a study of french consumers’ response to advertising featuring asian and white endorsers

7/28/2019 A study of French consumers’ response to advertising featuring Asian and White endorsers.

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Page | 1Julien Mong – MN50178 – MSc Marketing Dissertation – September 14, 2007

Table of contents

1. Introduction......................................................................................5

1.1 Marketing issues ............................................................................................................. 5

1.1.1 Lack of official data on ethnic minorities ..................................................................51.1.2 French Regulations ................................................................................................... 6

1.2 Limitations of previous research .................................................................................. 6

1.3 Commercial importance ................................................................................................ 7

1.4 Purpose of the study ....................................................................................................... 8

2. Literature review and hypothesis development ...........................9

2.1 Key definition.................................................................................................................. 9

2.1.1 Ethnic minority .......................................................................................................... 92.1.2 Endorsement theories ................................................................................................ 9

2.2 Ethnicity background .................................................................................................. 12

2.2.1 Previous studies on Ethnic minorities’ reactions toward advertising with ethnicminority. ........................................................................................................................... 122.2.2 Previous studies on Whites’ reactions towards advertising with ethnic minority .. 18

2.3 Hypothesis development .............................................................................................. 20

2.3.1 White consumers’ responses to White endorsers .................................................... 212.3.2 White consumers’ response to Asian endorsers ...................................................... 212.3.3 Asian consumers’ response to Asian endorsers ...................................................... 23

2.3.4 Asian consumers’ response to White endorsers ...................................................... 25

3. Method ............................................................................................26

3.1 Research design ............................................................................................................ 26

3.2 Subjects ......................................................................................................................... 27

3.3 Ad stimulus ................................................................................................................... 29

3.4 Questionnaire features ................................................................................................. 29




10. Appendices....................................................................................77

Appendix 1 - IPSOS survey on ethnic minorities and advertising in France ............... 77

Appendix 2 – Ad stimulus.................................................................................................. 78

Appendix 3 – Questionnaire .............................................................................................. 79

Appendix 4 – Models.......................................................................................................... 84

Appendix 5 – Means on each dependent variables (from SPSS v.14) ........................... 85

Appendix 6 – ANOVA on each dependent measures (from SPSS v.14)........................ 86

Appendix 7 – MANOVA (from SPSS v.14)...................................................................... 88

Appendix 8 – Attitude toward ethnicity........................................................................... 89




A study of French consumers’ response to

advertising featuring Asian and White endorsers.

Julien MongUniversity of Bath

Abstract : This quantitative study examined the attitudes of White French and AsianFrench consumers when they are exposed to advertising displaying their respectiveethnicity endorser. The context of study differs from past studies on this area as Franceremains a particular society where individuals must disregard their ethnic identity inregards to law. We hypothesised that (1) consistent with previous studies on theimpact of Asian endorsers on White consumers, White French consumers’ favourableresponse towards the Asian endorser ad will not be significantly lower than whiteFrench consumers’ response to the White endorser ad. (2) Finally, we posited that due

to the limited existence of ads featuring Asian endorser, Asian French consumers’favourable response will be significantly higher with the Asian endorser ad than AsianFrench consumers’ response to the White endorser ad.

The present study is a 2 (endorser ethnicity: White or Asian) x 2 (subject ethnicity:White French or Asian French) between-subjects factorial design and aimed atmeasuring attitude toward the model, attitude toward the ad, attitude toward the brandand purchase intentions. We found that Asians exhibited more favourable responsetoward the Asian endorser ad. Interestingly, use of an Asian endorser did not result inunenthusiastic reactions from Whites. Involvement was found to have a significantmain effect on attitudes and purchase intentions.

Key words: Advertising, Asian, Endorser, Ethnic minority, France




1. Introduction

A study conducted by Mercier (2006) for a well-known French survey institute IPSOS

showed that 63% of French people would like a better representation of ethnic minorities on

advertising. 50% of young people share the same opinion (Appendix 1). Although use of

ethnic minorities on advertising has improved in recent years especially on sports’

commercials, advertising is still blamed for causing stigmatisation among the French society

by displaying ethnic minority models in stereotyped situation (e.g. Black playing sport, Asian

cooking food, etc.). This study recommends French advertising agencies to take into account

the weight of ethnic population in their campaign. Recent efforts by several types of

organisation in France have brought direct pressure upon advertisers for action to include

Ethnic Minorities in advertising. However, it seems fair to state that advertisers have not

responded to these advices with great enthusiasm. Indeed, this task faces several challenges

specific to the French society that marketers need to take into account (Secondi, 2006).

1.1 Marketing issues

1.1.1 Lack of official data on ethnic minorities

According to official figures related by the French National Institute of Statistics, INSEE,

there are approximately 4.5 million immigrants in France in 2004 (Borel & Durr, 2005). The

number of none-white immigrants such as North-Africans and Asians has increased faster

than White Europeans, from respectively 40 to 42% (1.89m) and 12% to 14% (0.63m).

Because the INSEE only accounts individuals who were born in a foreign country, regardless

of his/her current nationality and ethnic origin, these figures do not take into account children

who were born in France, naturalised French, and whose parents are none-EU immigrants.




Therefore, the number of people living in France from a different ethnicity background is

much likely to be higher.

1.1.2 French Regulations

Some researchers such as Treguier & Segati (Chap. 7, 2004) estimated the number of ethnic

minorities to represent 20% of the French population (12m North-Africans and up to one

million Asians). Recently, an association defending the rights of Black people in France,

CRAN, has estimated the number of people considering themselves as “Black” to two

millions. However, these figures have sparked controversy among the French society for

which the law prohibits the count of population by ethnicity (Gilden et. al., 2004). In contrast

to the British and American model of integration, the French Republic principles do not

distinguish human though their ethnic origin. It is qualified as a “color blind” country which

requires individuals to disregard their own specificity in order to fully integrate themselves to

the French society (Fassin, 2007). While this model could be qualified as fairness because it

sets everyone at the same level, it does not recognise the specific needs of each minority and

the importance of cultural background.

1.2 Limitations of previous research

Previous studies on the value of ethnic minorities have mainly focused on English speaking

countries (Whittler, 1991; Setz, 1998; Nwankwo et al., 1998; Green, 1999; Burton, 2000) and

to a lesser extent in Asian countries (Ryu et al. 2006). Unfortunately, this area of research has

received little attention in countries such as France where specific regulations apply. Thus,

knowledge of Asian consumer behaviour in France remains severely limited. While some

scholars (Maheswaran & Shavitt, 2000) have highlighted the importance of conducting

experimental research in different cultures to enrich consumer behaviour knowledge, this




study will be proven useful in its aim to contribute to the French consumer behaviour

researchers and to enhance our knowledge of this growing ethnic minority way often ignored.

1.3 Commercial importance

Practice of targeting a specific ethnic minority using ethnic minority model has only emerged

recently though some national advertising campaign (e.g. L’Oréal, Western Union) but they

remain very limited. Ignorance of ethnic salience and lack of data prevent marketers from

applying effectively the marketing principles of “segmenting, targeting and differentiation”

(Kotler, 2005). In contrast to the US or the UK, few firms have taken the risk to advertise with

minority ethnic model as to avoid shocking population or being accused of segregation or

stereotyping. Sengès (2003) criticises the French model and argues that the “ Seduction of the

consumer no long occurs by targeting its unified taste but by courting its differences ”.

Blanchard (2003) argues that French firms must recognise the diverse nature of the French

society, not only because of their growing existence but also for their increasing purchasing

power. Indeed, figures and researches show that: (1) As discussed above, Asian represents the

fastest minority growth in France. (2) An increasing number of people ask over more ethnic

minorities on advertising (Fassin, 2007). Ignoring consumers’ trend is loosing a potential

market. (3) Similarly to the American Asian community, the French Asian community in

France is perceived by many French politician leaders as a “model minority” placing a strong

value to work (Cifoa, 2007). They are seen as ambitious and willing to take risk. Between

2002 and 2004, the number of businesses launched by Asian people increased by 18% while it

decreased by 2.9% for French (Charles, 2006). (5) According to a recent study, an increasing

number of young single Asian women work in the well-paid industry of finance (Khoa, 2006).

Consequently, marketers should not ignore Asian minority especially at a time when a large




majority of French politicians is taking sides for affirmative actions and it is likely that a law

will be voted to allow marketers to collect data on ethnic minorities.

1.4 Purpose of the study

The present study does not aim at debating why ethnic minorities do not come out with more

coverage in France. However, it remains reasonable to observe that French advertisers are still

reluctant to use ethnic minority endorsers as they cannot predict the results, either among

White or Asian consumers. The purpose of this research study is rather to experiment the use

of ethnic minority endorsers, Asian endorser more precisely, in a society where people are

compelled to disregard their ethnic identity. Unlike the United States where the Asian

community is better represented in advertising (Taylor et al., 2005), very few advertising in

France take the risk to display an Asian model. While many studies argued in favour of its

positive benefit, it is consequently worth it to study its real effectiveness in a different context.

Hypotheses were developed, tested and analysed all along this study.




2. Literature review and hypothesis development

2.1 Key definition

2.1.1 Ethnic minority

A wide range of definition subsists in the literature to define “ethnicity”. Weber (1961) is one

of the very first authors to provide a definition: “ a sense of common descent extending beyond

kinship, political solidarity vis-à-vis other groups, common customs, language, religion,

values, morality, and etiquette ”. In sum, Malesevic (2004) defines it as: “ a social relation in

which social actors perceive themselves and are perceived by others as being culturally

distinct collectivities ”. Deshpandé (1994) argues that one ethnicity can be either minority or

majority upon the context studied. In this study, we discussed Asian as the ethnic minority

and White French as the ethnic majority. We kept the classification criteria of an Asian used

by INSEE as people who were born in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam and will extend our

study to people whose parents are from these countries since these people can hold beliefs

similar to their parents although they were born in France .

2.1.2 Endorsement theories

A large amount of literature has supported the salient role of endorsement in advertising. Most

of researchers agree that in nowadays advertising, the endorser used to promote a product play

a crucial role in determining the extent to which someone will process the ad. This part will

discuss theories and processes mentioned in the literature regarding the use of an endorser.

2.1.2.1 Heuristic processing: Regardless of the endorser type (celebrity, expert or typical

consumer), most of researchers agree that the ad model operate as a valuable strategy to

support the advertising message (Friedman et al. 1979; Agrawal et. al., 1995). Chaiken (1989)

believed that attractive communicators are more persuasive than their counterparts in




delivering virtually the same message. When considering the validity of a message’s

conclusion, message recipients have recourse to either systematic or heuristic strategies.

When in heuristic processing, the recipient devotes little cognitive effort in analysing the ad

message and tends to accept the conclusion based on simple rules from previous experience

(Chaiken, 1980). In the ethnicity context, a viewer may accept or reject an ad based on a

noticeable cue such as the endorser’s ethnicity. For example, an Asian may accept the ad

simply because the endorser is Asian when in a heuristic processing.

2.1.2.2 Peripheral route and low involvement: Petty et al. (1983) demonstrated that the

model’s race can also operate as an argument quality which in turn may positively influence

consumers’ attitudes and purchasing intention. Indeed, it has been posited that when someone

receives a message, s/he forms or changes attitudes via two routes to persuasion known as the

‘central route’ and the ‘peripheral route’ (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986). In the ‘central route’,

careful and thoughtful consideration occur based on the recipient’s processing of strong and

weak arguments. In the ‘peripheral route’, peripheral cues displayed in the advertising

message such as the endorser permit attitude change without the need for the message’s

recipient to scrutinise the message arguments. Since the ELM was introduced, much of the

work in consumer research has focused on factors or processing antecedents that can

influence the motivation and ability to process ad messages. Several studies have shown that

consumer have greater elaboration on information when they can relate the information to

themselves and their own experiences (Burnkrant and Unnava, 1989-1995).

2.1.2.3 Communicator and peripheral cue: Whittley & Dimeo (1991) argued that the model’s

ethnicity is a salient communicator cue which influences consumers’ attention and recall

towards the product especially among consumers concerned about racial issues. Both studies




conducted by Whittler (1989; 1991) found that the endorser’s race function as a peripheral

cue in an advertising context. Based on the Elaboration Likelihood Model, Whittler & Spira

(2002) argued that the communicator’s race on advertising is another characteristic’s that may

influence consumers’ responses to advertising.

2.1.2.4 Self-referencing : While most of research has generally not gone beyond offering

support for a positive effect where ethnic models in advertising are viewed by consumers of

the same ethnicity, Lee et al. (2002) examined the impact of using ethnic minority models and

showed that self-referencing occurs when a consumer is able to process information by

relating it to some aspect of his self. Relating information to oneself has been proven to

enhance brand recall and favourable evaluations of the ad (Meyers-Levy & Perrachio, 1996).

It does also lead to more favourable thoughts, attitudes and purchase intentions (Lee et al.

2002). In the ethnicity context, the ethnicity of a model results in consumers of the same

ethnicity self-referencing the ad information and showing more favourable reactions toward

the ad.

As the use of models has become more common in advertising, many works have been done

to study consumer reactions to ethnic minority models. To date, researches on minority

models have mainly focused on Black or Hispanic American Models, and Asians to a lesser

extent. Although Black or Hispanic minorities are different from Asians in terms of traditions

and history, researches and theories found among these minorities will surely help us to build

on interesting hypotheses among French Asians along with current findings among American

Asians.




2.2 Ethnicity background

When studying ethnic model advertising, we shall first divide our ethnicity background

literature onto two different parts. We will first be looking at prior studies on ethnic

minorities’ reactions toward advertising displaying an ethnic minority model [Section 2.2.1].

In a second part, we will explore similar findings on Whites’ responses to advertising with

ethnic minority models [Section 2.2.2]. By investigating these two perspectives, we will then

be able to develop hypotheses adapted to the French market [Section 2.3].

2.2.1 Previous studies on Ethnic minorities’ reactions toward advertising with ethnicminority.

Issues raised by advertisers surrounding the use of ethnic minority models on advertising

began in the mid 60’s with the societal phenomenon of ‘integrated advertising’ and the risk of

causing non-minorities to react unfavourably or alienating white consumers by using ethnic

minority endorser. According to the Melting pot theory which argues that racial and cultural

contacts between ethnic minorities and the society leads to a more white-like society, Western

media advertising has traditionally assumed that both Whites and ethnic minorities can be

reached simultaneously by using white models (Kinra, 1997). This viewpoint of the society

remains a current issue according to Lee et al. (2002). However, the authors view the current

society as composed by two opposing forces: on the one hand, the advancement of our world

communication which has pushed people towards a homogenised society. In the other hand,

an increasing awareness of many groups who become more aware of their self on the basis of

their ethnic background (Costa & Bamossy, 1995). Based on the second force, there is a need

for marketers to advertise different selves on advertising so people can recognise themselves.




2.2.1.2 Among the Black community: The first needs to determine how best to

advertise to ethnic minorities without creating a White Backlash is not recent: the

primary studies have begun with the American Black community. Barban (1969)

argued that one need to consider the dilemma regarding Black reactions towards

advertising in general. Blacks may be less predisposed to advertising than Whites

because of the predominant white orientation of many advertising. However, earlier

work from Barban (1964) showed that the overall judgement of advertising was almost

identical among both Blacks and Whites college students.

As far as advertising effectiveness is concerned, Whittler and Spira (2002) suggested

that advertisers may be reluctant to include Black models in their messages as this may

adversely affect White consumers, and as Black consumers purchase products

identical to Whites, it is unnecessary to include them in the ad. This affirmation is

somehow similar to the situation that France currently faces, where a large majority of

ads uses White models based on the idea that advertiser can reach a greater audience

(Ammi, -). Though, previous studies done by Whittler and his colleagues showed

more favourable responses from ethnic minorities when facing a commercial with a

spokesperson from the same ethnic background. For instance, Blacks exhibited more

favourable reactions when they saw a commercial with a Black model. An earlier

study (Whittler, 1991) found that both low and high identification Blacks perceived

themselves as more similar to the Black Model than the White Model although clearly,

high identification Blacks had more favourable responses towards the Black model

while low identification Black recipients showed no difference in their ability to

identify to the Black or White model. Finally, Black participants showed a greater

purchasing intention to companies that had Black models promoting their products. In




addition, it has been previously suggested that racially sensitive viewers tend to

perceive racially dissimilar actor as having different attitudes to their own which lead

to less favourable responses (Goldstein & Davis, 1972). In sum, Whittler (1991)

provided a summary of at least 14 empirical studies and most of them concluded that

viewers prefer ads featuring spokespeople of their own ethnic group and that this

preference is stronger among people who strongly identify themselves to their ethnic

group. In the present study, we hypothesise that Asian will show higher favourable

responses to an Asian model than a White Model.

Despite the fact that a large amount of contribution on the subject of ethnicity has focused on

Blacks, it is only within the last few decades that marketers and advertisers have demonstrated

a real interest to other growing ethnic minorities such as the Hispanic community.

2.2.1.2 Among the Hispanic community: The Hispanic community in the United

States has attracted attention of both marketers and advertisers due to their increasing

presence in the continent. Major studies have been done among this ethnic minority to

assess their reactions to ads featuring Hispanic models. These studies have fairly

supported earlier researches among the American Black community and more

importantly, have given marketers a better understanding of the circumstances under

which use of ethnic minority models is more favourable. Most interesting findings

belonged to the works of Deshpande (1986, 1994) and concerned the value of taking

into consideration ethnic identification differences between and among groups from

the same ethnicity and the role of the distinctiveness theory on advertising

effectiveness. We shall look at these two points now:




Ethnic identification : When studying consumer behaviour, one need to consider that there

are differences between individuals within the same ethnic group. For instance, Deshpande

(1986) found that strong Hispanic identifiers had a more positive attitude toward advertising

compared to weak identifiers. They are also more brand-loyal and more likely to buy brands

that are advertised to their ethnic group. In contrast, weak Hispanic identifiers are found to be

closer to Anglos in terms of a lesser preference for ethnically advertised products. This

finding provides interesting insights on ethnic minorities’ behaviours towards advertising and

ethnically promoted brand. Although Asians may differ from Hispanic and other minorities in

terms of attitudes, it remains interesting to note that depending upon their degree of ethnic

identification, Asians’ reactions towards an ad may differ significantly. Stayman &

Deshpande (1989) also suggested that strength of ethnic identification not only vary across

persons but also across situations. Antecedent conditions are found to influence ethnic

identification. The present work has taken into consideration this dimension and specific scale

from Phinney (1992) has been used to assess subjects’ strength of ethnic identification, and to

control for extraneous variation in the data using analysis of covariance.

Distinctiveness theory : Ethnicity has been proven to be a clear dimension of the self under

the distinctiveness theory (McGuire, 1984; Lee et al., 2002). This theory proposes that when a

person receives a message related to his/her self; he/she is more likely to notice distinctive

differences and characteristics that have greater information in differentiating them from

others. Building on this influential body of work in social psychology proposed by McGuire

(1984), Desphande (1994) applied this theory to an advertising context and predicted that the

lower the proportion of minority group members in the overall population, the more likely

that ethnically targeted stimuli will be effective. Thus, ethnicity becomes more salient to the

self in a mixed society where there are clearly a majority and a minority ethnic group.




According to McGuire (1984), an individual’s distinctive traits in relation to other people in

the environment will be more salient to the individual than will be more common traits. The

author demonstrated by an experiment that, being in the majority group, White students were

less likely to mention their ethnic group while Ethnic Minorities (Hispanics, Blacks)

mentioned it more often. For example, a Hispanic living in the US is more likely to introduce

himself by mentioning his ethnicity when being in a minority context. Applying this theory to

an advertising context, Deshpandé provide us with remarkable findings to help us predicting

French Asians’ responses to ads featuring Asian model in a country where Asians are clearly

in minority. For instance, perceived trustworthiness of the spokesman and brand attitude have

been measured among Whites and Hispanics, in two different situations: in Austin (Texas,

USA) where Whites were in a majority and Hispanics in a minority; and in San Antonio

(Texas, USA) where Whites were in a minority and Hispanics in a majority. The study found

strong support to the distinctiveness theory: Hispanic consumers living in a numerically

minority city were more likely than those living in a numerically majority city to have positive

attitudes towards the brand for the ad featuring a Hispanic spokesperson. This finding also

applied to Whites when they were in a numerically minority city. Applying this to our Asian

study context, this research suggests that use of an ethnic endorser in advertising would be the

most effective in a social environment in which the ethnic group is in a proportional minority.

In the beginning of the 90’s, the increasing growth of Asians in the United States has

encouraged marketers to pay further attention to this community.

2.2.1.3 Among the Asian community: As far as Asians are concerned, it has been

found that Asian subjects exposed to an Asian model reported higher self-reference

leading to more favourable reactions towards the ad with the Asian model (Lee et al,

2002). One of the reasons may be explained by the dissimilarity similarity theory




which suggests that a communicatee’s (e.g. an Asian person) perception of his/her

similarity to a communicator (e.g. Asian model) is one determinant of the

communicator’s effectiveness according to Berscheid (1966). As Debevec & Iyer

(1988) emphasised, the ability of an individual to picture himself with the model in the

ad results in cognitive activity in the form of spontaneous self-referencing. In other

words, an ad displaying Asian endorser increases its effectiveness in the mean of self-

referencing when the endorser is similar to the viewer. Hence, Lee et al. (2002) found

that Asian subjects exposed to the Asian model reported higher self-reference. Self-

reference appeared to influence attitude towards the ad, attitude towards the model and

purchase intentions and produced more favourable thoughts from Asian subjects.

Combining product stereotyped products and self-referencing, Martin (2004) found

that atypical portrayals result in greater self-referencing leading to more favourable

attitudes towards the model and purchase intentions. In manipulating products and

ethnicity, a recent study by Kyu (2006) conducted among Asians also found that for

utilitarian products (i.e. products that are primarily purchased and consumed to satisfy

practical or functional needs), Asians participants showed more favourable responses

when the endorser’s ethnicity was incongruent with the product’s country of origin.

For a U.S brand ad, a Japanese endorser had a more positive impact than an American

endorser on participants’ perceived strength of ad claims. More specifically, when a

US brand (Japanese brand) was endorsed by a(n) Japanese (American) model, it

generated more favourable attitude toward the ad, enhanced brand beliefs and attitude

toward the brand. Although the results may be commented with caution due to the

nature of the study (country’s product origin) , it remains however one study among

many others which supports that use of ethnic minority model can be a good

advertising strategy to reach effectively both Asians and Whites. The present study




will aim to explore this affirmation in different context. Yet, we shall have a look at

previous on Whites’ reactions toward advertising with ethnic minority models first.

2.2.2 Previous studies on Whites’ reactions towards advertising with ethnic minority

The first studies conducted on model’s race and advertising began in the mid 60’s with

Barban & Cundiff (1964) and have mainly focused on White consumers’ responses to ads

featuring Black spokespersons. These researches primarily originated from marketers’ desire

to appeal the growing black market without negatively affecting the White consumers. For

instance, Bush et al. (1974, 1979) found that there appears to be very little difference in how

White consumers evaluate models of different race regardless of their level of prejudice. By

and large, these researchers have largely revealed that Whites did not react extremely

negatively but responded neutrally (Guest, 1970; Tolley & Goett, 1972; Schlinger &

Plummer’s, 1972) to positively (Szybillo & Jaccoby, 1974) to ads as a result of exposure to

Black models in promotional materials although some negative reactions have been noticed

among White consumers. Interestingly, those studies differ slightly from Whittler & Dimeo

(1991) who found that among southeastern American adults, high prejudice Whites found it

more difficult to identify with the Black than White actors, whereas low prejudice showed no

difference between White or Black actors. Unlike students, this tested sample was probably

unaccustomed to seeing blacks in their everyday activities. In other studies in which white

consumers responded negatively to black model ads, researchers explained this reaction by a

poor ad quality (Stafford et al., 1970). Cagley & Cardozo (1970) findings also reported

negative reactions towards black models and this reaction was explained by a change in the

society’s values.




Nevertheless, in most experiment involving Whites and ethnic minority models, Whites

responded neutrally or positively to ads featuring an ethnic minority model. However, it is

important to note that Whites may still have higher preference for endorsers of their own

ethnic group. Indeed, Whittler & Dimeo (1991) studied a sample of white adults and found

that White participants identified more strongly with White than with Black. This is in

accordance with the similarity dissimilarity theory which suggests that the perception of

dissimilarity should reduce message persuasion. Consequently, although Whites may show

overall favourable or neutral reactions to endorser that differs from their ethnic group, we

should not ignore the fact that some may still want to see an endorser from their own ethnic

group (i.e. Whites) while others may react favourably or neutrally to ethnic minority

endorsers.

As far as Asians are concerned, many studies showed that Whites did not responded

negatively to ads featuring Asians. Lee et al. (2002) found that using Asian ethnic minority

models raised the attitudes and purchase intentions of the participants of the same ethnicity

without decreasing the attitudes and purchasing intentions of Whites. The latter were not

significantly influenced by the ethnicity of the advertising model. The study suggested that

increase advertising effectiveness can be achievable by varying the model featured without

offending the ethnic majority. A similar study conducted by Martin (2004) testing product

stereotypicality revealed that using an Asian model with atypical products resulted in greater

self-referencing for both Whites and Asians than one using a White model. This resulted in

more favourable responses for both ethnic groups. Earlier researches also suggested that for

many products, advertisers who want to reach both Asians and Whites can use an Asian

model without offending their mainstream White customers (Cohen, 1992). What’s more,

although Cohen (1992) reported a lesser positive reaction from White respondents with the ad




featuring the Asian model, the reaction still remained positive. In addition, the author argued

that for some traditional products (e.g. toilet soap) in contrast to convenience good, use of an

Asian model can help to create an association among White consumers and the youthful

appearance of Asians and consequently create a more positive reaction to the ad than with a

White model.

2.3 Hypothesis development

According to Michalowska and Mazzoli (2004), marketing with minority ethnicity endorser is

way often seen by French intellectuals as unthinkable or unethical since it intentionally goes

against the Republican principles of France. This point of view could be fairly questioned

when a wide range of literature review have positively argued in favour of the benefits of

using ethnic endorsers.

Yet, the Asian population remains an under researched consumer populations. Although some

works have been done in the United States among this community (Cohen, 1992), they remain

largely limited as discussed above in comparison to Black or Hispanic studies. Because

studies on Asians are almost inexistent in France, this part aims at developing hypotheses

based on findings discussed above on attitudes of ethnic minorities (Black, Hispanic, Asians

to a lesser extent) toward advertising featuring their own ethnic group as well as reactions of

White consumers toward advertising displaying Asian model. We will divide this hypothesis

development part onto four parts by looking at both Whites and Asians’ responses to ads with

a White or an Asian model.




2.3.1 White consumers’ responses to White endorsers

Earlier researches (Burstein et al., 1961; Berscheid, 1966) on similarity and dissimilarity

which suggest that communicators similar to their audience are more likely to effect

persuasion than those dissimilar have received empirical support. In addition to an increasing

persuasion observed among participants (Williams and Qualls 1989), Whittler & DiMeo

(1991) argues that a perceived similarity between the recipient and the communicator

mediates the impact on attitudes changes. The study demonstrates that White participants

perceived themselves as more similar to White than Black and Black participants perceived

themselves as more similar to Black than White. The study concludes that the model race can

enhance positives attitudes if there is a perceived similarity between the endorser and the

target consumers. Furthermore, it has been argued that people pay more attention and

demonstrate quicker recall with trait information that is consistent with their self-schema

(Markus and Sentis, 1982). Finally, Fiske & Taylor (1991) found that individuals tend to

evaluate members of their own group (the “in-group”) more favorably than those of othergroups (the “out-group”). In other words, White consumers are more likely to evaluate a

White endorser (i.e a member of their in-group) more positively than an Asian endorser (i.e. a

member of the out-group). Consequently, we can expect White participants to perceive

themselves as more similar to the White endorser, and thus yielding to higher but not

significantly higher positive attitudes and intentions toward the White model than toward the

Asian model. However, we still posit no unfavourable evaluation from Whites with the Asian

model’s ad as we will discuss below.

2.3.2 White consumers’ response to Asian endorsers

Fewer studies have examined consumers’ responses to Asian endorser. In a study focusing on

white consumers’ reaction towards Asian endorser, Cohen (1992) found that although White




participants reacted less favourably to an ad featuring an Asian model for status goods, the

result still remains positive. Use of Asian model can enhance positive responses in sales of

high technology goods. More interestingly, results showed that for low involvement product

advertising, the model’s race had no negative impact on consumers’ response to the ad. In a

similar experiment, Martin (2004) demonstrated that use of Asian model in atypical ways can

yield the benefit of higher self-referencing for both Asians and Whites. In other words, use of

Asian endorser can have positive impact for both Asian and White consumers when selling

non-stereotyped product. This study confirms Goodstein (1993) findings who argued that ads

atypical of the schema (ie. cognitive structure representing domain expectations) motivate

more extensive processing and evaluations than typical schema. What’s more, Solomon

(2007) argues that use of unexpected cues (eg. Use of Asian model in France) can enhance

brand recall. Finally, Feick & Higie (1992) found that for products characterised by high

preference heterogeneity products (i.e. products that can be hardly objectively evaluated

across consumers like a hair cut or any other hedonic products or services) consumers showed

higher preference for the endorser that was highly similar to them while for low preference

heterogeneity products or services (i.e. products or services which can be objectively

evaluated by the consumers such as a toothpaste or any other utilitarian products), consumers

were less likely to be influenced by the endorser similarity or dissimilarity. According to this

finding, our study do not expects White consumers to show unfavourable attitudes and

intentions toward the Asian model ad featuring the toothpaste which can be qualified as an

utilitarian product. In sum, all these findings lead us to the following hypothesis:




H1: Consistent with previous studies on the impact of Asian endorsers on

White consumers, White French consumers’ favourable response towards

the Asian endorser ad will not be significantly lower than white French

consumers’ response to the White endorser ad.

As far as Asian consumers are concerned, although some scholars have warned marketers on

the risk of over representing ethnic minorities on advertising (Taylor and Stern, 1997; Wilkes

and Valencia, 1989), we believe that those critics cannot be entirely applied to France where

use of Asian ethnic minority model is almost inexistent. As a result, this part will rather focus

on the main variables, processes or circumstances highlighted in the literature under which

endorser ethnicity has a positive impact on Asian consumers’ attitudes towards the adverting.

2.3.3 Asian consumers’ response to Asian endorsers

In this study, consistent with the dissimilarity and similarity theory, we posit that comparable

to White consumers’ response to White endorser, what applies for White consumers will

apply for Asians. In other words, Asian consumers will perceive themselves as more similar

to the Asian endorser than the White endorser. What is more, according to the distinctiveness

theory elaborated by McGuire (1978), an individual’s distinctive characteristics will be more

salient to other people in a specific environment than shared characteristics will be. In relation

to past researches on ethnicity, Deshpande et al. (1994) argues that use of ethnic minority

endorser is more likely to be effective in a social environment where the endorser’s ethnicity

is in a “ proportional minority ”. For example, Hispanic consumers, who lived in a city where

Hispanic are in minority, are found to trust more Hispanic endorser leading to positive attitude

toward the brand. Being a numerically minority in France, we anticipate that use of Asian

model on a none-stereotyped utilitarian product, which is atypical of the schema, will lead to




positive attitudes. More recently, Ryu et al. (2006) have demonstrated that Asian consumers

are more likely to show favourable responses to advertising when the endorser’s ethnicity is

different from the product country of origin (COO) for utilitarian product (ie. Products

purchased to satisfy primary needs). Yet, for hedonic products (ie. Products with symbolic

meanings to the buyer), a match of the endorser with the COO has more positive impact.

Although the majority of researchers offer similar conclusions on the value of ethnicity

endorsement, one believes that its effectiveness is viable with the condition that “ the

consumer processes the ethnic information and relates it to his or her self-concept ”. Indeed,

Forehand & Deshpande (2001) believe that the probability that a person processes the ethnic

information depends on its “ethnic self-awareness” defined as a temporary state dependent on

factors beyond ethnic classification in which a person feels more sensitive to his or her

ethnicity. Thus, Asian consumers exposed to ethnic primes responded more favourably to the

advertising than none target market. One of the reasons used to give explanation to this

finding was the distinctiveness theory as Asian participants were in a numerical minority.

Despite this interesting finding, our research will first intend to explore the effect of Asian

endorser on White French and Asian consumers. Thus, use of ethnic primes will not be

considered for this experiment. However, Forehand & Deshpande (2001) again provides us

with enough evidences to believe that the distinctiveness theory can be applied in France

where Asian consumers are clearly in numerical minority.

Finally, Grier et al. (1999) argued that ads targeting a distinctive market on the basis of a

cultural trait that makes the members distinctive have a greater impact on target viewers’

interpretation of the ad than ads targeting a nondistinctive market. This is consistent with the

distinctiveness theory which suggests that distinctive individuals are more aware of

characteristics that make them distinctive than nondistinctive individuals.




2.3.4 Asian consumers’ response to White endorsers

Due to the current situation of Advertising in France where a large majority of advertising

features White endorsers, we do not expect White endorser to result in unfavourable

responses from Asian consumers. In addition, no studies argue that use of White endorser can

have negative impact on Asian consumers, unless the ad target specifically Asians.

In sum, consistent with past studies on similarity, we expect Asian consumers to perceive

themselves as more similar to the Asian endorser than White endorser and thus, have more

positive responses to the ad. Under distinctiveness theory, Asian consumers, who are

considered as an ethnic minority in France, will have more favourable attitudes if the ad

displays an Asian endorser. Likewise, we hypothesise that:

H2: Due to the limited existence of ads featuring Asian endorser, Asian French

consumers’ favourable response will be significantly higher with the Asianendorser ad than Asian French consumers’ response to the White

endorser ad.




3. Method

The research project to be described in this paper was designed to broaden the scope of earlier

studies on use of ethnic minority endorser in advertising. First, the study took place in a

country where very few studies on ethnicity have been done. Second, the subjects live in a

country where people are compelled by law to disregard their ethnic background. Third, the

samples were drawn from people with different occupation, living in different parts of France,

aged from 18 to 35 and there is some assurance that such a selection is more realistic than an

ordinary student population. Finally, there was the opportunity to assess different covariates

such as the degree of involvement as well as the subjects’ ethnic identification by using the

Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney, 1992) which aimed to measure repondents’

Affirmation and Belonging to their own ethnic group, Ethnic Identity Achievement and

Ethnic behaviours. Yet, it is important to note that the data collected for the present study

mainly focused on Asian consumers as defined by the French authority in order to avoid

strong cultural differences within other Asian groups (e.g. Asian Indian, etc.).

3.1 Research design

The experimental design developed to investigate the above hypotheses is a 2x2 between-

subjects factorial design with endorser ethnicity manipulated at two levels (White or Asian)crossed with subject ethnicity also manipulated at two levels (White French or Asian French)

and in which participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental cells. Data was

collected by means of a questionnaire available online through surveymonkey.com. Subject

sample was randomly asked, regardless of their age and sex, to take part in the survey. Out of

170 respondents who took part in the survey, a total of 133 unpaid adults were retained for

our study.




3.2 Subjects

In order to identify Asians and Whites, a two-step subjective method of ethnic identification

often used by French survey companies have been used in order to ensure that the ethnic

identification questions were conformed to the French laws which strictly forbid questions

openly related to an individuals’ ethnic background. Participants were first asked if one or

both of their parents were born in France or Asia and were asked to specify when parents

were born in Asia. Then, subjects were asked about foreign languages spoken at home

fluently (e.g. Europeans, Asians) by either the parents or the subject himself. Subjects who

have responded yes to these two questions (i.e. one or both parents were born in Vietnam,

Laos or Cambodia and Vietnamese, Cambodian or Laotian are fluently spoken at home) were

classified as Asian . Subjects that have answered yes to the first question (at least one parent

was born in France and none of them in Asia) and no to “Asian languages are spoken at

home” were classified as White .

Among the 170 subjects that took part in the questionnaire, the following individuals have

been excluded from the sample: individuals who did not complete the full questionnaire

resulting in missing data (10); individuals whose parents were not born either in France or

Asia (4); mixed individuals whose parents were born in both Asia and France (10); Asians

(12) whose parents were born in Asian countries (e.g. China, Japan, Korea, etc.) others than

the ones stated by the French National Statistics administration (i.e. Vietnam, Laos and

Cambodia); Individuals with parents born in Asia but who do not speak an Asian language at

home; and finally, people aged above 35 were also excluded to keep the sample consistent as

age has been found to explain the degree of favourability to ethnic minorities (Whittler,

1991).




Age repartition : The final sample retained for our study is 133 individuals. It is

mainly composed with young individuals (88.7% of the sample is aged between 18

and 25) likely from diverse background and from different parts of France and aged

from 18 to 35 with a total of 70 whites and 63 Asians (See Table below for further

details).

Subject's ethnicity * Subject's age Crosstabulation

56 7 63

88,9% 11,1% 100,0%

62 8 70

88,6% 11,4% 100,0%

118 15 133

88,7% 11,3% 100,0%

Count% within Subject's

ethnicityCount% within Subject'sethnicityCount% within Subject'sethnicity

Asian subject

White subject

Subject'sethnicity

Total

18-25 26-35Subject's age

Total

Gender repartition : More precisely, there are 48 men and 85 women. 36% of the

sample was men and women made up 64 percent of the sample. 34 percent of the

White participants were men and 66 percent were women. Finally, 38 percent of the

Asian participants were men and 62 percent were women (See Table below for further

details).

Subject's ethnicity * Subject's sex Crosstabulation

24 39 63

38,1% 61,9% 100,0%

24 46 70

34,3% 65,7% 100,0%

48 85 133

36,1% 63,9% 100,0%

Count% within Subject'sethnicityCount% within Subject'sethnicityCount% within Subject'sethnicity

Asian subject

White subject

Subject'sethnicity

Total

Male FemaleSubject's sex

Total




3.3 Ad stimulus

Two identical full-colour printed ads promoting a brand new whitening toothpaste have been

professionally prepared. Both ads contained a high quality picture featuring in the first one a

young smiling Asian woman and in the second one a young smiling White European woman.

The Asian and White models were both featured in a similar commercial message’s ad (“For

perfectly white teethes”) available online through the second page of the questionnaire. The

stimuli presented to participants consisted of a toothpaste ad which fictitious brand name

chosen was “Fluodent” [Appendix 2a & Appendix 2b]. This brand name was used in a

previous academic experiment in France because it was unfamiliar to a large sample of

respondents (Dianoux & Herrmann, 2001). In addition, specific graphic amendments have

been done to ensure that the toothpaste stimuli looked as real as possible.

3.4 Questionnaire features

The questionnaire [Appendix 3a & 3b] consisted of 3 pages with a total of 13 main questions

divided into sub-questions, covering the subject ethnicity identification (2), his/her strength of

ethnic identification (1), his/her perceptions of advertising effectiveness and degree of

involvement (5), subject’s knowledge and viewpoint about ethnicity and advertising in France

(2), demographic information (2) and cognitive thoughts (1). The entire procedure took less

than 6 minutes. On completion of the questionnaire, participants were thanked and those who

wished to have more information about the survey purposes and results were debriefed later

by email. The questionnaire was identical for both ads except for the questions related to

subject’s viewpoint about ethnicity and advertising in France. On the questionnaire with the

Asian (White) model ad, respondents were asked about their perception of Asian (White

European) representation on French advertising.




3.5 Procedure

After having completed the two ethnicity identification questions and defining their strength

of ethnic identification, the respondents were assigned to answer the survey in group of four

(two groups of approximately 30 Asians and another two of approximately 30 Whites). The

first two groups were composed of 32 Asians and 31 Whites. Respondents were asked to

provide their thoughts and ratings on the toothpaste ad featuring the Asian endorser; the

second sample was composed with 31 Asians and 39 Whites for the ad featuring the White

endorser. After exposure to the Asian (White) model ad, attitude towards the model, attitude

towards the ad, attitude toward the model, purchase intention, level of involvement and

attitudes toward ethnicity as a covariate were then measured.

3.6 Experimental stimuli development

In order to ensure that our study matches procedures used by previous ethnicity studies, four

pre-tests were run before launching the questionnaire:

Pre-test 1 aimed at choosing equally high attractive Asian and White models. Seven

similar facial pictures (2 pictures taken from real consumers, and 5 others from a

professional picture’s website) were selected. A qualitative survey was conducted

among a small sample of 10 students. To a large majority, none of the real consumers’

pictures were selected as the woman displayed did not look sufficiently Asian and he

other picture were qualified as “not being as good quality as other pictures”. Among

the five professional pictures left, two have been selected by most of participants for

being equally comparable [Appendix 4a and Appendix 4b].




Pre-test 2 ensured that participants truly recognised the two endorsers selected as

being either White or Asian. Once again, due to law restriction, this pre-test could not

have been carried out in France. However, the sample targeted remains similar to the

targeted population in the present study (i.e. Asians and Whites from both sex aged

between 18 and 35). Ethnic identification has been measured by asking an

international sample (from the United Kingdom and the United States) composed with

Whites ( n = 17) and Asians ( n = 16), 16 males and 17 females to identify the model

ethnicity (White, Black, Asian Indian, Asian East Asia, Mixed or Others). We believe

that the criteria of ethnic identification is internationally alike, therefore, a model

perceived as Asian (White) in the UK or the US will also be perceived as Asian

(White) in France. Pre-test 2 showed that 100% of the sample recognised the Asian

model’s ethnicity as being Asian (76.9% of the respondents identified the model as

being Asian from East Asia, 15.4% as being Mixed Asian and 7.7% as being Asian

Indian) and 92.3% recognised the White model ethnicity as being White European or

White American.

Pre-test 3 was conducted through a face-to-face questionnaire among 26 French

persons excluded from the main study but similar to the targeted population.

Participants’ perception of the models was measured, independently of the ad context,

to ascertain that they were comparable in terms of physical attractiveness and

popularity. As to verify the popularity of the White and Asian model, participants had

to choose between (Yes, this person is famous; No, I have never seen this person

before) and rate their physical attractiveness on a seven point scale (1 = very

unattractive, 7 = very attractive). Debevec and Kernan (1987) argue that the model

attractiveness can results in behavioural differences. This pre-test mainly aimed at




ensuring that model attractiveness will not negatively or positively influence the

purpose of our study and affect the reactions towards the ad, the brand and

respondents’ intentions to purchase. 13 individuals identified as White and another 13

as Asians were asked to rate the White and Asian model’s attractiveness. 92.3%

believed the models were not famous. Finally, there was no significant differences in

perceived attractiveness between the Asian model (M = 4.73) and the White model (M

= 4.81).

Pre-test 4 ensured that the original questionnaire in English [See Appendix 3a] was

comprehensible by French people. The questionnaire was translated from English to

French and then from French to English by bilingual persons who were blind to the

study hypotheses. We used the back-translation method suggested by Green and White

(1976). First, the questionnaire was translated into French. Second, two French-

speaking persons fluent in English who had not seen the English version back-

translated it into English. Back translation did show some minor misunderstanding and

appropriate amendments have been done to make sure that the questionnaire was

comprehensible by the majority of respondents. Some items on the original English

measure scale were deleted as they revealed inappropriate to the context of study and

as some did not have their equivalent in French [See Appendix 3b].

3.7 Independent variables

Endorser ethnicity was manipulated with the help of an expert photographer. Each

ad contained a smiling young French woman, who was either identified as Asian or

White. Similarly to previous studies with Asian endorser (Martin et. al., 2004), we did




ensure that the ad only displays her face as to avoid any distraction and to ensure that

the only difference perceived is her ethnicity [Appendix 4a et 4b].

Subject ethnicity was determined by using the subjective method of ethnic

identification recommended by French marketers and which procedure was described

above. Once again, due to French regulations which do not allow questions related to

the subject ethnicity, the questionnaire included questions related to the respondents’

family ethnic environment (e.g. Language spoken at home, parents’ place of birth).

French Asians were defined as persons whose ancestry is rooted in any of the

following Asian countries: Vietnam, Laos or Cambodia. Participants were considered

White when at least one of their parents was born in France.

3.8 Dependent variables and covariates

A seven-point semantic differential scale was taken from relevant marketing literature and

adjusted where necessary to fit the research context. It has been argued that a seven-point

scale allows a finer grade of judgment than five-point scale and that it is the most commonly

employed in attitudes studies (Al-Hindawe, 2003). The average of the following items for

each scale was used to represent the overall attitudes and purchase intentions of Asians and

Whites for both ads. More precisely, this study aimed at measuring:

Attitude towards the Model (Am). This scale was adapted from Williams & Qualls

(1989) with a coefficient Cronbach’s α = 0.80 and three items (Not believable/Very

believable; not attractive/very attractive; not likeable/very likeable). – See Appendix

3a.




Attitude towards the Ad (Aad) adapted from Forehand (2001). This scale has

demonstrated good reliability and construct validity. The coefficient Cronbach’s α is

.91 and the scale has three items (Bad / Good; Dislike / like; Unpleasant / Pleasant). –

See Appendix 3a.

Attitude towards the Brand (Ab) adapted from Batra & Stephens (1994). This scale

had acceptable reliability levels with a coefficient Cronbach’s α = 0.79 with the

anchors Bad/Good, Dislike/Like, Unpleasant/Pleasant. – See Appendix 3a.

Purchase intentions (PI) adapted from MacKenzie et al. (1986) with a good

coefficient Cronbach’s α = .87 and anchored by Improbable/Probable,

Impossible/Possible. – See Appendix 3a.

Covariates were used to measure any variation in the data. The effects of subjects’

sex were examined in an analysis of variance on each dependent measure. Age has also

been tested as a covariate as this variable has explained in previous studies some

disparity on the data between a students and adults’ sample. In addition, consistent

with earlier researches, strength of ethnic identification was employed to check the

probability that ethnic salience could be a predictor of ad ratings. Indeed, many

researches have supported that ethnic salience can affect the relationship between the

independent variables and the dependent variables. Plus, ethnic salience is nowadays

recognised increasingly as a critical component of the self-concept (Roberts et al.

1999). Salience refers to the importance attributed to a person’s own ethnic

background (Alba, 1990). In order to measure salience, it has been suggested the need

to represent both elements of identity (i.e. personal and social identity) to establish a

more fully and integrated view on identity salience (Cheek, 1989; Michalski, -).




Indeed, identity salience does not consist only of a relationship with oneself but also

with the other through the socialisation process (Dinca, 2005). Similarly, in the

context of ethnic identity salience, one needs to consider both the personal and social

ethnic identity salience of an individual. Phinney (1990) identified a number of factors

that are considered fundamental to the construct of ethnic identity. The author (in

1992) provided a reliable scale (the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure , aka MEIM)

to assess both Asians and Whites strength of ethnic identification . This scale takes into

consideration several dimensions of personal (or developmental) and social ethnic

identity salience. More precisely, the scale contains 12 questions and two core

components: a development and cognitive component (‘ethnic identity search’) and an

affective component (which aims at measuring the subject affirmation and belongings,

ethnic identity achievement and ethnic behaviours). According to Phinney (1992), this

scale has consistently shown good reliability across a wide range of ethnic groups and

ages (but mostly young adults). Recently, the scale has been adapted and improved by

Roberts, Phinney et al. (1999) who confirmed that the MEIM could be used as a global

composite index of ethnic identity and that the MEIM scores were moderately strong

and positive with salience across ethnic groups. As far as our study is concerned, we

have found this scale the most appropriate to our study since we mainly focus on

young adults from two different ethnic groups.

In addition, in the studies the MEIM was used, it has been demonstrated that ethnicity

was usually of low salience and ethnic identity was not strong among Whites when

they were in a majority (Phinney, 1989). In contrast, attention paid to ethnicity is more

likely to be stronger among minority group members (Phinney & Alipuria, 1990).

Therefore, we highly expect that the minority group of our study (i.e. Asians) will

have stronger ethnic identity than would members of the majority group (i.e. Whites).




The MEIM was measured on a twelve, Likert seven-point scale with a coefficient

Cronbach’s α .90 with college students. Strength of ethnic identification was obtained

by calculating the mean of the following 12 items: “I have spent time trying to find out

more about my ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and customs.”, “I am

active in organizations or social groups that include mostly members of my own ethnic

group.”, “I have a clear sense of my ethnic background and what it means for me.”, “I

think a lot about how my life will be affected by my ethnic group membership.”, “I

think a lot about how my life will be affected by my ethnic group membership.”, “I am

happy that I am a member of the group I belong to.”, “I have a strong sense of

belonging to my own ethnic group.”, “I understand pretty well what my ethnic group

membership means to me.”, “In order to learn more about my ethnic background, I

have often talked to other people about my ethnic group.”, “I have a lot of pride in my

ethnic group.”, “I participate in cultural practices of my own group, such as special

food, music, or customs.”, “I feel a strong attachment towards my own ethnic group”.

A French version of this scale was already available and tested in a French Canadian

sample, thus no further translation was required.

Ad involvement was also measured owing to the large literature suggesting its

usefulness in assessing the extent to which one processes ad information (in depth vs.

heuristic). The ad involvement scale was adapted from Martin, Wentzel and Tomczak

(Forthcoming JA) with a good coefficient Cronbach’s α = 0.85 and three items (very

little concentrated/very hard concentrated, very uninvolved/very involved, paying very

little attention/paying a lot of attention).




Attitude towards ethnicity was assessed to measure respondents’ knowledge of ethnic

groups in France. Questions related to the representation of ethnic minorities on

advertising were raised to determine the level of respondents’ favourability towards

ethnic minority endorsers. The survey ended with the subject’s knowledge of the

percentage that the Asian population represents in France according to him/her. Given

that there is no official data on the representation of Asian population in France, it was

interesting to see what importance in terms of demographic population Asians

represent in the mind of the respondents. Finally, participants were asked to assess

whether ethnic minorities and Asians (Whites) were fairly represented on French

advertising. This question along with the strength of ethnic identification described

below may be helpful to assess the respondent perception of ads and ethnic minorities

and may potentially explain any favourable or unfavourable reactions towards an ad

featuring ethnic minority model.

Cognitive responses were collected to analyse participants’ thoughts and explain any

strong variation in the data. At the end of the questionnaire, participants were given

the opportunity to list their thoughts and ideas about the questionnaire itself, the

products, the advertisement or the model.

3.9 Results

3.9.1 Hypothesis 1 (White subject)

Hypothesis 1 posits that consistent with previous studies on the impact of Asian endorsers on

White consumers, White French consumers’ favourable response towards the Asian endorser




ad will not be significantly lower than white French consumers’ response to the White

endorser ad. This is based on the fact that very few studies have revealed negative reactions of

White consumers towards ad featuring an ethnic minority model. Hypothesis 1 was not

supported. Results showed that White French consumers’ favourable responses to the Asian

model were not significantly lower but in fact revealed to be higher. Interestingly, although

the results are not significant, White respondents showed more favourable reactions towards

the Asian model ad than with the White model ad, for attitudes toward the model ( M white

=5.6455, SDwhite = 1.18 for the Asian model ad [AA] versus M white =5.05, SDwhite = 1.27 for

the White model ad [WA]) attitude toward the ad (AA: M white =4.56, SDwhite = 1.66 for versus

WA: M white =3.75, SDwhite = 1.27), attitude toward the brand (AA: M white =4.26, SDwhite = 1.18

for versus WA: M white =3.88, SDwhite = 1.27) and purchase intentions (AA: M white =4.41, SDwhite

= 1.69 for versus WA: M white =3.82, SDwhite = 1.67). See Appendix 5 for further details.

3.9.2 Hypothesis 2 (Asian subject)

Hypothesis 2 posits that due to the limited existence of ads featuring Asian endorser, Asian

French consumers’ favourable response will be significantly higher with the Asian endorser

ad than Asian French consumers’ response to the White endorser ad. This is owned to a large

majority of researches suggesting that ethnic minorities demonstrate more favourable

reactions toward an advertising displaying a model of their own ethnic group especially under

distinctiveness theory. Although hypothesis 2 was not supported, results clearly confirmed a

predicted trend among Asian consumers and ethnic minorities generally speaking. Indeed,

Asians consumers’ favourable responses to the Asian model were found to be higher for the

Asian endorser ad than for the White endorser ad. More precisely, Asians showed more

favourable reactions towards the Asian model ad than with the White model ad, for attitudes




toward the model ( M asian =5.05, SDasian = 1.40 for the Asian model ad [AA] versus M asian

=4.75, SDasian = 1.26 for the White model ad [WA]) attitude toward the ad (AA: M asian =4.46,

SDasian = 1.40 for versus WA: M asian =3.93, SDasian = 1.49), attitude toward the brand (AA:

M asian =4.08, SDasian = 1.34 for versus WA: M asian =3.40, SDasian = 1.26) and purchase

intentions (AA: M asian =4.48, SDasian = 1.66 for versus WA: M asian =3.16, SDasian = 1.81).

Please see charts below [Figure 1] for more details. See Appendix 5 for further details.




White modelAsian model

Endorser's ethnicity

5,80

5,60

5,40

5,20

5,00

4,80

E s

t i m a

t e d M a r g

i n a

l M e a n s

White subjectAsian subject

Subject's ethnicity

Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the model



4,50

4,25

4,00

3,75

E s

t i m a

t e d M a r g

i n a

l M e a n s


Subject's ethnicity

Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the ad



4,25

4,00

3,75

3,50

E s

t i m a

t e d M a r g

i n a

l M e a n s


Subject's ethnicity

Estimated Marginal Means of Attitude toward the brand



4,40

4,20

4,00

3,80

3,60

3,40

3,20

3,00

E s

t i m a

t e d M a r g

i n a

l M e a n s


Subject's ethnicity

Estimated Marginal Means of Purchase intentions

Figure 1 – Graphics showing the estimated marginal means of Asians and Whitesattitudes and purchase intentions toward the Asian model ad versus theWhite model ad.




3.9.3 Main effects analysis

An analysis of Variance ANOVA was conducted among each dependent variables to disclose

any significant main effects [See Appendix 6 for further details].

Attitude toward the model : An ANOVA revealed that Ad model has a significant main

effect on Attitude toward the model, F(3,987) = 6,567, p = .048. More precisely, this shows

that as the model changes, Attitude toward the model also changes significantly. Subject’s

race also had a significant main effect on A model , F(3,992) = 6,576, p = .048. In other words,

attitude toward the Asian and White model significantly changes depending on whether the

subject is Asian or White.

Attitude toward the ad : A two way analysis of variance yielded a significant main effect for

the Ad model, F(7,090) = 15,023, p < .01, such that Attitude toward the Ad was significantly

higher with the Asian ad model M white

=4.56, SDwhite

= 1.18 than with the White model ad M white =3.75, SDwhite = 1.27. Yet, there was no significant main effect for the subject’s race,

F(,026) = ,056, p = .872.

Attitude toward the brand : An ANOVA indicated that Ad model has a significant effect on

Attitude toward the brand, F(6,245) = 9,160, p = .014. However, no significant differences

were found for the subject’s race F(2,492) = 3,655, p = .117.

Purchase intentions : The ANOVA resulted in a significant main effect for endorser’s

ethnicity on Purchase intentions, F(10,573) = 30,425, p = .001. Yet, the effect of Purchase

intentions was not influenced by subject’s race, F(1,011) = 2,908, p = .317. The model’s race

significantly increases the purchase intentions of one subject.




In sum, the main effects of endorser’s ethnicity (Admodel) were significant for all of the four

dependent variables (all ps < .05) while subject’s race was only significant on Attitude toward

the model. The present analysis results provide further support for the mediator and moderator

implications of the endorser used in the ad. This finding is supported by Whittler & Spira

(2002) who argued that the spokesperson (the endorser in our case) may be the most widely

noticed element of an advertisement. More precisely, the endorser race can influence

consumers’ responses to advertisements. Further qualitative researches are needed to clearly

determine what factors influence our respondents’ responses.

3.9.4 Interactions analysis

The interactive effects of the independent variables on the dependent variables (Admodel x

Subject’s ethnicity) were not significant on any of the dependent variables ( p > .36). More

precisely, an analysis of multivariate (MANOVA, Appendix 7) revealed that for Attitude

toward the model F(.826) = 1.210, p > .36; for Attitude toward the ad F(1.459) = 2.502, p >

.22, for Attitude toward the brand F(.006) = .007, p > .93 and for Purchase intentions F(.348)

= .845, p > .55. However, the correlations among the variables revealed several trend as

described above and analysis of covariates revealed appealing key facts as we will see below.

3.9.5. Covariates analysis

3.9.5.1 Involvement: Both MANOVA and ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of

involvement on each dependent variables studied (attitudes and purchase intentions) with p <

.001. A separate analysis has been conducted through SPSS to understand the effects of

involvement on attitudes and purchase intentions [See Figure 2a and 2b page 45]. We ignored

people who scored their degree of involvement below 3 on a scale of 7 ( n = 45). People who




scored involvement equal or superior to 3 on a scale of 7 were considered highly involved.

This analysis revealed no significant interaction between the ad model and the subject’s race

under neither high involvement nor low involvement condition.

However, interesting trends shall be highlighted: highly involved Asians tended to have

greater attitudes (attitude toward the model and attitude toward the ad) for the White model

ad. In contrast, highly involved Whites tended to have more favourable reactions toward the

Asian model for both attitudes (except attitude toward the brand to a lesser extent) and

purchase intentions. Yet, both high and low involvement Asians and Whites had a greater

likelihood of purchasing with the Asian model ad.

Interestingly, attitudes of Asians under high involvement condition and Whites under low

involvement condition toward the fictitious brand “Fluodent” remained nearly similar

regardless of the endorser ethnicity. According to Lee et al. (2002), this could be explained by

the fact that when it comes to making judgements about an advertised brand, the endorser can

be an irrelevant cue for making brand judgement although the Asian subject is highly

involved and probably highly self-referenced to the endorser.

In sum, the results of this analysis can find strong support from Chaiken (1980) who argued

that when a subject is in heuristic processing (low involvement), he/she tends to devote little

cognitive effort in analysing the ad message and tends to accept the conclusion based on

simple rules from previous experience. In the present ethnicity context of our study, the Asian

viewer may have accepted the ad simply based on a noticeable cue (here, the Asian endorser)

that was consistent with his/her schema and previous experience. In other ads, it is highly

possible that our low involved Asians showed favourable attitudes toward the Asian ad simply




because the ad displayed an endorser of their own ethnic group. The ELM is also supported:

indeed, Petty et al. (1983, 1986) demonstrated that the model’s race operates as an argument

quality which in turn can positively influence consumers’ attitudes and purchasing intention.

It is very likely that when the low involved Asian saw the ad, he / she formed attitudes via the

peripheral route. The peripheral cues displayed in the advertising message (the Asian

endorser) permitted attitude change without the need for the message’s recipient (i.e. the low

involved Asian subject) to scrutinise more deeply the message arguments. In contrast, under

high involvement condition, our Asian subjects took the central route. According to Petty et

al. (1986), in the ‘central route’, careful and thoughtful consideration occur based on

recipient’s processing of strong and weak arguments. Asians may have paid further attention

to the argument presented on the ad rather than focusing on the peripheral cue. The weakness

of the argument of our ad stimuli may have yielded Asians to less favourable attitudes toward

the Asian endorser ad.

Generally speaking, the present study suggests that Asians have more favourable attitudes

toward the Asian model ad under low involvement condition. However, under high

involvement condition, Asians had more favourable attitudes toward the White model ad.

Further qualitative research is needed here to explain such a reaction. White subjects have

more favourable attitudes and intentions for the Asian model ad under both low and high

involvement condition. This may be explained by the fact that the White Model may have not

been processed as a sufficiently meaningful cue and that the toothpaste ad was too common to

result in very positive evaluations. Nevertheless, it remains interesting to note that the Asian

model ad resulted in greater likelihood of purchasing from both Asians and Whites regardless

of their degree of involvement. This study proves once again that ad using ethnic minorities




do not have a negative impact on White consumers but can benefit both the majority and the

minority group used in the ad.






6,00

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Asianmodel 46

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1

2

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Value Label N

Figure 2a – Graphics showing the estimated marginal means of Asians (blue) andWhites (green) attitudes and purchase intentions toward the Asian modelad (left) versus the White model (right) ad under HIGH INVOLVEMENTcondition (involv. >= 3, n = 88)






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Estimated Marginal Means of Purchase in tentions

Figure 2b – Graphics showing the estimated marginal means of Asians (blue) andWhites (green) attitudes and purchase intentions toward the Asian model

ad (left) versus the White model (right) ad under LOW INVOLVEMENTcondition. (involv. < 3, n = 45)

Between-Subjects Factors

Asianmodel 17

Whitemodel

28

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3.9.5.2 Strength of ethnic identification: As expected, Asians identified more strongly to their

ethnic group than did Whites: M asian = 4.68, SD asian = 1.16 versus M white = 3.82, SD white = 1.32.

Both White and Asian males identified themselves stronger to their own ethnic group than

females. An ANOVA with Strength of ethnic identification as a dependent variable and

subject’s ethnicity and gender as the fixed factors revealed a significant main effect of the

subject’s ethnicity on the subject’s strength of ethnic identification F(17,704) = 26,829, p <

.001 as well as a significant main effect of Gender F(4,295) = 6,509, p < .05. When ignoring

the main effect of gender, this finding is consistent with Phinney (1992) who argued that in

the studies the MEIM was used, ethnicity was usually of low salience and ethnic identity was

not strong among Whites when they were in a majority (Phinney, 1989). In contrast, attention

paid to ethnicity is more likely to be stronger among minority group members (Phinney &

Alipuria, 1990).

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: Strength of ethnic identification

34,226 a 3 11,409 7,528 ,0002275,588 1 2275,588 1501,594 ,000

26,829 1 26,829 17,704 ,0006,509 1 6,509 4,295 ,0403,165 1 3,165 2,088 ,151

195,493 129 1,5152610,998 133

229,719 132

SourceCorrected ModelInterceptRaceGenderRace * GenderErrorTotalCorrected Total

Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

R Squared = ,149 (Adjusted R Squared = ,129)a.

Yet, an analysis of multivariate MANOVA (Appendix 7) revealed no significant main effect

of Strength of ethnic identification on each dependent variable (all ps > .09).




3.9.5.3 Attitude toward ethnicity: To the question “ How much do you estimate the percent of

Asian population in France? ” 44.4% of our Asians sample believed that Asians represent

more than 11% of the French population against 30% for Whites. More interestingly, 73% of

Asians estimated the weight of Asian population in France to be 6% and above (versus 64.3%

of Whites). Far from being meaningless, these figures show that in the mind of a majority of

French consumers, Asians represent a large ethnic group in France. The estimated weight of

Asian population is to be compared to the United States where Asians only represent 4.2% of

the U.S. population (CIA worldfactbook 2007). Of course, these figures should not be

generalised to all French consumers but remains interesting to be stated [See Annexe 8a for

further details].

To the question: “ What do you think about the representation of ethnic minorities on

advertising? ”, a large majority of Asians (74.6%) and Whites (67.1%) believed that ethnic

minorities are not enough represented in advertising. Only 4.8% of Asians and 2.9% of

Whites reported that ethnic minorities were over represented in French advertising [See

Annexe 8b for further details].

To the question: “ What do you think about the representation of Asians (White Europeans) on

advertising? ”,

As for the Asian model ad, 90.6% of our Asians sample thought that Asians were not

enough represented in French advertising and 74.2% of Whites shared the same

thought. Neither Whites nor Asians reported that Asians were over represented [See

Annexe 8c for further details].




As for the White model ad, Whites and Asians shared the same viewpoint regarding

the representation of White Europeans on advertising: almost half of them believed

that White Europeans are over represented on advertising and 25.8% (30.8%) of

Asians (Whites) thought White Europeans were fairly represented. [See Annexe 8d

for further details].

3.9.5.4 Gender: An analysis of multivariate (MANOVA) with gender as an independent

variable (i.e. Subject’s sex x Endorser’s ethnicity x Subject’s ethnicity) yielded no gender

differences on attitudes ( p > .47) and purchase intentions ( p > .33) [See Annexe 7 for further

details]. However, the effects of subjects’ sex were examined in an analysis of variance

(ANOVA) on each dependent measure to check for any main effects (See Figure 3 below). A

two way analysis of variance yielded a significant main effect for Gender on attitude toward

the brand, F(6,245) = 8,891, p = .014 and purchase intentions F(3,919) = 11,095, p = .05.

Females had significantly higher attitude toward the brand than did males for both the Asian

and White model ad (Asian ad [AA]: M female = 4.38, SD female = 1.33 versus M male = 3.83,

SD male = 1.23; White ad [WA]: M female = 3.87, SD female = 1.15 versus M male = 3.29, SD male =

.95) as well as significantly higher purchase intentions for both ads than did males ([AA]:

M female = 4.58, SD female = 1.69 versus M male = 4.22, SD male = 1.62; White ad [WA]: M female =

3.84, SD female = 1.81 versus M male = 2.91, SD male = 1.29).

3.9.5.5 Age: A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) revealed no significant

main effect of age on each dependent variable (all ps > .098). Age was uncorrelated with any

dependent variables and will be hence excluded from the analysis.




FemaleMale

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Figure 3 – Graphics showing the estimated marginal means of Asians and Whitesattitudes and purchase intentions toward the Asian model ad versus theWhite model ad by gender (left = male; right = female).

Asian ad White ad

Attitude toward the model

Attitude toward the ad




FemaleMale

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3.9.5.6 Cognitive responses: Participants’ thoughts about the questionnaire, the products, the

advertisement or the model were collected at the end of the questionnaire. Among the

respondents who left a comment, the majority of them did not report unfavourable reactions.

However, it is interesting to notice that Asian thoughts were usually short and concise while

our White respondents reported more thoughtful thinking.

For example, for the Asian model ad, an Asian woman wrote: “ It is true that we do not

sufficiently see ethnic minorities on advertising ”. Another woman claimed: “ Long life to

Asians ”. A White male respondent reported a more thoughtful opinion: “ Regarding the

representation of ethnic minorities on advertising and other media in general, I believe this is

an issue in our society. Yet, this questionnaire has focused on Asians but we should take into

account all ethnic groups. A better representation would be a plus in order for people to

accept our culturally mixed society ”.

For the White model ad, a higher number of respondents mentioned their desire to understand

further the purpose of the study. Such a reaction may be normal and was expected since the

correlation between the ethnicity questionnaire and the White model ad was not as clear as for

the Asian model ad. Nevertheless, reactions of our Asian respondents toward the White ad

included short sentences such as “ I am proud to be Laotian ” (Asian Woman, 18-25 years old).

In contrast, a White woman said: “ It is interesting to see, after a set of questions on ethnicity,

a picture promoting the white teethes of a White woman. This made me think about how

advertising are interpreted by other ethnic groups and whether a White woman can result in

negative reactions ”.




4. Discussion

4.1 White subjects

Our findings revealed to be consistent with much of the researches that focused on Whites

responses toward Black models. Indeed, researches among the Black community

demonstrated that taken as a whole, Whites did not react negatively to ads or products

featuring a black model. For instance, Bush et. al. (1974, 1979) found that there appears to be

very little difference in how white consumers evaluate models of different race regardless of

their level of prejudice. By and large, diverse researchers have largely revealed that Whites

did not react extremely negatively but responded neutrally (Guest, 1970; Tolley & Goett,

1972; Schlinger & Plummer’s, 1972) to positively (Szybillo & Jaccoby, 1974) to ads as a

result of exposure to black models in promotional materials. More precisely, Szybillo &

Jaccoby (1974) showed that Whites had a greater likelihood of purchase when the

advertisement was either all black, all white or equally integrated. Although Szybillo &

Jaccoby focused on integrated advertising, their findings still demonstrate that reactions of

Whites are not negative toward ads with ethnic minorities. Generally speaking, these different

studies give strong support to our finding showing that French Whites did not react negatively

to the Asian model. The present study revealed higher favourable attitude toward the model,

attitude toward the ad, attitude toward the brand and purchase intentions from White subjects

for the Asian model ad than for the White model ad. This implies that ads displaying Asian

model did not lead to unfavourable reactions from the majority consumer group (i.e. Whites)

as far as our study is concerned. This is similar to Martin et al. (2004) who found that

displaying an Asian model in an atypical way resulted in more favourable attitudes and

purchase intentions for both Whites and Asians as well as Lee et al. (2002) who found that

using Asian ethnic minority models raised the attitudes and purchase intentions of the




participants of the same ethnicity without decreasing the attitudes and purchasing intentions

of Whites. Our analysis supports previous research into White consumer response to Asian

models in advertising from Cohen (1992) who showed that for low involvement product

advertising, the model’s race had no negative impact on consumers’ response to the ad. This

study is also consistent with Feick & Higie (1992) who argued that consumers tend to prefer

endorsers that are dissimilar to them for utilitarian products.

The fact that White subjects showed less favourable reactions toward the ads endorsed by the

White model but reacted more positively to the ad endorsed by the Asian model could be

explained by the fact the “whiteness” in an ad (i.e. the White model), as suggested by Grier et

al. (1999), is unlikely to be considered as a meaningful cue by the White majority consumers.

Indeed, according to the distinctiveness theory, a racial cue is more likely to be noticed among

the minority ethnic group than the majority ethnic group. This results in using racial cues

more often among distinctive individuals to evaluate advertising than among nondistinctive

individuals. Thus, consistent with Grier et al. (1999) viewpoint, the White model may have

not been enough interpreted as a salient cue to most of our White subjects especially for a

toothpaste ad. Indeed, as our White sample is in the majority ethnic group, the White model

remains a common trait in French advertising to them. We can assume that the White model

ad have not been sufficiently judged as only one of its kind to enhance attitudes and purchase

intentions among white consumers while the ad featuring the Asian model was more widely

and more likely to be noticed among White consumers who are not used to seeing Asians on

French advertising. Therefore, it is highly probable that for the White model ad, our

participants scrutinised more heavily on the ad design rather than the endorser. Finally, it has

been argued that ads atypical of the schema (ie. cognitive structure representing domain

expectations) motivate more extensive processing and evaluations than ad typical of the




schema (Goodstein, 1993). Undoubtedly, a toothpaste ad with an Asian model is more

atypical of the schema than a White model toothpaste ad and this should have motivated

extensive processing from the viewer regardless of his or her degree of involvement.

4.2 Asian subjects

As far as our Asian sample is concerned, Asians showed more favourable attitude toward the

model, attitude toward the ad, attitude toward the brand and purchase intentions for the Asian

model ad. This finding is consistent with much of the researches on ethnic minorities’

reactions toward ad featuring model of their own group. First of all, the results of our study

are consistent with Deshpande (1994) who found that consumers in a numerically minority

ethnic group were more likely than those being in the numerically majority ethnic group to

have positive attitudes toward the brand for an ad displaying the minority ethnic group. The

results support the idea that under distinctiveness theory, individuals are more aware of

characteristics that make them distinctive from others (McGuire, 1984). Thus, being in a

numerically minority, Asians are more likely to mention their ethnic group than Whites. They

are also more likely to notice the Asian model and to show more positive attitudes. Our

findings are also supported by Grier et al. (1999) who argued that ads targeting a distinctive

market on the basis of a cultural trait that makes the members distinctive from others (i.e.

Asians) have a greater impact on target viewers’ interpretation of the ad than ads targeting a

nondistinctive market (i.e. Whites). Similarly to Whittler & Dimeo (1991), our study gives

strong support to the similarity dissimilarity theory which suggests that a perceived similarity

between the recipient and the communicator can increase persuasion and mediate the impact

on attitudes changes. In the present study, the Asian model race was found to enhance

positives attitudes as there must have had a perceived similarity between the Asian endorser

and our Asian sample. However, the similarity dissimilarity theory was not supported among




our White sample. As discussed above, this lack of support could be attributed to the fact that

participants did not perceive the White model as a meaningful cue. In sum, our results are

consistent with Ryu et al. (2006) who demonstrated that Asian consumers are more likely to

show favourable responses to advertising when the endorser’s ethnicity is different from the

product country of origin for utilitarian product.

4.3 Main effects

Our study also demonstrated that both Asians and Whites had a greater likelihood of

purchasing for the Asian endorser ad regardless of their level of involvement. As suggested by

Cohen (1992), the endorser’s ethnicity does not have a negative impact on consumers’

response to the ad for low involvement product advertising. This finding has several

implications to marketers. Yet, it remains important to state the significant main effect of

involvement on attitudes and purchase intentions of our Asian sample. Our study showed that

among Asian subjects under high involvement condition, the Asian model ad did not receive

as favourable responses as that of a White model ad. Asians showed less favourable attitudes

toward the Asian model ad although the results revealed similar likelihood of purchasing than

White subjects. However, under low involvement condition, low involved Asians showed

contradictory reactions to high involved Asians yielding to more positive responses toward

the Asian endorser ad than for the White endorser ad. The present study suggests that atypical

ads in advertising can act as persuasive stimulus for consumers in low involvement situations.

Furthermore, it is likely that ads of low involvement products can enhance consumer attitude

and purchasing intentions through associating with atypical depictions and ethnicity minority

portrayals.




Indeed, the results of our analysis find strong support from Chaiken (1980) who argued that

when a subject is in heuristic processing (low involvement), he or she tends to devote little

cognitive effort in analysing the ad message and tends to accept the conclusion based on

simple rules from previous experience. In the present ethnicity context of our study, the Asian

viewer may have accepted the ad simply based on a noticeable cue (here, the Asian endorser)

that was consistent with his or her schema and previous experience. In other ads, it is highly

possible that our low involved Asians showed favourable attitudes toward the Asian ad simply

because the ad displayed an endorser of their own ethnic group. The ELM is also supported:

indeed, Petty et al. (1983, 1986a, 1986b) demonstrated that the model’s race operates as an

argument quality which in turn can positively influence consumers’ attitudes and purchasing

intention. It is very likely that when the low involved Asian saw the ad, he / she formed

attitudes via the peripheral route. The peripheral cues displayed in the advertising message

(the Asian endorser) permitted attitude change without the need for the message’s recipient

(i.e. the low involved Asian subject) to scrutinise more deeply the message arguments. We

can assume that under high involvement condition, the Asian endorser is not sufficiently a

strong argument to permit attitude changes.




5. Implications

This study offers several managerial implications that may be of interest to advertisers. First,

this study suggests that use of Asian endorser do not negatively affect French White

consumers’ responses to the ad and their likelihood of purchase. In contrast, a well designed

ad can lead to favourable reactions from both Asians and Whites. There are several reasons

why marketers should have recourse to an Asian model according to the finding of our study:

1) Marketers who wants to reach the majority White consumers without omitting Asian

consumers can use Asian models to reach a wider audience. We found that use of an Asian

model does not lead to unfavourable reactions from White consumers. Indeed, our study

reveals that White consumers prefer the Asian model ad over the White model ad under both

low and high involvement condition. 2) In a world of mass communication, there is plenty of

moment and places where the consumers are under low involvement. Our study suggests that

under low involvement condition, the presence of an Asian endorser may act as an argument

quality among Asian and White consumers which in turn leads to favourable attitudes and

intentions. 3) There are currently an insignificant number of ads featuring Asians in France.

While it is clear that unexpected cues can enhance brand recall, we shall add that ads using an

Asian endorser are more likely to motivate extensive processing among French consumers

since it is atypical of the consumer’s schema. Use of an Asian endorser can be an efficient

strategy to help a brand to distinguish itself from its competitors and increase brand recall

among consumers especially for an ordinary product. Indeed, our study showed that both

Whites and Asians exhibited greater purchase intentions with the Asian model ad than with

the White model ad. This is surely because a toothpaste ad displaying a White model is very

common and that unless the product advertised has a distinctive feature, promoting an

utilitarian product such as toothpaste with a White model is nothing to be out of the ordinary.




In contrast, an Asian endorser can generate more thoughts and lead to more favourable

reactions. 4) Asians are recognised by politicians and in general as an ethnic minority model.

Using Asians is less likely to result in unfavourable reactions from French consumers. 5)

There is an increasing request from a large majority of French consumers to include more

ethnic minorities on advertising. Displaying an Asian model is one way to respond to this

demand. 6) Finally, the Asian community is one of the fastest growing minorities in France:

excluding them out of the commercial message would mean loosing a potentially profitable

market.




6. Limitations and future researches

Although this study remains among the very few studies on endorser’s ethnicity in a culture

other than English speaking countries, it has limitations regarding the sample and the research

design that should be acknowledged and which may serve as avenues for future research.

6.1 The sample

The first limitation is linked to the demographic features of our sample. Due to nature of this

study (a student dissertation) which is very restricted in terms of time, it results in having a

sample size constrained and unlikely to be comparable to most popular research methods.

While most researches stand with more than 200 participants, our sample size of 133

individuals is undoubtedly not sufficient to make the appropriate conclusion and reach the

expected results. Future researches should collect sensibly higher amount of participants in

order to get a more reliable data and to manage in obtaining significant results.

The second limitation of our study is linked to the definition of an ethnic group. It is

important to note that this study primarily focused on Asians as defined by French people (i.e.

Vietnamese, Laotian, Combodian) and that we did not take into account other diverse Asian

groups (e.g. Chinese, Thai, etc.). Consequently, the results cannot be generalised to other

Asian groups or ethnic minorities in France. Thus, future researches could replicate this study

among other Asian groups or other growing ethnic minorities in France (e.g. Muslim, North

African) to test advertising effectiveness with using ethnic minority models among different

ethnic groups. This may help to check whether French Whites will react similarly to ads

featuring other ethnic endorser and whether the distinctiveness theory is also applicable

among other ethnic minorities in France. In addition, another limitation of our study regards




the definition of a “White”. In our experiment, a White was defined as someone who at least

one parent was born in France. It remains probable that someone who has one of his parents

born in another European Member states or a French Black colony do not consider himself or

herself as a White. It would be interesting in the future to have a clear classification of

different ethnic group in France.

The third limitation is the age of our sample which remains in average young (between 18 to

35 years old). Favourable reactions from both Whites and Asians toward the Asian model

may be explained by the ordinary positive reactions of young individuals toward ethnic

minorities. Consequently, some caution remains warranted in the generalisation of the current

finding to other age group. Indeed, Whittler and Dimeo (1991) argued that students’ are more

likely to show favourable reactions toward ethnic endorser due to the fact that they are being

more accustomed to seeing individuals from diverse background in their everyday activities

than older people. In addition, consistent with literature on acculturation, age remains an

important factor influencing consumption patterns (Lee & Tse, 1994). As a result, an

interesting avenue for future research would then be to examine reactions from adults aged 35

and above with ad featuring Asian model. This will surely help marketers to know under

which target segment (i.e. older vs. younger consumers) Asian models or ethnic minority

models should be used or avoid being used in advertising.

Finally, our study showed that gender had a significant main effect on attitudes with females

representing 64% of the sample. Additional research is needed on distinguishing males from

females as it is possible that they process the ad in a different manner depending on the

endorser’s gender.




6.2 The research design

Another limitation relates to the research design itself. Further research might be directed

profitably at conducting experimental approaches specifically designed in examining the

types of product that are effective with French Asians. Even though this study has taken into

account previous advices in using nonstereotyped product (a toothpaste) to reach a wider

segment (Forehand & Deshpande, 2001; Martin et al., 2004), it would be interesting to

conduct another study to test the validity of this finding in France by using a different product

features. Was the favourable reaction toward the Asian model explained by the fact that the

product used was none stereotyped? How would consumers react toward a stereotyped

product or any other type of products or services? For example, future researches could

investigate French Asians reactions toward stereotyped vs. nonstereotyped ad, ads selling a

service vs. a product, ads promoting an expensive product vs. a cheap product or ads featuring

utilitarian product vs. hedonic products etc.

Another limitation of our study is the analysis of the respondent cognitive responses. In the

present study, we were not able to objectively judge their thoughts by the intermediary of an

independent judge. Thus, we advocate the need for further qualitative studies in order to

explore more deeply cognitive responses of participants and meanings that they attached to

advertising with ethnic minorities in France.

Last, our study did not manipulate participants’ involvement as a dependent variable while a

key finding for our study relates to the significant main effect of involvement on attitudes and

purchase intentions. Additional research may assess the influence of involvement as a

dependent variable on consumers’ attitudes under high and low involvement condition. More

precisely, other potential avenues for future research could include analysing consumer ad




processing (e.g. involvement, need for cognition, self-referencing) under which ethnicity

endorser would be the most efficient in France.




7. Conclusion

This study offers insight into the effects of Asian and White endorsers on Asian and White

consumers in France. At the right beginning, we have raised the issue surrounding marketers

in France regarding the lack of data and the current regulations which do not allow marketers

to advertise with ethnic minorities efficiently. The reluctance of marketers to advertise with

ethnic minority models is also an important issue, as many of them, unfortunately, still hold

the belief that displaying ethnic minority models can adversely affect the majority White

consumers. Nevertheless, the actual changing political environment should be an opportunity

for marketers to review their marketing strategy. Given the context of increasing recognition

of ethnic minorities in France wanted by most of politicians, consumers and ethnic minorities,

it is in the interest of both marketers and researchers to continue exploring and contributing to

the French marketing literature on ethnicity and advertising. Increasing our knowledge of

ethnic minorities in France would unquestionably be valuable in a highly multicultural

consumption society like France.

In a world of mass media communication and where it is becoming harder to catch

consumers’ attention, marketers should pay further attention on peripheral cues that are the

most effective and more likely to be remembered by consumers. Although this study did not

reveal significant results because of the condition under which it was conducted, it did

demonstrate interesting trends that most researchers predicted decades ago. The present study

shows incontestably the influence of ethnic minority model on attitudes and purchase

intentions among both the majority and the minority consumer groups. An Asian model could

be one of those peripheral cues used without negatively affecting White consumers’ reactions

since Asians remains a minority model in France. Once again, it is useful to remind marketers

this recent survey conducted in France among a representative sample of the French




population which showed that 63% of consumers are expecting a better representation of

ethnic minorities. Our sample confirmed this aspiration from both Whites and Asians: 70.7%

of our sample think that ethnic minorities are not enough represented in French advertising.

More precisely, 74.6% of Asians believed that ethnic minorities are not sufficiently

represented in advertising and a large majority of Whites (67.1%) hold the same beliefs.

Marketers simply cannot ignore those critical figures showing the desire of both Whites and

minority ethnic models to see ethnic groups better represented in advertising. In terms of

profitability, ignoring one of the fastest growing minorities in France (i.e. Asians) in their

advertising message represents a potential lost that any conscious marketers would not want

to face.




8. Acknowledgement

I am personally grateful to my MSc tutor and dissertation supervisor, Ekant Veer, professor of

Marketing at the University of Bath for his very helpful and valuable comments all along my

dissertation period. Ekant Veer was professionally supportive and always showed availability

and efficiency in helping me improve my work as well as promptness in replying to my

questions. A special thanks to Prof. Brett Martin for giving me useful insights in

understanding how to efficiently read marketing articles through the consumer behaviour

classes and to Prof. Avi Shankar for encouraging me in succeeding in my studies. Finally, a

personal thanks to all the persons who showed interest in my dissertation, particularly,

Nicolas Martinez, Elodie Nabeng and Emilie Jane who helped me translate the questionnaire,

building the ad and collecting the data within a short period of time.

Julien Mong




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10. Appendices

Appendix 1 - IPSOS survey on ethnic minorities and advertising in France

Gender AgePopulation

% Male %

Female %

Less than 35 %

Above 35 %

Survey on the representation of ethnic minorities on advertising in France(IPSOS, 2006).Over represented 9 9 8 4 11

Not enough represented 38 35 41 50 32

Well represented 50 53 48 45 53

No answer 3 3 3 1 4

100 100 100 100 100




Appendix 2 – Ad stimulus

2a. White endorser ad

2b. Asian endorser ad




Appendix 3 – Questionnaire

3a. Original questionnaire (in English)

Q1 . Do you have anyone (or both) of your parents who were born in:

Yes NoFrance

Asia (eg. Vietnam, Cambodia,Laos, etc.)

If Asian, please state: _______

Q2 . Besides French, do you or your family commonly use the following regional languages at home?

Yes NoOther Europeans (eg. English,

Spanish) Asians (eg. Vietnamese,

Cambodian, Laos, etc)

If Asian, please state: _______

Q3 . Please indicate your agreement or disagreement with the following statements, using a seven-point scale

ranging from: 1 = fully disagree to 7 = fully agree.

Fully disagree Fully agree1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I have spent time trying to find out more about my ethnic group,such as its history, traditions, and customs.

I am active in organizations or social groups that include mostlymembers of my own ethnic group.

I have a clear sense of my ethnic background and what it means for me. I think a lot about how my life will be affected by my ethnic group membership.

I am happy that I am a member of the group I belong to. I have a strong sense of belonging to my own ethnic group.

I understand pretty well what my ethnic group membership means to me. In order to learn more about my ethnic background, I have often talked

to other people about my ethnic group. I have a lot of pride in my ethnic group.

I participate in cultural practices of my own group,such as special food, music, or customs.

I feel a strong attachment towards my own ethnic group. I feel good about my cultural or ethnic background.

Q4 . What do you personally think about this woman on the ad?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7This woman is not believable This woman is believable

This woman is not attractive This woman is very attractive

This woman is not competent This woman is very competent

This woman is not persuasive This woman is very persuasive

This woman is not likeable This woman is likeable




Q5 . What do you personally think about this ad?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7This ad is bad This ad is good

I dislike this ad I like this ad

This ad is useless This ad is useful

This ad is unformative This ad is informative

This ad is unpleasant This ad is pleasant

Q6 . What do you personally think about this brand?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7Bad Good

Dislike Like

Unpleasant Pleasant

Inferior Superior

Q7 . Would you buy this product if you had the opportunity to?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7Improbable Probable

Unlikely Likely

Impossible Possible

Q8 . Ad involvement

1 2 3 4 5 6 7I am very little concentrated I am very hard-concentrated

I am very uninvolved I am very involved

I am paying little attention I am paying a lot of attention

Q9 . Attitude towards ethnicity

*How much percentage of French population do you think Asian people represent?

0%-5% 6-10% 11%-20% More than 20%

*

*What do you think about the representation of ethnic minorities on Advertising in France?

not enough represented fairly represented over represented I don’t know

*What do you think about the representation of Asians on Advertising in France?

not enough represented fairly represented over represented I don’t know

Q10 . Please indicate your sex:

Male Female




Q11 . Your age range: 18-25

26-35

35-45

45+

Q12 . Please write here your personal thoughts, if any:

------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------

3b. Questionnaire translated (in French)

1. Début du questionnaireCe questionnaire vous prendra moins de 6 minutes.SVP, ne commencez jamais un questionnaire sans le terminer.Un GRAND MERCI pour votre intérêt !

1. Merci de répondre aux DEUX questions suivantes et préciser si nécessaire.

L'un de vos parents -ou- tous deux sont-ils nés en :

Oui Non

France

Asie (ex: Vietnam, Cambodge, Laos, etc.) - Si Asie, merci depréciser

Si Asie, merci de préciser le pays (obligatoire si Asie)

2. Merci de répondre aux DEUX questions suivantes et préciser si nécessaire.

Hormis le Français, vous même -ou- votre famille parlent t'ils les langues suivantes -A LA MAISON-:

Oui Non

Langues Européennes (ex. Anglais, Espagnol, etc.)

Langues Asiatiques (ex. Vietnamien, Laotien, Cambodgien,etc.) - préciser si Asiatique

Si Asiatiques, merci de préciser la langue




3. Veuillez indiquer votre accord ou désaccord avec les affirmations suivantes, selon une échelle en sept points, allant de 1= Toutà fait en désaccord à 7= tout à fait d’accord :

Définition de "Groupe ethnique" :- si l'un de vos parents ou tous deux sont nés en France, votre groupe ethnique est Européen Français.- si l'un de vos parents ou tous deux sont nés en Asie, votre groupe ethnique est Asiatique.

1- Tout à fait

enDESACCORD 2 3 4 5 6

7- Tout à

faitD'ACCORD

J’ai consacré du temps à me renseigner davantagesur mon propre groupe ethnique, entre autres surson histoire, ses traditions, ses coutumes.

Je participe activement à des organismes ou à desassociations qui compte surtout des membres demon propre groupe ethnique

J’ai une idée précise de mes antécédentsethniques et de ce qu'ils signifient pour moi

Je réfléchi beaucoup à l'influence quel'appartenance à mon groupe ethnique exercerasur ma vie

Je suis heureux(se) d'être membre du groupeethnique auquel j'appartiensJ’ai un profond sentiment d'appartenance à monpropre groupe ethnique

Je comprends assez bien ce que signifie pour moile fait d'appartenir à mon groupe ethnique

Pour me renseigner davantage sur mesantécédents ethniques, j'ai souvent parlé à d'autrespersonnes de mon groupe ethnique

Je suis très fier(e) de mon groupe ethnique et deses réalisations

Je participe aux pratiques culturelles de monpropre groupe ethnique, par exemple sa cuisine,sa musique ou ses coutumes particulières

Je ressens un profond attachement envers mongroupe ethnique

Je me sens bien par rapport à mes antécédentsethniques ou culturels

1. Les questions suivantes comporte des questions sur votre pensée personnelle.

L'échelle de réponse est de 1 à 7 (1= votre pensée est très négative et 7= votre pensée est très positive)

On commence... Personnellement, que pensez-vous de cette femme sur la publicité ?

1-Négative 2 3 4 5 6 7- Positive

1= Cette femme n'est pas du tout crédible / 7 =Cette femme est tout à fait crédible

2= Cette femme n'est pas du tout séduisante / 7=Cette femme est tout à fait séduisante

3= Cette femme n'est pas du tout sympathique / 7=Cette femme est tout à fait sympathique

2. Que pensez-vous de cette publicité ?

1-Negative 2 3 4 5 6 7- Positive

1- C’est une mauvaise publicité / 7- C’est unebonne publicité

1- Je n’aime pas cette publicité / 7- J’aime cettepublicité

1- Cette publicité est désagréable / 7- Cettepublicité est agréable




3. Que pensez-vous de cette marque (Fluodent) ?

1-Négative

2 3 4 5 6 7- Positive

1- Cette marque est mauvaise / 7- Cette marque estbonne

1- Je n’aime pas cette marque / 7-J’aime cettemarque

1- Cette marque est désagréable / 7- Cette marqueest agréable

4. Achèteriez-vous ce produit, si vous en aviez l’opportunité ?

1-Négative

2 3 4 5 6 7- Positive

1- Improbable / 7- Probable

1- Impossible / 7- Possible

3. Dernière section - Merci !Il n'y a rien de pire au monde que de commencer un questionnaire sans le terminer, car vos réponses seront insignifiantes...

Ceci est la DERNIERE section. Merci à vous.

1. Ceci est la dernière partie. Merci de répondre à ces quelques dernières questions restantes:

En regardant cette publicité, diriez vous que :

1-Négative 2 3 4 5 6 7- Positive

1- Je suis très peu concentré(e) / 7- Je suis trèsconcentré(e)

1- Je suis très peu impliqué(e) / 7- Je suis trèsimpliqué(e)

1- Je suis peu attentif(ive) / 7- Je suis t rès

attentif(ive)

2. D'après vous...

Quel pourcentage de la population française représentent les Asiatiques ?

3. Selon vous...

Que pensez-vous de la représentation des -minorités ethniques- dans lapublicité en France ?

Enfin, que pensez-vous de la représentation des -Européens- dans lapublicité en France ?

4. Vous êtes âgé(e) de :

18 à 25 ans

26 à 35 ans

35 à 45 ans

45 et plus

5. Votre sexe :

Masculin

Féminin




Appendix 4 – Models

4a. White models

TYPICAL CONSUMER SELECTED

4b. Asian models

SELECTED

TYPICAL CONSUMER




Appendix 5 – Means on each dependent variables (from SPSS v.14)

Descriptive Statistics

5.0513 1.40642 32

5.6455 1.18287 315.3437 1.32503 634.7523 1.26180 315.0515 1.27156 394.9190 1.26693 704.9041 1.33495 635.3146 1.25980 705.1202 1.30728 1334.4681 1.40637 324.5694 1.66898 314.5179 1.52950 633.9352 1.49162 313.7518 1.27437 393.8330 1.36754 704.2059 1.46207 634.1139 1.50757 704.1574 1.48129 1334.0834 1.34652 324.2687 1.29817 314.1746 1.31557 633.4084 1.26384 313.8892 .95332 393.6763 1.11931 70

3.7513 1.33984 634.0573 1.12662 703.9123 1.23701 1334.4844 1.66309 324.4194 1.69360 314.4524 1.66490 633.1613 1.81837 313.8205 1.62419 393.5286 1.73181 703.8333 1.85133 634.0857 1.67022 703.9662 1.75615 133

Subject's ethnicityAsian subject

White subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotalAsian subjectWhite subjectTotal

Endorser's ethnicityAsian model

White model

Total

Asian model

White model

Total

Asian model

White model

Total

Asian model

White model

Total

Attitude toward the model

Attitude toward the ad

Attitude toward the brand

Purchase intentions

Mean Std. Deviation N




Appendix 6 – ANOVA on each dependent measures (from SPSS v.14)


Dependent Variable: Attitude toward the model

13,086 a 3 4,362 2,648 ,0523461,672 1 3461,672 2101,451 ,000

6,567 1 6,567 3,987 ,0486,576 1 6,576 3,992 ,048

,717 1 ,717 ,435 ,511212,499 129 1,647

3712,305 133225,585 132

SourceCorrected ModelInterceptAdmodelRaceAdmodel * RaceErrorTotalCorrected Total




Dependent Variable: Attitude toward the ad

16,298 a 3 5,433 2,564 ,0582303,874 1 2303,874 1087,292 ,000

,056 1 ,056 ,026 ,87215,023 1 15,023 7,090 ,009

,667 1 ,667 ,315 ,576273,339 129 2,119

2588,454 133289,637 132

SourceCorrected ModelInterceptRaceAdmodelRace * AdmodelErrorTotalCorrected Total




Dependent Variable: Attitude toward the brand

12,768 a 3 4,256 2,901 ,0372017,304 1 2017,304 1375,308 ,000

3,655 1 3,655 2,492 ,1179,160 1 9,160 6,245 ,014

,720 1 ,720 ,491 ,485189,217 129 1,467

2237,727 133201,985 132








Dependent Variable: Purchase intentions

35,870 a 3 11,957 4,155 ,0082078,544 1 2078,544 722,285 ,000

2,908 1 2,908 1,011 ,31730,425 1 30,425 10,573 ,001

4,320 1 4,320 1,501 ,223371,228 129 2,878

2499,250 133407,098 132







Appendix 7 – MANOVA (from SPSS v.14)


42.399a

7 6.057 4.133 .00075.261 b 7 10.752 6.269 .00043.472 c 7 6.210 4.897 .000

103.754 d 7 14.822 6.108 .00017.494 1 17.494 11.937 .001

5.978 1 5.978 3.486 .06410.183 1 10.183 8.030 .005

8.758 1 8.758 3.609 .0604.075 1 4.075 2.781 .0982.224 1 2.224 1.297 .257

.002 1 .002 .002 .9672.490 1 2.490 1.026 .3132.177 1 2.177 1.486 .2253.621 1 3.621 2.112 .149

9.280 1 9.280 7.318 .00811.313 1 11.313 4.662 .033

4.276 1 4.276 2.918 .090.361 1 .361 .210 .647.162 1 .162 .128 .722.177 1 .177 .073 .788

18.772 1 18.772 12.809 .00051.904 1 51.904 30.264 .00021.285 1 21.285 16.785 .00054.382 1 54.382 22.409 .000

2.824 1 2.824 1.927 .1686.209 1 6.209 3.620 .0594.756 1 4.756 3.751 .055

16.820 1 16.820 6.931 .0108.556 1 8.556 5.838 .017

.085 1 .085 .050 .8242.953 1 2.953 2.329 .1302.114 1 2.114 .871 .3521.210 1 1.210 .826 .3652.502 1 2.502 1.459 .229

.007 1 .007 .006 .939

.845 1 .845 .348 .556183.187 125 1.465214.377 125 1.715158.513 125 1.268303.343 125 2.427

3712.305 133

2588.454 1332237.727 1332499.250 133

225.585 132289.637 132201.985 132407.098 132

Dependent Variable

Attitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the ad

Attitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentionsAttitude toward the modelAttitude toward the adAttitude toward the brandPurchase intentions

Source

Corrected Model

Intercept

Age

Sex

Ethnid

Involv

Admodel

Race

Admodel * Race

Error

Total

Corrected Total


R Squared = .188 (Adjusted R Squared = .142)a.

R Squared = .260 (Adjusted R Squared = .218)b.

R Squared = .215 (Adjusted R Squared = .171)c.

R Squared = .255 (Adjusted R Squared = .213)d.




Appendix 8 – Attitude toward ethnicity

8a. Representation of Asian population in France

Subject's ethnicity * % of Asians in France Crosstabulation

11 18 15 13 6 63

17,5% 28,6% 23,8% 20,6% 9,5% 100,0%

37,9% 42,9% 50,0% 68,4% 46,2% 47,4%

18 24 15 6 7 70

25,7% 34,3% 21,4% 8,6% 10,0% 100,0%

62,1% 57,1% 50,0% 31,6% 53,8% 52,6%

29 42 30 19 13 133

21,8% 31,6% 22,6% 14,3% 9,8% 100,0%

100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within % ofAsians in FranceCount% within Subject'sethnicity% within % of

Asians in FranceCount% within Subject'sethnicity% within % ofAsians in France

Asian subject

White subject

Subject'sethnicity

Total

0% to 5% 6% to 10% 11% to 20%More than

20% I don't know

% of Asians in France

Total

8b. Representation of Ethnic minorities on French advertising

Subject's ethnicity * Representation of ethnic minorities in advertising Crosstabulation

47 11 3 2 63

74,6% 17,5% 4,8% 3,2% 100,0%

50,0% 40,7% 60,0% 28,6% 47,4%

47 16 2 5 70

67,1% 22,9% 2,9% 7,1% 100,0%

50,0% 59,3% 40,0% 71,4% 52,6%

94 27 5 7 133

70,7% 20,3% 3,8% 5,3% 100,0%

100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof ethnic minorities inadvertisingCount% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof ethnic minorities in

advertisingCount% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof ethnic minorities inadvertising

Asian subject

White subject

Subject'sethnicity

Total

Not enoughFairly

representedOver

represented I don't know

Representation of ethnic minorities in advertising

Total



8c. Asian model ad: Asians on advertising

Subject's ethnicity * Representation of Asians on adv. Crosstabulation

29 1 2 32

90,6% 3,1% 6,3% 100,0%

55,8% 16,7% 40,0% 50,8%

23 5 3 31

74,2% 16,1% 9,7% 100,0%

44,2% 83,3% 60,0% 49,2%

52 6 5 63

82,5% 9,5% 7,9% 100,0%

100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Asians on adv.Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Asians on adv.Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Asians on adv.

Asian subject

White subject

Subject'sethnicity

Total

Not enoughrepresented

Fairlyrepresented I don't know

Representation of Asians on adv.

Total

8d. White model ad: White Europeans on advertising

Subject's ethnicity * Representation of Europeans on adv. Crosstabulation

4 8 15 4 31

12,9% 25,8% 48,4% 12,9% 100,0%

80,0% 40,0% 44,1% 36,4% 44,3%

1 12 19 7 39

2,6% 30,8% 48,7% 17,9% 100,0%

20,0% 60,0% 55,9% 63,6% 55,7%

5 20 34 11 70

7,1% 28,6% 48,6% 15,7% 100,0%

100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

Count

% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Europeans on adv.Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Europeans on adv.Count% within Subject'sethnicity% within Representationof Europeans on adv.

Asian subject

White subject

Subject's

ethnicity

Total

Not enoughrepresented

Fairlyrepresented

Overrepresented I don't know

Representation of Europeans on adv.

Total

a study of french consumers’ response to advertising featuring asian and white endorsers

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