi
al a
reas
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
24.
0La
nd fo
rmH
illV
alle
y flo
orLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Cre
st, s
lope
Bro
ad,
slig
htly
dep
ress
ed a
reas
of
impe
ded
drai
nage
Cre
st, s
lope
Stee
p lo
wer
slop
e-
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %25
(10-
35)
15 (5
-20)
20 (5
-45)
40 (2
5-50
)8
(2-1
2)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xLi
near
Con
vex
Line
arC
onca
veN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Tall
shru
blan
dC
lose
d he
ath
Low
woo
dlan
dW
oodl
and
Clo
sed
scru
bD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
niti
da, A
caci
a su
aveo
lens
, E.
baxt
eri,
Lept
ospe
rmum
juni
peri
num
Cas
uarin
a lit
tora
lis, X
anth
orrh
oea
aust
ralis
, Lep
tosp
erm
umju
nipe
rinu
m, L
epto
sper
mum
myr
sino
ides
, Mel
aleu
ca sq
uarr
osa,
Aotu
s eri
coid
es, D
illw
ynia
glab
erri
na, E
pacr
is im
pres
sa,
Epac
ris l
anug
inos
a
E. n
itida
, E. r
adia
ta, E
. bax
teri
, E.
vim
inal
is c
lose
to v
alle
y flo
orE.
bax
teri
, E. r
adia
ta, E
. niti
daM
elal
euca
squa
rros
a,Le
ptos
perm
um ju
nipe
rinu
m,
Cas
uarin
a lit
tora
lis, G
leic
heni
aci
rcin
nata
, Bau
era
rubi
oide
s,Sp
reng
elia
inca
rnat
a
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Qua
rtz sa
nd a
nd g
rave
lQ
uartz
sand
Qua
rtz sa
ndQ
uartz
sand
Allu
vial
sand
, pla
nt re
mai
nsD
escr
iptio
nW
hite
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Gre
y sa
nd
soils
w
ith
hard
pans
,un
iform
text
ure
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eY
ello
w sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eB
lack
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Surf
ace
text
ure
Coa
rse
sand
Sand
y lo
amLo
amy
sand
Loam
y sa
ndSi
lty lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yV
ery
high
Ver
y lo
wV
ery
high
Ver
y hi
ghLo
wD
epth
, m>2
0.6
>2>2
>2L
AN
D U
SEU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Gra
vel a
nd sa
nd e
xtra
ctio
n; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; w
ater
supp
ly; a
ctiv
e an
d pa
ssiv
e re
crea
tion.
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
,fo
rms
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt f
ertil
ity a
nd h
igh
perm
eabi
lity
lead
s to
lea
chin
g of
nutri
ents
. St
eepe
r sl
opes
w
ithco
mpa
cted
soi
ls a
re p
rone
to
shee
t,ril
l and
scou
r gul
ly e
rosi
on.
Har
dpan
s re
stric
t dr
aina
ge l
eadi
ngto
sea
sona
l wat
erlo
ggin
g. V
ery
low
inhe
rent
fer
tility
with
lea
chin
g of
perm
eabl
e ac
idic
sur
face
hor
izon
sle
ads t
o nu
trien
t dec
line.
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt f
ertil
ity a
nd h
igh
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to
nu
trien
tde
clin
e.
St
eepe
r sl
opes
w
ithco
mpa
cted
soi
ls a
re p
rone
to
shee
t,ril
l and
scou
r gul
ly e
rosi
on.
Stee
per
slop
es
with
w
eakl
yst
ruct
ured
so
ils
of
low
w
ater
-ho
ldin
g ca
paci
ty a
re p
rone
to
shee
ter
osio
n.
Low
inhe
rent
fer
tility
and
high
per
mea
bilit
y le
ad t
o nu
trien
tde
clin
e.
Hig
h w
ater
ta
bles
le
ad
tow
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
Rap
id r
un-o
ff f
rom
adj
acen
t hi
llsle
ads t
o flo
odin
g an
d si
ltatio
n.
7.14
C
onne
warr
e La
nd S
yste
m
Man
y of
the
outle
ts o
f cre
eks
and
river
s to
the
east
of t
he O
tway
Ran
ge p
osse
ss ti
dal s
wam
ps w
ith b
raid
ed c
hann
els
and
brac
kish
lago
ons.
Tho
mps
on C
reek
and
Pai
nkal
ac C
reek
hav
e su
ch r
iver
mou
ths,
alth
ough
the
mos
t ext
ensi
vesw
amp
lies j
ust o
utsi
de th
e pr
esen
t stu
dy a
rea,
surr
ound
ing
the
mou
th o
f the
Bar
won
Riv
er.
Onl
y m
inor
diff
eren
ces
in h
eigh
t abo
ve m
ean
tide
leve
l det
erm
ine
the
diff
eren
ces
betw
een
the
land
com
pone
nts.
The
mar
ine
terr
aces
esc
ape
inun
datio
n in
all
but e
xtre
mel
y ra
re c
ombi
natio
ns o
f flo
ods
and
high
tide
, whi
le m
ost o
ther
tract
s of l
and
are
flood
ed e
ither
regu
larly
or i
rreg
ular
ly.
Hal
ophy
tic sh
rubs
and
her
bs c
olon
ize
the
grey
and
stru
ctur
eles
s silt
y cl
ays f
ound
on
thes
e sw
amps
. Th
e st
ruct
ure
and
spec
ies
of e
ach
com
mun
ity a
re s
trong
ly in
fluen
ced
by th
e he
ight
abo
ve m
ean
tide
leve
l and
the
degr
ee o
f sal
inity
of
the
tidal
wat
er.
Som
e pa
rts o
f th
ese
area
s ha
ve b
een
drai
ned
or f
illed
to p
rovi
de f
or a
gric
ultu
re o
r re
crea
tiona
l fac
ilitie
s. H
owev
er,
mos
t par
ts re
mai
n in
thei
r nat
ural
stat
e.
Thes
e sw
amps
lie
just
inla
nd fr
om th
e co
asta
l dun
es a
nd p
rovi
de v
alua
ble
habi
tats
for w
ildlif
e.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
CO
NN
EW
AR
RE
Are
a: 8
km
21
30%
230
%3
10%
415
%5
15%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 6
25, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(30)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
60)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
14,
low
est J
uly
(10)
, hig
hest
Feb
ruar
y (1
8)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jul
ySe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
Oct
ober
– e
arly
Apr
ilG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yR
ecen
t est
uarin
e sa
nd, s
il, c
lay
and
plan
t rem
ains
Ven
eer o
f aeo
lian
sand
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eFl
at e
stua
rine
low
land
s with
bra
ided
cha
nnel
sEl
evat
ion,
m0-
4Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
1D
rain
age
patte
rnD
eran
ged
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
2-
Land
form
Mar
ine
terr
ace
Swam
pLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
-U
pper
surf
ace
occa
sion
ally
inun
date
dLo
wer
surf
ace
regu
larly
inun
date
dFr
ee w
ater
surf
ace
Are
a ad
jace
nt to
sand
dun
e
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %1
(0-2
)0
(0-1
)0
01
(10-
2)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xLi
near
Line
ar-
Irre
gula
rN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
(Not
kno
wn)
Low
shru
blan
dC
lose
d gr
assl
and
-Se
dgel
and
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
-Ar
thro
cnem
um a
rbus
culu
m, G
ahni
afil
umFr
anke
nia
pauc
iflor
a, S
amol
usre
pens
, Art
hroc
nem
um a
rbus
culu
m-
Scir
pus n
odos
us
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Estu
arin
e cl
ay, s
ilt a
nd sa
ndEs
tuar
ine
clay
, silt
and
pla
ntre
mai
nsEs
tuar
ine
clay
, silt
and
pla
ntre
mai
nsEs
tuar
ine
clay
, silt
and
pla
ntre
mai
nsA
eolia
n sa
nd, s
hell
grit
over
estu
arin
e cl
ay, s
ilt a
nd p
lant
rem
ains
Des
crip
tion
Yel
low
sodi
c du
plex
soils
Salin
e so
ilsSa
line
soils
Salin
e so
ilsG
rey
sand
soi
ls,
wea
kly
stru
ctur
edcl
ay u
nder
lay
Surf
ace
text
ure
Sand
y lo
amSi
lty c
lay
loam
Silty
cla
ySi
lty c
lay
Sand
y lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yM
oder
ate
Ver
y lo
wV
ery
low
Ver
y lo
wLo
wD
epth
, m>2
>2>2
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Cle
ared
are
as:
Som
e of
the
high
er a
reas
cle
ared
for g
razi
ng, c
ropp
ing
and
recr
eatio
nal f
acili
ties.
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: N
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; re
fuse
dis
posa
l.SO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es,
form
s
Sodi
c su
bsoi
ls
with
hi
gh
salin
egr
ound
wat
er ta
bles
are
pro
ne to
soi
lsa
lting
, su
rfac
e co
mpa
ctio
n an
dsh
eet e
rosi
on.
Occ
asio
nal i
nflu
x of
est
uarin
e sa
line
wat
er o
n cl
ays
of l
ow m
echa
nica
lst
reng
th l
eads
to
soil
salti
ng a
ndco
mpa
ctio
n.
Reg
ular
inf
lux
of e
stua
rine
salin
ew
ater
on
clay
s of
low
mec
hani
cal
stre
ngth
lea
ds t
o so
il sa
lting
and
com
pact
ion.
Min
or h
azar
dsSo
dic
subs
oils
w
ith
low
perm
eabi
lity
and
high
sa
line
grou
ndw
ater
ta
bles
ar
e pr
one
tosu
rfac
e co
mpa
ctio
n an
d so
il sa
lting
.
7.15
D
eepd
ene
Land
Sys
tem
An
exte
nsiv
e la
terit
ic p
late
au t
o th
e no
rth o
f th
e O
tway
Ran
ge h
as b
een
diss
ecte
d by
the
Bar
won
Riv
er a
nd i
tstri
buta
ries.
The
re a
re s
ever
al p
late
au r
emna
nts
sepa
rate
d by
allu
vial
pla
ins
of th
e B
arw
on R
iver
land
sys
tem
. In
gene
ral,
flat
or g
ently
und
ulat
ing
plai
ns o
ccup
y th
e hi
ghes
t pa
rts o
f th
e la
ndsc
ape,
and
the
se a
re s
urro
unde
d by
gent
le sl
opes
lead
ing
to sl
ight
ly lo
wer
surf
aces
or b
y st
eep
scar
ps fa
lling
aw
ay to
the
allu
vial
pla
ins.
The
area
s to
the
wes
t of t
he B
arw
on R
iver
is m
ore
diss
ecte
d, w
ith g
ener
ally
stee
per s
lope
s.
The
soils
on
the
high
est l
evel
s hav
e be
en st
rong
ly la
terit
ized
, with
iron
ston
e th
roug
hout
the
prof
ile a
nd c
once
ntra
ted
in d
isco
ntin
uous
laye
rs a
t abo
ut 1
.2 m
dep
th.
Sim
ilar s
oils
with
out i
rons
tone
are
foun
d on
low
er le
vels
, whi
le th
ege
ntle
slop
es b
etw
een
thes
e le
vels
pos
sess
hea
vier
-text
ured
soils
with
coa
rse
bloc
ky st
ruct
ures
in th
e su
bsoi
ls.
Cle
arin
g ha
s be
en w
ides
prea
d an
d th
e la
nd is
use
d fo
r she
ep a
nd b
eef c
attle
gra
zing
as
wel
l as
som
e da
iryin
g. S
oil
salti
ng h
as o
ccur
red
in s
ome
area
s, an
d m
ajor
pro
blem
s ha
ve a
risen
due
to g
ully
and
tun
nel
eros
ion.
Th
e m
ore
diss
ecte
d ar
eas t
o th
e w
est o
f the
Bar
won
are
the
mos
t sus
cept
ible
, and
dam
age
has b
een
wid
espr
ead.
Dis
pers
ible
subs
oils
on
the
stee
per s
lope
s of t
his l
ands
cape
are
hig
hly
susc
eptib
le to
gul
ly e
rosi
on a
nd la
ndsl
ips.
Com
pone
nts a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
DE
EPD
EN
EA
rea:
179
km
21
40%
215
%3
20%
410
%5 7%
6 8%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
650
– 7
00, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(30)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
85)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
13,
low
est J
uly
(8),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(9)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– A
ugus
tSe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
early
Oct
ober
– la
te A
pril
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Plio
cene
cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Und
ulat
ing
plai
n in
land
of t
he O
tway
Ran
geEl
evat
ion,
m12
0 - 1
90Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
40D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
21.
0La
nd fo
rmR
ise
Hig
h le
vel t
erra
ceD
rain
age
line
Scar
pLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Bro
ad c
rest
Gen
tle u
pper
slop
eG
entle
bro
ad sl
ope
--
-Sl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
1 (0
-2)
5 (2
-1)
3 (0
-7)
1 (0
-2)
0 (0
-1)
35 (1
0-50
)Sl
ope
shap
eLi
near
Line
arC
onve
xLi
near
Con
cave
Line
ar, C
onve
xN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Woo
dlan
dC
lose
d sc
rub
Ope
n fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. v
imin
alis
, E. o
bliq
ua, E
.ra
diat
aE.
vim
inal
is, E
. ova
taE.
obl
iqua
, E. v
imin
alis
, E.
ovat
a, E
. rad
iata
E. v
imin
alis
, E o
bliq
ua, E
.ov
ata
Lept
ospe
rmum
juni
peri
num
Mel
aleu
ca sq
uarr
osa
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. vim
inal
is
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Late
ritiz
ed se
dim
ents
Cla
yC
lay,
silt
and
sand
Allu
vial
cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndA
lluvi
al c
lay,
silt
and
sand
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndD
escr
iptio
nM
ottle
d ye
llow
and
red
dupl
exso
ils w
ith ir
onst
one
Yel
low
-bro
wn
sodi
c du
plex
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
eM
ottle
d ye
llow
and
red
dupl
exso
ilsY
ello
w-b
row
n ca
lcar
eous
sodi
c so
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure
Gre
y gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsY
ello
w so
dic
dupl
ex so
ils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y cl
ay lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Mod
erat
eLo
wM
oder
ate
Low
Ver
y lo
wM
oder
ate
Dep
th, m
1.2
>2>2
>2>2
>2L
AN
D U
SEC
lear
ed a
reas
: Sh
eep
and
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng; c
ash
and
row
cro
ppin
g; d
airy
farm
ing.
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es,
proc
esse
s, fo
rms
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity,
phos
phat
e fix
atio
n, a
ndpe
rmea
ble
surf
ace
soils
lead
tonu
trien
t dec
line.
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
flo
w p
erm
eabi
lity
are
pron
e to
gully
and
tunn
el e
rosi
on.
Sodi
c su
bsoi
ls o
f low
perm
eabi
lity
rece
ivin
g sa
line
seep
age
are
pron
e to
soil
salti
ng.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity,
phos
phat
e fix
atio
n an
dpe
rmea
ble
surf
ace
soils
lead
tonu
trien
t dec
line.
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
flo
w p
erm
eabi
lity
are
pron
e to
gully
and
tunn
el e
rosi
on a
ndso
il sa
lting
.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tabl
ele
ads t
o w
ater
logg
ing,
soil
com
pact
ion
and
soil
salti
ng.
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
ls a
repr
one
to g
ully
and
tunn
eler
osio
n.
Dis
pers
ible
soils
on
stee
psl
opes
subj
ect t
o pe
riodi
csa
tura
tion
are
pron
e to
land
slip
s and
shee
t ero
sion
.
7.16
F
ergu
son
Hill
Lan
d Sy
stem
Mos
t ou
tcro
ps o
f Te
rtiar
y se
dim
ents
to
the
wes
t of
the
Otw
ay R
ange
are
eith
er d
eepl
y di
ssec
ted
or d
eepl
yw
eath
ered
soils
. H
owev
er, s
ome
ridge
s an
d sp
urs a
re o
nly
mild
ly d
isse
cted
and
thei
r soi
l pro
files
are
onl
y w
eakl
yde
velo
ped.
Th
ese
area
s ar
e fo
und
at F
ergu
son
Hill
, ju
st s
outh
of
Sim
pson
, al
ong
Pipe
line
Roa
d an
d in
an
addi
tiona
l sm
all a
rea
near
Cap
e O
tway
.
The
pare
nt m
ater
ial i
s Te
rtiar
y sa
nd, s
ilt a
nd c
lay,
with
som
e m
inor
are
as o
f la
terit
ic ir
onst
one.
Th
e so
ils v
ary
acco
rdin
g to
the
nat
ure
of t
he o
utcr
oppi
ng b
eds,
but
in g
ener
al t
heir
stru
ctur
e is
wea
k an
d of
ten
the
A a
nd B
horiz
ons a
re n
ot c
lear
ly d
iffer
entia
ted.
Pro
file
drai
nage
is g
ood
on a
ll bu
t tho
se a
reas
with
har
dpan
s, an
d th
ese
are
the
only
are
as p
rone
to w
ater
logg
ing
desp
ite th
e hi
gh a
nnua
l rai
nfal
l.
Euca
lypt
us o
bliq
ua a
nd E
. bax
teri
col
oniz
e m
ost a
reas
and
ofte
n re
ach
heig
hts
in e
xces
s of
30
m o
n th
e be
tter-
drai
ned
soils
. H
owev
er, t
hese
sta
nds
are
decr
easi
ng in
are
as a
s m
uch
of th
e la
nd is
bei
ng c
lear
ed fo
r agr
icul
ture
.Th
e so
ils a
re n
atur
ally
qui
te st
able
and
the
maj
or p
robl
ems a
re li
kely
to a
rise
from
nut
rient
dec
line.
Alo
ng P
ipel
ine
Road
the
diss
ectio
n is
onl
y m
ildly
dev
elop
ed o
n th
ese
com
para
tivel
y yo
uthf
ul s
oils
. In
the
fore
grou
nd E
.ni
tida
grow
n on
gre
y sa
nd s
oils
, w
hile
in
the
dista
nce
tall
open
woo
dlan
ds o
ccur
on
red
grad
atio
nal
soils
with
wea
kst
ruct
ures
.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
FER
GU
SON
HIL
LA
rea:
52
km2
115
%2
20%
325
%4 5%
5 8%6
15%
710
%8 2%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 1
,000
– 1
,100
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
0), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (13
0)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
3, lo
wes
t Jul
y (7
.5),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(19)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
- Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
limita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
mid
Nov
embe
r – M
arch
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Pale
ocen
e m
arin
e sa
nd, c
lay
and
silt;
som
e Pl
eist
ocen
e la
terit
ic ir
onst
one
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eU
ndul
atin
g hi
lls a
nd ri
dges
Elev
atio
n, m
30-2
30Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
40D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
,km
/km
22.
4
Land
form
Hill
Dra
inag
e lin
eB
road
ridg
eSc
arp
Land
form
ele
men
tLo
wer
slop
eSl
ope
Cre
stM
idsl
ope
-C
rest
, upp
er sl
ope
Cre
st-
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %4
(1-7
)14
(5-3
7)5
(2-9
)11
(3-1
5)4
(2-9
)4
(0-1
1)4
(0-7
)29
(25-
37)
Slop
e sh
ape
Stra
ight
Stra
ight
Con
vex
Stra
ight
Con
cave
Con
vex
Stra
ight
Con
cave
NA
TIV
EV
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stLo
w w
oodl
and
(var
iabl
e)O
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stTa
ll w
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. ova
taE.
bax
teri
, E. n
itida
, E.
obliq
uaE.
niti
da, E
. bax
teri
E. b
axte
ri, E
. rad
iata
,E.
obl
iqua
, E.
cype
lloca
rpa
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. bax
teri
E. b
axte
ri, E
. obl
iqua
E. b
axte
ri, E
. obl
iqua
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. bax
teri
,E.
ova
ta, A
caci
am
elan
oxyl
onSO
ILPa
rent
mat
eria
lC
lay
and
silt
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndSa
ndSa
nd, s
ilt a
nd c
lay
Allu
vial
sand
, silt
and
clay
Cla
y an
d si
lt; so
me
late
ritic
rem
nant
sC
lay
and
silt;
som
ela
terit
ic re
mna
nts
Col
luvi
al la
terit
iciro
nsto
neD
escr
iptio
nG
rey-
brow
ngr
adat
iona
l soi
lsY
ello
w g
rada
tiona
lso
ils, w
eak
stru
ctur
eG
rey
sand
soils
with
hard
pans
, uni
form
text
ure
Red
sand
y lo
am so
ilsun
iform
text
ure
Gre
y gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsM
ottle
d ye
llow
and
red
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Red
gra
datio
nal s
oils
,w
eak
stru
ctur
eSt
ony
red
grad
atio
nal
soils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Fine
sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Loam
y sa
ndSa
ndy
loam
Sand
loam
Sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Gra
velly
loam
y sa
ndPe
rmea
bilit
yM
oder
ate
Hig
hV
ery
low
Ver
y hi
ghLo
wM
oder
ate
Hig
hV
ery
high
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>2>2
>2>2
0.9
>2L
AN
D U
SEU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r saw
logs
, pos
ts a
nd p
oles
; wat
er su
pply
; nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
gra
vel e
xtra
ctio
n.C
lear
ed a
reas
: Sh
eep
and
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng; d
airy
farm
ing;
wat
er su
pply
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es,
proc
esse
s, fo
rms
Min
or h
azar
ds.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
edsu
rfac
es o
n st
eepe
rsl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
. Lo
win
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
dhi
gh p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
nt d
eclin
e.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
edsa
nds o
n ha
rdpa
ns a
repo
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
and
seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
g.Pe
rmea
ble
surf
ace
sand
s of h
igh
acid
ityan
d lo
w in
here
ntfe
rtilit
y ar
e pr
one
tonu
trien
t dec
line.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
per
mea
bilit
yle
ad to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tabl
e le
ad to
soil
com
pact
ion.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity,
phos
phor
us fi
xatio
nan
d pe
rmea
ble
surf
aces
lead
tonu
trien
t dec
line.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
per
mea
bilit
yle
ad to
leac
hing
of
nutri
ents
.
Stee
p sl
opes
with
wea
kly
stru
ctur
edsu
rfac
e so
ils o
f low
wat
er h
oldi
ng c
apac
ityar
e pr
one
to sh
eet
eros
ion.
7.17
F
orre
st L
and
Syst
em
From
Upp
er G
ellib
rand
to P
eter
s H
ill, s
teep
spu
rs a
nd ri
dges
with
long
stra
ight
slo
pes
and
narr
ow v
alle
ys fo
rm th
eru
gged
nor
ther
n m
argi
n of
the
Otw
ay R
ange
. Th
e cl
imat
e is
sig
nific
antly
drie
r th
an in
oth
er p
arts
of
the
Ran
ge,
with
mos
t are
as r
ecei
ving
an
annu
al r
ainf
all o
f ab
out 9
00 m
m.
The
inla
nd e
xten
t of
the
land
sys
tem
mar
ks t
heno
rther
n bo
unda
ry o
f con
tinuo
us C
reta
ceou
s ou
tcro
p, a
lthou
gh s
pora
dic
outc
rops
occ
ur in
the
adja
cent
Pen
nyro
yal
land
syst
em.
The
sepa
ratio
n of
thes
e dr
ier s
purs
and
ridg
es fr
om th
e re
st o
f the
Ran
ge is
wel
l ref
lect
ed b
y ch
ange
s in
the
stru
ctur
ean
d co
mpo
sitio
n of
the
nativ
e ve
geta
tion.
In
par
ticul
ar, E
ucal
yptu
s ra
diat
a be
com
es a
pro
min
ent m
embe
r of
the
dom
inan
t st
ratu
m a
nd t
he u
nder
stor
ey c
hang
es f
rom
mes
ophy
tic s
peci
es t
o dr
ier
scle
roph
yllo
us s
peci
es s
uch
asAc
acia
muc
rona
ta, A
. ver
ticill
ata,
Cas
sinia
long
ifolia
and
Epa
cris
impr
essa
.
Mos
t of t
his
land
sys
tem
rem
ains
fore
sted
and
is s
elec
tivel
y lo
gged
for m
illab
le ti
mbe
r. S
ome
parts
of t
he e
aste
rnar
eas
have
bee
n cl
eare
d fo
r gra
zing
, but
man
agem
ent i
s di
ffic
ult d
ue to
rugg
ed te
rrai
n. S
oftw
ood
plan
tatio
ns h
ave
also
bee
n es
tabl
ishe
d.
Land
slip
s an
d sh
eet e
rosi
on h
ave
been
sev
ere
in s
ome
area
s, an
d ra
pid
run-
off
from
thes
ehi
lls c
reat
es p
robl
ems o
f gul
ly e
rosi
on in
the
Bar
won
Riv
er la
nd sy
stem
.
On
the
area
s tha
t hav
e be
en c
lear
ed w
eeds
such
as b
lack
berr
ies a
nd ra
gwor
t bec
ome
a pr
oble
m.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
FOR
RE
STA
rea:
135
km
21
10%
250
%3 4%
435
%5 1%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 9
00 –
1,1
00, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(45)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
130)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
12,
low
est J
uly
(7),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(17)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– Se
ptem
ber
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n m
id N
ovem
ber –
mid
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yLo
wer
Cre
tace
ous f
elds
path
ic sa
ndst
one
and
mud
ston
eT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Dee
ply
diss
ecte
d hi
lls o
f the
Otw
ay R
ange
Elev
atio
n, m
150
– 40
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
150
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
3.8
Land
form
Hill
Land
form
ele
men
tSt
eepe
st sl
ope
Nor
th a
nd w
est f
acin
g sl
opes
Cre
st, u
pper
slop
eSo
uth
and
east
faci
ng sl
opes
Low
er sl
ope,
dra
inag
e lin
eSl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
60 (2
0-70
)45
(25-
65)
20 (5
-30)
45 (2
5-65
)20
(1-3
5)Sl
ope
shap
eLi
near
Line
arC
onve
xLi
near
Con
cave
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eW
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Tall
open
fore
stTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. ra
diat
a, E
. cyp
ello
carp
aE.
obl
iqua
, E. r
adia
ta, E
.cy
pello
carp
aE.
obl
iqua
, E. r
adia
ta, E
.cy
pello
carp
aE.
cyp
ello
carp
a, E
. obl
iqua
E. c
ypel
loca
rpa,
E. o
bliq
ua, E
.ov
ata,
Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Col
luvi
umIn
-site
wea
ther
ed ro
ckIn
-situ
wea
ther
ed ro
ckTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Tall
open
fore
stD
escr
iptio
nSt
ony
brow
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsB
row
n du
plex
soils
Bro
wn
dupl
ex so
ilsB
row
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsB
row
n gr
adat
iona
l so
ils,
wea
kst
ruct
ure
Surf
ace
text
ure
Fine
sand
y lo
amLo
amLo
amLo
amSi
lty lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yV
ery
high
Mod
erat
eM
oder
ate
Hig
hLo
amD
epth
, m0.
50.
90.
90.
9>2
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
for s
awlo
gs, p
osts
and
pol
es; s
oftw
ood
fore
stry
; nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
act
ive
and
pass
ive
recr
eatio
n; w
ater
supp
ly.
Cle
ared
are
as:
Bee
f cat
tle g
razi
ng o
n m
ainl
y un
impr
oved
pas
ture
s.SO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es,
form
s
Ston
y sh
allo
w
soils
w
ith
wea
kst
ruct
ure
and
low
w
ater
ho
ldin
gca
paci
ty o
n st
eep
slop
es a
re p
rone
to sh
eet e
rosi
on a
nd la
ndsl
ips.
Dry
asp
ect,
stee
p sl
opes
and
wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed
surf
aces
le
ad
to
shee
ter
osio
n.
Cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
n st
eep
slop
es s
ubje
ct to
per
iodi
c sa
tura
tion
are
pron
e to
land
slip
s.
Stee
per
slop
es a
re p
rone
to
shee
ter
osio
n.St
eep
slop
es
are
pron
e to
sh
eet
eros
ion.
C
lay
subs
oils
on
stee
psl
opes
sub
ject
to p
erio
dic
satu
ratio
nar
e pr
one
to la
ndsl
ips.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed
soils
re
ceiv
ing
run-
off
are
pron
e to
sco
ur g
ully
ing,
silta
tion
and
flood
ing.
7.18
F
resh
wat
er C
reek
Lan
d Sy
stem
Thes
e ge
ntly
slo
ping
pla
ins
with
hea
vy s
oils
are
sim
ilar
to m
any
area
s on
the
basa
ltic
plai
ns o
f W
este
rn V
icto
ria.
Unl
ike
mos
t pas
ts o
f the
pla
ins,
this
orig
inal
ly c
arrie
d a
woo
dlan
d of
Euc
alyp
tus
vim
inal
is a
nd E
. ova
ta, w
hich
now
exis
ts m
ainl
y as
road
side
rem
nant
s.
Thes
e sp
ecie
s te
nd to
be
repl
aced
by
E. le
ucox
ylon
in th
e ea
st a
nd E
. cam
aldu
lens
is in
the
north
, the
latte
r spe
cies
bein
g th
e m
ost c
omm
on tr
ee o
n th
e ba
salti
c pl
ains
in w
este
rn V
icto
ria.
The
pres
ence
of
E. v
imin
alis
and
E. o
vata
may
refle
ct th
e cl
imat
e, w
hich
is w
ette
r tha
n is
nor
mal
for b
asal
tic p
lain
s.
The
mai
n la
nd u
se is
she
ep a
nd b
eef c
attle
gra
zing
. Th
e lo
w in
cide
nce
of b
asal
tic o
utcr
ops
mea
ns th
at m
uch
of th
ear
ea is
ara
ble,
and
cer
eal c
ropp
ing
is c
omm
on.
Min
or so
il sa
lting
and
gul
ly e
rosi
on o
ccur
.
Fla
t or v
ery
gent
ly u
ndul
atin
g pl
ains
are
typi
cal o
f muc
h of
the
basa
lt ou
tcro
ps
in w
este
rn V
icto
ria.
Thi
s are
a ca
rrie
s sig
nific
antly
mor
e tr
ees t
han
is u
sual
on
thes
e ba
salt
plai
ns.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
FRE
SHW
AT
ER
CR
EE
KA
rea:
77
km2
1 7%2
10%
365
%4
15%
5 3%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
600
– 6
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(30)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
60)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
14,
low
est J
uly
(9),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(19)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– Ju
lySe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
Oct
ober
– m
id A
pril
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Plei
stoc
ene
basa
lt w
ith so
me
area
s of s
coria
and
tuff
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eG
ently
und
ulat
ing
plai
ns in
the
catc
hmen
t of T
hom
pson
Cre
ekEl
evat
ion,
m5
– 14
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
20D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
21.
9La
nd fo
rmG
entle
rise
Val
ley
floor
Land
form
ele
men
tC
one,
scar
pU
pper
slop
e, e
ast
Mid
dle
slop
eLo
wer
slop
e-
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %8
(6-2
0)3
(1-7
)3
(0-6
)2
(0-3
)1
(0-1
)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xC
onve
xLi
near
Line
arC
onca
veN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Woo
dlan
dO
pen
fore
stW
oodl
and
Woo
dlan
dW
oodl
and
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. v
imin
alis
, Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
,E.
cam
aldu
lens
isE.
vim
inal
is, E
. ova
ta, C
asua
rina
stric
taE.
vim
inal
is, E
. ova
ta, E
.ca
mal
dule
nsis
, E. l
euco
xylo
n,C
asua
rina
stric
ta
E. o
vata
, E. v
imin
alis
, E.
cam
aldu
lens
is, E
. leu
coxy
lon,
Cas
uarin
a st
ricta
E. o
vata
, E. v
imin
alis
, E.
cam
aldu
lens
is
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Scor
ia, f
resh
ly w
eath
ered
bas
alt
In-s
itu d
eepl
y w
eath
ered
bas
alt
In-s
itu b
asal
tC
ollu
vial
bas
altic
was
hA
lluvi
um d
eriv
ed m
ainl
y fr
omba
salt
Des
crip
tion
Ston
y re
d-br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd re
d du
plex
soils
Gre
y-br
own
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
est
ruct
ure
Yel
low
sodi
c du
plex
soils
Gre
y gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls
Surf
ace
text
ure
Gra
velly
loam
Fine
sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Hig
hM
oder
ate
Low
Low
Low
Dep
th, m
0.3
1.8
1.4
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Com
plet
ely
clea
red
area
s: B
eef c
attle
gra
zing
; dai
ry fa
rmin
g; c
ropp
ing
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
,fo
rms
Ston
y sh
allo
w so
ils w
ith lo
w w
ater
hold
ing
capa
city
and
impe
rmea
ble
rock
laye
rs a
re p
rone
to sh
eet
eros
ion.
Min
or h
azar
dsD
ispe
rsib
le su
bsoi
ls a
re p
rone
togu
lly e
rosi
on.
Sodi
c su
bsoi
ls w
ith lo
wpe
rmea
bilit
ies a
nd ri
sing
wat
erta
bles
lead
to so
il sa
lting
.D
ispe
rsib
le su
bsoi
ls a
re p
rone
toso
me
gully
ero
sion
.
Ris
ing
salin
e w
ater
tabl
es le
ad to
wat
erlo
ggin
g, sa
lting
and
com
pact
ion.
Hig
h di
scha
rge
rate
sal
ong
wat
erco
urse
s lea
d to
som
est
ream
bank
ero
sion
.
7.19
G
ellib
rand
Riv
er L
and
Syst
em
Man
y of
the
larg
er r
iver
s in
the
wet
ter
parts
of
the
stud
y ar
ea h
ave
exte
nsiv
e flo
od p
lain
s. A
reas
larg
een
ough
to m
ap e
xist
on
the
Bar
ham
, Aire
and
Joh
anna
Riv
ers
as w
ell a
s th
e G
ellib
rand
Riv
er a
nd i
tstri
buta
ries.
The
land
scap
e is
gen
eral
ly f
lat,
but
irreg
ular
are
as o
ccur
in
the
form
of
infil
led
mea
nder
s an
d m
inor
terr
aces
. In
gen
eral
, mos
t ar
eas
are
poor
ly d
rain
ed,
with
stu
nted
veg
etat
ion.
H
owev
er, c
lose
r to
the
drai
nage
line
s, th
e im
prov
ed d
rain
age
ofte
n re
sults
in c
ondi
tions
mor
e fa
vour
able
for p
lant
gro
wth
.
Mos
t of t
hese
allu
vial
flat
s hav
e be
en c
lear
ed a
nd p
rovi
de v
alua
ble
sum
mer
gra
zing
for d
airy
farm
s al
ong
the
valle
ys.
Are
as p
rone
to
wat
erlo
ggin
g ha
ve b
een
drai
ned
and
impr
oved
pas
ture
s es
tabl
ishe
d.
How
ever
, th
ere
mot
enes
s of
the
val
leys
, se
t am
ong
very
inf
ertil
e su
rrou
ndin
g la
nd,
has
ham
pere
d ag
ricul
tura
lde
velo
pmen
t.
The
Air
e R
iver
has
an
exte
nsiv
e flo
odpl
ain
with
man
y sw
amps
and
lake
s whe
reit
emer
ges f
rom
the
Otw
ay R
ange
nea
r Hor
dern
Val
e.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
GE
LL
IBR
AN
D R
IVE
RA
rea:
52
km2
160
%2
30%
310
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
950
– 1
,100
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
5), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (13
5)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
3, lo
wes
t Jul
y (8
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
8)Te
mpe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e –
Sept
embe
r; Ju
ly o
nly
near
the
coas
tSe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
early
Nov
embe
r – la
te M
arch
; Dec
embe
r – Ja
nuar
y ne
ar c
oast
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Rec
ent a
lluvi
um d
eriv
ed fr
om th
e O
tway
Ran
ge a
nd su
rrou
ndin
g fo
othi
lls.
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eA
lluvi
al fl
ood
plai
n of
the
Gel
libra
nd, A
ire a
nd B
arha
m R
iver
sEl
evat
ion,
m0
– 10
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
3D
rain
age
patte
rnM
ajor
mea
nder
ing
stre
am w
ith d
eran
ged
tribu
tarie
sD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
1.3
Land
form
Allu
vial
terr
ace
Stre
amba
nk, c
ut-o
ff m
eand
er, l
ower
terr
ace
Land
form
ele
men
tPo
orly
dra
ined
low
er re
ache
sW
ell-d
rain
ed u
pper
reac
hes
-Sl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
1 (0
-2)
0 (0
-1)
2 (0
-5)
Slop
e sh
ape
Line
arLi
near
Con
vex
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eLo
w w
oodl
and
Tall
open
fore
stTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, E. o
vata
E. v
imin
alis
, E. o
bliq
ua, E
. ova
ta, A
caci
a m
elan
oxyl
onE.
vim
inal
is, E
. obl
iqua
, Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Allu
vial
cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndA
lluvi
al c
lay,
silt
and
sand
Allu
vial
sand
, silt
and
cla
yD
escr
iptio
nG
rey
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
, wea
k st
ruct
ure
Bro
wn
sand
y lo
am so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eSu
rfac
e te
xtur
eFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Ver
y lo
wM
oder
ate
Ver
y hi
ghD
epth
, m>2
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Cle
ared
are
as:
Dai
ry fa
rmin
g an
d be
ef c
attle
gra
zing
on
impr
oved
pas
ture
s; ro
w a
nd fo
dder
cro
ppin
g; w
ater
supp
lyU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Wat
er su
pply
; nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r saw
logs
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
N H
AZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es, f
orm
sH
igh
disc
harg
e ra
tes a
long
wat
erco
urse
s lea
d to
flood
ing
and
silta
tion.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tabl
e an
dlo
w p
erm
eabi
litie
s lea
d to
seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
dso
il co
mpa
ctio
n.
Hig
h di
scha
rge
rate
s alo
ng w
ater
cour
ses l
ead
toflo
odin
g an
d si
ltatio
n. W
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
soils
are
pron
e to
surf
ace
com
pact
ion.
Hig
h di
scha
rge
rate
s alo
ng w
ater
cour
ses w
ith w
eakl
yst
ruct
ured
soils
lead
to st
ream
bank
ero
sion
and
silta
tion.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tabl
e in
som
e ar
eas l
eads
tow
ater
logg
ing.
7.20
G
hera
ng G
hera
ng L
and
Syst
em
Inla
nd fr
om P
oint
Add
is a
nd e
xten
ding
wes
t as
far a
s W
orm
bete
Cre
ek, f
lat-t
oppe
d hi
lls re
pres
ent t
he re
mna
nts
of a
nex
tens
ive
form
er la
terit
ic p
late
au.
Smal
l rem
nant
s are
als
o fo
und
furth
er n
orth
tow
ards
Mor
iac.
Ove
r m
ost o
f th
is la
ndsc
ape
late
ritic
pro
files
are
pre
sent
, ind
icat
ing
form
er c
limat
ic c
ondi
tions
diff
eren
t fro
m th
ose
expe
rienc
ed to
day.
W
here
the
Terti
ary
sedi
men
ts c
onta
in e
xces
sive
am
ount
s of
gra
vel,
late
ritic
pro
files
are
abs
ent,
but t
here
is st
ill e
vide
nce
of d
eep
wea
ther
ing
and
leac
hing
.
The
soils
are
gen
eral
ly in
ferti
le, c
arry
ing
a ve
geta
tion
of s
tunt
ed w
oodl
ands
of
Euca
lypt
us o
bliq
ua a
nd E
. rad
iata
.Th
e ci
nnam
on fu
ngus
, Phy
toph
thor
a ci
nnam
omi,
is v
ery
com
mon
on
thes
e pl
atea
u re
mna
nts
and
larg
e ar
eas
of d
ead
and
dyin
g na
tive
vege
tatio
n ca
n be
foun
d.
Man
y of
the
se r
emna
nts
rem
ain
uncl
eare
d an
d ar
e us
ed f
or f
lora
and
fau
na r
eser
ves
and
som
e m
inor
for
estry
oper
atio
ns.
Gra
vel
extra
ctio
n pi
ts h
ave
been
est
ablis
hed
on s
uita
ble
area
s of
Cro
wn
land
. T
hese
pits
will
not
reve
geta
te q
uick
ly w
ithou
t the
app
ropr
iate
man
agem
ent a
nd h
ave
beco
me
popu
lar w
ith tr
ail-b
ike-
rider
s.
The
flat l
ater
itic
plat
eaux
car
ry w
oodl
and
of E
. obl
iqua
and
E. r
adia
ta,
but t
he ti
mbe
r is g
ener
ally
uns
uita
ble
for m
illin
g.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
GH
ER
AN
G G
HE
RA
NG
Are
a: 5
2 km
21
20%
2 7%3
65%
4 8%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
600
– 8
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(35)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
80)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
14,
low
est J
uly
(9),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(17)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
uly
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n m
id O
ctob
er -
Apr
il Late
ritiz
ed T
ertia
ry c
lay,
gra
vel a
nd c
laye
y si
ltG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yR
ecen
t aeo
lian
silic
eous
sand
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eFl
at o
r gen
tly d
isse
cted
pla
teau
rem
nant
sEl
evat
ion,
m50
- 23
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
10D
rain
age
patte
rnR
ecta
ngul
arD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
1.6
Land
form
Gen
tly u
ndul
atin
g pl
atea
uLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Cre
st, s
lope
Slop
eB
road
flat
cre
st, s
lope
Swal
e, b
road
dep
ress
ion
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %2
(0-8
)2
(0-3
)2
(0-5
)1
(0-3
)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xIr
regu
lar
Line
arC
onca
veN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Woo
dlan
dW
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, E. o
vata
E. ra
diat
a, E
. niti
da, E
. obl
iqua
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. bax
teri
, E. r
adia
ta, E
.ar
omap
hloi
aE.
ova
ta, E
. vim
inal
is
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Qua
rtz g
rave
l, sa
nd, s
ome
clay
Silic
eous
sand
Late
ritiz
ed se
dim
ents
Allu
vial
sand
, cla
y, si
lt an
d pl
ant r
emai
nsD
escr
iptio
nSt
ony
yello
w g
rada
tiona
l soi
lsG
rey
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd r
ed d
uple
x so
ils w
ithiro
nsto
neY
ello
w-b
row
n du
plex
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
e
Surf
ace
text
ure
Gra
velly
loam
y sa
ndLo
amy
sand
Loam
y sa
ndFi
ne lo
amy
sand
Perm
eabi
lity
Ver
y hi
ghV
ery
high
Mod
erat
eV
ery
low
Dep
th, m
>2>2
1.2
>2L
AN
D U
SEU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r pos
ts, p
oles
and
fire
woo
d; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; p
assi
ve a
nd a
ctiv
e re
crea
tion;
gra
vel e
xtra
ctio
n.C
lear
ed a
reas
: B
eef c
attle
gra
zing
on
unim
prov
ed p
astu
res;
resi
dent
ial
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
N H
AZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es, f
orm
sLo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
d hi
gh p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
to le
achi
ng o
f nut
rient
s.Lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
d hi
gh p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
to
le
achi
ng
of
nutri
ents
.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed s
ands
with
low
wat
er h
oldi
ngca
paci
ties a
re p
rone
to w
ind
eros
ion.
Low
inh
eren
t fe
rtilit
y ph
osph
ate
fixat
ion
and
leac
hing
of
perm
eabl
e up
per
horiz
ons
lead
to n
utrie
nt d
eclin
e.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tabl
e an
d w
eak
surf
ace
stru
ctur
ed le
ad to
surf
ace
com
pact
ion.
7.21
H
orde
rn V
ale
Land
Sys
tem
In th
e vi
cini
ty o
f Cap
e O
tway
, Ter
tiary
cla
y, s
ilt, s
and,
lim
esto
ne a
nd m
arl a
ll ou
tcro
p. T
hree
sep
arat
e ar
eas
exis
t–
at J
ohan
na, H
orde
rn V
ale
and
inla
nd fr
om P
oint
Fra
nklin
and
Bla
nket
Bay
. A
ll ar
eas
are
gene
rally
sim
ilar,
but
poss
ess
dist
inct
diff
eren
ces
in s
peci
fic fe
atur
es.
The
limes
tone
and
mar
l out
crop
s ar
e co
nfin
ed to
mar
ine
terr
aces
at H
orde
rn V
ale.
The
Joh
anna
are
a is
dis
tingu
ishe
d by
its
dom
inan
ce o
f red
san
ds.
The
are
a ea
st o
f Cap
e O
tway
incl
udes
hill
tops
of k
aolin
itic
clay
and
silt
and
thes
e ca
rry
rare
low
woo
dlan
ds o
f Euc
alyp
tus k
itson
ia.
In g
ener
al, t
hese
land
scap
es a
re o
ld w
ith a
reas
of l
ater
itize
d so
ils o
n th
e hi
ghes
t par
ts.
Rec
ent d
isse
ctio
n ha
s ofte
nbe
en su
perim
pose
d on
the
mor
e un
dula
ting
area
s, re
sulti
ng in
stra
ight
slop
es w
ith y
outh
ful s
oil p
rofil
es.
Land
use
s ar
e ve
ry d
iver
se.
Are
as th
at h
ave
been
cle
ared
are
use
d fo
r da
iry f
arm
ing,
gra
zing
of
shee
p an
d be
efca
ttle
and
a sm
all a
mou
nt o
f pot
ato
grow
ing.
Tho
se a
reas
that
rem
ain
uncl
eare
d ar
e se
lect
ivel
y lo
gged
, and
als
oha
ve n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n va
lues
. Sh
eet e
rosi
on a
nd la
ndsl
ips h
ave
been
qui
te se
vere
on
som
e of
the
stee
per a
reas
,an
d so
me
gully
ero
sion
occ
urs o
n th
e sl
opes
com
ing
away
from
the
late
ritiz
ed a
reas
.
Yout
hful
dis
sect
ion
with
stee
p st
raig
ht sl
opes
and
you
ng so
ils is
enc
roac
hing
on
man
y of
the
mor
e ge
ntly
und
ulat
ing
high
er p
arts
of th
e la
ndsc
ape.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
HO
RD
ER
N V
AL
EA
rea:
38
km2
120
%2 8%
3 7%4 4%
525
%6
30%
7 6%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
900
– 1
,250
, low
est J
anua
ry (5
0), h
ighe
st Ju
ly (1
30)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
13,
low
est J
uly
(9),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(17)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
uly
Seas
onal
gro
wth
limita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
late
Nov
embe
r - F
ebru
ary
Pale
ocen
e un
cons
olid
ated
sand
, cla
y an
d si
ltG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yLi
mes
tone
, mar
lT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Und
ulat
ing
coas
tal p
lain
s sur
roun
ding
Cap
e O
tway
Elev
atio
n, m
0 - 2
00Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
60D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
22.
1La
nd fo
rmR
ise
Val
ley
floor
Ris
eLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Upp
er sl
ope,
cre
stSl
ope,
rive
r ter
race
Swal
eM
arin
e te
rrac
eSt
eepe
r slo
peU
pper
slop
e, c
rest
Ris
eSl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
5 (1
-15)
7 (1
-15)
0 (0
-1)
25 (1
0-55
)30
(3-4
5)8
(2-2
0)3
(0-7
)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xLi
near
Con
cave
Con
vex
Line
arLi
near
Irre
gula
rN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Clo
sed
scru
bW
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Tall
open
fore
stLo
w w
oodl
and
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. bax
teri
, E.
cype
lloca
rpa,
E.
arom
aphl
oia,
E. v
imin
alis
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. bax
teri
, E.
vim
inal
is, E
. ova
taLe
ptos
perm
um la
nige
rum
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. vim
inal
isE.
obl
iqua
, E.
cype
lloca
rpa,
E. b
axte
riE.
cyp
ello
carp
a, E
.ob
liqua
, E. v
imin
alis
, E.
glob
ulus
E. k
itson
iana
, Mel
aleu
casq
uarr
osa,
Mel
aleu
caer
icifo
liaSO
ILPa
rent
mat
eria
lLa
terit
ized
sedi
men
tsC
lay,
silt
and
sand
Allu
vial
cla
y, si
lt an
dsa
ndFr
eshl
y w
eath
ered
limes
tone
and
mar
lQ
uartz
sand
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndK
aolin
itic
clay
, silt
and
sand
Des
crip
tion
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd re
dgr
adat
iona
l soi
ls w
ithiro
nsto
ne
Yel
low
-bro
wn
grad
atio
nal
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
eG
rey
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Bla
ck c
alca
reou
sgr
adat
iona
l soi
lsR
ed sa
ndy
loam
soils
,un
iform
text
ure
Bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Pale
bro
wn
grad
atio
nal
soils
, wea
k st
ruct
ure
Surf
ace
text
ure
Gra
velly
sand
Fine
sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y cl
ay lo
amLo
amy
sand
Fine
sand
y lo
amSi
lty lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yM
oder
ate
Low
Ver
y lo
wLo
wV
ery
high
Hig
hV
ery
low
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>20.
5>2
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Cle
ared
are
as:
Bee
f cat
tle g
razi
ng; d
airy
farm
ing;
shee
p gr
azin
g; ro
w c
rops
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
for s
awlo
gs a
nd p
ulpw
ood;
sand
ext
ract
ion;
nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
pas
sive
recr
eatio
nSO
ILD
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
,pr
oces
ses,
form
s
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
phos
phor
us fi
xatio
n le
adto
nut
rient
dec
line
Dis
pers
ible
subs
oils
are
pron
e to
gul
ly e
rosi
on.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tabl
ean
d lo
w p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
to w
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
Cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
n st
eep
slop
es su
bjec
t to
perio
dic
satu
ratio
n ar
e pr
one
tola
ndsl
ips
Stee
p sl
opes
with
wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed so
ils a
re p
rone
to so
me
shee
t ero
sion
.H
igh
rain
fall
and
high
perm
eabi
lity
lead
tonu
trien
t dec
line.
Hig
h ra
infa
ll, h
igh
perm
eabi
lity
and
leac
hing
lead
to n
utrie
nt d
eclin
ean
d su
rfac
e co
mpa
ctio
nup
on d
istu
rban
ce.
Low
per
mea
bilit
y an
dhi
gh a
nnua
l rai
nfal
l lea
dto
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
ilco
mpa
ctio
n.
7.22
Ju
nctio
n Tr
ack
Land
Sys
tem
The
junc
tion
betw
een
Cre
tace
ous
and
Terti
ary
sedi
men
ts o
n th
e w
este
rn p
erip
hery
of t
he O
tway
Ran
ge is
cle
arly
refle
cted
in
vege
tatio
n ch
ange
s. H
owev
er, t
he j
unct
ion
is d
isco
ntin
uous
and
the
re i
s a
belt
of l
and
whe
re t
hehi
gher
par
ts o
f th
e la
ndsc
ape
are
capp
ed b
y Te
rtiar
y sa
nds
with
onl
y oc
casi
onal
are
as o
f si
lts a
nd c
lays
der
ived
from
Cre
tace
ous
sedi
men
ts.
The
low
er s
lope
s ar
e of
ten
stee
per,
with
out
crop
s of
Cre
tace
ous
sand
ston
es a
ndm
udst
ones
. Th
us, t
he h
ighe
r ar
eas
carr
y lo
w w
oodl
ands
of
Euca
lypt
us n
itida
and
E. b
axte
ri, w
hile
the
low
ersl
opes
supp
ort o
pen
fore
sts o
r eve
n ta
ll op
en fo
rest
s of E
. obl
iqua
and
E. c
ypel
loca
rpa.
This
land
scap
e pa
ttern
is s
omew
hat s
imila
r to
the
Red
wat
er C
reek
land
sys
tem
. Th
e m
ajor
dis
tingu
ishi
ng fe
atur
eis
that
the
posi
tion
in th
e la
ndsc
ape
at w
hich
the
Cre
tace
ous
sedi
men
ts o
utcr
op is
ver
y va
riabl
e.
The
depo
sit o
fsa
nd a
bove
the
Cre
tace
ous
sedi
men
ts v
arie
s in
thic
knes
s, bu
t is
usua
lly d
eep
enou
gh fo
r the
nat
ive
vege
tatio
n t b
ede
pend
ent u
pon
the
sand
for i
ts n
utrie
nt su
pply
.
Mos
t par
ts o
f th
is la
nd s
yste
m r
emai
n un
clea
red
and
unus
ed.
Som
e sa
nd a
nd g
rave
l ext
ract
ion
pits
hav
e be
enes
tabl
ishe
d in
the
past
. Pi
nes h
ave
been
est
ablis
hed
on sm
all a
reas
adj
oini
ng p
rivat
ely
held
land
.
Mos
t slo
pes s
uppo
rt lo
w w
oodl
ands
of E
. niti
da, b
ut o
utcr
ops o
f C
reta
ceou
s sed
imen
ts c
an b
e re
cogn
ised
by
the
incr
ease
s soi
l fer
tility
an
d th
e ac
com
pany
ing
chan
ge to
ope
n fo
rest
s or t
all o
pen
fore
sts o
fE
. obl
iqua
and
E. c
ypel
loca
rpa.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
JUN
CT
ION
TR
AC
KA
rea:
41
km2
130
%2 5%
320
%4
30%
515
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
1,1
00 –
1,4
00, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(55)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
150)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
12,
Low
est J
uly
(7),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(17)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) M
ay –
Sep
tem
ber
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n la
te N
ovem
ber –
mid
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPa
leoc
ene
unco
nsol
idat
ed sa
nd, g
rave
l, si
lt an
d cl
ayLo
wer
Cre
tace
ous s
ands
tone
and
mud
ston
eT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Dis
sect
ed h
ills w
ith b
road
gen
tle h
ill c
appi
ngs o
n w
este
rn p
erip
hery
of t
he O
tway
Ran
geEl
evat
ion,
m30
- 27
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
75D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
with
som
e ra
dial
are
asD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
3.5
Land
form
Hill
Land
form
ele
men
tC
rest
, slo
peD
rain
age
line
Low
er sl
ope
Cre
st, s
lope
Stee
p sl
ope
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %15
(2-3
5)3
(0-5
)9
(3-1
2)12
(2-2
5)30
(20-
55)
Slop
e sh
ape
Con
vex
Con
cave
Line
arC
onve
xLi
near
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eLo
w w
oodl
and
Clo
sed
scru
bLo
w o
pen
woo
dlan
dO
pen
fore
stTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. n
itida
, E. b
axte
riLe
ptos
perm
um ju
nipe
rinu
m,
Mel
aleu
ca sq
uarr
osa
E. b
axte
ri, E
. niti
daE.
bax
teri
, E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, E.
nitid
aE.
obl
iqua
, E. c
ypel
loca
rpa
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Qua
rtz sa
nd a
nd g
rave
lA
lluvi
al sa
nd, p
lant
rem
ains
Qua
rtz sa
nd a
nd g
rave
lC
lay,
silt,
sand
and
gra
vel
In-s
itu w
eath
ered
rock
Des
crip
tion
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eB
lack
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils w
ith h
ardp
ans,
unifo
rm te
xtur
eY
ello
w g
rada
tiona
l soi
ls, w
eak
stru
ctur
eB
row
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls
Surf
ace
text
ure
Loam
y sa
ndSi
lty lo
amLo
amy
sand
Sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
clay
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Ver
y hi
ghH
igh
Ver
y lo
wH
igh
Mod
erat
eD
epth
, m>2
>21.
1>2
1.5
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: Sa
nd a
nd g
rave
l ext
ract
ion;
har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r pos
ts, p
oles
, fue
l and
som
e sa
wlo
gs o
n m
ore
ferti
le so
ils; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; w
ater
supp
ly p
rote
ctio
nSO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es,
form
s
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
d hi
ghpe
rmea
bilit
y le
ad to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Ste
eper
slop
es w
ithco
mpa
cted
soils
are
pro
ne to
shee
t,ril
l and
scou
r gul
ly e
rosi
on.
Hig
h w
ater
tabl
es le
ad to
wat
erlo
ggin
g.H
ardp
ans r
estri
ct v
ertic
al d
rain
age
lead
ing
to se
ason
al w
ater
logg
ing.
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y, w
ithso
me
leac
hing
of p
erm
eabl
e hi
ghac
idic
surf
aces
, lea
ds to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e. W
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
soils
on
stee
per s
lope
s are
pro
ne to
shee
ter
osio
n.
Cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
n st
eepe
r slo
pes
subj
ect t
o pe
riodi
c sa
tura
tion
are
pron
e to
land
slip
s. S
oils
of
mod
erat
e pe
rmea
bilit
y on
stee
psl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
.
7.23
K
awar
ren
Land
Sys
tem
Rol
ling
hills
with
occ
asio
nal s
teep
slo
pes
and
broa
d dr
aina
ge li
nes
are
foun
d in
the
vici
nity
of
Kaw
arre
n.
The
land
scap
e ha
s se
vera
l co
mpo
nent
s, in
clud
ing
som
e ar
eas
of r
ed s
tony
bro
wn
grad
atio
nal
soils
dev
elop
ed o
nou
tcro
ps o
f ba
salt.
H
owev
er,
old
soils
on
deep
ly w
eath
ered
Ter
tiary
cla
y an
d sa
nd t
end
to d
omin
ate
the
land
scap
e.
Oth
er l
and
syst
ems
with
sim
ilar
soils
and
par
ent
mat
eria
l ar
e fo
und
to t
he e
ast
and
wes
t of
thi
s la
nd s
yste
m.
How
ever
, the
Kaw
arre
n la
nd s
yste
m is
a ro
lling
land
scap
e w
here
as th
e ot
hers
are
gen
tly u
ndul
atin
g to
flat
. Th
eB
aron
garo
ok la
nd s
yste
m to
the
east
has
a s
light
ly lo
wer
rain
fall
and
Euca
lypt
us b
axte
ri h
as n
ot b
een
obse
rved
inth
is a
rea.
Cle
arin
g ha
s be
en c
omm
on a
nd th
e m
ain
land
use
s ar
e da
iry fa
rmin
g an
d gr
azin
g of
bee
f cat
tle a
nd s
heep
. So
me
fore
sted
are
as, s
uch
as th
e ol
d B
eech
For
est r
ailw
ay e
scar
pmen
t, ar
e po
pula
r for
bus
hwal
king
. Pi
ne e
stab
lishm
ent
is c
omm
on o
n pr
ivat
e la
nd.
Shee
t ero
sion
and
land
slip
s hav
e oc
curr
ed o
n th
e st
eepe
r slo
pes.
Mos
t of t
he c
lear
ed a
reas
are
use
d fo
r dai
ry fa
rmin
g.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
KA
WA
RR
EN
Are
a: 4
1 km
21
15%
210
%3
60%
410
%5 5%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 8
50 –
1,1
00, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(40)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
120)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
12,
low
est J
uly
(8),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(18)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– Se
ptem
ber
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n N
ovem
ber -
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPa
leoc
ene
unco
nsol
idat
ed c
lay,
silt
and
sand
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eR
ollin
g hi
lls in
the
north
ern
uppe
r rea
ches
of t
he G
ellib
rand
Riv
er c
atch
men
tEl
evat
ion,
m75
- 21
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
60D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
with
som
e ra
dial
are
asD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
2.6
Land
form
Hill
Val
ley
floor
Land
form
ele
men
tSt
eep
slop
eC
rest
, upp
er sl
ope
Cre
st, s
lope
Slop
e-
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %20
(10-
45)
12 (3
-15)
9 (1
-15)
13 (6
-15)
1 (0
-2)
Slop
e sh
ape
Line
arC
onve
xC
onve
xLi
near
Con
cave
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eO
pen
fore
stW
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Low
woo
dlan
dD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
obl
iqua
, E. r
adia
ta, E
. vim
inal
isE.
rad
iata
, E. o
bliq
ua, E
. niti
da, E
.ov
ata
E. o
bliq
ua,
. ra
diat
a, E
. vi
min
alis
;oc
casi
onal
ly E
. ova
taE.
ar
omap
hloi
a,
E.
obliq
ua,
E.ra
diat
a, o
ccas
iona
lly E
. ova
taE.
ov
ata,
E.
ra
diat
a,
Mel
aleu
casq
uarr
osa
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndC
ollu
vial
sa
nd
on
unco
nsol
idat
edcl
ayC
lay,
silt
and
sand
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndA
lluvi
al c
lay,
sand
and
silt
Des
crip
tion
Yel
low
gr
adat
iona
l so
ils,
wea
kst
ruct
ure
Gre
y sa
nd
soils
, st
ruct
ured
cl
ayun
derla
yM
ottle
d ye
llow
and
red
gra
datio
nal
soils
Yel
low
-bro
wn
grad
atio
nal
soils
,co
arse
stru
ctur
eG
rey
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yH
igh
Low
Mod
erat
eLo
wV
ery
low
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>2>2
>2L
AN
D U
SEU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r saw
logs
, pos
ts a
nd p
oles
; sof
twoo
d pl
anta
tions
; nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
pas
sive
recr
eatio
n; w
ater
supp
ly; f
ores
t gra
zing
.C
lear
ed a
reas
: B
eef c
attle
and
shee
p gr
azin
g; d
airy
farm
ing;
wat
er su
pply
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
,fo
rms
Cla
y su
bsoi
ls
on
stee
p sl
opes
subj
ect
to p
erio
dic
satu
ratio
n ar
epr
one
to la
ndsl
ips.
Ste
ep s
lope
s ar
epr
one
to sh
eet a
nd ri
ll er
osio
n.
Low
sub
soil
perm
eabi
litie
s le
ads
tose
ason
al
wat
erlo
ggin
g.
Lo
win
here
nt
ferti
lity
and
perm
eabl
esu
rfac
e ho
rizon
s le
ad
to
nutri
ent
decl
ine.
Low
in
here
nt
ferti
lity
and
phos
phor
us f
ixat
ion
lead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e.
Dis
pers
ible
cl
ay
subs
oils
of
lo
wpe
rmea
bilit
y ar
e pr
one
to
gully
eros
ion.
C
lay
subs
oils
on
stee
per
slop
es s
ubje
ct to
per
iodi
c sa
tura
tion
are
pron
e to
land
slip
s.
Low
per
mea
bilit
ies
and
high
wat
erta
bles
le
ad
to
seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
g.
Hig
h di
scha
rge
rate
sal
ong
wat
erco
urse
s le
ad
to
som
eflo
odin
g an
d gu
lly e
rosi
on.
7.24
K
enne
dys C
reek
Lan
d Sy
stem
From
Prin
ceto
wn,
stre
tchi
ng n
orth
war
ds, a
n un
dula
ting
plai
n ca
n b
foun
d ex
tend
ing
up in
to th
e ca
tchm
ent o
fK
enne
dys
Cre
ek.
The
sout
hern
par
ts c
onsi
st o
f a s
erie
s of
nor
th-n
or’-w
est a
nd s
outh
-sou
’-ea
st-o
rient
ed ri
dges
,bu
t the
maj
or p
art o
f the
land
syst
em is
a p
lain
with
den
driti
c dr
aina
ge p
atte
rn.
The
high
er p
arts
of
the
land
scap
e ha
ve d
eepl
y w
eath
ered
soi
ls w
ith y
ello
w a
nd r
ed m
ottle
d.
Mos
t sl
opes
,ho
wev
er, c
arry
hea
vier
-text
ured
soi
ls w
ith d
ark-
colo
ured
and
coa
rsel
y st
ruct
ured
sub
soils
. Th
ey e
xten
d up
toth
e cr
ests
and
ridg
es in
man
y ar
eas;
less
wea
ther
ed p
rofil
es o
ccup
y th
e lo
wer
par
ts o
f the
land
scap
e.
This
pat
tern
rese
mbl
es th
at fo
und
in m
any
othe
r lan
d sy
stem
s on
Terti
ary
sedi
men
ts.
The
dist
ingu
ishi
ng fe
atur
eshe
re a
re th
e do
min
ance
of t
he c
oars
ely
stru
ctur
ed so
ils in
the
land
scap
e, a
nd th
e ab
senc
e of
late
ritic
cap
ping
s.
Dai
ry f
arm
ing
is t
he m
ain
land
use
, an
d on
ly s
mal
l ar
eas
still
rem
ain
unde
r na
tive
fore
st.
The
coa
rsel
yst
ruct
ured
sub
soils
are
dis
pers
ible
and
gul
ly a
nd t
unne
l er
osio
n ha
ve o
ccur
red.
O
n re
cent
ly c
lear
ed a
reas
,pa
rticu
lar c
are
is n
eede
d to
pre
vent
gul
lies b
eing
initi
ated
. La
ndsl
ips a
lso
occu
r on
thes
e so
ils.
Onl
y a
few
fore
sted
are
as re
mai
n, d
airy
farm
ing
bein
g th
e m
ain
land
use
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
KE
NN
ED
YS
CR
EE
KA
rea:
95
km2
120
%2
65%
3 6%4 9%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 9
5 –
1,05
0, lo
wes
t Jan
uary
(40)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
130)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
13,
low
est J
uly
(8.5
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
8)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e –
Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n N
ovem
ber –
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yM
ioce
ne u
ncon
solid
ated
mar
ine
clay
, silt
and
sand
Rec
ent a
lluvi
umT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Und
ulat
ing
plai
nEl
evat
ion,
m15
– 1
50Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
70D
rain
age
patte
rnPr
edom
inan
tly d
endr
itic
with
som
e tre
llis
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
24.
0La
nd fo
rmG
entle
rise
Allu
vial
terr
ace
Land
form
ele
men
tU
pper
slop
e, c
rest
Mid
dle
slop
eLo
wer
slop
e-
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %9
(4-1
5)10
(4-2
0)10
(7-3
5)5
(1-9
)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xSt
raig
htC
onca
ve(V
aria
ble
– m
ostly
stra
ight
)N
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Woo
dlan
dD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
obl
iqua
, E. v
imin
alis
, occ
asio
nally
E.
ovat
aE.
aro
map
hloi
a, E
. vim
inal
is, E
. obl
iqua
, E.
radi
ata,
E. o
vata
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, occ
asio
nally
E.
vim
inal
isE.
ova
ta, E
. obl
iqua
, E. v
imin
alis
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Cla
y an
d si
ltC
lay
and
silt
Cla
y an
d si
ltA
lluvi
al c
lay,
silt
and
sand
Des
crip
tion
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd re
d gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsY
ello
w-b
row
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls, c
oars
est
ruct
ure
Gre
y-br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd g
rey
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Fine
sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Mod
erat
eLo
wM
oder
ate
Low
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Cle
ared
are
as:
Dai
ry fa
rmin
g; b
eef c
attle
and
shee
p gr
azin
g; w
ater
supp
lyU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Wat
er su
pply
; har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
nSO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZAR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
, for
ms
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity,
pho
spho
rus f
ixat
ion
and
stee
p sl
opes
lead
to sh
eet e
rosi
on a
ndnu
trien
t dec
line.
Hig
h di
sper
sibl
e cl
ay su
bsoi
ls a
re p
rone
togu
lly a
nd tu
nnel
ero
sion
. Pe
riodi
csa
tura
tion
lead
s to
land
slip
s. S
teep
er sl
opes
are
pron
e to
shee
t ero
sion
of n
utrie
nt-r
ich
surf
ace
horiz
ons.
Stee
per s
lope
s are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
.D
ispe
rsib
le c
lay
subs
oils
on
mod
erat
e st
eep
slop
es a
re p
rone
to g
ully
ero
sion
.
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
f low
perm
eabi
lity
are
pron
e to
gul
ly e
rosi
on.
Hig
h w
ater
tabl
es le
ad to
seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
il co
mpa
ctio
n.
7.25
Lo
rne
Land
Sys
tem
From
Cin
ema
Poin
t to
Moo
nlig
ht H
ead,
muc
h of
the
coas
tline
con
sist
s of
ste
ep s
lope
s, co
asta
l clif
fs a
nd ro
cky
shor
e pl
atfo
rms.
The
se c
oast
al m
argi
ns o
f the
Ran
ge h
ave
a m
ilder
mar
itim
e cl
imat
e th
an th
ose
area
s fu
rther
inla
nd, a
nd re
ceiv
e a
low
er ra
infa
ll. I
nlan
d fr
om th
e co
ast t
he to
pogr
aphy
con
sist
s of
ste
eply
dis
sect
ed s
purs
and
ridge
s with
clif
fs a
nd w
ater
falls
.
The
stee
pest
slo
pes
have
sha
llow
sto
ny s
oils
with
are
as o
f ro
ck o
utcr
op.
Mos
t sl
opes
, ho
wev
er,
have
mod
erat
ely
deep
dup
lex
soils
. O
n in
land
slo
pes
with
a s
outh
erly
asp
ect,
no s
trong
pro
file
diff
eren
tiatio
n ha
soc
curr
ed a
nd p
rofil
es a
re g
rada
tiona
l. T
all o
pen
fore
sts,
with
und
erst
orey
spe
cies
suc
h as
Bed
ford
ia s
alic
ina,
Ole
aria
spp.
and
Pom
ader
is sp
p., o
ccup
y th
ese
site
s. O
n th
e du
plex
soils
the
trees
are
low
er w
ith a
mor
e op
enun
ders
tore
y.
Larg
e tra
cts o
f thi
s la
nd s
yste
m h
ave
been
cle
ared
and
dai
ry fa
rmin
g is
a m
ajor
land
use
. Th
e st
eep
slop
es a
ndde
ep v
alle
ys c
reat
e se
vere
man
agem
ent p
robl
ems.
The
coa
stal
are
as b
etw
een
Cin
ema
Poin
t and
Apo
llo B
ayha
ve b
een
popu
lar
for
resi
dent
ial
deve
lopm
ent.
Lan
dslip
s ar
e ve
ry c
omm
on a
nd s
heet
ero
sion
has
bee
nw
ides
prea
d.
Sitin
g of
road
s, fe
nces
and
acc
ess t
rack
s in
this
rugg
ed te
rrai
n cr
eate
s man
y pr
oble
ms,
and
man
agem
ent i
s diff
icul
t
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
LO
RN
EA
rea:
220
km
21 7%
2 8%3
35%
4 5%5
35%
610
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
850
– 1
,200
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
5), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (12
0)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 13
, low
est J
uly
(9),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(17)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
uly
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n m
id N
ovem
ber –
mid
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yLo
wer
Cre
tace
ous f
elds
path
ic sa
ndst
one
and
mud
ston
eT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Dee
ply
diss
ecte
d hi
lls o
f the
Otw
ay R
ange
Elev
atio
n, m
0 –
400
Loca
l rel
ief,
m15
0D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
with
som
e ra
dial
are
asD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
4.0
Land
form
Coa
stal
clif
fH
illLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Stee
p lo
wer
slop
eU
pper
gen
tler s
lope
Nor
th- a
nd w
est-f
acin
g sl
opes
,up
per s
lope
Low
er sl
op, d
rain
age
line
Sout
h- a
nd e
ast-f
acin
g sl
opes
Stee
pest
slop
e
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %60
(30-
75)
30 (1
5-45
)45
(5-5
5)20
(1-3
5)45
(5-6
5)60
(20-
70)
Slop
e sh
ape
Line
arC
onve
xLi
near
Con
cave
Line
arLi
near
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eO
pen
scru
bW
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Tall
open
fore
stTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Woo
dlan
dD
omin
ant s
peci
esC
asua
rina
stri
cta,
Cas
sini
aac
ulea
ta, E
. obl
iqua
, Aly
xia
buxi
folia
, Leu
copo
gon
parv
iflor
us
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. glo
bulu
s, E.
radi
ata
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. sid
erox
ylon
, E.
radi
ata,
E. c
ypel
loca
rpa,
E.
glob
ulus
E. o
vata
, E. g
lobu
lus,
E.cy
pello
carp
a, A
caci
am
elan
oxyl
on
E. c
ypel
loca
rpa,
E. g
lobu
lus,
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. ova
taE.
radi
ata,
E. s
ider
oxyl
on, E
.cy
pello
carp
a oc
casi
onal
ly E
.vi
min
alis
, E. g
lobu
lus
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Col
luvi
umIn
-situ
wea
ther
ed ro
ckIn
-situ
wea
ther
ed ro
ckA
lluvi
umIn
-situ
wea
ther
ed ro
ckC
ollu
vium
Des
crip
tion
Ston
y br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Bro
wn
dupl
ex so
ilsB
row
n du
plex
soils
Bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
, wea
kst
ruct
ure
Bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Ston
y br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Fine
sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
clay
loam
Fine
sand
y cl
ay lo
amSi
lty lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
clay
loam
Fine
sand
y lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yV
ery
high
Mod
erat
eM
oder
ate
Hig
hH
igh
Ver
y hi
ghD
epth
, m0.
30.
90.
9>2
0.9
0.5
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
for s
awlo
gs, p
osts
and
pol
es; s
oftw
ood
plan
tatio
ns; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; a
ctiv
e an
d pa
ssiv
e re
crea
tion;
land
scap
e co
nser
vatio
n; w
ater
supp
ly.
Min
or c
lear
ed a
reas
: D
airy
farm
ing
and
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng o
n m
ainl
y un
impr
oved
pas
ture
s; re
side
ntia
l.SO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
,pr
oces
ses,
form
s
Nat
ive
vege
tatio
n is
sens
itive
to sa
lt pr
unin
g an
ddi
stur
banc
e. D
ispe
rsib
le so
ilson
stee
p sl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
. M
arin
e un
der-
cutti
ng a
nd sa
tura
tion
of so
ilsle
ad to
land
slip
s.
Nat
ive
vege
tatio
n is
sens
itive
to d
istu
rban
ce a
nd to
salt
prun
ing.
Dis
pers
ible
soils
on
mod
erat
e sl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
. Pe
riodi
csa
tura
tion
of d
ispe
rsib
le c
lay
subs
oils
lead
s to
land
slip
s and
slum
ping
of r
oad
batte
rs.
Dry
asp
ect,
stee
p sl
opes
and
wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
esle
ad to
shee
t ero
sion
. C
lay
subs
oils
on
stee
p sl
opes
subj
ect t
o pe
riodi
c sa
tura
tion
are
pron
e to
land
slip
s.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed so
ilsre
ceiv
ing
run-
off a
re p
rone
tosc
our g
ully
ing,
silta
tion,
flood
ing,
and
com
pact
ion
ofsu
rfac
e st
ruct
ure.
Stee
p sl
opes
and
wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
es le
ad to
shee
t ero
sion
. C
lay
subs
oils
on st
eep
slop
es su
bjec
t to
perio
dic
satu
ratio
n ar
e pr
one
to la
ndsl
ips.
Ston
y sh
allo
w so
ils o
f wea
kst
ruct
ure,
and
low
wat
er-
hold
ing
capa
city
on
stee
psl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
ter
osio
n an
d la
ndsl
ides
.
7.26
M
oggs
Cre
ek L
and
Syst
em
The
terr
ain
inla
nd f
rom
Eas
tern
Vie
w a
nd A
ireys
Inl
et c
onsi
sts
of s
purs
and
rid
ges
with
ste
ep s
lope
s an
d de
epva
lleys
. Th
e ou
tcro
ppin
g Te
rtiar
y se
dim
ents
are
par
tly u
ncon
solid
ated
, but
man
y be
ds a
re c
ompo
sed
of q
uartz
itic
sand
ston
es a
nd si
ltsto
ne.
The
low
er p
arts
of t
he la
ndsc
ape
ofte
n po
sses
s out
crop
s of C
reta
ceou
s sed
imen
ts.
Ope
n fo
rest
s of
Euc
alyp
tus
obliq
ua, E
. sid
erox
ylon
and
E. r
adia
ta o
ccur
ove
r m
ost o
f th
e la
ndsc
ape
on d
uple
xso
ils.
The
drie
r no
rth-
and
wes
t-fac
ing
slop
es a
nd s
teep
slo
pes
carr
y w
oodl
ands
on
shal
low
sto
ny s
oils
. Th
eC
reta
ceou
s out
crop
s can
be
reco
gniz
ed b
y th
e in
crea
se in
und
erst
orey
cov
er a
nd th
e oc
curr
ence
of s
peci
es su
ch a
sAc
acia
muc
rona
ta a
nd C
assin
ia lo
ngifo
lia.
Som
e se
lect
ive
logg
ing
of th
ese
hills
is u
nder
take
n, b
ut th
e m
ain
use
is f
or r
ecre
atio
n su
ch a
s bu
shw
alki
ng a
ndpi
cnic
king
. Th
e st
eep
slop
es a
re p
opul
ar w
ith tr
ail-b
ike-
rider
s, an
d th
is o
ften
resu
lts in
sev
ere
dam
age
to th
eve
geta
tion
and
soils
.
The
valle
y of
Pai
nkal
ac C
reek
rem
ains
vir
tual
ly u
ncle
ared
, and
is
popu
lar w
ith b
ushw
alke
rs a
nd p
icni
cker
s fro
m n
earb
y co
asta
l res
orts
.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
MO
GG
S C
RE
EK
Are
a: 7
4 km
21
30%
220
%3 7%
425
%5 8%
610
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
800
– 1
,050
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
0), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (11
0)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
3, lo
wes
t Jul
y (8
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
7)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) mid
June
– m
id A
ugus
tSe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
mid
Nov
embe
r – m
id M
arch
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Pale
ocen
e un
cons
olid
ated
cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
nd; s
ome
silic
a ce
men
ted
quar
tz sa
ndst
one
and
silts
tone
Low
er C
reta
ceou
s san
dsto
nean
d m
udst
one
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eD
eepl
y di
ssec
ted
hills
Elev
atio
n, m
0- 2
40Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
100
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
2.1
Land
form
Hill
Val
ley
floor
Hill
Land
form
ele
men
tC
rest
, nor
th a
nd w
est s
lope
sLo
wer
slop
e, fa
nA
lluvi
al te
rrac
eSo
uth
and
east
slop
esSt
eep
north
slop
eSt
eep
low
er sl
ope
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %18
(6-4
5)7
(1-1
4)1
(0-2
)18
(10-
40)
55 (4
0-65
)45
(30-
60)
Slop
e sh
ape
Con
vex
Con
cave
Line
arC
onve
xLi
near
Line
arN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Woo
dlan
dO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stLo
w w
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. ra
diat
a, E
. obl
iqua
, E.
baxt
eri,
E. si
dero
xylo
nE.
side
roxy
lon,
E.
cype
lloca
rpa,
E. o
bliq
ua, E
.ba
xter
i
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. ova
ta, E
.si
dero
xylo
nE.
obl
iqua
, E. c
ypel
loca
rpa
E. n
itida
, E. o
bliq
ua,
Cas
uari
na li
ttora
lisE.
obl
iqua
, E. r
adia
ta, E
.si
dero
xylo
n
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndA
lluvi
al c
lay,
silt
and
sand
Allu
vial
cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndC
lay,
silt
and
sand
Mai
nly
quar
tziti
c sa
ndst
one
and
silts
tone
Feld
spat
hic
sand
ston
e an
dm
udst
one
Des
crip
tion
Red
-yel
low
dup
lex
soils
Yel
low
gra
datio
nal s
oils
,w
eak
stru
ctur
eY
ello
w-b
row
n so
dic
dupl
exso
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure
Red
-yel
low
dup
lex
soils
Ston
y ye
llow
gra
datio
nal s
oils
Bro
wn
dupl
ex so
ils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Fine
sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Gra
velly
sand
y lo
amLo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yM
oder
ate
Hig
hLo
wM
oder
ate
Ver
y hi
ghM
oder
ate
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>2>2
0.7
0.9
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: N
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; h
ardw
ood
fore
stry
; act
ive
and
pass
ive
recr
eatio
n.C
lear
ed a
reas
: R
esid
entia
l; ac
tive
recr
eatio
nSO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
,pr
oces
ses,
form
s
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
eso
ils o
n st
eep
slop
es a
re p
rone
to sh
eet e
rosi
on a
ndco
mpa
ctio
n. C
lay
subs
oils
on
stee
p sl
opes
are
pro
ne to
land
slip
s.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed so
ilsre
ceiv
ing
surf
ace
run-
off f
rom
adja
cent
are
as a
re p
rone
tosc
our g
ully
ing,
silta
tion
and
flood
ing.
Wea
k su
rfac
e st
ruct
ure
ispr
one
to c
ompa
ctio
n le
adin
gto
redu
ced
perm
eabi
lity
and
incr
ease
d ov
erla
nd fl
ow.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
eso
ils o
n st
eep
slop
es a
re p
rone
to sh
eet e
rosi
on a
ndco
mpa
ctio
n. C
lay
subs
oils
on
stee
p sl
opes
are
pro
ne to
land
slip
s.
Ston
y sh
allo
w so
ils w
ith w
eak
stru
ctur
e an
d lo
w w
ater
-ho
ldin
g ca
paci
ty o
n dr
y st
eep
slop
es a
re p
rone
to sh
eet
eros
ion
and
land
slid
es.
Stee
p sl
opes
and
wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
es le
ad to
shee
t ero
sion
. C
lay
subs
oils
on st
eep
slop
es su
bjec
t to
perio
dic
satu
ratio
n ar
e pr
one
to la
ndsl
ips.
7.27
M
oole
ric
Land
Sys
tem
The
ston
y ris
es b
etw
een
Mou
nt G
ellib
rand
and
the
Bar
on R
iver
wer
e am
ong
the
first
are
as g
raze
d in
this
par
t of
Vic
toria
. Th
e st
ony
rises
are
bot
h in
terc
onne
cted
and
solit
ary
and
they
slop
e so
uthw
ards
aw
ay fr
om M
ount
Gel
libra
nd.
The
maj
or a
reas
is fo
und
north
of t
he P
rince
s Hig
hway
, but
occ
asio
nal v
ents
or o
ld c
ones
als
o oc
cur
furth
er so
uth.
The
natu
re o
f the
nat
ive
vege
tatio
n is
diff
icul
t to
dete
rmin
e. M
any
early
repo
rts d
escr
ibe
the
area
as a
tree
less
plai
n, b
ut th
ere
are
occa
sion
al sp
ecim
ens o
f Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
, A. i
mpl
exa
and
even
Euc
alyp
tus v
imin
alis
inro
adsi
de re
serv
es.
Thus
, the
re m
ay h
ave
orig
inal
ly b
een
a lo
w o
pen
woo
dlan
d pr
ior t
o se
ttlem
ent,
whi
ch h
asdi
sapp
eare
d fo
llow
ing
graz
ing
and
burn
ing.
Sto
ny ri
se la
ndsc
apes
in o
ther
par
ts o
f Vic
toria
pos
sess
woo
dlan
d or
low
woo
dlan
d co
mm
uniti
es.
Soil
nutri
ent l
evel
s are
hig
h on
thes
e ba
salt
outc
rops
, esp
ecia
lly in
the
less
wea
ther
ed so
ils.
The
abun
danc
e of
rock
floa
ters
and
out
crop
s mak
es c
ultiv
atio
n di
ffic
ult e
ven
on in
fille
d sw
amps
bet
wee
n th
e ris
es.
Thus
gra
zing
,of
ten
on u
nim
prov
ed p
astu
res,
is th
e m
ain
land
use
.
Dep
ress
ions
bet
wee
n th
e st
ony
rise
s are
infil
led
with
bas
altic
cla
y an
d or
gani
c cl
ay, b
oth
of w
hich
hav
e lo
w p
erm
eabi
lity,
lead
ing
to w
ater
logg
ing.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
MO
OL
ER
ICA
rea:
46
km2
1 5%2 9%
3 7%4
45%
525
%6 5%
7 4%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
550
– 6
00, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(25)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
60)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
13,
low
est J
uly
(8),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(19)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
- Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
limita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
late
Sep
tem
ber –
Apr
ilG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPl
eist
ocen
e ba
salt,
scor
ia a
nd tu
ffT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Ston
y ris
e, u
ndul
atin
g pl
ain
with
occ
asio
nal s
teep
hill
s (vo
lcan
ic c
ones
)El
evat
ion,
m 1
20 –
250
Loca
l rel
ief,
m5
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
0.2
Land
form
Ston
y ris
ePl
ain
Con
eLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Bro
ad c
rest
Stee
p sl
opes
, nar
row
cre
stA
pron
Gen
tle sl
ope
Dep
ress
ion
Ban
k-
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %2
(0-3
)10
(3-1
5)5
(3-9
)1
(0-3
)0
(0-3
)1
(0-2
)10
(1-2
5)Sl
ope
shap
eLi
near
Con
vex
Con
cave
Line
arC
onca
veC
onve
xLi
near
NA
TIV
EV
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
ePo
ssib
ly lo
w w
oodl
and
Poss
ibly
sedg
elan
dPo
ssib
ly lo
w w
oodl
and
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
Acac
ia m
elan
oxyl
on, A
. im
plex
a, E
. vim
inal
isJu
ncus
spp.
, Ran
uncu
lus
spp.
, Car
ex sp
p., S
cirp
usca
loca
rpus
, Sch
oenu
sap
ogon
Acac
ia m
elan
oxyl
on, A
. im
plex
a, E
. vim
inal
is
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Bas
alt
Fres
hly
wea
ther
ing
rock
Col
luvi
um, m
ainl
y cl
ayB
asal
tA
lluvi
um, p
lant
rem
ains
Bas
alt
Scor
ia, t
uff,
basa
ltD
escr
iptio
nG
rey
calc
areo
us so
dic
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
est
ruct
ure
Ston
y re
d-br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Bla
ck c
alca
reou
s cla
yso
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eG
rey
calc
areo
us so
dic
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
est
ruct
ure
Gre
y ca
lcar
eous
sodi
ccl
ay so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eG
rey
calc
areo
us so
dic
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
est
ruct
ure
Ston
y re
d-br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Cla
y lo
amLo
amC
lay
Fine
sand
y lo
amC
lay
Fine
sand
y lo
amC
lay
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Ver
y lo
wH
igh
Ver
y lo
wV
ery
low
Ver
y lo
wV
ery
low
Hig
hD
epth
, m0.
20.
21.
21.
9>2
>20.
9L
AN
D U
SEC
lear
ed a
reas
: Sh
eep
and
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng; s
ome
min
or c
ropp
ing
betw
een
ston
y ris
es.
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es,
proc
esse
s, fo
rms
Soils
of l
ow p
erm
eabi
lity
are
pron
e to
wat
erlo
ggin
g.St
ony
shal
low
soils
with
low
wat
er-h
oldi
ngca
paci
ty, o
ver r
ock
laye
rson
stee
p sl
opes
, are
pro
neto
shee
t ero
sion
.
Soils
of l
ow p
erm
eabi
lity
are
pron
e to
wat
erlo
ggin
g.
Sodi
c cl
ay su
bsoi
ls o
f low
perm
eabi
lity
with
seas
onal
ly h
igh
wat
erta
bles
are
pro
ne to
soil
salti
ng.
Soils
of l
ow p
erm
eabi
lity
and
with
sodi
c cl
aysu
bsoi
ls a
re p
rone
tow
ater
logg
ing,
soil
com
pact
ion
and
soil
salti
ng.
Min
or h
azar
ds.
Ston
y sh
allo
w so
ils w
ithlo
w w
ater
-hol
ding
capa
city
, ove
r roc
k la
yers
on st
eep
slop
es, a
re p
rone
to sh
eet e
rosi
on.
7.28
M
ount
Mac
kenz
ie L
and
Syst
em
Stee
ply
diss
ecte
d hi
lls a
but e
ither
sid
e of
the
mid
dle
and
low
er re
ache
s of
the
Gel
libra
nd R
iver
. D
isse
ctio
n in
toTe
rtiar
y cl
ay, s
ilt a
nd sa
nd h
as re
sulte
d in
stee
p sl
opes
and
nar
row
dra
inag
e lin
es.
The
finel
y te
xtur
ed T
ertia
ry s
edim
ents
out
crop
ping
in th
ese
area
s ha
s re
sulte
d in
hea
vier
-text
ured
soi
ls th
an th
ose
foun
d in
the
neig
hbou
ring
Cha
pple
Val
e la
nd s
yste
m.
Moi
stur
e st
ress
and
fer
tility
are
not
as
limiti
ng to
pla
ntgr
owth
, so
open
fore
sts
of E
ucal
yptu
s ob
liqua
and
E. b
axte
ri h
ave
deve
lope
d on
mos
t site
s. In
clud
ed in
the
land
syst
em a
re d
isse
cted
rive
r ter
race
s al
ong
the
valle
y of
the
Gel
libra
nd R
iver
and
thes
e po
sses
s w
ell-d
evel
oped
soi
lsw
ith c
oars
e-st
ruct
ured
sub
soils
. Th
e hi
gher
par
ts o
f th
e la
ndsc
ape
may
als
o po
sses
s su
ch s
oils
whe
re K
enne
dys
Cre
ek la
nd sy
stem
is a
djac
ent,
or sa
nd so
ils w
here
the
Cha
pple
Val
e la
nd sy
stem
is n
earb
y.
Mos
t are
as r
emai
n fo
rest
ed b
ut a
reas
abu
tting
the
flood
pla
ins
have
bee
n cl
eare
d to
pro
vide
win
ter
past
ures
for
dairy
cat
tle.
Pine
s ha
ve b
een
esta
blis
hed
on p
revi
ousl
y fo
rest
ed la
nd.
Shee
t ero
sion
and
land
slip
s ha
ve o
ccur
red
on m
any
of th
e st
eepe
r slo
pes
whe
re th
e na
tive
vege
tatio
n ha
s be
en re
mov
ed a
nd th
e ru
gged
nat
ure
of th
e te
rrai
nm
ake
mos
t lan
d us
es d
iffic
ult.
The
stee
p di
ssec
ted
hills
of t
he M
ount
Mac
kenz
ie la
nd sy
stem
or
igin
ally
supp
orte
d op
en fo
rest
com
mun
ities
, but
man
y ar
eas h
ave
been
ext
ensi
vely
cle
ared
for p
ine
conv
ersi
on a
nd g
razi
ng.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
MO
UN
T M
AC
KE
NZ
IEA
rea:
69
km2
140
%2 8%
3 9%4
25%
5 8%6 7%
7 3%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
950
– 1
,100
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
5), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (12
0)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
3, lo
wes
t Jul
y (8
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
8)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e –
Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
limita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
mid
Nov
embe
r – M
arch
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Pale
ocen
e un
cons
olid
ated
mar
ine
sand
, cla
y an
d si
ltT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Dee
ply
diss
ecte
d hi
lls in
the
mid
dle
and
low
er re
ache
s of t
he G
ellib
rand
Riv
er c
atch
men
tEl
evat
ion,
m15
–18
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
100
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
c w
ith so
me
radi
alD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
3.3
Land
form
Hill
Val
ley
floor
Terr
ace
Land
form
ele
men
tSl
ope,
cre
stC
rest
, spu
r, m
ainl
y in
sout
hC
rest
, slo
peSl
ope,
cre
stB
road
slig
ht d
epre
ssio
n-
-
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %33
(4-6
3)14
(4-1
9)32
(22-
45)
37 (3
1-49
)14
(2-2
1)4
(0-7
)5
(1-9
)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xC
onve
xC
onve
xC
onve
xC
onca
veC
onca
veC
onve
xN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Low
woo
dlan
dO
pen
fore
stLo
w w
oodl
and
Woo
dlan
dO
pen
fore
stD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
bax
teri,
E. n
itida
, E.
obliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. bax
teri,
E.
vim
inal
is, E
. ova
taE.
bax
teri,
E. n
itida
E. b
axte
ri, E
. obl
iqua
E. n
itida
, E. b
axte
riE.
obl
iqua
, E. b
axte
riE.
obl
iqua
, E. o
vata
, E.
baxt
eri
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndC
lay,
silt
and
sand
Sand
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndSa
nd, c
ollu
vial
sand
Plan
t rem
ains
, allu
vial
sand
and
cla
yA
lluvi
al c
lay,
silt
and
sand
Des
crip
tion
Yel
low
gra
datio
nal s
ols,
wea
k st
ruct
ure
Yel
low
-bro
wn
grad
atio
nal
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
eG
rey
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Red
gra
datio
nal s
oils
,w
eak
stru
ctur
eG
rey
sand
soils
, with
hard
pans
, uni
form
text
ure
Bla
ck sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rmte
xtur
eY
ello
w-b
row
n gr
adat
iona
lso
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure
Surf
ace
text
ure
Sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Loam
y sa
ndSa
ndy
loam
Loam
y sa
ndLo
amy
sand
Fine
sand
y lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yH
igh
Low
Ver
y hi
ghH
igh
Ver
y lo
wH
igh
Low
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>2>2
0.6
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
for s
awlo
gs, p
osts
and
pol
es; w
ater
supp
ly; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; q
uarr
ying
of i
rons
tone
; sof
twoo
d fo
rest
ryM
inor
cle
ared
are
as:
Dai
ry fa
rmin
g; b
eef c
attle
gra
zing
.SO
ILD
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
,pr
oces
ses,
form
s
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed so
ilson
stee
p sl
opes
are
pro
neto
shee
t, ril
l, sc
our g
ully
eros
ion
and
land
slip
s.Lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
dhi
gh p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
tonu
trien
t dec
line.
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
lsof
low
per
mea
bilit
y ar
epr
one
to g
ully
ero
sion
.
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
yan
d hi
gh p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
nt d
eclin
e.St
eepe
r slo
pes w
ithco
mpa
cted
soils
are
pro
neto
shee
t, ril
l and
scou
rgu
lly e
rosi
on.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed so
ilson
stee
p sl
opes
are
pro
neto
shee
t and
rill
eros
ion
and
land
slip
s. L
owin
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
d hi
ghpe
rmea
bilit
y le
ad to
nutri
ent d
eclin
e.
Har
dpan
s res
trict
ver
tical
drai
nage
lead
ing
tose
ason
al w
ater
logg
ing.
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
yw
ith le
achi
ng o
fpe
rmea
ble
high
ly a
cidi
csu
rfac
e so
ils le
ad to
nutri
ent d
eclin
e.
Hig
h w
ater
tabl
es le
ad to
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
ilco
mpa
ctio
n. R
apid
run-
off f
rom
adj
acen
t hill
sle
ad to
floo
ding
and
silta
tion.
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
lsof
low
per
mea
bilit
y ar
epr
one
to g
ully
ero
sion
.Lo
w p
erm
eabi
litie
s and
high
wat
er ta
bles
lead
tow
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
7.29
M
ount
Sab
ine
Land
Sys
tem
Dis
conn
ecte
d re
mna
nts
of a
n un
dula
ting
plai
n ar
e fo
und
on th
e hi
gh p
arts
of t
he O
tway
Ran
ge fr
om n
ear t
hePa
rker
rive
r to
Gen
tle A
nnie
Hill
. Th
e w
ette
st a
nd m
ost e
xten
sive
par
t of t
his u
ndul
atin
g pl
ain
com
pris
es th
eB
eech
For
est l
and
syst
em.
All
othe
r are
as re
ceiv
e an
ann
ual r
ainf
all o
f 1,7
00 m
m o
r les
s an
d th
e ta
ll op
enfo
rest
s, al
thou
gh th
ey r
each
impr
essi
ve h
eigh
ts, d
o no
t app
roac
h th
e 10
0 m
sta
nds
repo
rted
for
the
Bee
chFo
rest
land
syst
em p
rior t
o cl
earin
g.
Mos
t slo
pes
and
cres
ts h
ave
mod
erat
e de
ep a
nd fe
rtile
soi
ls.
The
occu
rren
ce o
f ext
rem
ely
deep
and
fria
ble
soils
in
som
e ar
eas
seem
s to
be
rela
ted
to a
cha
nge
in t
he n
atur
e of
the
Cre
tace
ous
beds
. Th
e de
pth
tow
eath
erin
g pa
rent
mat
eria
l is o
ften
in e
xces
s of 2
m in
thes
e pr
ofile
s.
The
rem
ote
natu
re o
f mos
t of t
hese
pla
teau
rem
nant
s ha
s hi
nder
ed th
eir d
evel
opm
ent f
or a
gric
ultu
re.
Man
yof
the
are
as o
rigin
ally
cle
ared
by
early
set
tlers
hav
e re
verte
d to
den
se s
crub
whi
le o
ther
s ha
ve b
een
rege
nera
ted
to E
ucal
yptu
s re
gnan
s or
oth
er h
ardw
ood
spec
ies.
Lan
dslip
s an
d lo
ss o
f soi
l nut
rient
s in
suc
h a
wet
clim
ate
are
the
mai
n ha
zard
s to
land
use
.
Onl
y sm
all a
reas
of f
arm
land
sill
rem
ain,
the
rem
oten
ess f
rom
are
as o
f sub
stant
ial s
ettle
men
ts
bein
g on
e of
the
maj
or p
robl
ems.
MO
UN
T S
AB
INE
Are
a: 9
5 km
2C
ompo
nent
and
its p
ropo
rtion
of l
and
syst
em
125
%2
70%
3 5%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
1,2
00 –
1,7
00, l
owes
t Feb
ruar
y (6
5), h
ighe
st Ju
ne (1
70)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
10,
low
est J
uly
(6),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(15)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) M
ay –
Oct
ober
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n ea
rly D
ecem
ber -
Feb
ruar
yG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yLo
wer
Cre
tace
ous f
elds
path
ic sa
ndst
one
and
mud
ston
eT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Rol
ling
hills
alo
ng th
e to
p of
the
Otw
ay R
ange
Elev
atio
n, m
400
– 67
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
60D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
patte
rn w
ith so
me
radi
al a
reas
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
23.
6La
nd fo
rmH
illLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Upp
er sl
ope
Gen
eral
slop
eLo
wer
slop
eSl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
15 (1
-25)
15 (1
-25)
9 (1
-12)
Slop
e sh
ape
Con
vex
Con
vex
Con
cave
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Tall
open
fore
stTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
bliq
ua, A
caci
a m
elan
oxyl
on, E
. reg
nans
, E.
cype
lloca
rpa
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. cyp
ello
carp
a, E
. reg
nans
, Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
, occ
asio
nal E
. ova
taE.
regn
ans,
E. c
ypel
loca
rpa,
E. o
bliq
ua, A
caci
am
elan
oxyl
onSO
ILPa
rent
mat
eria
lIn
-site
dee
ply
wea
ther
ed ro
ckIn
-situ
wea
ther
ed ro
ckC
ollu
vium
Des
crip
tion
Bro
wn
fria
ble
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Dar
k br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Loam
Cla
y lo
amLo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yH
igh
Hig
hH
igh
Dep
th, m
1.8
1.3
>2L
AN
D U
SEU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r saw
logs
and
pul
pwoo
d; so
ftwoo
d pl
anta
tions
; nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
pas
sive
recr
eatio
n; w
ater
supp
ly.
Min
or c
lear
ed a
reas
: So
me
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng o
n un
impr
oved
pas
ture
s; m
ost r
ever
ting
to n
ativ
e fo
rest
or c
onve
rted
to p
ine
plan
tatio
ns.
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
N H
AZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es, f
orm
sH
igh
rain
fall
and
high
per
mea
bilit
y le
ad to
leac
hing
of
nutri
ents
and
loss
es in
org
anic
mat
ter a
nd s
oil s
truct
ure.
Stee
per
slop
es m
ay b
e su
bseq
uent
ly p
rone
to
shee
ter
osio
n.
Hig
h ra
infa
ll an
d m
oder
ate
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to
leac
hing
of
nutri
ents
and
los
ses
in o
rgan
ic m
atte
r an
dso
il st
ruct
ure.
Ste
eper
slo
pes
are
subs
eque
ntly
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
. C
lay
subs
oils
on
stee
per s
lope
s sub
ject
tofr
eque
nt sa
tura
tion
are
pron
e to
land
slip
s.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tabl
e le
ads t
o w
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
7.30
Pa
rapa
rap
Land
Sys
tem
Bet
wee
n th
e la
terit
ic p
late
aux
of th
e G
hera
ng G
hera
ng la
nd sy
stem
and
the
basa
ltic
plai
ns o
f the
Fre
shw
ater
Cre
ekla
nd s
yste
m,
a lo
ng n
arro
w p
lain
ext
ends
fro
m t
he B
arw
on R
iver
nea
r W
inch
else
a to
the
mid
dle
reac
hes
ofTh
omps
on C
reek
.
Dee
ply
wea
ther
ed d
uple
x so
ils a
re f
ound
on
mos
t of
thi
s la
nd s
yste
m,
with
occ
asio
nal
area
s of
aeo
lian
sand
.R
emna
nts
of w
oodl
ands
and
ope
n fo
rest
s ar
e fo
und
alon
g m
any
rese
rves
with
the
unu
sual
occ
urre
nce
ofEu
caly
ptus
pau
ciflo
ra o
n m
any
of th
e be
tter-
drai
ned
and
less
ferti
le si
tes.
Mos
t are
as h
ave
been
cle
ared
for a
gric
ultu
re a
nd, d
espi
te th
e fa
irly
low
rain
fall,
dai
ry fa
rmin
g is
com
mon
. O
ther
uses
incl
ude
shee
p an
d be
ef c
attle
gra
zing
and
cer
eal c
ropp
ing.
Soi
l sal
ting
is a
pro
blem
in m
any
area
s an
d so
me
min
or g
ully
ero
sion
has
als
o oc
curr
ed.
Cle
arin
g ha
s bee
n w
ides
prea
d, b
ut a
n ab
unda
nce
of v
eget
atio
n in
the
road
rese
rve
adds
an
appe
alin
g di
men
sion
to th
e la
ndsc
ape.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
PAR
APA
RA
PA
rea:
138
km
21
35%
230
%3 10
415
%5
10%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 6
00 –
650
, low
est J
anua
ry (3
0), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (65
)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 13
, low
est J
uly
(9),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(19)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– Ju
lySe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
Oct
ober
– m
id A
pril
Plio
-Ple
isto
cene
sedi
men
ts c
onsi
stin
g of
cla
yey
sand
, san
dy c
lay
and
late
ritic
det
ritus
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Rec
ent a
eolia
n sa
ndT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Gen
tly u
ndul
atin
g pl
ain
lyin
g be
twee
n ba
salt
to th
e no
rth a
nd la
terit
ic p
late
aux
to th
e so
uth
Elev
atio
n, m
40 –
130
Loca
l rel
ief,
m20
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
2.5
Land
form
Gen
tle ri
seV
alle
y flo
orLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Cre
st, u
pper
slop
eM
iddl
e sl
ope
Cre
st, s
lope
Low
er sl
ope
-Sl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
3 (0
-11)
4 (1
-7)
5 (2
-10)
4 (0
-7)
1 (0
-2)
Slop
e sh
ape
Con
vex
Line
arIr
regu
lar
Con
vex
Con
cave
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eO
pen
fore
stW
oodl
and
Low
woo
dlan
dW
oodl
and
Woo
dlan
dD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
vim
inal
is, E
. ova
ta, E
. pau
ciflo
ra,
Acac
ia m
elan
oxyl
onE.
vim
inal
is, E
. ova
ta, C
asua
rina
stri
cta,
C. l
ittor
alis
E. v
imin
alis
, E. o
bliq
uaE.
ova
ta, E
. vim
inal
is, C
asua
rina
stri
cta
E. c
amal
dule
nsis
, E. v
imin
alis
,Ac
acia
mel
anox
ylon
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Sand
y cl
aySa
ndy
clay
Silic
eous
sand
Sand
y cl
aySa
nd, s
ilt a
nd c
lay
Des
crip
tion
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd re
d du
plex
soils
Yel
low
-bro
wn
sodi
c du
plex
soi
ls,
coar
se st
ruct
ure
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eY
ello
w so
dic
dupl
ex so
ilsB
row
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls
Surf
ace
text
ure
Sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
loam
Loam
y sa
ndSa
ndy
loam
Fine
sand
y lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yM
oder
ate
Low
Ver
y hi
ghM
oder
ate
Hig
hD
epth
, m>2
>2>2
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Cle
ared
are
as:
Dai
ry a
nd b
eef c
attle
gra
zing
on
mai
nly
impr
oved
pas
ture
s; c
erea
l cro
ppin
g; so
me
sand
ext
ract
ion.
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
,fo
rms
Low
inh
eren
t fe
rtilit
y, p
hosp
horu
sfix
atio
n an
d le
achi
ng o
f pe
rmea
ble
A h
oriz
ons l
eads
to n
utrie
nt d
eclin
e.
Dis
pers
ible
sub
soils
are
pro
ne t
ogu
lly e
rosi
on a
nd s
lum
ping
of
road
batte
rs.
Low
in
here
nt
ferti
lity
and
high
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to
nu
trien
tde
clin
e. W
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
sur
face
sw
ith lo
w w
ater
-hol
ding
cap
acity
are
pron
e to
win
d er
osio
n.
Sodi
c su
bsoi
ls w
ith h
igh
seas
onal
wat
er
tabl
es
are
pron
e to
so
ilsa
lting
.
Dis
pers
ible
su
bsoi
ls
are
pron
e to
gul
ly e
rosi
on.
Seas
onal
sa
line
wat
er
tabl
ede
velo
pmen
t le
ads
to s
oil
salti
ng.
Rap
id s
urfa
ce ru
n-of
f fro
m a
djac
ent
area
s le
ads
to s
cour
ing
and
gully
eros
ion.
W
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
sur
face
soils
in
poor
ly d
rain
ed a
reas
are
pron
e to
com
pact
ion.
7.31
Pe
nnyr
oyal
Lan
d Sy
stem
’
Alo
ng th
e no
rther
n pe
riphe
ry o
f the
Ran
ge, f
lat-t
oppe
d sp
urs
and
ridge
s fo
rm a
n irr
egul
ar b
and
of fo
othi
lls fr
omW
orm
bete
Cre
ek to
Bar
won
Dow
ns.
The
terr
ain
is v
aria
ble,
with
ste
ep s
lope
s le
adin
g aw
ay fr
om th
ese
gent
lehi
ll cr
ests
to w
ide
valle
y flo
ors.
The
ridg
e sl
opes
upw
ards
tow
ards
the
Ran
ge a
nd b
ecom
es n
arro
wer
as t
he lo
cal
relie
f inc
reas
es.
The
gent
le p
arts
of t
he la
ndsc
ape
are
form
ed o
n Te
rtiar
y cl
ay, s
ilt a
nd sa
nd.
Thes
e se
dim
ents
ove
rlie
Cre
tace
ous
sand
ston
es a
nd m
udst
ones
, w
hich
out
crop
on
stee
p sl
opes
on
the
valle
y si
des.
Soi
l an
d ve
geta
tion
refle
ctch
ange
s in
the
par
ent
mat
eria
l, w
ith t
he s
oils
on
the
uppe
r pa
rts o
f th
e la
ndsc
ape
bein
g so
mew
hat
deep
lyw
eath
ered
with
sand
y su
rfac
e ho
rizon
s in
cont
rast
to lo
am o
r cla
y lo
am so
ils o
n th
e C
reta
ceou
s out
crop
s.
Cle
arin
g ha
s be
en w
ides
prea
d an
d sh
eep
and
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng a
s w
ell a
s da
iry fa
rmin
g ar
e th
e m
ain
land
use
s.So
me
hard
woo
d is
logg
ed fr
om fo
rest
ed a
reas
, and
sof
twoo
d pl
anta
tions
hav
e be
en e
stab
lishe
d in
the
east
. Po
orm
anag
emen
t of t
hese
hill
s ca
n le
ad to
rapi
d su
rfac
e ru
n-of
f alo
ng th
e va
lleys
cre
atin
g pr
oble
ms
of g
ully
ero
sion
,si
ltatio
n an
d flo
odin
g fu
rther
dow
nstre
am.
Upp
er g
entle
slop
es a
re fo
rmed
on
Tert
iary
cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
nd, w
hile
C
reta
ceou
s san
dsto
nes a
nd m
udsto
nes o
utcr
op o
n st
eep
slop
es a
long
the
valle
y si
des a
nd R
ecen
t allu
vium
is fo
und
in th
e va
lley
floor
.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
PEN
NY
RO
YA
LA
rea:
97
km2
135
%2
15%
3 354
12%
5 3%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
700
– 1
,050
, low
est J
anua
ry (3
5), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (80
)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 12
, low
est J
uly
(8),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(18)
Tem
pera
ture
: les
s tha
n 10
o C (a
v.) J
une
– Se
ptem
ber
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n N
ovem
ber -
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yTe
rtiar
y un
cons
olid
ated
cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
nd.
Min
or re
mna
nts o
f lat
eriti
zatio
nLo
wer
Cre
tace
ous s
ands
tone
and
mud
ston
eR
ecen
t allu
vial
cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
nd
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eSt
eep
rolli
ng h
ills o
n th
e no
rther
n pe
riphe
ry o
f the
Otw
ay R
ange
Elev
atio
n, m
135
- 30
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
65D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
21.
9La
nd fo
rmH
illV
alle
y flo
orLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Gen
tle c
rest
Upp
er sl
ope,
cre
stG
entle
upp
er sl
ope
Stee
p lo
wer
slop
e-
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %3
(0-1
5)7
(0-2
5)15
(3-2
5)30
(5-4
5)
1 (0
-2)
Slop
e sh
ape
Con
vex
Con
vex
Line
arLi
near
Con
cave
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. ova
ta, E
. rad
iata
, E.
arom
aphl
oia,
E. n
itida
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, E. n
itida
, E.
vim
inal
isE.
obl
iqua
, E. v
imin
alis
, E. r
adia
ta,
E. o
vata
, Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, E.
cype
lloca
rpa
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. cyp
ello
carp
a, E
.gl
obul
usSO
ILPa
rent
mat
eria
lC
lay,
silt
and
sand
, ofte
n de
eply
wea
ther
edSa
nd a
nd c
lay
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndIn
-situ
wea
ther
ed ro
ckA
lluvi
um
Des
crip
tion
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd re
d du
plex
soils
Yel
low
gra
datio
nal s
oils
, wea
kst
ruct
ure
Yel
low
-bro
wn
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
est
ruct
ure
Bro
wn
dupl
ex so
ilsG
rey
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Surf
ace
text
ure
Sand
y lo
amLo
amy
sand
Fine
sand
y lo
amLo
amSa
ndy
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Mod
erat
eH
igh
Low
Mod
erat
eLo
wD
epth
, m>2
>2>2
0.8
>2L
AN
D U
SEC
lear
ed a
reas
: sh
eep
and
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng; d
airy
farm
ing;
wat
er su
pply
.U
ncle
ared
are
as:
Har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r som
e sa
wlo
gs, p
osts
and
pol
es; s
oftw
ood
plan
tatio
ns; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; w
ater
supp
ly; g
rave
l ext
ract
ion;
pas
sive
recr
eatio
nSO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es,
form
s
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
phos
phor
us fi
xatio
n le
ad to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
eso
ils o
n st
eepe
r slo
pes a
re p
rone
tosh
eet e
rosi
on.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e. W
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
soils
on
stee
pest
slop
es p
rone
to sh
eet
eros
ion.
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
n st
eep
slop
es a
re p
rone
to g
ully
ero
sion
.So
ils o
f low
per
mea
bilit
y on
stee
psl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
.
Stee
p sl
opes
lead
to sh
eet e
rosi
on,
parti
cula
rly o
n dr
y as
pect
s. C
lay
subs
oils
on
stee
p sl
opes
subj
ect t
ope
riodi
c sa
tura
tion
are
pone
tola
ndsl
ips.
Hig
h se
ason
al w
ater
tabl
e an
d lo
wpe
rmea
bilit
y le
ad to
seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
g, so
il co
mpa
ctio
n an
dso
il sa
lting
. H
igh
disc
harg
e ra
tes,
disp
ersi
ble
clay
subs
oils
and
disp
ersi
ble
sand
y cl
ay p
aren
tm
ater
ial o
f low
mec
hani
cal s
treng
thle
ad to
gul
ly a
nd tu
nnel
ero
sion
.
7.32
Po
int R
oadk
nigh
t Lan
d Sy
stem
Alo
ng t
he c
oast
fro
m B
ream
lea
to E
aste
rn V
iew
, co
asta
l du
nes
occu
r di
scon
tinuo
usly
. I
n so
me
loca
litie
s a
prim
ary
and
a se
cond
ary
dune
form
a th
in b
arrie
r bet
wee
n th
e se
a an
d th
e Te
rtiar
y se
dim
ents
, but
in th
e lo
calit
y of
Poin
t Im
poss
ible
the
dune
syst
em is
mor
e co
mpl
ex a
nd e
xten
sive
.
The
fore
dune
and
sec
onda
ry d
une
mat
eria
l is
aeol
ian
sand
and
shel
l grit
. O
n ol
der d
unes
, mob
iliza
tion
of c
alci
umca
rbon
ate
has
resu
lted
in th
e fo
rmat
ion
of c
alca
reni
te, w
hich
may
out
crop
on
blow
outs
or
stee
p sl
opes
. A
way
from
the
se c
alca
reni
te p
avem
ents
, th
e so
ils a
re f
reel
y dr
aine
d ca
lcar
eous
san
ds.
The
exp
osed
cal
care
nite
pave
men
ts m
ay s
uppo
rt re
d ca
lcar
eous
gra
datio
nal
soils
, but
ext
ensi
ve s
heet
ero
sion
has
rem
oved
mos
t of
thi
sm
ater
ial.
Rec
reat
ion
and
acce
ss to
the
fore
shor
e ar
e th
e m
ain
land
use
s. S
ome
build
ings
hav
e be
en s
ited
in th
ese
dune
s at
Bre
amle
a an
d Fa
irhav
en.
Nat
ive
gras
ses
and
shru
bs th
at c
olon
ize
thes
e du
nes
are
very
sen
sitiv
e to
dis
turb
ance
and,
onc
e de
void
of v
eget
ativ
e co
ver,
win
d er
osio
n is
like
ly to
occ
ur.
Han
d pl
antin
g of
Am
mop
hila
are
nari
a ha
sbe
en n
eces
sary
to st
abili
ze m
any
area
s.
Sect
ions
of c
oast
line
in th
e dr
ier e
aste
rn p
arts
of t
he st
udy
area
ofte
n ha
ve e
xten
sive
cal
care
ous
dune
syst
ems.
On
man
y of
thes
e du
nes t
he n
ativ
e ve
geta
tion
has b
een
tram
pled
and
des
troy
ed
and
the
hand
pla
ntin
g of
Am
mop
hila
are
nari
a ha
s bee
n ne
cess
ary
to re
stab
ilize
the
dune
syst
em.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
POIN
T R
OA
DK
NIG
HT
Are
a: 8
km
21
20%
250
%3
25%
4 2%5 3%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 6
00 –
750
, low
est J
anua
ry (3
0), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (75
)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 14
, low
est J
uly
(10)
, hig
hest
Feb
ruar
y (1
8)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jul
ySe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
mid
Oct
ober
- e
arly
Apr
ilG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yR
ecen
t aeo
lian
sand
and
shel
l grit
Cem
ente
d de
posi
ts (c
alca
reni
te a
nd tr
aver
tine)
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eLo
ngitu
dina
l coa
stal
dun
es to
the
east
of t
he O
tway
Ran
geEl
evat
ion,
m0
– 25
Loca
l rel
ief,
m15
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Abs
ent
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
2-
Land
form
Fore
dune
Shift
ing
dune
Old
er m
ore
stab
le d
unes
Inte
rdun
e co
rrid
orLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Win
dwar
d ex
pose
d sl
ope
Leew
ard
and
win
dwar
d sl
opes
Gen
tler s
lope
Stee
per s
lope
-Sl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
40 (1
0-65
)30
(5-6
5)9
(0-2
0)15
(5-1
0)3
(0-7
)Sl
ope
shap
eIr
regu
lar
Irre
gula
rC
onve
xLi
near
Con
cave
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eTu
ssoc
k gr
assl
and
Ope
n he
ath
Low
woo
dlan
dLo
w w
oodl
and
Poss
ibly
ope
n he
ath
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
Spin
ifex
hirs
utus
, Tet
rago
nia
tetr
agon
ioid
esH
elic
hrys
um p
aral
ium
, Leu
copo
gon
parv
iflor
usM
elal
euca
lanc
eola
ta,
Lept
ospe
rmum
laev
igat
um,
Leuc
opog
on p
arvi
floru
s
Mel
aleu
ca la
nceo
lata
, Leu
copo
gon
parv
iflor
us, A
caci
a lo
ngifo
liaH
elic
hrys
um p
aral
ium
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Coa
rse
sand
, she
ll gr
itC
oars
e sa
nd, s
hell
grit
Coa
rse
sand
, she
ll gr
itC
alca
reni
te, c
oars
e sa
ndC
alca
reni
te, t
rave
rtine
Des
crip
tion
Yel
low
cal
care
ous s
and
soils
,un
iform
text
ure
Yel
low
cal
care
ous s
and
soils
,un
iform
text
ure
Bro
wn
calc
areo
us sa
nd so
ils,
unifo
rm te
xtur
eSt
ony
blac
k ca
lcar
eous
sand
soils
,un
iform
text
ure
Red
cal
care
ous g
rada
tiona
l soi
ls
Surf
ace
text
ure
Coa
rse
sand
Coa
rse
sand
Loam
y sa
ndLo
amy
sand
Sand
y lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yV
ery
high
Ver
y hi
ghV
ery
high
Mod
erat
eV
ery
low
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>2>2
0.3
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: Pa
ssiv
e an
d ac
tive
recr
eatio
n; fo
resh
ore
acce
ss; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; sa
nd e
xtra
ctio
n.M
inor
cle
ared
are
as:
Rec
reat
iona
l fac
ilitie
s; re
fuse
tip;
fore
shor
e ac
cess
; res
iden
tial
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
,fo
rms
Mar
ine
eros
ion
and
accr
etio
n oc
cur
seas
onal
ly.
Nat
ive
vege
tatio
n is
sens
itive
to tr
ampl
ing
and
dist
urba
nce.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
edsa
nds a
re p
rone
to w
ind
eros
ion.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e.
Nat
ive
vege
tatio
n is
sens
itive
totra
mpl
ing
and
dist
urba
nce.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed sa
nds a
re p
rone
to w
ind
eros
ion.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
per
mea
bilit
y le
ad to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed sa
nds a
re p
rone
to w
ind
eros
ion.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity,
hig
h al
kalin
ity a
nd h
igh
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e.
Wea
kly
sand
s with
rest
ricte
ddr
aina
ge o
n st
eep
slop
es a
re p
rone
to sh
eet e
rosi
on.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
alk
alin
ity le
ad to
nutri
ent d
eclin
e.
Low
per
mea
bilit
y an
d w
eak
stru
ctur
e le
ad to
shee
t ero
sion
,ex
posi
ng c
alca
reni
te p
avem
ent.
7.33
Po
rcup
ine
Cre
ek L
and
Syst
em
Terti
ary
quar
tziti
c sa
nds o
utcr
op in
man
y ar
eas n
orth
and
wes
t of t
he R
ange
. W
ides
prea
d su
rfac
e re
dist
ribut
ion
ofth
is s
and
has
resu
lted
in a
gen
tle l
ands
cape
with
san
ds o
verly
ing
mor
e cl
ayey
mat
eria
l at
fou
r lo
calit
ies.
The
larg
est a
rea
is e
ast o
f Kaw
arre
n in
the
catc
hmen
t of P
orcu
pine
Cre
ek, a
nd a
noth
er e
xten
sive
are
as is
foun
d in
the
uppe
r re
ache
s of
Tom
ahaw
k C
reek
. So
mew
hat s
teep
er s
lope
s w
ith a
pre
dom
inan
ce o
f de
ep r
elat
ivel
y un
iform
sand
s occ
ur to
the
east
of F
orre
st, w
hile
the
area
nea
r Prin
ceto
wn
has b
road
er c
rest
s and
nar
row
er d
rain
age
lines
.
Har
dpan
s ar
e a
feat
ure
of th
e so
ils a
nd th
e im
pede
d dr
aina
ge le
ads
to w
ater
logg
ing
on m
any
site
s. T
he n
ativ
eve
geta
tion
cons
ists
of w
oodl
ands
of
Euca
lypt
us n
itida
and
E. r
adia
ta, w
ith c
lose
d sc
rubs
of
shru
b sp
ecie
s in
the
drai
nage
line
s.
Cle
arin
g of
the
se a
reas
for
agr
icul
ture
has
bee
n at
tem
pted
in
man
y ar
eas,
but
impe
ded
drai
ned
on s
ites
with
hard
pans
and
exc
essi
ve d
rain
age
on s
ites
with
out
them
cre
ate
man
agem
ent
diff
icul
ties.
Dee
p rip
ping
of
the
hard
pans
may
im
prov
e si
te d
rain
age,
but
low
soi
l pH
and
low
fer
tility
als
o ha
ve t
o be
con
tend
ed w
ith f
orsu
cces
sful
pas
ture
est
ablis
hmen
t. M
ost
area
s re
mai
n as
wild
life
habi
tats
, w
ith t
he e
xcep
tion
of o
ne n
ear
Prin
ceto
wn
and
part
of th
e ar
ea n
ear T
omah
awk
Cre
ek, w
hich
bor
der t
he H
eyte
sbur
y Se
ttlem
ent S
chem
e.
Dra
inag
e of
thes
e la
ndsc
apes
is p
oor,
and
the
wat
erlo
gged
soils
car
ry w
oodl
ands
of
E. n
itida
and
E. r
adia
ta w
ith c
lose
d sc
rubs
in th
e dr
aina
ge li
nes.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
POR
CU
PIN
E C
RE
EK
Are
a: 7
1 km
21
30%
225
%3
15%
415
%5 5%
6 10C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
800
– 1
,000
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
0), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (12
0)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
3, lo
wes
t Jul
y (8
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
8)Te
mpe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e –
Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n la
te O
ctob
er –
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPa
leoc
ene
unco
nsol
idat
ed m
arin
e sa
ndPa
leoc
ene
unco
nsol
idat
ed m
arin
e cl
ay, s
and
and
silt
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eU
ndul
atin
g pl
ains
Elev
atio
n, m
60 –
230
Loca
l rel
ief,
m45
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Trel
lisD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
3.8
Land
form
Ris
eTe
rrac
eD
rain
age
line
Land
form
ele
men
tC
rest
, slo
peU
pper
slop
eM
id sl
ope
Low
er sl
ope
--
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %21
(9-3
8)9
(2-2
1)5
(2-1
1)16
(5-3
3)2
(0-5
)0
(0-1
)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xC
onve
xLi
near
Con
vex
Line
arLi
near
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eW
oodl
and
Low
woo
dlan
dO
pen
woo
dlan
dW
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Clo
sed
scru
bD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
radi
ata,
E. n
itida
E. ra
diat
a, E
. niti
daE.
radi
ata,
E. n
itida
E. ra
diat
a, E
. niti
da, E
. ova
taE.
ova
ta, E
. vim
inal
is, E
.ra
diat
a, E
. bax
teri
Mel
aleu
ca sq
uarr
osa,
Cas
uarin
a lit
tora
lis, A
otus
eric
oide
sSO
ILPa
rent
mat
eria
lSa
ndSa
ndC
ollu
vial
sand
on
clay
Col
luvi
al sa
nd o
n si
lt, sa
ndan
d cl
ayC
ollu
vial
sand
on
allu
vial
clay
, silt
and
sand
Plan
t rem
ains
allu
vial
sand
,si
lt an
d cl
ayD
escr
iptio
nG
rey
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, w
ithha
rdpa
ns, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eG
rey
sand
soils
, stru
ctur
edcl
ay u
nder
lay
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, w
eakl
yst
ruct
ured
cla
y un
derla
yG
rey
sand
soils
, stru
ctur
edcl
ay u
nder
lay
Bla
ck sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rmte
xtur
eSu
rfac
e te
xtur
eLo
amy
sand
Loam
y sa
ndSa
ndy
loam
Sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Silty
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Ver
y hi
ghV
ery
low
Ver
y lo
wLo
wV
ery
low
Hig
hD
epth
, m>2
0.8
>2>2
>2>2
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: N
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; w
ater
supp
ly; s
and
and
grav
el e
xtra
ctio
n; h
ardw
ood
fore
stry
for p
osts
, pol
es a
nd fu
elM
inor
cle
ared
are
as:
Bee
f cat
tle g
razi
ng; w
ater
supp
lySO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
,pr
oces
ses,
form
s
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
dhi
gh p
erm
eabi
lity
lead
tonu
trien
t dec
line.
Ste
eper
slop
es w
ith c
ompa
cted
soils
are
pron
e to
shee
t, ril
l and
scou
r gul
ly e
rosi
on.
Har
dpan
s res
trict
dra
inag
e,le
adin
g to
seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
g. V
ery
low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
leac
hing
of h
ighl
y ac
idic
per
mea
ble
surf
aces
lead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e.
Low
per
mea
bilit
y an
dse
ason
al p
erch
ed w
ater
tabl
esle
ad to
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
ilco
mpa
ctio
n.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed so
ils o
f low
perm
eabi
lity
on st
eepe
r slo
pes
are
pron
e to
shee
t ero
sion
.
Low
per
mea
bilit
y an
dse
ason
al p
erch
ed w
ater
tabl
esle
ad to
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
ilco
mpa
ctio
n.
Hig
h w
ater
tabl
es le
ad to
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
ilco
mpa
ctio
n. R
un-o
ff fr
omad
jace
nt h
ills l
ead
to fl
oodi
ngan
d si
ltatio
n.
7.34
R
edw
ater
Cre
ek L
and
Syst
em
In th
e so
uthe
rn p
arts
of t
he O
tway
Ran
ge, g
entle
hill
cap
ping
s of
Ter
tiary
qua
rtziti
c sa
nds
occu
r as
rem
nant
s on
the
high
par
ts o
f th
e la
ndsc
ape.
M
ost
cree
ks a
nd r
iver
s ha
ve d
isse
cted
thr
ough
the
se s
ands
, ex
posi
ng C
reta
ceou
ssa
ndst
one
and
mud
ston
e on
stee
p sl
opes
lead
ing
dow
n to
the
drai
nage
line
s.
The
capp
ing
of s
and
over
lies
Cre
tace
ous
sedi
men
ts a
t a fa
irly
shal
low
and
uni
form
dep
th.
The
nativ
e ve
geta
tion
onth
e sa
nds
is n
ot d
issi
mila
r fr
om th
at o
n th
e su
rrou
ndin
g br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
, con
sist
ing
of t
all o
pen
fore
sts
ofEu
caly
ptus
obl
iqua
, E. c
ypel
loca
rpa
and
E. r
egna
ns o
n th
e be
tter s
ites.
The
se ta
ll tre
es a
ppar
ently
ext
ract
nut
rient
sfr
om u
nder
lyin
g w
eath
erin
g C
reta
ceou
s ro
cks.
Nut
rient
cyc
ling
by le
af fa
ll an
d de
cay
has
built
up
the
ferti
lity
of th
esa
nds,
far a
bove
that
nor
mal
ly e
ncou
nter
ed o
n su
ch p
aren
t mat
eria
l.
Onl
y m
inor
par
ts o
f th
is l
and
syst
em h
ave
been
cle
ared
and
it
appe
ars
that
a m
arke
d de
clin
e in
soi
l fe
rtilit
y ha
sre
sulte
d. H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
is th
e m
ain
land
use
, tog
ethe
r with
a sm
all i
ndus
try in
the
cutti
ng o
f tea
-tree
stak
es.
The
high
er p
arts
of t
he la
ndsc
ape
form
und
ulat
ing
hills
, with
E. r
egna
ns
succ
essf
ully
com
petin
g w
ith o
ther
tree
s on
sand
soils
.
RE
DW
AT
ER
CR
EE
KA
rea:
57
km2
1 5%2
40%
3 5%4
25%
525
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
1,1
50 –
1,6
0, lo
wes
t Jan
uary
(60)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
160)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
12,
low
est J
uly
(7),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(16)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– Se
ptem
ber
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n D
ecem
ber –
mid
Feb
ruar
yG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPa
leoc
ene
unco
nsol
idat
ed q
uartz
sand
and
gra
vel s
hallo
wly
und
erla
in b
y Lo
wer
Cre
tace
ous s
ands
tone
and
mud
ston
eLo
wer
Cre
tace
ous s
ands
tone
and
mud
ston
eT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Dee
ply
diss
ecte
d hi
lls w
ith b
road
gen
tly h
ill c
appi
ngs i
n th
e so
uthe
rn p
arts
of t
he O
tway
Ran
ge.
Elev
atio
n, m
15 –
370
Loca
l rel
ief,
m90
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
c w
ith so
me
radi
al a
reas
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
23.
7La
nd fo
rmR
ise
Scar
pLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Cre
stC
rest
, upp
er sl
ope
Swal
eC
rest
, upp
er sl
ope
Stee
p sl
ope
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %4
(1-7
)20
(3-3
5)3
(1-5
)8
(3-1
5)35
(10-
60)
Slop
e sh
ape
Line
arC
onve
xC
onca
veIr
regu
lar
Line
arN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Woo
dlan
dTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Clo
sed
fore
stO
pen
fore
stTa
ll op
en fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. n
itida
, E. b
axte
riE.
obl
iqua
, E. c
ypel
loca
rpa,
E.
regn
ans,
E. v
imin
alis
Lept
ospe
rmum
juni
peri
num
E. re
gnan
s, E.
obl
iqua
, E. b
axte
ri,
occa
sion
ally
E. v
imin
alis
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. reg
nans
, E.
cype
lloca
rpa,
E. v
imin
alis
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Dee
p de
posi
ts o
f qua
rtz sa
ndSh
allo
w d
epos
its o
f qua
rtz sa
ndA
lluvi
al s
and
and
grav
el,
orga
nic
mat
ter
Shal
low
dep
osits
of q
uartz
san
d an
dgr
avel
In-s
itu w
eath
ered
rock
Des
crip
tion
Gre
y sa
nd
soils
w
ith
hard
pans
,un
iform
text
ure
Bla
ck sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eB
lack
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Whi
te sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eB
row
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls
Surf
ace
text
ure
Loam
y sa
ndSa
ndy6
loam
Silty
loam
(Gra
velly
) loa
my
sand
Sand
y cl
ay lo
amPe
rmea
bilit
yLo
wH
igh
Mod
erat
eV
ery
high
Mod
erat
eD
epth
, m1.
2>2
>2>2
1.4
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
for s
awlo
gs a
nd p
ulpw
ood;
tea-
tree
stak
e ha
rves
ting;
nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
sand
and
gra
vel e
xtra
ctio
n.M
inor
cle
ared
are
as:
Bee
f cat
tle g
razi
ng o
n un
impr
oved
pas
ture
s.SO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es,
form
s
Har
dpan
s re
stric
t ve
rtica
l dr
aina
ge,
lead
ing
to
seas
onal
w
ater
logg
ing.
Ver
y lo
w
inhe
rent
fe
rtilit
y w
ithso
me
leac
hing
of
perm
eabl
e hi
ghly
acid
ic
surf
aces
le
ads
to
nutri
ent
decl
ine.
Soils
of
high
per
mea
bilit
y in
hig
h-ra
infa
ll ar
eas
are
pron
e to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Stee
per
slop
es
with
com
pact
ed s
oils
(tra
cks,
clea
r-fe
lled
area
s) a
re p
rone
to
shee
t an
d ril
ler
osio
n.
Hig
h w
ater
ta
bles
le
ad
tow
ater
logg
ing.
Run
-off
fr
omad
jace
nt h
ills
lead
to
flood
ing
and
silta
tion.
Soils
of
very
low
inh
eren
t fe
rtilit
y,lo
w n
utrie
nt –
hol
ding
cap
acity
and
high
pe
rmea
bilit
y in
hi
gh-r
ainf
all
area
s are
pro
ne to
nut
rient
dec
line.
Cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
n st
eepe
r sl
opes
are
subj
ect
to p
erio
dic
satu
ratio
n an
dar
e pr
one
to
land
slip
s.
Stee
per
slop
es a
re p
rone
to sh
eet e
rosi
on.
7.35
Riv
erno
ok L
and
Syst
em
Terti
ary
sedi
men
ts o
utcr
op a
long
the
coas
t at M
oonl
ight
Hea
d, R
otte
n Po
int a
nd A
pollo
Bay
. Th
e te
rrai
n is
ade
eply
dis
sect
ed p
lain
fron
ted
by st
eep
coas
tal c
liffs
. Th
e ra
infa
ll is
hig
h.
The
soils
var
y, r
angi
ng f
rom
old
pro
files
with
evi
denc
e of
lat
eriti
zatio
n to
you
ng s
oils
with
litt
le h
oriz
onde
velo
pmen
t. T
he n
ativ
e ve
geta
tion
appe
ars
to b
e m
ore
depe
nden
t on
expo
sure
to s
alt-
and
sand
-lade
n co
asta
lw
inds
tha
n on
the
soi
l ty
pe.
Cas
uarin
a lu
ehm
anni
i at
Rot
ten
Poin
t is
an
unus
ual
mem
ber
of t
he v
eget
ativ
eco
mm
unity
, but
mos
t spe
cies
are
wel
l ada
pted
to th
e ha
rsh
envi
ronm
ent.
Cle
arin
g is
con
fined
to
an a
rea
near
Apo
llo B
ay u
sed
for
graz
ing.
Th
e ar
ea h
as h
igh
land
scap
e an
d na
ture
cons
erva
tion
valu
es, b
ut d
isus
ed s
and
and
grav
el e
xtra
ctio
n pi
ts a
t M
oonl
ight
Hea
d an
d R
otte
n Po
int
detra
ctfr
om th
ese
attri
bute
s. O
nce
the
vege
tatio
n is
dis
turb
ed, r
e-es
tabl
ishm
ent i
s sl
ow a
nd d
iffic
ult a
nd s
heet
, rill
and
gully
ero
sion
are
like
ly to
occ
ur.
Thes
e ru
gged
coa
stal c
liffs
pro
vide
som
e of
the
mos
t spe
ctac
ular
coa
stal s
cene
ry in
the
stud
y ar
ea.
Com
pone
nt a
nd p
ropo
rtion
of i
ts la
nd sy
stem
RIV
ER
NO
OK
Are
a: 1
8 km
21
10%
220
%3
30%
430
%5
10%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 8
50 –
1,0
00, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(40)
, hig
hest
July
(110
)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
4, lo
wes
t Jul
y (1
0), h
ighe
st F
ebru
ary
(18)
Tem
pera
ture
: N
o m
onth
less
than
10o C
(av.
)Se
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
Exc
eeds
pot
entia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n al
l mon
ths.
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Low
er C
reta
ceou
s san
dsto
ne a
ndm
udst
one
Pale
ocen
e un
diff
eren
tiate
d sa
nd a
nd c
lay
Rec
ent c
alca
reou
s san
d
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eD
eepl
y di
ssec
ted
uplif
ted
plai
ns w
ith c
oast
al c
liffs
Elev
atio
n, m
0 –
150
Loca
l rel
ief,
m70
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
2.5
Land
form
Clif
fD
eepl
y di
ssec
ted
plai
nD
une
Land
form
ele
men
t-
Low
er sl
ope
Dis
sect
ed sl
ope
Upp
er sl
ope,
cre
st-
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %70
7
(4-1
2)14
(2-3
6)5
(1-1
4_14
(2-3
6)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onca
veLi
near
Con
vex
Con
vex
Con
vex
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eO
pen
heat
h to
tall
shru
blan
dO
pen
scru
bO
pen
scru
bLo
w w
oodl
and
Ope
n sc
rub
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
Cas
uarin
a st
rict
a, C
assi
nia
long
ifolia
, Hel
ichr
ysum
par
aliu
m,
Cas
uari
na lu
ehm
anni
i,C
aloc
epha
lus b
rown
ii
E. b
axte
ri, E
. niti
da, L
epto
sper
mum
juni
peri
num
, E. o
vata
, E. o
bliq
uaE.
bax
teri
, E. n
itida
, Lep
tosp
erm
umju
nipe
rinu
m, C
asua
rina
lueh
man
nii,
Cas
sini
a lo
ngifo
lia, E
. ova
ta, E
.ob
liqua
E. b
axte
ri, E
. ova
ta, E
. niti
daH
elic
hrys
um p
aral
ium
,Le
ptos
perm
um ju
nipe
rinu
m,
Cas
sina
long
ifolia
, Aca
cia
vert
icill
ata
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Bea
ch sa
nd, s
ome
cliff
det
ritus
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndSa
ndC
lay,
silt
and
sand
Cal
care
ous s
and
Des
crip
tion
Ston
y br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Yel
low
-bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
,co
arse
stru
ctur
eG
rey
sand
soils
with
har
dpan
s,un
iform
text
ure
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd re
d gr
adat
iona
lso
ils w
ith ir
onst
one.
Bro
wn
calc
areo
us sa
nd so
ils,
unifo
rm te
xtur
eSu
rfac
e te
xtur
eLo
amy
sand
Sand
y lo
amLo
amy
sand
Sand
y lo
amLo
amy
sand
Perm
eabi
lity
Ver
y hi
ghLo
wLo
wM
oder
ate
Ver
y hi
ghD
epth
, m0.
1>2
>2>2
>2L
AN
D U
SEU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
land
scap
e co
nser
vatio
n; sa
nd a
nd g
rave
l ext
ract
ion;
fore
st g
razi
ng.
Min
or c
lear
ed a
reas
: R
esid
entia
l; da
iry fa
rmin
g; b
eef c
attle
gra
zing
, ofte
n on
uni
mpr
oved
pas
ture
s.SO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es,
form
s
Nat
ive
vege
tatio
n is
sens
itive
to sa
ltpr
unin
g an
d di
stur
banc
e.D
ispe
rsib
le so
ils o
f low
wat
er-
hold
ing
capa
city
on
stee
p sl
opes
with
und
erly
ing
rock
are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
. W
ave
unde
rcut
ting
and
satu
ratio
n of
soils
lead
tola
ndsl
ides
. W
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
sand
soils
are
pro
ne to
win
d er
osio
n.
Hig
hly
disp
ersi
ble
soils
are
pro
ne to
gully
and
tunn
el e
rosi
on.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
es o
verly
slow
lype
rmea
ble
subs
oils
are
pro
ne to
shee
t and
rill
eros
ion.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
esov
erly
ing
hard
pans
on
stee
per
slop
es a
re p
rone
to sh
eet a
nd ri
ller
osio
n. V
ery
low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
leac
hing
of p
erm
eabl
e su
rfac
esle
ad to
nut
rient
dec
line.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
es a
ndim
pedi
ng ir
onst
one
laye
rs le
ad to
shee
t ero
sion
on
stee
per s
lope
s.Lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y, p
hosp
horu
sfix
atio
n an
d le
achi
ng o
f per
mea
ble
surf
ace
horiz
ons l
ead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed so
il su
bjec
t to
stro
ng c
oast
al w
inds
are
pro
ne to
win
d er
osio
n. L
ow in
here
ntfe
rtilit
y, h
igh
alka
linity
and
rapi
dle
achi
ng le
ad to
nut
rient
dec
line.
7.36
Sim
pson
Lan
d Sy
stem
Smal
l re
mna
nts
of f
lat
late
ritic
pla
teau
x ne
ar S
imps
on a
nd e
xten
ding
tow
ards
Irr
ewill
ipe
are
evid
ence
of
form
erw
ides
prea
d la
terit
izat
ion.
M
ost l
ater
itic
hill
capp
ing
have
bee
n re
mov
ed b
y di
ssec
tion,
and
this
set
of
north
-nor
’-w
est-
and
sout
h-so
u’-e
ast-o
rient
ated
ridg
es is
the
only
sign
ifica
nt re
mna
nt to
the
wes
t of t
he R
ange
.
The
mos
t com
mon
soi
ls h
ave
grad
atio
nal p
rofil
es c
onta
inin
g la
terit
ic ir
onst
one.
H
owev
er, s
ome
prof
iles
poss
ess
sand
ven
eers
in th
e su
rfac
e ho
rizon
s, w
ith h
ardp
ans
over
lyin
g m
ottle
d cl
ays.
Dra
inag
e of
the
land
scap
e is
poo
r,pa
rticu
larly
whe
re h
ardp
ans o
ccur
, and
seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
g is
a p
robl
em.
The
ridge
s ha
ve b
een
exte
nsiv
ely
clea
red
as p
art o
f th
e H
eyte
sbur
y Se
ttlem
ent S
chem
e an
d da
iry f
arm
ing
is th
em
ain
land
use
. Th
ere
are
prob
lem
s ar
isin
g fr
om lo
w s
oil f
ertil
ity a
nd e
xpos
ure
to w
ind.
O
nly
one
smal
l are
a of
nativ
e ve
geta
tion
rem
ains
in th
e st
udy
area
.
Cle
arin
g of
thes
e fla
t lat
eriti
c pl
atea
u ha
s bee
n ve
ry th
orou
gh, a
nd li
ttle
evid
ence
rem
ains
of t
he
form
er h
ardw
ood
fore
sts t
hat c
over
ed th
em.
Com
pone
nts a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
SIM
PSO
NA
rea:
33
km2
165
%2
25%
310
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
800
– 9
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(35)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
110)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
13,
low
est J
uly
(8),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(18)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– A
ugus
tSe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
late
Oct
ober
– e
arly
Apr
ilG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPl
ioce
ne la
terit
ized
sand
and
cla
yV
enee
r of Q
uate
rnar
y sa
ndT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Ver
y ge
ntly
und
ulat
ing
plat
eau
with
nor
th-w
est a
nd so
uth-
east
dis
sect
ion
Elev
atio
n, m
150
– 17
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
10D
rain
age
patte
rnPa
ralle
lD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
1.0
Land
form
Plat
eau
Land
form
ele
men
tM
iddl
e an
d up
per s
lope
s, cr
est
Mid
dle
slop
eLo
wer
slop
e, d
epre
ssio
nSl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
4 (0
-14)
0 (0
-3)
5 (0
-9)
Slop
e sh
ape
Stra
ight
(som
e co
nvex
)St
raig
htC
onca
veN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Ope
n fo
rest
Clo
sed
scru
bO
pen
fore
stD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
obl
iqua
, E. b
axte
riLe
ptos
perm
um ju
nipe
rinu
m M
elal
euca
squa
rros
a, E
.ni
tida,
Cas
uari
na li
ttora
lisE.
bax
teri
, E. o
vata
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Wea
ther
ing
late
ritic
rem
nant
sLa
terit
ic re
mna
nts c
over
ed b
y va
ryin
g de
pths
of s
and
Allu
vial
sand
and
cla
yD
escr
iptio
nM
ottle
d ye
llow
and
red
grad
atio
nal s
oils
with
iron
ston
eG
rey
sand
soils
, stru
ctur
ed c
lay
unde
rlay
Yel
low
-bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
eSu
rfac
e te
xtur
eSa
ndy
loam
Sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Mod
erat
eLo
wLo
wD
epth
, m1.
7>2
>2L
AN
D U
SEC
lear
ed a
reas
: D
airy
farm
ing;
som
e be
ef c
attle
gra
zing
Min
or c
lear
ed a
reas
: H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
pro
duct
ion
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
N H
AZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es, f
orm
sLo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
d ph
osph
orus
fixa
tion
lead
tonu
trien
t dec
line.
Lea
chin
g of
salts
lead
to in
crea
sed
salin
ity to
dra
inag
e w
ater
s.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
leac
hing
of p
erm
eabl
e su
rfac
eho
rizon
s lea
d to
nut
rient
dec
line.
Low
per
mea
bilit
ies
lead
to se
ason
al w
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
Low
per
mea
bilit
ies a
nd h
igh
seas
onal
wat
erta
bles
lead
to se
ason
al w
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
Leac
hing
of s
alts
from
land
scap
e le
ads t
o in
crea
sed
salin
ity o
f dra
inag
e w
ater
s.
7.37
Thom
pson
Cre
ek L
and
Syst
em
The
low
er r
each
es o
f th
e Th
omps
on C
reek
cat
chm
ent
spre
ad o
ut i
nto
a w
ide
allu
vial
pla
in.
The
pla
in a
ppea
rsal
mos
t fla
t, bu
t it s
lope
s to
war
ds th
e se
a. T
he h
ighe
st in
land
par
ts a
re s
ome
20 m
abo
ve th
e pr
esen
t val
ley
floor
of
Thom
pson
Cre
ek, a
nd so
me
mild
dis
sect
ion
into
the
plai
n oc
cur a
long
the
side
s of t
his v
alle
y.
Roa
d re
serv
es a
nd s
mal
l she
lter b
elts
for s
tock
con
tain
the
only
rem
nant
s of
the
nativ
e ve
geta
tion.
Low
woo
dlan
dsof
Euc
alyp
tus
leuc
oxyl
on a
nd C
asua
rina
str
icta
app
ear
to h
ave
been
com
mon
, with
Aca
cia
pycn
anth
a do
min
atin
gth
e un
ders
tore
y. E
. leu
coxy
lon
show
s ev
iden
ce o
f sev
ere
salt
prun
ing
seve
ral k
ilom
etre
s fr
om th
e co
ast.
Soi
ls a
redu
plex
and
sodi
c w
ith d
ispe
rsib
le su
bsoi
ls.
Thes
e pl
ains
are
use
d fo
r gr
azin
g an
d cr
oppi
ng.
Min
or p
robl
ems
are
enco
unte
red
from
gul
ly e
rosi
on a
long
the
mar
gins
of T
hom
son
Cre
ek, a
nd so
il sa
lting
occ
urs i
n th
e lo
wes
t are
as c
lose
to th
e C
onne
war
re la
nd sy
stem
.
Thes
e fla
t pla
ins a
re u
sed
mai
nly
for g
razi
ng a
nd c
ropp
ing
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
TH
OM
PSO
N C
RE
EK
Are
a: 2
9 km
21
70%
220
%3
10%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 6
00, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(30)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
60)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
14,
low
est J
uly
(9),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(19)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
uly
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n O
ctob
er –
mid
Apr
ilG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yD
eepl
y w
eath
ered
Plio
-Ple
isto
cene
fluv
iatil
e sa
nd a
nd c
lay
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eFl
at to
gen
tly u
ndul
atin
g pl
ain
near
the
sout
h of
Tho
mps
on C
reek
Elev
atio
n, m
0 –
50Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
5D
rain
age
patte
rnW
eak
dend
ritic
pat
tern
with
som
e de
rang
ed a
reas
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
21.
2La
nd fo
rmPl
ain
Allu
vial
terr
ace
Land
form
ele
men
tM
iddl
e an
d up
per s
lope
Low
er sl
ope
-Sl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
0 (0
-2)
4 (2
-10)
1 (0
-2)
Slop
e sh
ape
Line
arC
onve
xLi
near
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eLo
w w
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Woo
dlan
dD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
leuc
oxyl
on, C
asua
rina
stri
cta,
E. o
vata
E. le
ucox
ylon
E. le
ucox
ylon
, E. v
imin
alis
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Sand
y cl
aySa
ndy
clay
Sand
, silt
and
cla
yD
escr
iptio
nY
ello
w-b
row
n so
dic
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure
Yel
low
sodi
c du
plex
soils
Bro
wn
sand
y lo
am so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eSu
rfac
e te
xtur
eSa
ndy
loam
Sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Low
Mod
erat
eH
igh
Dep
th, m
>2>2
>2L
AN
D U
SEC
lear
ed a
reas
: D
airy
farm
ing
and
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng o
n m
ainl
y im
prov
ed p
astu
res;
som
e ce
real
cro
ppin
gSO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZAR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
, for
ms
Dis
pers
ible
soi
ls a
re p
rone
to
gully
ero
sion
. S
odic
subs
oils
, low
per
mea
bilit
y an
d hi
gh w
ater
tabl
es le
ad to
soil
salti
ng.
Sodi
c su
bsoi
ls a
nd h
igh
wat
er ta
bles
lead
to so
il sa
lting
.Sh
allo
w
salin
e w
ater
ta
bles
le
ad
to
soil
salti
ng,
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
il co
mpa
ctio
n. H
igh
disc
harg
e ra
tes
alon
g w
ater
cour
ses l
ead
to st
ream
bank
ero
sion
.
7.38
To
mah
awk
Cre
ek L
and
Syst
em
Tom
ahaw
k C
reek
and
its
tribu
tarie
s ha
ve d
isse
cted
out
dee
p va
lleys
with
cha
ract
eris
tic n
orth
-not
’-w
est-
and
sout
h-so
u’-e
ast-o
rient
ed p
aral
lel r
ides
and
spu
rs.
Smal
l rem
nant
s of
late
ritic
pla
teau
x on
the
high
par
ts o
f the
land
scap
e ar
e bo
unde
d by
scar
ps o
n w
hich
iron
ston
e ou
tcro
ps.
Terti
ary
sand
is o
ften
expo
sed
in a
nar
row
ban
dbe
low
the
se s
carp
s, an
d sp
rings
are
ofte
n pr
esen
t at
thi
s le
vel.
Silt
and
cla
y ar
e th
e m
ore
com
mon
par
ent
mat
eria
ls o
n lo
ng st
raig
ht sl
opes
lead
ing
dow
n to
the
valle
y flo
or.
Smal
l dis
sect
ed te
rrac
es a
re fo
und
alon
g th
ew
ider
val
leys
.
The
terr
ain
to th
e so
uth
and
east
of T
omah
awk
Cre
ek s
how
s a
low
er lo
cal r
elie
f tha
n th
e ar
ea to
the
north
and
wes
t. A
reas
of
late
ritic
pla
teau
x ar
e of
ten
wid
er a
nd s
urro
undi
ng s
lope
s ar
e sh
orte
r an
d m
ore
gent
le.
Site
drai
nage
is a
ffec
ted
by th
e m
ore
subd
ued
relie
f. W
oodl
ands
and
low
land
s ap
pear
to h
ave
been
mor
e co
mm
onin
this
are
a, w
ith o
pen
fore
sts t
o th
e no
rth a
nd w
est.
Mos
t of t
his
land
sys
tem
has
bee
n cl
eare
d as
par
t of t
he H
eyte
sbur
y Se
ttlem
ent S
chem
e, a
nd d
airy
farm
ing
isth
e m
ain
land
use
. Su
bsoi
ls o
n m
any
slop
es a
re d
ispe
rsib
le a
nd g
ully
and
tun
nel
eros
ion
are
quite
act
ive.
Som
e la
ndsl
ips h
ave
occu
rred
, par
ticul
arly
bel
ow sp
rings
at t
he b
ase
of sc
arps
.
Cat
tle g
raze
the
undu
latin
g pl
atea
u co
untr
y.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
TO
MA
HA
WK
CR
EE
KA
rea:
101
km
21
15%
2 6%3
10%
450
%5 9%
610
%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
850
– 1
,050
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
0), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (12
5)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
3, lo
wes
t Jul
y (8
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
9)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e –
Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n N
ovem
ber –
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yPl
ioce
ne la
terit
ized
sand
and
cla
yM
ioce
ne u
ncon
solid
ated
sand
, silt
and
cla
yT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Dee
p va
lleys
dis
sect
ed o
ut fr
om la
terit
ic p
late
aux
Elev
atio
n, m
50 –
160
Loca
l rel
ief,
m70
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Trel
lis p
redo
min
antly
, som
e de
ndrit
ic a
reas
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
22.
9La
nd fo
rmPl
atea
u re
mna
nts
Scar
pV
alle
y flo
orLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
-U
pper
slop
eU
pper
slop
eM
id sl
ope
Low
er sl
ope
-Sl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
1 (0
-3)
28 (1
3-40
)12
(8-1
8)12
(8-2
0)5
(1-8
)0
(0-2
)Sl
ope
shap
eSt
raig
htC
onca
veSt
raig
htSt
raig
htSt
raig
htC
onca
veN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Woo
dlan
dO
pen
fore
stLo
w w
oodl
and
Woo
dlan
dD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
obl
iqua
, E. b
axte
riE.
obl
iqua
, occ
asio
nally
E.
vim
inal
isE.
radi
ata,
E. b
axte
ri, E
.vi
min
alis
E. o
vata
, E. o
bliq
ua, E
.ra
diat
a, E
. bax
teri
E. ra
diat
a, E
. ova
taE.
vim
inal
is, E
. ova
ta
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Late
ritic
rem
ains
Col
luvi
al la
terit
ic ir
onst
one
Silic
eous
sand
Sand
y cl
ay (i
n-si
tu)
Col
luvi
al/a
lluvi
al sa
nd o
ver
sand
y cl
aySa
nd a
nd c
lay
allu
vium
Des
crip
tion
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd re
dgr
adat
iona
l soi
ls w
ithiro
nsto
ne
Ston
y re
d gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsG
rey
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Yel
low
-bro
wn
grad
atio
nal
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
eG
rey
sand
soils
, stru
ctur
edcl
ay u
nder
lay
Gre
y gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls
Surf
ace
text
ure
Sand
y lo
amG
rave
lly sa
ndy
loam
Coa
rse
sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Mod
erat
eV
ery
high
Ver
y hi
ghLo
wV
ery
low
Ver
y lo
wD
epth
, m1.
61.
0>2
>2>2
>2L
AN
D U
SEC
lear
ed a
reas
: M
ainl
y da
iry fa
rmin
g; so
me
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng.
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
for s
awlo
gs, s
ome
post
s and
pol
es, g
rave
l ext
ract
ion;
nat
ure
cons
erva
tion.
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es,
proc
esse
s, fo
rms
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
phos
phor
us fi
xatio
n le
ad to
nutri
ent d
eclin
e. L
each
ing
ofsa
lts le
ads t
o in
crea
sed
salin
ityof
dra
inag
e w
ater
s.
Stee
p sl
opes
with
wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
es o
f low
wat
er-h
oldi
ng c
apac
ity a
repr
one
to sh
eet e
rosi
on.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
high
perm
eabi
lity
lead
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e.
Emer
genc
e of
sprin
gs fr
omth
ese
perm
eabl
e aq
uife
rs le
ads
to se
ason
al w
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
Per
mea
ble
soils
of l
ow in
here
nt fe
rtilit
yar
e pr
one
to n
utrie
nt d
eclin
e.
Hig
hly
disp
ersi
ble
clay
subs
oils
of l
ow p
erm
eabi
lity
rece
ivin
g se
epag
e w
ater
are
pron
e to
gul
ly a
nd tu
nnel
eros
ion
and
to la
ndsl
ips a
ndsl
umpi
ng.
Dis
pers
ible
soils
of l
owpe
rmea
bilit
y re
ceiv
ing
seep
age
wat
er a
re p
rone
togu
lly a
nd tu
nnel
ero
sion
,w
ater
logg
ing
and
surf
ace
com
pact
ion.
Per
mea
ble
surf
aces
of l
ow in
here
ntfe
rtilit
y ar
e pr
one
to n
utrie
ntde
clin
e.
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
flo
w p
erm
eabi
lity
rece
ivin
gra
pid
run-
off f
rom
surr
ound
ing
hills
are
pro
ne to
gully
ero
sion
. R
isin
g w
ater
tabl
es a
nd lo
w p
erm
eabi
litie
sle
ad to
seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
gan
d so
il co
mpa
ctio
n.
7.39
W
aarr
e La
nd S
yste
m
Und
ulat
ing
plai
ns to
the
north
and
wes
t of P
rince
tow
n ar
e fo
rmed
on
Terti
ary
limes
tone
, mar
l and
cal
care
ous c
lay.
Onl
y a
smal
l tra
ct o
f th
is l
and
lies
with
in t
he s
tudy
are
a, b
ut t
he l
ands
cape
is
exte
nsiv
e in
the
nei
ghbo
urin
gca
tchm
ents
of S
cotts
Cre
ek a
nd C
oorie
mun
gle
Cre
ek.
Som
e fa
ultin
g ha
s le
d to
occ
asio
nal s
teep
sca
rps,
but m
ost
slop
es a
re g
entle
and
stra
ight
, sep
arat
ed b
y br
oad
drai
nage
line
s.
The
grad
atio
nal s
oils
on
thes
e ca
lcar
eous
sed
imen
ts a
re h
eavi
er-te
xtur
ed a
nd s
igni
fican
tly m
ore
ferti
le th
an s
oils
form
ed o
n Te
rtiar
y se
dim
ents
in a
djac
ent l
and
syst
ems.
Fre
e lim
e is
ofte
n pr
esen
t in
the
soil
prof
ile.
Rem
nant
s of
the
nativ
e ve
geta
tion
indi
cate
that
it w
as so
mew
hat s
tunt
ed, p
ossi
bly
as a
resu
lt of
the
prox
imity
of t
he c
oast
.
A la
rge
part
of th
is la
nd s
yste
m li
es w
ithin
the
Hey
tesb
ury
Settl
emen
t Sch
eme
and
clea
ring
has
been
wid
espr
ead.
Dai
ry fa
rmin
g is
the
mai
n la
nd u
se, a
lthou
gh s
ome
of th
e ea
rlier
est
ablis
hed
area
s cl
ose
to th
e co
ast a
re u
sed
for
shee
p an
d be
ef c
attle
gra
zing
. Su
bsoi
ls a
re d
ispe
rsib
le a
nd g
ully
ero
sion
has
occ
urre
d al
ong
som
e dr
aina
ge li
nes.
Land
slip
and
slu
mpi
ng o
f roa
d ba
tters
cau
se p
robl
ems
with
road
con
stru
ctio
n an
d ac
cess
on
the
mor
e un
dula
ting
area
s. D
rain
age
lines
rem
ain
wat
erlo
gged
for m
ost o
f the
yea
r and
are
pro
ne to
soil
com
pact
ion
by st
ock.
Long
stra
ight
slop
es w
ith b
road
dra
inag
e lin
es ty
pify
the
land
scap
e fo
rmed
on
thes
e ca
lcar
eous
sedi
men
ts,
but o
ccas
iona
l fau
lt sc
arps
are
foun
d cl
ose
to th
e co
ast.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
WA
AR
EA
rea:
28
km2
1 4%2
65%
320
%4 8%
5 3%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
900
– 1
,000
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
0), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (12
0)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
4, lo
wes
t Jul
y (9
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
8)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e –
Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n N
ovem
ber –
Mar
chG
EO
LO
GY
Age
, lith
olog
yM
ioce
ne m
arin
e cl
ay, m
arl a
nd li
mes
tone
in th
e lo
wer
reac
hes o
f the
Gel
libra
nd R
iver
cat
chm
ent
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eU
ndul
atin
g pl
ain
with
som
e fa
ult s
carp
sEl
evat
ion,
m0
– 16
5Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
45D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
22.
9La
nd fo
rmR
ise
Dra
inag
e lin
eFa
ult s
carp
Land
form
ele
men
tU
pper
slop
e, c
rest
Mid
slop
e, c
rest
Low
er sl
ope
--
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %5
(2-9
)11
(4-2
1)4
(1-7
)0
(0-1
)33
Slop
e sh
ape
Line
arC
onve
xC
onca
veLi
near
Line
arN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Ope
n fo
rest
Woo
dlan
dW
oodl
and
Clo
sed
scru
bW
oodl
and
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. ova
ta, E
.ar
omap
hloi
aE.
ova
ta, E
. rad
iata
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. ova
taM
elal
euca
squa
rros
a,Le
ptos
perm
um la
nige
rum
E. v
imin
alis
, Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Cla
y an
d sa
ndIn
-site
mar
l, lim
esto
neC
lay
and
sand
Plan
t re
mna
nts,
allu
vial
san
d an
dcl
ayIn
-site
mar
l and
lim
esto
ne
Des
crip
tion
Bro
wn
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure
Bro
wn
calc
areo
us g
rada
tiona
l soi
ls,
coar
se st
ruct
ure
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd g
rey
grad
atio
nal
soils
Gre
y gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsB
lack
cal
care
ous g
rada
tiona
l soi
ls
Surf
ace
text
ure
Fine
sand
y lo
amLo
amSa
ndy
loam
Silty
loam
C
lay
Perm
eabi
lity
Ver
y lo
wLo
wM
oder
ate
Low
Mod
erat
eD
epth
, m>2
1.7
>2>2
>2L
AN
D U
SEC
lear
ed a
reas
: G
razi
ng b
eef c
attle
; dai
ry c
attle
; she
epM
inor
unc
lear
ed a
reas
: N
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; in
clud
es th
e ru
gged
coa
stlin
e of
the
Port
Cam
pbel
l Nat
iona
l Par
kSO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es,
form
s
Hig
hly
disp
ersi
ble
soils
of l
owpe
rmea
bilit
y ar
e pr
one
to g
ully
and
shee
t ero
sion
. Lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
yan
d le
achi
ng o
f per
mea
ble
surf
aces
lead
to n
utrie
nt d
eclin
e.
Cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
n st
eepe
r slo
pes
subj
ect t
o pe
riodi
c sa
tura
tion
are
pron
e to
land
slip
s, sl
umpi
ng o
f roa
dba
tters
and
gul
ly e
rosi
on.
Dis
pers
ible
subs
oils
are
pro
ne to
gully
ero
sion
.D
ispe
rsib
le su
bsoi
ls o
f low
perm
eabi
lity
rece
ivin
g ru
n-of
f fro
msu
rrou
ndin
g hi
lls a
re p
rone
to g
ully
eros
ion,
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
ilco
mpa
ctio
n.
Cla
y so
ils o
n st
eep
slop
es su
bjec
t to
perio
dic
satu
ratio
n ar
e pr
one
tola
ndsl
ips a
nd sh
eet e
rosi
on.
7.40
W
inch
else
a La
nd S
yste
m
Bas
altic
pla
ins
north
of t
he B
arw
on R
iver
are
typi
cal o
f tho
se fo
und
in m
uch
of w
este
rn V
icto
ria.
Thes
e pl
ains
are
rela
tivel
y fe
atur
eles
s, al
thou
gh th
ere
are
occa
sion
al o
utcr
ops o
f bas
alt i
n th
e fo
rm o
f sto
ny ri
ses o
r sca
rps.
The
soils
are
dup
lex
with
hea
vy c
lay
subs
oils
. Pe
rmea
bilit
y is
ver
y lo
w a
nd w
ater
logg
ing
occu
rs d
urin
g th
e w
ette
rm
onth
s. G
ilgai
s are
a fe
atur
e of
the
land
scap
e.
Gra
zing
of s
heet
and
bee
f cat
tle is
the
mai
n la
nd u
se, a
nd th
ere
is s
ome
cere
al a
nd o
ilsee
d cr
oppi
ng.
The
clim
ate
isre
lativ
ely
dry,
but
sui
tabl
e fo
r ag
ricul
ture
, an
d im
prov
ed p
astu
res
have
nor
mal
ly b
een
esta
blis
hed.
So
il sa
lting
occu
rs in
man
y pa
rts o
f the
land
scap
e, p
artic
ular
ly c
lose
to th
e B
arw
on R
iver
.
Thes
e fla
t bas
alt p
lain
s con
tain
ver
y fe
w re
mna
nts o
f the
org
anic
nat
ive
vege
tatio
n.
Com
pone
nts a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
WIN
CH
EL
SEA
Are
a: 8
0 km
21
15%
275
%3
10%
CL
IMA
TE
Rai
nfal
l, m
mA
nnua
l: 5
50 –
600
, low
est J
anua
ry (2
5), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (60
)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
3, lo
wes
t Jul
y (8
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
9)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e –
Aug
ust
Seas
onal
gro
wth
lim
itatio
nsPr
ecip
itatio
n: l
ess t
han
pote
ntia
l eva
potra
nspi
ratio
n la
te S
epte
mbe
r – A
pril
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Plei
stoc
ene
basa
ltT
OPO
GR
APH
YLa
ndsc
ape
Flat
to g
ently
und
ulat
ing
plai
n ab
uttin
g th
e no
rth si
de o
f the
Bar
won
Riv
erEl
evat
ion,
m11
0 –
150
Loca
l rel
ief,
m15
Dra
inag
e pa
ttern
Den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
0.2
Land
form
Plai
nLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Flat
sout
hern
low
er a
reas
Mos
t fla
t or u
ndul
atin
g sl
ope
Ris
eSl
ope
(and
rang
e), %
0 (0
-1)
1 (0
-3)
2 (0
-4)
Slop
e sh
ape
Line
arLi
near
Con
vex
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eO
pen
woo
dlan
dPo
ssib
ly o
pen
woo
dlan
dPo
ssib
ly o
pen
woo
dlan
dD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
cam
aldu
lens
isE.
cam
aldu
lens
isE.
cam
aldu
lens
isSO
ILPa
rent
mat
eria
lIn
-situ
dee
ply
wea
ther
ed b
asal
t; so
me
allu
vium
In-s
ite d
eepl
y w
eath
ered
bas
alt
Bas
alt
Des
crip
tion
Gre
y ca
lcar
eous
sodi
c du
plex
soils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
eG
rey
calc
areo
us so
dic
dupl
ex so
ils, c
oars
e st
ruct
ure
Bla
ck c
alca
reou
s cla
y so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
eSu
rfac
e te
xtur
eSa
ndy
loam
Cla
y lo
amC
lay
Perm
eabi
lity
Ver
y lo
wV
ery
low
Ver
y lo
wD
epth
, m1.
81.
20.
7L
AN
D U
SEC
lear
ed a
reas
: Sh
eep
and
beef
cat
tle g
razi
ng; c
ropp
ing
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
N H
AZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es, f
orm
sSo
ils o
f low
per
mea
bilit
y ar
e pr
one
to w
ater
logg
ing
and
to sa
lting
whe
re h
igh
wat
er ta
bles
occ
ur.
Soils
of l
ow p
erm
eabi
lity
are
pron
e to
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
dto
salti
ng w
here
hig
h w
ater
tabl
es o
ccur
.M
inor
haz
ards
7.41
W
onga
Lan
d Sy
stem
Adj
acen
t to
the
late
ritic
pla
teau
aro
und
Sim
pson
and
at a
sim
ilar
elev
atio
n, a
gen
tly u
ndul
atin
g pl
ain
with
out
late
ritic
iro
nsto
ne e
xten
ds e
astw
ards
tow
ards
Bar
onga
rook
. Th
e pa
rent
mat
eria
l is
mai
nly
Terti
ary
sand
and
clay
, w
ith s
ome
min
or r
edis
tribu
tion
on s
and
vene
ers
in s
ome
parts
and
out
crop
s of
dee
ply
wea
ther
edC
reta
ceou
s san
dsto
ne a
long
the
side
s of s
ome
of th
e dr
aina
ge li
nes.
The
soils
exh
ibit
sim
ilar m
ottli
ng a
nd d
eep
wea
ther
ing
to th
ose
foun
d in
the
Sim
pson
land
syst
em, a
nd a
re p
rone
to n
utrie
nt d
efic
ienc
ies
and
phos
phat
e fix
atio
n.
Ope
n fo
rest
s of
Euc
alyp
tus
obliq
ua o
ccur
ove
r m
ost
of t
hela
ndsc
ape,
alth
ough
E. b
axte
ri te
nds t
o do
min
ate
on th
e po
lyge
netic
soils
with
har
dpan
s. A
caci
a m
ucro
nata
act
sas
a st
rong
indi
cato
r of t
he p
rese
nce
of C
reta
ceou
s out
crop
s.
Mos
t ar
eas
rem
ain
uncl
eare
d an
d ar
e se
lect
ivel
y lo
gged
for
har
dwoo
d tim
ber,
alth
ough
mos
t tim
ber
is o
fin
suff
icie
nt si
ze to
pro
vide
goo
d sa
wlo
gs.
The
clea
red
area
in th
e fo
regr
ound
con
trast
s with
the
nativ
e ha
rdwo
od fo
rest
s.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
WO
NG
AA
rea:
72
km2
145
%2 7%
325
%4
15%
5 8%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
850
– 9
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(40)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
120)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
13,
low
est J
uly
(8),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(18)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– A
ugus
tSe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
late
Oct
ober
– M
arch
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Pale
ocen
e m
arin
e un
cons
olid
ated
cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndLo
wer
Cre
tace
ous f
elds
path
icsa
ndst
one
and
silts
tone
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eU
ndul
atin
g pl
ain
in th
e no
rth p
art o
f the
Gel
libra
nd R
iver
cat
chm
ent
Elev
atio
n, m
120
– 34
0Lo
cal r
elie
f, m
30D
rain
age
patte
rnPa
ralle
l and
den
driti
cD
rain
age
dens
ity, k
m/k
m2
1.2
Land
form
Und
ulat
ing
plai
nLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Cre
st, u
pper
slop
eC
ollu
vial
fan,
dep
ress
ion
Slop
eLo
wer
slop
eLo
wer
slop
e, d
rain
age
line
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %7
(0-1
2)4
(0-7
)7
(1-1
6)10
(4-1
4)10
(4-1
4)Sl
ope
shap
eC
onve
xC
onca
veC
onve
xLi
near
Line
arN
AT
IVE
VE
GE
TA
TIO
NSt
ruct
ure
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n w
oodl
and
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Ope
n fo
rest
Dom
inan
t spe
cies
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, E. b
axte
ri,
occa
sion
ally
E. o
vata
, E. v
imin
alis
,E.
aro
map
hloi
a
E. b
axte
ri, E
. ova
ta, E
. niti
daE.
bax
teri
, E. r
adia
ta, E
. ova
ta, E
.ob
liqua
, occ
asio
nally
E.
arom
aphl
oia
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. rad
iata
, E. o
vata
, E.
baxt
eri
E. o
bliq
ua, E
. ova
ta, E
. rad
iata
, E.
arom
aphl
oia
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndC
ollu
vial
sand
on
sand
, silt
and
cla
yC
ollu
vial
sand
on
sand
, silt
and
cla
yC
lay,
silt
and
sand
In-s
itu w
eath
ered
rock
Des
crip
tion
Mot
tled
yello
w a
nd re
d gr
adat
iona
lso
ilsG
rey
sand
soils
, wea
kly
stru
ctur
edcl
ay u
nder
lay
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, s
truct
ured
cla
yun
derla
yY
ello
w-b
row
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls,
coar
se st
ruct
ure
Yel
low
-bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
,co
arse
stru
ctur
eSu
rfac
e te
xtur
eSa
ndy
loam
Sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
loam
Sand
y lo
amFi
ne sa
ndy
clay
loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Mod
erat
eLo
wLo
wLo
wLo
wD
epth
, m>2
>2>2
>21.
5L
AN
D U
SEU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r saw
logs
, pos
ts a
nd p
oles
; wat
er su
pply
; nat
ure
cons
erva
tion;
gra
vel e
xtra
ctio
n.M
inor
cle
ared
are
as:
Bee
f cat
tle g
razi
ng; d
airy
farm
ing
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
NH
AZ
AR
DC
ritic
al la
nd fe
atur
es, p
roce
sses
,fo
rms
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
phos
phor
us fi
xatio
n le
ad to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Low
per
mea
bilit
y an
d pe
rche
dw
ater
tabl
es le
ad to
seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
il co
mpa
ctio
n.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
leac
hing
of p
erm
eabl
e su
rfac
es le
ad to
nutri
ent d
eclin
e. L
owpe
rmea
bilit
ies l
ead
to se
ason
alw
ater
logg
ing
and
soil
com
pact
ion.
Dis
pers
ible
cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
f low
perm
eabi
lity
are
pron
e to
gul
lyer
osio
n. S
teep
er sl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
.
Dis
pers
ible
subs
oils
rece
ivin
g ru
n-of
f fro
m a
djac
ent a
reas
are
pro
ne to
gully
ero
sion
.
7.42
Ya
hoo
Cre
ek L
and
Syst
em
Nor
th o
f th
e G
ellib
rand
Riv
er, C
reta
ceou
s sa
ndst
ones
and
mud
ston
es o
utcr
op in
the
valle
ys o
f th
e Y
ahoo
Cre
ek,
Gum
Gul
ly C
reek
and
an
unna
med
cre
ek t
o th
e w
est
of B
lack
Brid
ge r
oad.
Th
ese
sedi
men
ts b
elon
g to
the
Moo
nlig
ht H
ead
Bed
s of
the
Otw
ay G
roup
. S
lope
s ar
e st
eep
and
valle
ys a
re n
arro
w,
in s
harp
con
trast
to
the
roun
ded
hills
of a
djac
ent T
ertia
ry se
dim
ents
.
The
soils
are
sim
ilar t
o th
ose
foun
d on
oth
er o
utcr
ops o
f Cre
tace
ous s
edim
ents
in th
e R
ange
, with
the
exce
ptio
n th
atsu
rfac
e ho
rizon
s con
tain
app
reci
ably
mor
e sa
nd a
nd th
e pa
rent
mat
eria
l is u
sual
ly h
ighl
y w
eath
ered
. O
pen
fore
sts o
fEu
caly
ptus
obl
iqua
, E. o
vata
and
E. a
rom
aphl
oia
are
sim
ilar t
o th
ose
foun
d on
the
drie
r slo
pes
of th
e Fo
rres
t lan
dsy
stem
.
Mos
t par
ts o
f th
e va
lleys
rem
ain
virtu
ally
unc
lear
ed a
nd q
uite
rem
ote.
H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
is th
e m
ain
land
use
,al
thou
gh t
he r
ugge
d te
rrai
n m
akes
acc
ess
diff
icul
t. S
ome
softw
ood
plan
tatio
ns h
ave
been
est
ablis
hed
in t
heca
tchm
ent
of Y
ahoo
Cre
ek.
Lan
dslip
s oc
cur
on t
hese
soi
ls u
nder
nat
ive
fore
st,
and
the
inci
denc
e in
crea
ses
dram
atic
ally
follo
win
g cl
earin
g. S
heet
ero
sion
and
gul
ly e
rosi
on a
re a
lso
pron
e to
occ
ur.
The
stee
p an
d ru
gged
hill
s sur
roun
ding
Yah
oo C
reek
are
diff
icul
t to
man
age.
Scr
ub re
grow
th ra
pidl
y ta
kes o
ver r
ecen
tly c
lear
ed sl
opes
.
Com
pone
nts a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
YA
HO
O C
RE
EK
Are
a: 3
2 km
21
35%
245
%3
15%
4 5%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
850
– 1
,000
, low
est J
anua
ry (4
0), h
ighe
st A
ugus
t (13
0)Te
mpe
ratu
re, 0
o CA
nnua
l: 1
2, lo
wes
t Jul
y (7
), hi
ghes
t Feb
ruar
y (1
8)T
empe
ratu
re:
less
than
10o C
(av.
) Jun
e –
Sept
embe
rSe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
pira
tion
Nov
embe
r – M
arch
GE
OL
OG
YA
ge, l
ithol
ogy
Low
Cre
tace
ous h
ighl
y fe
ldsp
athi
c sa
ndst
one
and
mud
ston
e (M
oonl
ight
Hea
d B
eds)
TO
POG
RA
PHY
Land
scap
eD
eepl
y di
ssec
ted
hills
to th
e no
rth o
f Gel
libra
nd R
iver
Elev
atio
n, m
60 –
270
Loca
l rel
ief,
m11
0D
rain
age
patte
rnD
endr
itic
with
smal
l rad
ial a
reas
Dra
inag
e de
nsity
, km
/km
23.
0La
nd fo
rmH
illLa
nd fo
rm e
lem
ent
Stee
p sl
ope
Cre
st, u
pper
slop
eSl
ope
Swal
e, g
entle
low
er sl
ope
Slop
e (a
nd ra
nge)
, %50
(20-
70)
15 (2
-30)
35 (1
5-45
)13
(1-2
5)Sl
ope
shap
eLi
near
Line
arLi
near
Con
cave
NA
TIV
E V
EG
ET
AT
ION
Stru
ctur
eO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stO
pen
fore
stD
omin
ant s
peci
esE.
ova
ta, E
. obl
iqua
, E. r
adia
ta, E
.ar
omap
hloi
a, E
. vim
inal
isE.
obl
iqua
, E. o
vata
, E. a
rom
aphl
oia,
E.
radi
ata
E. v
imin
alis
, E. o
bliq
uaE.
vim
inal
is, E
. obl
iqua
, Aca
cia
mel
anox
ylon
SOIL
Pare
nt m
ater
ial
In-s
itu w
eath
ered
rock
, col
luvi
al ro
ckIn
-situ
dee
ply
wea
ther
ed ro
ckIn
-situ
wea
ther
ed ro
ckC
ollu
vium
Des
crip
tion
Ston
y br
own
grad
atio
nal s
oils
Yel
low
-bro
wn
grad
atio
nal s
oils
, coa
rse
stru
ctur
eB
row
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
lsD
ark
brow
n gr
adat
iona
l soi
ls
Surf
ace
text
ure
Fine
sand
y lo
amSa
ndy
clay
loam
Loam
Loam
Perm
eabi
lity
Hig
hLo
wM
oder
ate
Mod
erat
eD
epth
, m0.
71.
20.
9>2
LA
ND
USE
Unc
lear
ed a
reas
: H
ardw
ood
fore
stry
for s
awlo
gs, p
osts
and
pol
es; n
atur
e co
nser
vatio
n; w
ater
supp
lyM
inor
cle
ared
are
as:
Shee
p an
d be
ef c
attle
gra
zing
; wat
er su
pply
SOIL
DE
TE
RIO
RA
TIO
N H
AZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es, f
orm
sSt
ony
shal
low
soils
with
wea
k st
ruct
ure
and
low
wat
er-h
oldi
ng c
apac
ity o
n st
eep
slop
esar
e pr
one
to sh
eet e
rosi
on a
nd la
ndsl
ides
.
Soils
of l
ow p
erm
eabi
lity
on th
e st
eepe
rsl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
t and
rill
eros
ion.
Dis
pers
ible
subs
oils
are
pro
ne to
gul
lyer
osio
n.
Cla
y su
bsoi
ls o
n st
eep
slop
es su
bjec
t to
perio
dic
satu
ratio
n ar
e pr
one
to la
ndsl
ips.
Stee
p sl
opes
are
pro
ne to
shee
t ero
sion
.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed so
ils re
ceiv
ing
run-
off
from
adj
acen
t hill
s are
pro
ne to
scou
rgu
llyin
g, si
ltatio
n an
d flo
odin
g.
7.43
Ye
oden
e La
nd S
yste
m
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t of Y
eode
ne, a
rolli
ng a
nd ir
regu
lar l
ands
cape
form
s pa
rt of
a b
road
ridg
e ex
tend
ing
from
the
foot
hills
of
the
Ran
ges
tow
ards
Col
ac.
Terti
ary
sand
out
crop
s on
mos
t par
ts of
the
land
scap
e, o
ften
form
ing
a ve
neer
ove
rex
posu
res o
f Ter
tiary
silt
and
clay
.
The
soils
hav
e lo
amy
sand
or
sand
y lo
am s
urfa
ce te
xtur
es a
nd a
re p
rone
to n
utrie
nt a
nd m
oist
ure
defic
ienc
ies.
Har
dpan
s be
twee
n th
e sa
nd v
enee
rs a
nd c
lay
horiz
ons
may
res
ult i
n pe
rche
d w
ater
tabl
es, a
lthou
gh o
nly
smal
lar
eas h
ave
such
poo
r site
dra
inag
e th
at fr
eque
nt w
ater
logg
ing
occu
rs.
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and
gra
vel h
ave
been
ext
ensi
vely
min
ed in
som
e ar
eas,
and
pine
pla
ntat
ions
hav
e be
en e
stab
lishe
d ne
arY
eode
ne.
How
ever
, mos
t of t
he a
rea
rem
ains
in a
fairl
y na
tura
l sta
te a
nd c
onst
itute
s a
sign
ifica
nt a
rea
of n
atur
alve
geta
tion
clos
e to
Col
ac.
Its p
oten
tial f
or re
crea
tion
is a
t pre
sent
not
fully
util
ized
. O
nly
min
or a
reas
hav
e be
encl
eare
d fo
r agr
icul
ture
, but
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of i
mpr
oved
pas
ture
s is d
iffic
ult.
Aci
d sa
nds i
n th
is c
ompa
rativ
ely
dry
area
will
not
supp
ort v
igor
ous
past
ures
and
the
cont
rol o
f wee
ds su
ch a
s Pte
ridi
um e
scul
entu
m a
nd R
ubus
spp.
is d
iffic
ult.
Com
pone
nt a
nd it
s pro
porti
on o
f lan
d sy
stem
YE
OD
EN
EA
rea:
58
km2
135
%2
25%
3 5%4
30%
5 5%C
LIM
AT
ER
ainf
all,
mm
Ann
ual:
750
– 8
50, l
owes
t Jan
uary
(40)
, hig
hest
Aug
ust (
100)
Tem
pera
ture
, 0o C
Ann
ual:
13,
low
est J
uly
(8),
high
est F
ebru
ary
(9)
Tem
pera
ture
: le
ss th
an 1
0o C (a
v.) J
une
– A
ugus
tSe
ason
al g
row
th li
mita
tions
Prec
ipita
tion:
les
s tha
n po
tent
ial e
vapo
trans
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late
Oct
ober
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arly
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ilG
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LO
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ilt a
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lay
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and
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APH
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tern
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ts o
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ent a
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orth
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ent
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rain
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ight
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nd ra
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IVE
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inal
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adia
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elan
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rmum
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num
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elal
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squa
rros
aSO
ILPa
rent
mat
eria
lQ
uartz
sand
Silt
and
clay
with
sand
ven
eer
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and
clay
with
sand
ven
eer
Cla
y, si
lt an
d sa
ndC
ollu
vial
and
allu
vial
sand
, silt
and
clay
, pla
nt re
mai
nsD
escr
iptio
nG
rey
sand
soils
, uni
form
text
ure
Gre
y sa
nd so
ils, w
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
clay
und
erla
yG
rey
sand
soils
, wea
kly
stru
ctur
edcl
ay u
nder
lay
Yel
low
gra
datio
nal s
oils
, wea
kst
ruct
ure
Bla
ck sa
nd so
ils, u
nifo
rm te
xtur
e
Surf
ace
text
ure
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y sa
ndLo
amy
sand
Loam
y sa
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loam
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loam
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eabi
lity
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y hi
ghLo
wLo
wH
igh
Mod
erat
eD
epth
, m>2
>20.
6>2
>2L
AN
D U
SEU
ncle
ared
are
as:
Har
dwoo
d fo
rest
ry fo
r pos
ts, p
oles
and
fuel
; san
d an
d gr
avel
ext
ract
ion;
fore
st g
razi
ng; w
ater
supp
ly; p
assi
ve a
nd a
ctiv
e re
crea
tion;
softw
ood
fore
stry
.M
inor
cle
ared
are
as:
Shee
p an
d be
ef c
attle
gra
zing
; dai
ry fa
rmin
gSO
IL D
ET
ER
IOR
AT
ION
HA
ZA
RD
Crit
ical
land
feat
ures
, pro
cess
es,
form
s
Ver
y lo
w in
here
nt fe
rtilit
y an
d hi
ghpe
rmea
bilit
y le
ad to
nut
rient
decl
ine.
Low
inhe
rent
ferti
lity
and
leac
hing
of p
erm
eabl
e su
rfac
es le
ad to
nutri
ent d
eclin
e. W
eakl
y st
ruct
ured
surf
aces
and
low
per
mea
bilit
ies l
ead
to sh
eet e
rosi
on o
n st
eepe
r slo
pes.
Low
per
mea
bilit
y an
d po
or si
tedr
aina
ge le
ad to
seas
onal
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
il co
mpa
ctio
n.
Wea
kly
stru
ctur
ed su
rfac
es o
nst
eepe
r slo
pes a
re p
rone
to sh
eet
eros
ion.
Hig
h w
ater
tabl
es le
ad to
wat
erlo
ggin
g an
d so
il co
mpa
ctio
n.R
un-o
ff fr
om a
djac
ent h
ills l
eads
tosi
ltatio
n an
d flo
odin
g.
888... SSSOOOIIILLL CCCOOONNNSSSEEERRRVVVAAATTTIIIOOONNN
In their natural condition, soil and vegetation are stable except on some exposed coastal situations. Upon disturbance,however, a major change in one causes changes in the others. If the vegetation is damaged, the soil erodes. If the soildeteriorates, then the vegetation degenerates. In both cases the quality and regulation of the waters will decline. Thesensitivity of the land varies between land systems.
Soils deterioration occurs in various forms. Sheet, rill, gully and wind erosion result in the loss of soil material, as doesmass movement, although to a more limited extent. Soil salting, loss of nutrients and decline in structure result in lowerplant growth and water usage. Deterioration of streams frequently results, and accelerated stream flow may lead toflooding, streambank erosion and excessive sedimentation of land and utilities. Access and trafficability become moredifficult and aesthetic appeal is lost.
Exposure of tree roots and elevation of grass tussocks on small pedestalsindicates that sheet erosion losses have been quite extensive on these steepnortherly facing slopes abutting Moggs Creek.
All forms of deterioration involve the community in losses, either directly or indirectly, and these losses are part of the lessobvious costs associated with a particular activity or form of production.
Types of Deterioration
Sheet erosionSheet erosion is the removal of surface layers of soil by water. The impact of raindrops disturbs soil particles, which maythen be suspended in turbulent surface run-off water and carried downslope. The susceptibility depends on the structure,permeability and dispersibility of the soil, the length and gradient of the slope, the intensity of the rain-storm and the degreeof protection that the soil receives from the cover of vegetation and litter. Often only small amounts of material areremoved at any one time. The exposure of tree roots, elevation of grass tussocks on small pedestals of topsoil andaccumulation of soil material on the uphill side of fences and other obstructions often provide evidence of sheet erosion.
The most sensitive areas are found on the drier slopes of the Otway Range in the Lorne, Forrest, Moggs Creek and YahooCreek land systems. Long steep slopes, weakly structured and often dispersible topsoils and low infiltration rates arecritical factors. The steep hills of the Mount Mackenzie and Bunker Hill land systems are less susceptible, as infiltrationrates are high. Other sensitive areas occur in most land systems, except for the lateritic plateaux, basalt plains and alluvialdeposits.
Gully erosionWhen water is concentrated into small rivulets or drainage lines, its eroding action can result in the development of shallowchannels, known as rills, or deep and extensive gullies. In the most severe cases, gullies can undermine bridges and roads
as well as create problems of access and management.
Wormbete Creek, a tributary of the Barwon River, causes particular problemsthrough actively eroding gullies. Headward extension of this gully has caused lossof productive land, damaged fences, decreased trafficability and access and reducedaesthetic appeal.
The mechanisms by which gullies have been initiated and continue to extend both laterally and headward take manydifferent forms. All forms stem from an imbalance in the hydrological regime, usually brought about by the replacement ofthe native vegetation with pasture species or crops.
The coarsely structured, dispersible soils of the Deepdene land system and the Heytesbury settlement area are prone tosapping, leading to extensive gully and tunnel erosion. Many of the drainage lines in the Paraparap and Anglesea landsystems are also susceptible. In the higher-rainfall areas, scouring is a more important mechanism than sapping and this isresponsible for much of the damage in the Pennyroyal and Barwon River land systems.
Mass movementThe migration of material downslope under the action of gravity can range from rockslides and avalanches through to earthglows and soil creep. The gradient of the natural or artificial slope is the critical factor in determining the susceptibility tomass movement. When saturated with water, the soil loses much of its cohesive strength and, combined with the addedweight of soil water, the force of gravity may take the soil beyond the threshold of stability. Under natural conditions thebinding effect of tree roots increases this threshold value. Vibrations such as earthquakes or even the passing of trafficaggravate the instability by bringing about slight compaction of the solids. This forces out pore water, which cannot escapeand so acts as a lubricant to the soil mass.
In the Lorne and Aire land systems, the soil material liberated may slide down the hillside, particularly if bedding or jointplains are parallel to the slope of the land (Joyce and Evans 1976). More commonly, however, slumps (as distinct fromlandslides) occur. The shearing plane takes a curved form, with the soil moving vertically downwards at the toe. The soilson slopes close to the coast are highly dispersible and are very prone to both landslides and landslips.
Apart from the Otway Range, the Heytesbury settlement area contains highly susceptible areas. Springs emerging frombelow the base of the lateritic capping in the Tomahawk Creek land system have probably increased in incidence and totalflow since clearing. Prolonged saturation often results in slumps at these points in the landscape.
The Deepdene, Pennyroyal and Anglesea land systems also possess sensitive areas. In weakly structured dispersible soils,these slumps may trigger off earth flows, where the original slumped mass moves downhill each successive season,pushing more soil in front of it in a slow turbulent flow. Notable earth flows are found in the Lorne and Anglesea landsystems.
Earth flows are a common feature of the steep hills: This one near Upper Gellibrandthreatens the road that crosses it.
SaltingWherever landscapes contain significant levels of soluble salts, these salts tend to accumulate in groundwater and run-off.Land use changes involving replacement of the native vegetation often lead to a rise in the regional water tables, upsettingthe natural hydrological regime. The soluble salts in the groundwater are concentrated near the surface as the waterevaporates. Salts frequently reach toxic levels, restricting plant growth.
In Victoria this process tends to be most marked in areas with rainfalls between 600 and 700 mm (Gibbons 1971). TheParaparap, Deepdene, Birregurra, Winchelsea and Anglesea land systems are among the most susceptible.
Rising salt concentrations in the topsoil both stunt and kills the pasturein lower parts of the landscape. Stock often camp on these areas,trampling the vegetation, and this may lead to sheet and gully erosion.
Lateritic landscapes have been associated with high salt content of associated soils and groundwaters (Dimmock et al.1974). Although no soil salting has been observed in the wetter climates of the Heytesbury settlement area, rises in thesalinity of streams have been recorded since the widespread clearing of the dissected lateritic plateaux.
Soil nutrient declineThe cycle of soil nutrients from root absorption through biomass, litter fall, leaching and root absorption again is sensitiveto change. Removal or replacement of deep-rooted native vegetation may result in marked increases in run-off (Blake1975) and a lower ability of the shallow-rooted introduced species to intercept nutrients being leached downwards. Litterfall may be reduced, leading to fewer organic colloids and adsorbed plant nutrients in the surface soil. Soil temperaturesmay rise, leading to more rapid oxidation of the existing organic matter.
Highly permeable soils of low initial fertility are the most susceptible. These include the sands of the Bald Hills, ChappleVale, Redwater Creek, Bunker Hill, Yeodene and Porcupine Creek land systems. To a lesser extent, the Beech Forest,Mount Sabine, Mount Mackenzie and Hordern Vale land systems are also susceptible.
Phosphorus fixation is another hazard relating to soil fertility. Although not directly a deterioration of the land in itself, itcan severely limit the growth of introduced crops and pastures, thus aggravating leaching of nutrients. Susceptible areasare the lateritic landscapes of the Simpson, Gherang Gherang and Wonga land systems, and to a lesser extent the Deepdene,Paraparap, Barongarook and Anglesea land systems.
Land use in the upper parts of the Barwon River catchment effectsland downstream. Unwise use can result in increased flooding,sedimentation and prolonged waterlogging.
Soil structure declineSoil structure may deteriorate due to loss of organic matter or disturbance. Organic colloids are the main binding force ofthe structural units of the surface soil. Removal or humification without replacement results in loss of surface structure.Disturbance, particularly when the soil is wet and cohesive forces are low, may mechanically shatter the structural units.Soils with initially weak surface structure are the most susceptible. Such soils tend to have a low infiltration capacity, lowavailable water capacity, dispersion problems and a tendency to set hard in summer.
The majority of soils in the study area are susceptible to structure decline. Particularly susceptible areas are found in thepoorly drained parts of the Tomahawk Creek, Kennedys Creek and Waarre land systems.
Wind erosionSandy soils are poorly structured and have a low water-holding capacity. In the Cape Otway and Point Roadknight landsystems, strong onshore winds and poor protection from the indigenous vegetation, especially when trampled by frequentpedestrian traffic or cattle, result in the dunes becoming unstable. Roads and utilities are affected by shifting dunes in theseareas.
Deterioration of streamsThe above forms of deterioration are essentially on-site effects. However, they also result in off-site effects, the mostimportant of which is the deterioration of streams.
The loss of soil material, soil structure, soil fertility and associated plant vigour leads to increased surface run-off, with lesswater percolating through the soil. The height and incidence of flooding increase, and the perennial nature of streamsdiminishes. Turbidity rises while erosion is taking place. Increased salinity of streams from cleared catchments containingsignificant quantities of soluble salts limits their use for domestic and irrigation purposes.
Soil Conservation and Land Use
GrazingThe management of land for grazing usually involves replacement of the native trees and shrubs with shallow-rootedgrasses and forbs. The accompanying change to the natural hydrological regime leads to the previously mentioned formsof deterioration.
Gully erosion has occurred in many areas and has been particularly prevalent in the steep drainage lines of the Deepdeneland system to the west of the Barwon River. Headward eroding gullies are also common in some of the eastern tributariesof the Barwon River, such as Wormbete Creek.
Soil salting has occurred in many of the drainage lines of the plains to the north and east of the Otway Range. Pastures onsaline areas become yellow, and less vigorous. Stock accumulate on these areas and trample the vegetation, which maylead to other forms of deterioration such as gully erosion.
Overgrazing of sloping land and trampling of the vegetation and soil have led to sheet erosion in many places, particularlythe foothills of the Range and parts of the Heytesbury settlement area. Much of the damage occurs during the summermonths, when the highest-intensity rainstorms coincide with a period of low growth potential, as shown in Figure 5. Ifgrazing has been heavy, the soil has little or no protective vegetative cover when these summer thunderstorms occur, andlosses can be severe.
Landslips are common the steep slopes of the Otway Range and are increasing in occurrence following clearing in theHeytesbury settlement area. Cleared hillsides of the Lorne, Forrest, Yahoo Creek, Pennyroyal and Aire land systems arecovered by terracettes, often referred to as ‘sheep tracks’. They are in fact the surface expression of numerous smallslumps and are usually found where unweathered rock is close to the surface. Where they adjoin previous slipped areas,they have a stabilizing influence, preventing larger rotational slumps from occurring (Joyce and Evans 1976).
Soil nutrient losses are prevalent on the freely drained soils of the high-rainfall areas, but regular topdressing has oftenmaintained or increased soil fertility of the more productive land. Topdressing is not economic on many of the sand andphosphate-fixing soils, and the low levels of nutrients initially present tend to be lost under grazing.
Deterioration of soil structure in the Beech Forest and Mount Sabine land systems after prolonged periods of pasturegrowth is presumably associated with lower levels of organic matter. Loss of surface structure by pugging is a problem inmost wet areas, particularly where cattle are grazed during winter.
Overgrazing and trampling by cattle have led to wind erosion of sand dunes near the mouth of the Aire River. The nativegrasses are susceptible to trampling and establishing of improved pastures is difficult. The dunes east of Torquay alsoshow evidence of past grazing damage.
With the exception of wind erosion, prevention of these forms of deterioration primarily rests with maintaining ahydrological balance similar to that of the original system under native vegetation. Deep-rooted perennial pasture species,such as Phalaris tuberosa, and trees can tap moisture and nutrients from well below the soil surface, thus reducing totalrun-off and recycling nutrients. Continues use of fertilizers is necessary to maintain vigorous plant growth and activelyusing soil water. Dense root and shoot growth also lend physical stability to the soil, limiting mass movement, sheet andgully erosion.
Treatment of existing problems may be expensive. Actively eroding gullies can be stabilized by diverting run-off orreplacing the head of the gully with a concrete structure or a grassed chute. The appropriate method depends on themechanisms involved.
Salt-affected areas can be revegetated by sowing salt-tolerant grasses such as Agropyron spp. and Puccinella spp. Soilamelioration with gypsum is often used to improve drainage.
Overgrazing should be avoided on areas prone to sheet erosion. Where slopes are too steep for drilling of seed andfertilizer, aerial seeding of improved pasture species may be practicable.
Landslips can sometimes be halted by fencing out the slumped area and planting trees. Run-off water from roads, dairiesand buildings should not be discharged onto susceptible slopes, particularly in the Heytesbury settlement area. In theWaarre land system, slopes of more than about 18% are susceptible, while the Tomahawk Creek and Kennedys Creek landsystems have a steeper critical angle.
Under grazing it is particularly difficult to control wind erosion on the coastal dunes. Although some light grazing can besupported, overgrazing damages the vegetation and the shifting dunes will not usually revegetate naturally. Expensivereclamation work, such as hand-planting Ammophila arenaria, will be required.
CroppingSheet erosion has occurred on much of the sloping land used for cropping in the Beech Forest, Hordern Vale and Bellbraeland systems. Intense spring and summer rains often occur after ploughing or sowing, and the surface run-off remove themore fertile topsoil.
Contour cultivation, retention of trash and strip cropping can reduce these losses. Problems are encountered, however, inhandling machinery along the contour on sloping land.
Overcropping causes serious damage to soil structure. Mechanical disturbance shatters the structural units, often weakenedfrom depletion of organic matter. Fields that have been cropped for several generations in the Beech Forest land systemshow marked decline in surface soil structure.
Rotations incorporating those with nitrogen-fixing legumes, will increase organic matter. Continued use of fertilizers isnecessary to maintain vigorous growth and to return organic matter to the soil.
ForestryBoth establishment and harvesting of hardwood and softwood forests cause serious changes to the natural hydrologicalbalance. Pine establishment on disused agricultural land and previously forested land has led to widespread deterioration.The steep north- and west-facing slopes of the Lorne, Forrest, Moggs Creek, Aire, Mount Mackenzie, Bunker Hill andYahoo Creek land systems are the most severely affected.
Steep slopes in and around drainage lines are more stable underhardwood than softwood forestry, because of longer growth periodand more selective logging practices.
Sheet erosion losses can be minimised by working in coupes along the contour, and by maintaining an adequate vegetativecover with litter layers over the soil surface.
The incidence of landslips increases following harvesting, when the binding effect of tree roots is removed and the soil issubject to saturation for longer periods. The study area share the current trend to reduce the total area of productive forestland and manage this smaller area for higher yields. As with agriculture, nutrients removed in forest produce need to bereplaced through the use of fertilizers. The fertilizer requirements of soils designated for long-term hardwood andsoftwood production require investigation.
Fuel-reduction burns are an established part of forestry practice and most of the native hardwood stands are burnt every fewyears by low-intensity fire, mainly in spring or autumn. When the litter and humus are burnt, the nutrients in the ashbecome more soluble. Although this increases the rate of removal by leaching. The long-term effect that fuel-reductionburning may have on soil fertility requires further investigation.
Residential useOne of the results of residential development is an increase in the area of surfaces, such as roads, paths and roofs,impermeable to rainfall. Diversion of this water into drainage lines has increased the incidence of landslips, gully erosionand siltation.
Development of the coastal belt from Torquay to Apollo Bay has resulted in many problems. Careful planning is needed toconfine development to gentler areas and dispose of run-off water in properly constructed drains.
RecreationThe sand dunes at Cape Otway, Point Impossible, Point Roadknight, Anglesea, Apollo Bay and other localities along thecoast have been trampled by pedestrian traffic. Drifting sand has encroached onto roads, building and other services.
Sand dunes afford inland areas the best protection from the erosive power of the sea. The native species that colonize thesedunes are very susceptible to trampling pressure and the introduced grass Ammophila arenaria is widely used to restabilizedrifting dunes. Fending the dunes off from pedestrian access and siting of access tracks away from wind hollow have alsobeen found necessary to ensure successful rehabilitation.
Coastal dunes are in a constant state of seasonal flux. This photo was taken inearly spring, after heavy winter seas had removed much of the sand from thebeach and formed a small cliff.
Over-use of pedestrian access tracks in the Anglesea and Rivernook land systems, where the soils are highly dispersible,has lead to deep rilling and gullying along coastal cliffs. These tracks need to be sited along gentle slopes without longstraight steep sections and with adequate provision for the disposal of surface run-off.
Off-road vehicle activity causes sheet and rill erosion on steep sloping land close to tourist centres along the coast. Thepassage of trail bikes, dune buggies and four-wheel-drive vehicles destroys the vegetative cover and disturbs the soilsurface. Areas need to be provided and managed for these activities on less sensitive sites, such as disused sand and gravelextraction pits.
Trail bikes can cause major problems in sensitive areas. Here,vegetation has been destroyed and rapid surface run-off hasremoved topsoil and cut rills into the subsoil.
Roads and tracksScouring of forest roads and tracks is particularly severe in the high-rainfall areas. Where drainage is inadequate, waterbecomes concentrated in wheel ruts. Care is needed in road design, with domes surfaces and adequate table drains andculverts to dispose of water on safe vegetated areas. Long straight steep sections are to be avoided, but cross ripping giveslong slopes some protection from scouring. Closure of some forest roads in winter will limit the creation of deep wheelruts.
The diversion of run-off water from roads and tracks may lead to landslips. Fill batters on mountain roads are particularlysusceptible. As far as possible, water in table drains should be diverted onto gentle slopes.
Rilling and slumping are problems on the over-steep slopes of road batters. Some of the larger road batters in the MountMackenzie land system are particularly susceptible to rilling. Rockslides and slumps along the Great Ocean Road are ahazard to motorists, and expensive clean-up operations are undertaken each wet period. Many of the road batters in theHeytesbury settlement area exhibit severe slumping.
Correct design of road batters minimizes these problems. In exposed rock or other compacted material, near-vertical-cutbatters can be successfully made, but generally a slop of 200% is recommended for stable soils while some soils will stillbe a source of sediment at slopes less than 50%. A catch drain constructed near the top of the batter will divert water. Inlarge batters, further catch drains should be installed at intervals down the slope. Subsoil drainage may need to be provided
in areas prone to slumping. Protection of the soil can be achieved by spraying with bitumen mulch or chemical stabilizers.Plant cover is established by ‘keying in’ topsoil and applying seed and fertilizer mixtures (Gavin, Knight and Richmond1979).
Extractive industriesDisused sand and gravel extraction pits provide a poor medium for plant germination. Compacted sand on sloping pits areprone to sheet and rill erosion, and abandoned sites in Chapple Vale, Bald Hills, Gherang Gherang, Porcupine Creek andFerguson Hill land systems remain as scars on the landscape. The impermeable silicified hardpans in the Rivernook landsystem have led to extensive deep rilling. Similar damage has occurred on silicified hardpans in the Junction Track landsystem.
Reclamation procedures for these extraction sites involve the initial retention of the topsoil overburden and its subsequentredistribution over the surface to a depth of at least 20 cm. Regeneration of native species can be encouraged by handplanting or spreading seed, but usually the topsoil contains sufficient seed. Steeply sloping land is not suitable forextraction pits, and surface run-off water needs to be diverted onto gentle spurs.
Large road batters and other bare surfaces can deteriorate rapidly.This road re-alignment near Mount Mackenzie is a source of copioussediment in the Gellibrand water supply catchment.
Water supply protectionAll domestic water supply catchment within the study area are used for other purposes as well as the supply of water. Themaintenance of water quality mainly depends on successful soil conservation practices in these other land uses.
Poorly sited and maintained roads and tracks, streambank and gully erosion and poorly managed forestry operations appearto be the main sources of sediment in streams. High colour can also result from excessive forest trash in drainage lines,from diversion of dairy effluent into water-courses and from stock gaining free access to streams.
Land use also influences water quantity. Higher yields of water are obtained from agricultural land, but compaction of thesoil surface and reduced interception storage result in increased surface runoff. Larger flows thus occur during andimmediately after storms, with less water being stored for slow release to streams. The perennial nature of streamsdeclines. Water supply systems without large storage dams are the most affected, as the lowest summer flow limits thetotal supply potential. Storage dams also allow some of the coarser sediment time to settle before reticulation to residentialcentres, and this results in a less sensitive system than river offtakes provide.
Silicified hardpans near Rotter Point are prone to deep and extensiverilling in old unreclaimed extraction pits.
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Abele, C., Gloe, C. S., Hocking, J. B., Holdgate, G., Kenley, P. R., Lawrence, C. R., Ripper, D., and Threlfall, W. F.(1976).
Tertiary. In ‘Geology of Victoria”, ed. J. G. Douglas and J. A. Ferguson. Special Publication of the GeologicalSociety of Australia No. 5
Baker, G. (1950).Geology and physiography of the Moonlight Head District, Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria,60, 17-43.
Bird, E. C. F. (1976).‘Coats.’ 2nd ed. ‘An Introduction to Systematic Geomorphology,’ Vol. 4. (Australian National University Press:Canberra).
Blake, G. J. (1975).The interception process. In ‘Prediction in Catchment Hydrology’, ed. T. G. Chapman and F. X. Dunnin.National Symposium on Hydrology sponsored by the Australian Academy of Science 25-27. November 1975.
Bock, P. E. and Glenie, R. C. (1966).Late Cretaceous and Tertiary depositional cycles in south-western Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society ofVictoria, 77 (2), 153-63.
Bureau of Meteorology (1975).‘Climatic Average Australia.’ (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra).
Bureau of Reclamation (1974).‘Earth Manual.’ 2nd ed. (United State Department of the Interior: Washington).
Central Planning Authority (1957).‘Resources Survey Corangamite Region.’ (Government Printer: Melbourne)
Central Planning Authority (1971)‘Resources Survey Barwon Region.’ (Government Printer: Melbourne)
Christian, C. S., and Stewart, G. A. (1953).General report on survey of the Katherine – Darwin region, 1946. C.S.I.R.O. Australia, Land Research Series No.
1Colwell, J. D. (1963).
The estimation of phosphorus fertilizer requirements of wheat in southern New South Wales by soil analysis.Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, 3, 190-7.
Costin, A. B. (1954).‘A Study of the Ecosystems of the Monaro Region of New South Wales with special reference to Soil Erosion.’(Government Printer: Sydney).
Currey, D. T. (1964).The former extent of Lake Corangamite. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 77 (2), 377-86.
Dimmock, G. M., Bettenay, E., and Mulcahy, M. J. (1974).Salt content of lateritic profiles in the Darling Range, Western Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 12,63-9.
Douglas, J. G. (1969).The Mesozoic floras of Victoria. Geological Survey of Victoria Memoir No. 28.
Douglas, J. G., Abele, C., Beneder, S., Dettman, M. E., Kenley, P. R. and Lawrence, C. R. (1976).Mesozoic. In ‘Geology of Victoria,’ ed. J. G. Douglas and J. A. Ferguson. Special Publication of the GeologicalSociety of Australia No. 5.
Downes, R. G. (1949).A soil, land-use, and erosion survey of parts of the Counties of Moira and Delatite, Victoria. C. S. I. R. O. BulletinNo. 243.
Edwards, A. B. and Baker, G. (1943).Jurassic arkose in southern Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 55 (2), 195-225.
Fitzpatrick, E. A. (1963).Estimates of pan evaporation from mean maximum temperature and vapor pressure. Journal of AppliedMeteorology, 2, 780-92.
Foley, J. C. (1945).Frost in the Australian region. Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau Bulletin No. 32.
Garvin, R. J., Knight, M. R. and Richmond, T. J. (1979).‘Guidelines for Minimising Soil Erosion and Sedimentation from Construction Sites in Victoria.’ SoilConservation Authority, Victoria, T. C. 13. (Government Printer: Melbourne).
Gibbons, F. R. (1971).On cutting down trees. Victoria’s Resources, 13 (1), 22-4.
Gibbons, F. R. and Downes, R. G. (1964).‘A Study of the Land in South-western Victoria.’ Soil Conservation Authority, Victoria. T. C. 13. (GovernmentPrinter: Melbourne).
Gibbons, F. R. and Haans, J. C. F. M. (1976).
‘Dutch and Victorian Approaches to land Appraisal.’ Soil Survey Papers, No. 11 (Soil Survey Institute: Wageningen,Netherlands.)
Gill, E. D. (1964).Rocks contiguous with the basaltic cuirass of western Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 77 (2),331-55.
Gill, E. D. (1977).Evolution of the Otway coast, Australia, from the last interglacial to the present. Proceedings of the Royal Society ofVictoria, 89 (1), 7-18.
Haldane, A. D. (1956).Determination of free iron oxide in soils. Soil Science, 82, 483.
Hutton, J. T. (1956).A method of particle size analysis of soils. C.S.I.R.O. Australia, Division of Soils, Divisional Report No. 11/55.
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Kirkpatrick, J. B. (1971).A probably hybrid swarm in Eucalyptus. Silvae Genet, 20, 157-9.
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Metson, A. J. (1956).Methods of chemical analysis of soil survey samples. New Zealand D.S.I.R. Soil Bureau Bulletin No. 12.
Northcote, K. H. (1974).‘A Factual Key for the Recognition of Australian Soils.’ 4th ed. (C.S.I.R.O. Australia and Rellim TechnicalPublications: Adelaide).
Parsons, R. F., Kirkpatrick, J. B. and Carr, G. W. (1977).Native vegetation of the Otway region, Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 89 (1), 77-88.
Piper, C. S. (1942).‘Soil and Plant Analysis.’ (University of Adelaide: Adelaide).
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Tucker, B. M. (1974).Laboratory procedures for the cation exchange measurements on soils. C.S.I.R.O. Australia, Division of Soils,Technical Paper No. 23.
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Printing Office: Washington).
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All results are expressed in terms of oven-dry soil passing a 2 mm round-hole sieve, except gravel, whish is reported as apercentage of the air-dry field sample.
Particle-size analysis – plummet balance method of Hutton (1956). With sand separation by hand decantation. The I.S.S.S.size factions were separated: i.e. coarse sand 2 – 0.2 mm; fine sand 0.2 – 0.02 mm, silt 0.02 – 0.002 mm and clay <0.002 mm.
Electrolytic conductivity (EC 25oC) – a 1:5 soil:water suspension was shaken for 1 hour and, after temperature equilibration,conductivity was measured with a dip cell and direct-reading meter. Results are reported as microsiemens per centimetre(μScm-1).
Soil reaction (pH) – by glass electrode and digital pH meter on the above suspension.
Chloride (Cl) – profiles 414 – 606 by electrometric silver nitrate titration of R. J. Best, as described by Piper (1942).
- by solid state selective-ion electrode and millivoltmeter on the same suspension, calibrated with potassium chloridestandards.
Organic carbon (Org. C) –wet-combustion technique of Walkley and Black, described by Piper (1942). No recovery factorwas applied, but the factor 1.3 C:N was used to calculate carbon:nitrogen ratios.
Total nitrogen (N) – Metson (1956). Semimicro Kjeldahl method, using a Markham still.
Free iron oxide (Fe2O3) – Haldane (1956). Finely ground soil was extracted with powdered zinc in ammonium chloride-oxalic acid buffer. Ferrous ion in the treated extract was titrated with potassium dichromate.
Hydrochloric acid extract for phosphorus and potassium (P, K) – 4 g of soil was refluxed for 4 hours with 20 ml constantboiling hydrochloric acid, with subsequent filtration and dilution of the filtrate to 200 ml. Phosphorus was determined bycolorimetric method using molybdenum blue and potassium by atomic absorption.
Available phosphorus (Pav. P.p.m.) – Colwell (1963). 1 g soil was shaken with 100 m 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate at pH 8.5for 16 hours. Phosphorus was determined in the clarified extract by a colorimetric method (molybdenum blue).
Exchangeable cations – profiles 414 – 606 by the method of Hutton and Bond (unpublished data). Synopsis: soil leachedwith molar ammonium chloride solution (pH – 7.0) to displace exchangeable cations. Potassium and sodium in leachatedetermined by flame emission techniques. Calcium and magnesium determined by EDTA titration. Adsorbed ammonium ionwas leached from the soil with sodium sulphate solution, and cation exchange capacity was determined from the excess ofammonium ion over chloride in the leachate.
- profiles 60 7 –748 by extraction method of Tucker (1974), also described in Loveday (1974). Synopsis: soluble ion removalby 10% ethanediol in ethanol. Cation displacement by ammonium chloride in ethanol-water (2:1) at pH 8.5. Cationdeterminations by atomic absorption. Cation exchange capacity by measurement of ammonium ion displaced from the treatedsoil by a potassium nitrate-calcium nitrate solution.
Unified Soil Group (USG) – Engineers’ classification, as Bureau of Reclamation (1974).
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The standards used for soil properties are those of the U.S.D.A. (1951), with supplement (1962), Northcote (1974) and, in thecase of sodicity, Northcote and Skene (1972).
Descriptive soil names are based on properties observable in the field, with the addition of sodicity as determined in thelaboratory. To minimise the number of terms required, certain features are not mentioned if they match the ‘normal’ Victorianprofile, which is reasonably stone-free, acidic, non-calcareous and apparently monogentic, and in which the B horizon hasmoderate 1 – 2 cm blocky structure and firm consistence.
Terms used
The following terms are given in the order in which they appear in the descriptive name for the soils.
Stony – Significant (usually greater than 15%) quantities of stone, boulders and gravel are present through the profile.
Colour – Munsell soil colours of the B horizon are given, abbreviated where practical. In sand soils, the predominant colour isgiven, usually being that below the A horizon. In strongly mottled soils, the first colour given is the dominant for matrixcolour.
Calcareous – Visible lime is present in the profile.
Sodic – The exchangeable sodium percentage is greater than 5% throughout most of the profile.
Friable – Peds are soft when both moist and dry.
Profile form
� Uniform – no significant change in texture.� Gradational – gradual increase in clay content with depth.� Duplex – sudden increase in clay content from A to B horizons.� For uniform-texture profiles, textures are specified in the three classes sand, loam and clay according to texture grade –
e.g. sand soils, uniform texture.
Soils(s) – This term is always used. In the case of uniform-textured soils, the term soil(s) precedes the profile form.
Structure – If the structure is unusual, this term is included. Typical B horizon structures are 1 – 2 cm moderate subangularblocky.
� Weak structure – where massive or nearly so (except for sand soils, where a weak structure is normal).� Coarse structure – where ped sizes average several centimetres across and usually possess large shiny clay faces. Small
secondary peds may be present.� Fine structure – where ped sizes are no more than a few millimetres in average dimension.
Ironstone – Where lateritization has resulted in the presence of ironstone either throughout or, more commonly, at the base, itis recorded. This does not include soils with ironstone nodules in the A2 and B1 horizons resulting from more recentpedogenesis.
Soil descriptions – Abbreviated field descriptions of the main soils in the area surveyed are presented below. The maps usedare those of the 1:100,000 National Topographic map series, except for that of Geelong, which is a Country Fire Authority mapbased on the Australian National Grid.
Profile 414 – Brown gradational soil (Princetown 7520: map ref. 087107).
A1 0-13 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, clear boundaryA3 13-45 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) clay loam, moderate angular blocky structure, diffuse boundaryB2 45-90 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) heavy clay, moderate angular blocky structure (40 mm), diffuse
boundaryC 90 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/8) and grey (10YR6/1) mottled medium clay, massive.
Profile 415 – Brown calcareous sand soil, uniform texture (Otway 7620: map ref. 187963).
A1 0-15 cm black (10YR2/1) sandy loam, apedal-single grain, clear boundaryB2 15-75 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy sand, very weak subangular blocky structure (30 mm), gradual boundaryC 75 cm pale-brown (10YR6/3) coarse sand, apedal-single grain.
Profile 416 – Brown gradational soil (Otway 7620: map ref. 336277).
A11 0-1 cm black (10YR2/1) silty loam, crumb structure, abrupt boundary.A12 1-15 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, clear boundaryA3 15-23 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) sandy clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, clear boundaryB21 23-45 cm brownish yellow (10YR6/8) light clays with some greyish brown (10YR5/2) mottles, moderate angular
blocky structure, gradual boundaryB22 45-90 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/8) medium to heavy clays with very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) ped faces,
strong subangular blocky structure, clear wavy boundaryC 90 cm weathering sandstone.
Profile 418 – Brown friable gradational soil (Princetown 7520: map ref. 077141).
A11 0-8 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) loam, crumb structure, clear boundaryA12 8-30 cm dark-brown (7.5YR3/2) clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, gradual boundaryB21 30-75 cm dark brown (7.5YR3/4) medium clay, moderate subangular blocky structure, friable peds, diffuse
boundaryB22 75-140 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) light clay, weak subangular blocky structure, friable peds, occasional
decomposing parent material, diffuse boundaryC 140 cm decomposing mudstones and/or siltstones.
Profile 424 – Brown duplex soil (Princetown 7520: map ref. 967088)
A11 0-8 cm black (10YR2/1) fine sandy loam, crumb structure, clear wavy boundaryA12 8-15 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) sandy loam, weak subangular blocky structure, occasional angular
sandstones, clear wavy boundaryA2 15-30 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) fine sandy clay loam, very weak subangular blocky structure, occasional
angular sandstones, clear boundaryB2 30-60 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) fine sandy clay, moderate angular blocky structure (1 cm), occasional
angular sandstones, gradual irregular boundaryB3 60-90 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) fine sandy clay, moderate angular blocky structure, discontinuous layers
of decomposing rock, gradual irregular boundaryC 90 cm weathering dipping beds of sandstones and mudstones with thin lenses of dark greyish brown (10YR4/2)
clay down joint plains.
Profile 426 – White sand soil, uniform texture (Princetown 7520: map ref. 017154).
A11 0-1 cm black (10YR2/1) sandy loam, weak subangular blocky structure, abundant quartz gravel, clear boundaryA12 1-30 cm very dark grey (10YR7/1) merging to white (10YR8/1) loamy coarse sand, apedal-single grain, abundant
quartz gravel and occasional stonesC 30 cm light grey (10YR7/1) merging to white (10YR8/1) loamy coarse sand, apedal – single grain, abundant
quartz gravel and occasional stones.
Profile 428 – Dark-brown gradational soils (Princetown 7520: map ref. 154130).
O2 1-0 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) silty loam, strong crumb structure, abrupt, smooth boundary.A1 0-15 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) clay loam, strong crumb structure, occasional angular sandstones,
clear smooth boundaryA3 15-30 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure with some massive areas,
angular sandstones, gradual boundaryB2 30-90 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) medium clay with occasional pale-brown (10YR6/3) mottles, moderate
subangular blocky structure (3 cm) angular sandstones up to 200 mm in diameter common, diffuseboundary
C 90 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/8) sandy loam with greyish brown (7.5YR5/2) mottles increasing withdepth, weak subangular blocky structure becoming massive with depth, weathering angular sandstones.
Profile 489 – Red calcareous gradational soil (Geelong 7721: map ref. 391716).
A1 0-10 cm reddish brown (5YR4/4) sandy clay loam, weak crumb structure, clear boundaryB21 10-30 cm yellowish red (5YR4/6) medium clay, strong subangular blocky structure (10 mm), diffuse boundaryB22 30-70 cm yellowish red (5YR4/6) medium clay, strong subangular blocky (40 mm), hard when dry, diffuse
boundaryC 70 cm weathering limestone and marl
Profile 490 – Yellow-brown calcareous sodic duplex soil, coarse structure (Geelong 7721: map ref. 378710)
A1 0-15 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) fine sandy loam, weak subangular blocky structure, abrupt boundaryB21 15-35 cm brown (10YR4/3) heavy clay, strong subangular blocky structure (40 mm), hard when dry. Some
ironstone gravel, diffuse boundaryB22 35-70 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/4) heavy clay, strong subangular blocky structure (40 mm), hard when dry,
diffuse boundaryC 70 cm mottled light yellowish brown (10YR6/4) and yellowish red (5YR5/6) sandy clay, moderate subangular
blocky structure (50 mm), hard when dry.
Profile 492 – Mottled yellow and red duplex soil (Geelong7721: map ref. 345782)
A1 0-30 cm brown (10YR4/3) fine sandy loam, very weak subangular blocky structure, some ironstone gravel, abruptboundary
B2 30-110 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/6) and yellowish red (5YR5/6) medium clay, strong subangular blockystructure (4 mm), clay skins, diffuse irregular boundary.
C 110 cm mottled dark red (2.5YR3/6(, grey (10YR5/1) and yellowish brown (10YR5/8) medium clay, hard whendry, moderate subangular blocky structure.
Profile 497 – Yellow gradational soil, weak structure (Geelong 7721: map ref. 147603)
A1 0-10 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) fine sandy loam, apedal-single grain, clear boundaryA2 10-20 cm brown (10YR5/3) fine sandy loam, apedal-single grain, gradual boundaryA3 20-30 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/4) fine sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (10 mm), diffuse
boundaryB2 30-90 cm brownish yellow (10YR6/6) merging to light yellowish brown (10YR6/4) sandy clay to light clay, weak
subangular blocky structure, some ironstone fragments, diffuse boundaryC 90 cm yellow (10YR7/6) sandy clay, apedal-single grain.
Profile 499 – Yellow-brown duplex soil, coarse structure (Geelong 7721: map ref. 282647)
A1 0-10 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy fine sand, apedal-single grain, gradual boundaryA2 10-30 cm grey (10YR5/1) loamy fine sand, apedal-single grain, clear wavy boundaryB21 30-50 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (40 mm), organic
stains on ped faces, diffuse boundaryB22 50-120 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) sandy clay loam, subangular blocky structure (40 mm), clay skins,
diffuse boundaryC 120 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) sandy clay, apedal-massive.
Profile 500 – Grey sand soil, kaolinitic clay underlay (Geelong 7721: map ref. 151633)
A1 0-10 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) sandy clay loam, very weak subangular blocky structure, abundantquartz gravel, clear boundary
A2 10-50 cm brownish yellow (10YR6/6) sandy clay loam, apedal, abundant quartz gravelII�C 50 cm very pale brown (10YR8/3) medium clay, weak platy structure, hard when dry
Profile 601 – Mottled yellow and red duplex soil with ironstone (Geelong 7721: map ref. 157687)
A1 0-20 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/3) fine sandy loam, apedal-single grain, occasional ironstone gravel, gravelboundary
A3 20-30 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) light clay with some red (2.5YR5/8) mottled, moderate subangular blockystructure (3 mm), ironstone gravel common, gradual boundary
B21 30-90 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/6) and red (2.5YR5/8) medium clay, strong angular blocky structure (2mm), clay skins, abundant ironstone gravel, diffuse boundary
B22 90 cm mottled dark yellowish brown (10YR4/6), light-grey (2.5YR7/1) and red (10YR4/6) heavy clay, strongangular blocky structure (2 mm), abundant ironstone gravel often in layers, or floaters of ironstone
Profile 606 – Yellow-brown sodic duplex soil, coarse structure (Geelong 7721: map ref. 249636)
A1 0-35 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy fine sand, apedal-single grain, clear boundaryA2 35-60 cm light brownish grey (10YR6/2) loamy fine sand, apedal, abrupt boundaryB2 60 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) fine sandy clay with grey (10YR5/1) mottles, moderate subangular
blocky structure (45 mm), hard when dry
� IIC – 2C
Profile 607 – Brown gradational soil, weak structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 161091)
O2 10-0 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure, clear boundaryA1 0-20 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure, clear boundaryA2 50-80 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) silty clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure
80 cm water table
Profile 608 – Grey sand soil with hardpans, uniform texture (Princetown 7520: map ref. 045257)
A1 0-25 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) loamy fine sand, weak subangular blocky structure, gradual smooth boundaryA2 25-60 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) fine sand, weak subangular blocky structure, occasional quartz
gravel, clear wavy boundaryB1 60-69 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy fine sand, apedal-single grain, clear wavy boundaryB2 69-75 cm dark-brown (10YR3/2) sandy clay loam, apedal-single grain, abrupt wavy boundaryIICm 75 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) cemented sand, apedal-massive, extremely hard
Profile 609 – Black sand soil, uniform texture (Princetown 7520: map ref. 462374)
O2 10-0 cm black (10YR2/1) silty loam, weak crumb structure (1 mm), abundant roots, clear wavy boundaryB2 42-90 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) heavy clay, some yellow (10YR7/6) mottles, strong angular blocky (4
mm), diffuse wavy boundaryC 90 cm mottled light grey (2.5YR7/3) and yellow (2.5YR7/6) light clay, weak angular blocky structure (2 mm)
Profile 735 – Brown duplex soil (Otway 7620: map ref. 527208)
A1 0-5 cm black (10YR2/1) clay loam, moderate crumb structure, clear smooth boundaryA2 5-30 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) clay loam, light brownish grey (10YR6/2) when dry, weak angular blocky
structure, clear smooth boundaryB21 30-60 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) medium clay with yellowish brown (10YR5/6) mottles, moderate angular
blocky structure (4 mm), diffuse boundaryB22 60-90 cm greyish brown (10YR5/2) medium clay with yellow (10YR7/8) mottles, strong angular blocky structure
(4 mm), clear wavy boundaryB3 90-128 cm greyish brown (2.5YR5/2) light clay with yellow (2.5YR7/8) mottles, moderate angular blocky structure,
abundant weathering sandstonesC 128 cm weathering with lenses of clay between joints
Profile 736 – Brown friable gradational soil (Otway 7620: map ref. 482308)
A1 0-25 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, diffuse smoothboundary
B21 25-30 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR3/4) medium clay, strong subangular blocky structure (11 mm), friable peds,gradual boundary
B22 30-110 cm brown (7.5YR4/4) light clay, moderate angular blocky structure (1 mm), friable peds, angular weatheringsandstone fragments common, clear irregular boundary
C 110 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) light clay, weak subangular blocky structure, weathering sandstonefragments common
Profile 737 – Grey sand soil, structured clay underlay (Otway 7620: map ref. 379338).
A1 0-10 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) light sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (3 mm), gradualwavy boundary
A2 10-20 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) light sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (3 mm),gradual wavy boundary
B1 20-30 cm very dark brown (7.5YR2/2) sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure, abrupt boundary, brokenhorizon
B2m 30-40 cm mottled dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) and black (10YR2/1) clay loam, apedal-massive, ferruginousand organic cementation, extremely hard when dry, clear boundary
IIC1 40-72 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/8) and dark greyish brown (10YR4/2) medium clay, moderate angularblocky structure (40 mm), organic stains on ped faces, diffuse boundary
IIC2 72 cm mottled light grey (2.5YR6/0) and yellowish brown (10YR5/8) medium clay, moderate angular blockystructure
Profile 739 – Black sand soil, uniform texture (Princetown 7520: map ref. 131133)
A11 0-20 cm black (7.5YR2/1) sandy loam, moderate crumb structure, very high in organic matter, diffuse boundary
A12 20-85 cm black (7.5YR2/1) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, clear wavy boundaryB1 85-90 cm very dark brown (7.5YR2/1) fine sandy loam, apedal-massive, ferruginous stains, abrupt wavy boundaryB2m 90-120 cm very dark brown (7.5YR2/2) fine sandy loam, apedal-massive, very firm when moist, extremely hard
when dry, ferruginous cementations, abrupt boundary, broken horizonC 120 cm very pale brown (10YR7/3) loamy fine sand, apedal-single grain, occasional gavel layers and ironstone
beds
Profile 740 – Yellow sand soil, uniform texture (Princetown 7520: map ref. 162312)
A11 0-60 cm brown (7.5YR4/4) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, occasional ironstone and quartz gravel, gradualirregular boundary
A12 60-110 cm strong brown (7.5YR5/6) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, gradual smooth boundaryB2 110-180 cm yellowish red (5YR5/8) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, occasional ironstone and quartz gravel, gradual
irregular boundaryC 180 cm strong brown (7.5YR5/6) sand with some red (2.5YR4/8) mottles, apedal.
Profile 741 – Yellow gradational soil, weak structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 000241)
A11 0-15 cm black (10YR2/1) sandy loam, apedal-single grain, clear smooth boundaryA12 15-37 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, clear wavy boundaryA2 37-47 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) sand, light-grey (10YR7/1) when dry, apedal-single grain, abrupt
boundary, broken horizon.B21 47-90 cm brown (7.5YR4/4) clayey sand with some brownish yellow (10YR6/6) mottles, weak subangular blocky
structure (2 mm), ironstone gravel and angular fragments common, diffuse smooth boundaryB22 90-180 cm brown (7.5YR4/4) light sandy clay loam with some brownish yellow (10YR6/6) mottles, weak
subangular blocky structure, ironstone common, clear wavy boundaryC 180 cm yellowish red (5YR4/8) light sandy clay loam, apedal-massive.
Profile 742 – Grey sand soil, uniform texture (Otway 7620: map ref. 180319)
A1 0-30 cm black (10YR2/1) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, gradual smooth boundaryA2 30-90 cm dark-grey (10YR4/1) sand, light-grey (10YR6/1) with depth, apedal-single grain, abrupt irregular
boundary with tongues continuing to more than 2 m depthB21 90-98 cm dark brown (7.5YR3/2) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, hard when dry, clear irregular boundary, existing
as cappings to undulating horizonB22 98-170 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/6) loamy sand, apedal-single grain, some ironstone gravel and stones,
gradual boundary, exists as columns separated by tongues of A2 horizon materialC1 170-210 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/6) sand, apedal-single grain, some ironstone, clear smooth boundaryC2m 210 cm mottled brownish yellow (10YR6/8) and black (10YR2/1), apedal-massive, extremely hard when wet and
dry, ferruginous cementation.
Profile 743 – Yellow-brown calcareous sodic duplex soil, coarse structure (Colac 7621: map ref. 416549)
A1 0-20 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) fine sandy loam, moderate crumb structure (2 mm), diffuse smooth boundaryA2 20-38 cm very dark brown (10YR2/3) sandy clay loam, greyish brown (10YR5/2) when dry, moderate subangular
blocky structure (8 mm), some ironstone gravel, abrupt wavy boundaryB21 38-60 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) heavy clay, strong angular blocky structure (2 mm), very hard when dry,
diffuse smooth boundaryB22 60-120 cm dark greyish brown (2.5YR4/2) heavy clay, strong angular blocky structure (35 mm) with angular blocky
(2 mm) secondary structure, hard when dry, soft accumulations of calcium carbonate, gradual smoothboundary.
Profile 744 – Mottled yellow and red duplex soil (Colac 7621: map ref. 434469)
A11 0-10 cm very dark brown (10YR2/3) fine sandy loam, moderate subangular blocky structure (3 mm), clear smoothA12 10-20 cm very dark brown (10YR2/3) fine sandy loam, moderate subangular blocky structure (3 mm), gradual
wavy boundaryA2 20-44 cm yellowish brown (10YR5/4) fine sandy loam, pale-brown (10YR6/3) when dry, apedal-massive, some
ironstone gravel, abrupt wavy boundaryB2 44-150 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR4/4) and red (2.5YR4/8) medium clay, strong angular blocky structure (4
mm), clay skins, gradual wavy boundaryC 150 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/6) red, (2.5YR4/8) and grey (2.5YR5/0) light clay, weak subangular
blocky structure.
Profile 746 – Mottled yellow and red gradational soil (Colac 7621: map ref. 319393)
A1 0-10 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (5 mm), clear smoothboundary
B1 10-48 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) light clay, weak subangular blocky structure (3 mm), gradual wavyboundary
B2 48-100 cm mottled dark greyish brown (10YR4/6) and yellowish red (5YR5/8) medium clay, strong angular blockystructure (1 mm), clay skins, gradual wavy boundary
B3 100-150 cm mottled strong brown (7.5YR5/6), red (2.5YR4/8) and grey (2.5YR5/0) medium clay, moderate angularblocky structure, gradual irregular boundary
C 150 cm mottled grey (2.5YR6/0), red (2.5YR4/8) and reddish yellow (7.5YR6/8) medium clay, moderate angularblocky structure (5 mm), occasional ironstone.
Profile 748 – Brown gradational soil (Corangamite 7521: map ref. 147368)
A1 0-6 cm very dark brown (10YR2/2) sandy clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (11 mm), clear smoothboundary
A2 6-17 cm brown (10YR4/3) fine sandy clay loam, weak angular blocky structure (9 mm), gradual wavy boundaryB21 17-30 cm brown (10YR4/3) medium clay, strong subangular blocky structure (45 mm), diffuse wavy boundaryB22 30-90 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) medium clay, strong angular blocky structure (2 mm), clay skins,
gradual smooth boundaryB3 90-104 cm mottled grey (5YR5/1) and brownish yellow (10YR6/8) sandy clay, weak subangular blocky structure,
some iron cemented gravel and stones, abrupt boundary, broken horizonC 104 cm weathering sandstone
Profile 749 – Red gradational soil, weak structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 055325)
A1 0-5 cm dark-brown (7.5YR3/2) silty loam, apedal-single grain, ironstone gravel commonA3 5-20 cm yellowish red (5YR4/6) clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (5 mm), abundant ironstone gravel,
gradual smooth boundaryB21 20-45 cm yellowish red (5YR4/6) silty clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure (5 mm), occasional
ironstone gravel, gradual irregular boundaryC 90 cm brown (7.5YR4/6) clay loam, weak angular blocky structure (4 mm), ironstone gravel common.
Profile 750 – Yellow-brown gradational soil, coarse structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 982271)
O2 2-0 cm black (10YR2/1) fine sandy clay loam, weak crumb structure (1 mm), abrupt wavy boundaryA1 0-14 cm black (10YR2/1) fine sandy loam, weak subangular blocky structure (15 mm), clear wavy boundaryA3 14-26 cm dark greyish brown (10YR4/2), fine sandy loam, brown (10YR5/3) when dry, weak angular blocky
structure, hard when dry, gradual wavy boundaryB1 26-60 cm brown (10YR4/3) medium clay with yellow (10YR7/6) mottles, moderate subangular blocky structure (3
mm), hard when dry, gradual wavy boundaryB2 60-105 cm mottled grey (2.5YR6/0) and brownish yellow (10YR6/6) medium clay, strong angular blocky structure
(4 mm), clay skins, hard when dry, gradual irregular boundaryIIC1 105 cm mottled grey (10YR6/1) and yellow (10YR7/6) medium clay, some gleying, moderate columnar structure
(60 mm), strong angular blocky secondary structure (8 mm), clay skins.
Profile 782 – Mottled yellow and red gradational soil with ironstone (Princetown 7520: map ref. 987357)
A1 0-10 cm very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) sandy clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure (5 mm),occasional ironstone gravel, gradual smooth boundary
A2 10-41 cm strong brown (7.5YR3/6) clay loam, weak subangular blocky structure (3 mm), ironstone gravel common,diffuse smooth boundary
A3 41-60 cm strong brown (7.5YR5/6) silty clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure, ironstone gravelcommon, diffuse smooth boundary
B2 60-120 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/4) and yellowish brown (10YR5/4) silty clay, strong subangular blockystructure (4 mm), clay skins, ironstone gravel common, diffuse irregular boundary
B3 120-150 cm mottled grey (2.5YR5/0), red (2.5YR4/8) and yellowish brown (10YR5/4) silty clay, strong subangularblocky structure (4 mm), clay skins, ironstone gravel common, diffuse irregular boundary
C 150 cm mottled grey (2.5YR5/0) and red (10YR4/6) silty clay, strong angular blocky structure (2 mm), clay skins,abundant ironstone gravel or complete bands of continuous ironstone alternating with kaolinitic clay.
Profile 783 – Brown duplex soil, coarse structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 825187)
A1 0-20 cm black (10YR2/1) fine sandy clay loam, moderate subangular blocky structure (3 mm, clear smoothboundary
A2 20-35 cm greyish brown (10YR5/2) loamy fine sand, light-grey (10YR7/1) when dry, apedal-massive, occasionalironstone gravel, abrupt smooth boundary
B21 35-100 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) medium clay, strong angular blocky structure (50 mm) with strongangular blocky secondary structure (4 mm), clay skins, diffuse wavy boundary
B22 100 cm mottled yellowish brown (10YR5/6), yellowish red (5YR5/8) and grey (10YR5/1) medium clay, weakangular blocky structure, clay skins, occasional ironstone gravel
Profile 784 – Brown calcareous gradational soil, coarse structure (Princetown 7520: map ref. 887167)
A1 0-10 cm black (10YR2/1) light clay, moderate subangular blocky structure (3 mm), gradual wavy boundaryB21 10-42 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) heavy clay, moderate subangular blocky structure (3 mm), clay skins,
hard when dry, diffuse smooth boundaryB22 42-60 cm dark yellowish brown (10YR5/4) heavy clay, strong angular blocky structure (3 mm), clay skins, diffuse
wavy boundaryB2ca 60-90 cm very pale brown (10YR7/4) medium clay, dominated by soft accumulations of calcium carbonate,
moderate subangular blocky structure (6 mm), clear wavy boundaryC1 90-120 cm mottled light grey (10YR7/1) and brownish yellow (10YR6/6) medium clay, weak subangular blocky
structure (50 mm), calcium carbonate concretions common, gradual wavy boundaryC2 120-165 cm mottled light yellowish brown (10YR6/4) and light-grey (10YR7/1) heavy clay, weak angular blocky
structure (50 mm), some calcium carbonate concretions, clear smooth boundaryC3 165-180 cm mottled very pale brown (10YR7/3), brownish yellow (10YR6/8) and grey (10YR6/1) medium clay,
apedal-massive, soft nodules of lime and phosphate common, clear smooth boundaryC4 180 cm mottled pale brown (10YR6/3), yellow (10YR7/8) and grey (10YR6/1) medium clay, weak angular
blocky structure (80 mm), some calcium carbonate concretions.
Grey sand soil with hardpan, uniform texture –Profile 608
Grey sand soil, uniform texture – Profile 742
Black sand soil, uniform texture – Profile 739 Black sand soil, uniform texture – Profile 609
Yellow-brown gradational soil, coarse structure –Profile 750
Grey sand soil, structured clay underlay – Profile 747
Brown friable gradational soil – Profile 736 Brown calcareous gradational soil, coarse structure –Profile 784
Mottled yellow and red gradational soil withironstone – Profile 782
Mottled yellow and red gradational soil – Profile 746
Mottled yellow and red duplex soil – Profile 744 Brown duplex soil, coarse structure – Profile 783
AAPPPPEENNDDIIXX IIVV –– MMiinnoorr CCoommppoonneennttss ooff LLaanndd SSyysstteemmss
Anglesea
1. Outcrops of Tertiary limestone with red calcareous gradational soil occur at Aireys Inlet. They are severely affectedby the coastal environment as in component 1, but the soils are gradational and permeability is high. On the moresheltered sites these area are similar to the steeper slopes of the Bellbrae land system.
2. The estuarine swamps at Anglesea have small areas of saline soils supporting communities of Arthrocnemumarbusculum, which are similar to the swamps found in Connewarre land system.
3. Some of the recent gully infills and depositional fans in the lower parts of the landscape have yellow gradational soilswith weak structure. Open forests of Eucalyptus baxteri, E. sideroxylon and E. obliqua are encountered. The subsoilshave high values for sodium on the exchange complex.
Barwon River
Soils in the northern parts are strongly influenced by alluvium derived from basalt. They have higher calcium carbonate levelsreflected by higher pH values, and are more heavily textured in the subsoil. Permeabilities are lower.
Beech Forest
Remnants of Tertiary sediments are occasionally found on high parts of the landscape. Examples occur at Lavers Hill,Wyelangta and Weeaproinah. White sand soils of uniform texture are found at Lavers Hill, and similar light-textured soils atthe other sites.
Bunker Hill
Tertiary olivine basalt with brown gradational soils and open forests of Eucalyptus obliqua and E. ovata are encountered on thenorthern slopes of Bunker Hill. The soils are somewhat heavier-textured than those found on Cretaceous sediments, andpermeabilities are lower.
Deepdene
On some of the steeper slopes below lateritic plateau remnants, indurated ironstone layers outcrop at the surface. Stony redgradational soils are found at these sites.
Gellibrand River
1. The most poorly drained sites are those furthest from the major stream channels and have grey gradational soils withstrong gleying. The vegetation is a closed scrub of Melaleuca squarrosa, Leptospermum juniperinum and, in someareas, L. lanigerum
2. Free water surfaces may locally cover a significant part of the landscape. The lakes and swamps at the mouths of theAire, Gellibrand and Barham Rivers provide a range of saline and fresh-water habitats.
Hordern Vale
1. To the east of Cape Otway, coastal erosion has exposed beds of Lower Cretaceous sediments below the Tertiarysediments. Brown duplex soils occur on steep slopes, and the vegetation is an open forest of Eucalyptus globulus, E.obliqua and E. baxteri.
2. Surrounding the low woodlands of E. kitsoniana and in some other localities, grey sand soils with structured clayunderlays are frequently found. The drainage is often impeded and the vegetation is usually a closed scrub ofMelaleuca squarrosa and Leptospermum juniperinum.
Kawarren
1. Tertiary olivine basalt with stony red gradational soils and open forest of Eucalyptus obliqua and E. viminalis is foundat the Kawarren East State School, and on the sides of ‘basalt hill’ at Gellibrand. The crest of ‘basalt hill’ have heavy-textured brown gradational soils with E. ovata.
2. Some of the better-drained valley floors, such as Ten Mile Creek, have brown gradational soils with weak structuressupport tall open forests of E. obliqua and E. viminalis.
Lorne
1. Remnant hill cappings of Tertiary sediments exist at Lorne, Cape Patton, Skenes Creek, and south of Peters Hill alongIronbark Spur. The soils on these sediments are usually yellow gradational soils with weak structures, or grey sandsoils with hardpans. The vegetation is commonly a woodland of Eucalyptus obliqua, E. radiata and E. nitida.
2. At the mouths of the Erskins, Cumberland, Wye and Kennett Rivers, and Skenes Creek, aeolian deposits of calcareousdune sand are found. Soils are yellow calcareous sand soils of uniform texture, which formerly supported tussockgrasslands of Spinifex hirsutus, Scirpus nodosus and Calocephalus brownii. Many areas have become unstable due totrampling and destruction of native vegetation, and restabilization has been effected by hand-planting Ammophilaarenaria.
Mount Sabine
Remnant hill cappings of Tertiary sediments are found at Benwerrin and just south of Boonah. Yellow gradational soils withweak structures contain quartz gravel and support woodlands of Eucalyptus obliqua, E. nitida and E. radiata.
Pennyroyal
1. Near Bambra, broad gentle crests overlie laterite. Mottled yellow and red duplex soils with ironstone occur on theindurated ironstone layers, overlying mottled clays.
2. On the highest parts of the landscape to the east of Bambra, high proportions of quartz gravel occur in the parentmaterial, and stony yellow gradational soils have developed. Open forests of Eucalyptus obliqua and E. radiata andE. viminalis occupy these sites.
3. The northern margins of the land system often have grey sand soils of uniform texture developed on deep deposits ofquartz sand. These areas carry woodland of E. viminalis, usually with Pteridium esculentum in the understorey.
Rivernook
1. Inland from Moonlight Head, yellow gradational soils with weak structures are common on moderate to steep slopes.The native vegetation is dependent on exposure to coastal winds, but areas carry Eucalyptus baxteri.
2. Near Apollo Bay, grey sand soils with structured clay underlays are found on many parts of the landscape and usuallysupport low woodlands of E. obliqua with Leptospermum juniperinum and Melaleuca squarrosa in the understorey.
Tomahawk Creek
The northern side of Tomahawk Creek has alluvial terraces with coarsely structured yellow-brown gradational soils. Openforests of Eucalyptus ovata and E. radiata occur on these areas.
Wonga
Tertiary sediments with high proportions of quartz gravel are occasionally found. Woodland of Eucalyptus baxteri and E.radiata grows on stony yellow gradational soils.
AAPPPPEENNDDIIXX VV –– FFlloorriissttiicc LLiisstt
Reference: J. H. Willis. ‘A Handook to Plants of Victoria’ Vol. 1 (1970), Vol. II (1972)
Acacia implexa lightwood Hedycarya angustifolia austral mulberryAcacia longifolia sallow wattle Helichrysum paralium coast everlastingAcacia mucronata narrow-leaf wattle Isopogon ceratophyllus horny cone-bushAcacia myrtifolia myrtle wattle Juncus spp. rushesAcacia pycantha golden wattle Leptospermum juniperinum prickly tea-treeAcacia suaveolens sweet wattle Leptospermum laevigatum coast tea-treeAcacia verniciflua varnish wattle Leptospermum lanigerum woolly tea-treeAcacia verticillata prickly moses Leptospermum myrsinoides heath tea-treeAcrotriche serrulata honey-pots Leucopogon glacialis twisted beard-heathAgropyron spp. wheat grasses Leucopogon parviflorus coast beard-heathAgrostis spp. bent grasses Lolium perenne* perennial rye-grassAlyxia buxifolia sea-box Medicago sativa* lucerneAmmophila arenaria* marram grass Melaleuca ericifolia swamp paperbarkAotus ericoides common aotus Melaleuca lanceolata moonahArthrocnemum arbusculum shrubby glasswort Melaleuca squarrosa scented paperbarkBanksia marginata silver banksia Microsorium diversifolium kangaroo fernBauera rubioides wiry bauera Nothofagus cunninghamii myrtle beechBedfordia salicina blanket-leaf Olearia argophylla musk dairy-bushBelchnum nudum fishbone water-fern Phalaris tuberosa* Toowoomba canary-grassBossiaea cinerea showy bossiaea Phebalium squameum satinwoodBursaria spinosa sweet bursaria Picea sitchensis* spruceCalocephalus brownii cushion-bush Pinus radiata* Monterey pineCarduus tenuiflorus* slender thistle Pinus laricio* black pineCarex spp. sedges Platylobium obtusangulum common flat-peaCarpobrotus rossii karkalla Poa spp. tussock grassCassinia aculeata dogwood Prostanthera lasianthos Victorian Christmas-bushCasuarina littoralis black she-oak Pseudotsuga menziesii* Douglas firCasuarina stricta drooping she-oak Pteridium esculentum austral brackenCirsium vulgare* spear thistle Puccinella spp. saltmarsh-grassesCyathea marcescens skirted tree-fern Pultenaea muellieri Mueller’s bush-peaCynodon dactylon couch Ranunculus spp. buttercupsDactylis glomerata* cocksfoot Rubus spp.* blackberriesDanthonia spp. wallaby grasses Samolus repens creeping brookweedDicksonia antarctica soft tree-fern Scirpus calocarpus club-rushDillwynia glaberrima smooth parrot-pea Scirpus nodosus knobby club-rushEpacris impressa common heath Schoenus apogon common bug-rushEucalyptus aromaphloia scent-bark Senecio jacobaea ragwortEucalyptus baxteri brown stringybark Silybum marianum* variegated thistleEucalyptus camaldulensis river red gum Spinifex hirsutus hairy spinifexEucalyptus cypellocarpa mountain grey gum Sprengelia incarnata pink swamp-heathEucalyptus globulus southern blue gum Spyridium parvifolium Australian dusty millerEucalyptus goniocalyx long-leaf box Stipa spp. spear grassesEucalyptus leucoxylon yellow gum or white ironbark Tetragonia tetragonioides New Zealand spinachEucalyptus nitida shining peppermint Tetrarrhena juncea forest wire grassEucalyptus obliqua messmate stringybark Themeda australis kangaroo grassEucalyptus ovata swamp gum Trifolium fragiferum* strawberry cloverEucalyptus pauciflora white sallee Trifolium incarnatum* crimson cloverEucalyptus radiata narrow-leaf peppermint Trifolium pratense* red cloverEucalyptus regnans mountain ash Trifolium repens* white cloverEucalyptus sideroxylon red ironbark Trifolium subterraneum* subterranean cloverEucalyptus viminalis manna gum Xanthorrhoea australis austral grass-treeFestuca arundinacea cv.Demeter*
demeter fescue (tall fescue)* exotic species
Frankenia pauciflora southern sea-heathGahnia filum chaffy saw-edgeGleichenia circinnata pouched coral-fernHakea ulicina furze hakea