a spatial assessment of coastal development and land use change in the eastern cape, south africa

A spatial assessment of coastal development and land use change in theEastern Cape, South Africa

Bronwyn J. Palmera,b*, Gillian K. McGregora1, Trevor R. Hillc2 and Angus W. Patersonb3

aDepartment of Geography, Rhodes University, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa; bSouth AfricanEnvironmental Observation Network (SAEON), 28 Somerset Street, Grahamstown 6140, SouthAfrica; cDiscipline of Geography, School of Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal(PMB Campus), P/Bag X01, Scottsville 3209, South Africa

This paper considers development and land use change in the coastal zone of theNgqushwa and Ndlambe municipalities in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. The twomunicipalities portray similar physical geographies, but have distinctly different socio-economic characteristics, which result in notable differences in development and landuse patterns. Land use units were mapped from monochromatic aerial photographs atthree time epochs for the period 1940–2004. The resultant land use maps illustrate amosaic of development and land use change in the two municipalities with uniquetrends; the Ndlambe Municipality has experienced rapid formal urban development,with limited informal development. In contrast, the Ngqushwa Municipality hasexperienced low-density informal development, with a very low increase in formaldevelopment. Differences in the two areas can largely be attributed to their differingpolitical and socio-economic histories as well as current municipal capacities. Thestudy concludes that to ensure future sustainability in the coastal environment in thesemunicipalities, management practices need to be holistic and all spheres of governmentneed to work together. The municipalities have the opportunity to develop strategiesthat will allow for conservation and sound management of the coastal zone, withinexisting legislative frameworks, particularly the Integrated Coastal Management Act.

Keywords: geographical information system; land use change; coastal development;land cover mapping; aerial photographs

Introduction

The coastal zone offers an array of ecosystem goods and services; as a result it has

always been a focus of human activities (Sale et al. 2008). Historically, it has provided

ports for trading linkages to the international market as well as a range of resources.

More recently, this association has been driven by the aesthetic appeal of the coast and

the recreational opportunities it offers. It is estimated that approximately 45% of the

world’s population resides within 150 km of the coast (Kay and Alder 2005), which is

projected to increase to 75% by 2025 (Hinrichsen 1995). This has raised concern as to

human impacts on the coastal environment, particularly through coastal development,

which ultimately leads to changes in land cover. Changes in land cover are considered to

be the single most important variable affecting ecosystems, and yet there is very little

understanding as to the dynamics that drive these changes and the impacts they have

(Foody 2002). This is of particular concern in coastal areas, where we are essentially in

ISSN 0373-6245 print/ISSN 2151-2418 online

q 2010 Society of South African Geographers

DOI: 10.1080/03736245.2010.523529

http://www.informaworld.com

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

South African Geographical Journal

Vol. 92, No. 2, December 2010, 117–128

an era of rapid ‘coastal development’. This has been raised on a number of international

instruments which aim to address problems that are threatening marine and coastal

biodiversity (Wynberg 2000).

Coastal development is prevalent in South Africa, largely driven by the demand from

middle-and high-income earners for second homes and tourist accommodation, as they have

increased expendable income (Preston-Whyte and Oelofse 2007; Hoogendoorn et al. 2009).

It is estimated that 40% of the country’s population resides within 100 km of the coastline

(South African Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) 1999, DEAT

2006). Coastal development brings with it associated impacts that affect the ecological

functioning of the system through increased susceptibility to natural hazards and extreme

weather events, which in turn result in substantial costs to, and impacts on, communities

(International Global Observing Strategy (IGOS) 2006; Nicholls et al. 2007), as was evident

along the KwaZulu-Natal coast in 2007. Development in this paper refers primarily to the

establishment of formal (planned) and informal (unplanned) residential areas and associated

infrastructure in order to meet the demands for residential and holiday accommodation.

Historically, coastal development has focused on areas such as the KwaZulu-Natal

South Coast, where access and infrastructure were good and could support the demands of

residence and tourists. As these areas become increasingly developed and overpopulated,

development ‘shifts’ to less populated coastal areas, as is evident in the Eastern Cape. This

has led to a realisation that something needs to be done to better manage and ‘control’ this

rapid coastal development in South Africa. This has resulted in the development and

promulgation of the Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) Act (Act No. 24 of 2008),

which aims to ensure sustainable coastal development in the country.

This paper explores, through a time series analysis of two geographically similar but

socio-economically different municipalities in the Eastern Cape (South Africa), the rate of

land cover change in coastal areas, what this means, and how the ICM Act and other legislation

can institute change. We develop upon our understanding of the spatial context of land

use change and development trends along the coastal zone. We argue that this kind of

investigation and understanding are necessary for effective management and planning of

future development in the coastal zone.

Research site

This research covers the coastal zones of the Ndlambe and Ngqushwa municipalities

within the Eastern Cape, South Africa (Figure 1). The Eastern Cape is located on the south-

eastern coast of South Africa and is the second largest of the nine South African Provinces.

The Eastern Cape accommodates approximately 14% of South Africa’s total population,

with a substantial rural population of approximately 60% (Statistics South Africa 2005).

The Ndlambe and Ngqushwa municipalities have similar geographic and environmental

characteristics, having similar areas (2000 and 2245 km2, respectively), the same number of

estuaries (9), same sea-level elevations (0–100 m above sea-level), the same rainfall

patterns (approximately 600 mm per year near the coast, receiving approximately 60% of

this in the summer months) and biome coverage (Albany Thicket). In spite of these

similarities, they portray distinctly different socio-economic characteristics as highlighted

in Table 1.

These distinct differences can be explained in terms of the different political history of

the two areas: the Ngqushwa Municipality falls in the former Ciskei homeland while

Ndlambe Municipality has always been part of the Republic of South Africa. The Ciskei

was established as an independent homeland for the resettlement of Xhosa people from the

118 B.J. Palmer et al.

Cape Province during the Apartheid4 regime. The Ciskei became a self-governing state in

1972 and was proclaimed an independent state in 1981. For this period, it was subject to

different management strategies and legislation to that of the Republic of South Africa

(Christopher 2001; Lahiff 2003; Clark and Worger 2004).

As a consequence of Apartheid planning and its influence on the settlement of people, the

Ngqushwa Municipality has a predominantly rural population (94%) with a population

density of 38 people per km2. There is a single urban node (Hamburg) in the coastal zone

which supports less than 5% of the population (Ngqushwa Municipality 2007). In contrast,

the Ndlambe Municipality is predominantly urbanised (80%) with a population density of 27

people per km2. Within the coastal zone, there are six significant nodes of development

(Cannon Rocks, Boknesstrand, Bushmans River Mouth, Kenton-on-Sea, Port Alfred and

Kleinemonde), which together support approximately 65% of the municipality’s population

(SetPlan 2006). These historic differences are mirrored in very different development and

land use patterns which, given that the areas have similar physical geographies, may be

attributed to differing socio-economic conditions and political histories. These differences

give rise to unique present and future management challenges in each of the two areas.

Methods

This paper focuses on land-based activities that affect the coastal system; therefore, the

inland boundary definition of the coastal zone is of particular importance. The ICM Act

defines the inland boundary of the coastal zone as the area comprising coastal public

property,5 the coastal buffer zone,6 coastal access land, special protected areas and coastal

waters.7 The ICM Act’s definition of coastal buffer zone in rural areas (1 km) was used as a

Figure 1. Location of the Ndlambe and Ngqushwa municipalities.

South African Geographical Journal 119

guideline for determining the coastal zone. Using a geographical information system

(GIS), a 1-km zone inland of the high-water mark, including estuaries, was demarcated.

In addition, it was considered important to account for zones of intense human activity.

Christian et al. (2005) recommend that the definition of the coastal zones be based on the

social use value they support, such as coastal recreational areas, intense human population

dynamics, urbanisation or agricultural areas. With this in mind, notable development ‘nodes’

within the research area were identified and buffered 1 km inland. These inland buffers were

created, as it is anticipated that development growth at these nodes will move inland.

Using GIS spatial analytical techniques, development and land use change were

determined based on land cover data captured from monochromatic aerial photographs at

three time epochs, spanning 64 years over the period 1940–2004. The availability of aerial

photographs restricted the dates for which land cover could be assessed, dates assessed

were 1940, 1973 and 2004. Historic aerial photographs were geo-referenced to the roads

vector layer from the 1:50,000 topographic series (Chief Directorate Survey and Mapping).

Land cover data was captured by means of heads-up digitising at a scale of 1:10,000 using

ArcGIS 9.2, with the local area projection of Gauss-conform (Lo 27).

To assess development and land use8 change based on transformation of land cover,9 a

customised land cover classification was derived based on National Land Cover 2000

(DEAT 2001). Four primary land cover classes were identified: (1) natural land including

thicket vegetation, grassland vegetation, water bodies (enclosed), estuaries, wetlands,

floodplains and the littoral active zone; (2) transformed or informally developed

land including informal townships and rural clusters; (3) formal development including

high- and low-density residential developments, formal townships and built-up no

Table 1. Physical, environmental and socio-economic characteristics of the Ndlambe andNgqushwa Local Municipalities.

Ndlambe Ngqushwa

Municipal area 2001 km2 2246 km2

Length of coastline 72 km 42 kmElevation above sea level 0–100 0–100Coastal climate Cool, humid and sub-topical at

the coastCool, humid and sub-topical atthe coast

Rainfall 60% of their rainfall in thesummer months with the peakperiods being October andFebruary. Rainfall varies fromapproximately 500 mm peryear inland to 600 mm per yearnear the coast

60% of their rainfall in thesummer months with the peakperiods being October andFebruary. Rainfall varies fromapproximately 500 mm peryear inland to 600 mm per yearnear the coast

Biome Albany Thicket Biome Albany Thicket BiomeVegetation Albany Coastal Belt, Cape

Estuaries Salt Marshes, BishoThornveld and Albany DuneStrandveld. Kowie Thicket,Suurburg Quartzite Fynbos andSuurburg Shale Fynbos

Albany Coastal Belt, CapeEstuaries Salt Marshes, BishoThornveld and Albany DuneStrandveld. Southern CoastalForest and Buffels Thicket

Number of estuaries Nine estuaries Nine estuariesPopulation 54,717 people 84,233 peoplePopulation with no income 62.41% 79.02%Population with no education 11.68% 25.46%Population formally employed 18.89% 3.76%


residential areas and (4) altered land including disturbed areas, cultivated areas and

recreational land.

Areas of change were identified by means of post-classification change detection; this

was achieved by means of an assessment of change between two (or more) independently

classified products, where areas of change are determined through direct comparison of the

classified data. This method removes any limitations that one may have associated with the

‘normalisation’ of multi-date imagery. The limitation of this method is that its accuracy is

dependent on the accuracy of the input data, as erroneously captured data will result in

false areas of change (Thompson et al. 2001).

Two primary areas of change, namely inter-class conversions and intra-class

transformations were observed (Thompson et al. 2001). Inter-class conversions represent a

major change from one primary classification to another, such as natural to transformed,

for example grassland to residential (low density), while intra-class transformations are

transformations within a secondary classification such as cultivated to disturbed, where the

primary classification remains altered.

Results

The use of GIS to create maps of land use at different time epochs allows for a spatial

and temporal assessment of where and when inter-class conversions and intra-class

transformations have occurred. A summary of results is presented in the form of a matrix

(Table 2), which shows where the greatest changes have occurred in the study area. In the

Ndlambe Municipality, there is a high level of intra-class transformation, where natural

lands are transformed to altered land (indicated in light grey in the matrix). Intra-class

transformations are also evident, in that altered lands are being developed as both formal

and informal development. In the Ngqushwa Municipality, inter-class conversions have

occurred, where natural land has been converted to altered lands in the form of formal and

informal development (indicated in white in the matrix). To a lesser degree, there is

evidence of intra-class transformations, where altered land has been developed for formal

and informal development. The matrix highlights that transformation is significantly higher

in the Ndlambe Municipality at the primary level, meaning that there is a significant change

in overall land use and land cover in this municipality.

The proportion of change in each primary land cover class over the three time periods,

as derived from aerial photography and GIS analysis is summarised in Table 3. Table 3

illustrates that the most significant change for the Ndlambe Municipality is an increase in

formal development, while in the Ngqushwa Municipality informal development has

shown the greatest increase.

Discussion

It is evident that there are distinct differences in land cover and land use change between

these geographically and environmentally similar municipalities. These differences can be

explained in terms of historical, political and socio-economic influences.

In the Ndlambe Municipality, the main transformation of land cover is the increase in

development of residential (high and low density) and formal township areas, formal

development increased by 83% between 1940 and 1973 and 78% between 1973 and 2004,

with informal development emerging between 1973 and 2004. This has in turn resulted in a

decrease in natural and altered areas (by 10 and 1%, respectively, for the same time periods).

Along this section of coast, formal and informal developments show a clear association with


Tab

le2

.C

han

ge

mat

rix

sho

win

gin

ter-

clas

sconversions

and

intr

a-cl

asstransform

ations

of

lan

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chan

ge

inth

eN

dla

mb

ean

dN

gq

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loca

lm

un

icip

alit

ies.

Tra

nsf

orm

ed

Nat

ura

lla

nd

Form

aldev

elopm

ent

Info

rmal

dev

elopm

ent

Alt

ered

land

Naturalland

a1940

–1973

(1.1

%)

a1973

–2004

(1.1

%)

b1940

–1973

(1%

)b1973

–2004

(0.9

%)

a1

97

3–

20

04

(0.1

%)

b1940

–1

973

(0.1

%)

b1973

–2

004

(0.8

%)

a1

94

0–

19

73

(12

.9%

)a1

97

3–

20

04

(6.8

%)

b1

94

0–

19

73

(16

%)

b1

97

3–

20

04

(9%

)

Transformed

Form

aldevelopment

Inform

aldevelopment

Altered

land

a1940

–1973

(23.5

%)

a1973

–2004

(22.4

%)

b1940

–1973

(25.2

%)

b1973

–2004

(21.2

%)

a1940

–1973

(4.0

%)

a1973

–2004

(8.5

%)

1940

–1973

(5%

)1973

–2004

(0.3

%)

a1

97

3–

20

04

(1.2

%)

1940

–1973

(0.3

%)

1973

–2004

(0.2

%)

Val

ues

inb

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estuaries, primarily as they provide the best opportunity for development in terms of

accessibility and availability of flat land. In the Ndlambe Municipality, development has

concentrated around the Boknes, Bushmans, Kariega, Kowie and the East and West

Kleinemonde estuaries, resulting in four distinct ‘nodes’ of development. In contrast, in the

Ngqushwa Municipality, there is a single urban node concentrated at the Keiskamma

Estuary and very little evidence of other formal development, despite the presence of

several similar sites, such as at Mgwalana, Bira and Ngculura, where small settlements

consisting of private residential and holiday homes have developed. Formal development in

the Ngqushwa Municipality only increased by 56% between 1940 and 1973 and 27%

between 1973 and 2004, significantly lower than that of the Ndlambe Municipality.

Integral to formal development in the Ndlambe Municipality is informal development

which consists of informal township areas associated with the formal township areas of

Port Alfred, Bushmans River Mouth and Kenton-on-Sea. This informal development has

resulted primarily because of the rapid rate of formal development, which brings with it

employment opportunities both during and after the construction phase of a development,

resulting in economically active people in rural areas migrating to urban centres of sub-

regional centres and towns (Provincial Growth and Development Plan (PGDP) 2003).

Formally developed areas cannot accommodate the influx of people, resulting in the

evident rapid growth in informal and peri-urban settlements over the last decade (PGDP

2003), as illustrated in the case of Ndlambe Municipality.

No single ‘trigger’ has resulted in the rapid development evident in the Ndlambe

Municipality and it may be attributed to a number of factors. On a national scale, formal

development in the coastal zone of this municipality, as with many of South Africa’s

coastal areas, has come about as a result of improved economic activity through investor

confidence and the stabilisation of inflation (Preston-Whyte and Oelofse 2007). As a

consequence, people are more willing to invest in this area. In addition, there has been a

change in social attitudes, resulting in a desire to reside and spend vacations in coastal areas

due to its climatic, aesthetic and recreational appeal (Glavovic 2000). This is made possible

as people are better economically placed in terms of personal wealth and consumer

spending power, with greater mobility, and have more free time for leisure and outdoor

activities associated with the coast (Visser 2003; DEAT 2006; Hoogendoorn et al. 2009).

Changes in the agricultural sector have resulted in decreasing labour needs on farms

and the consequent migration of farm labourers into neighbouring towns to seek

alternative employment. In many farming areas, farm labourers are no longer resident on

farms and live in nearby townships, while a number of livestock farms have been

converted to less labour-intensive game farms (Smith and Wilson 2002). The shift from

livestock farming to game farming has resulted in an intra-class transformation between

Table 3. Relative increase in land cover for the Ndlambe and Ngqushwa municipalities between1940 and 2004.

Relative increase in land cover

Ndlambe Municipality Ngqushwa Municipality

1940–1973 (%) 1973–2004 (%) 1940–1973 (%) 1973–2004 (%)Natural 29.84 21.06 26.58 22.10Altered land 34.11 28.34 13.01 0.46Formal development 83.44 78 56.16 26.93Informal development 0 100 0 389.20


disturbed and cultivated lands (altered lands). Due to the conversion from cultivated areas

to game farms, cultivated land changes to disturbed land over time and eventually could

return to a near-natural state, as indigenous games are considered to contribute, in the long

term, to land restoration (Smith and Wilson 2002). In addition to contributing to the

natural functioning of these areas, it is anticipated that these game farm developments will

increase tourism, attracting both national and international tourists and promoting

economic activity in the surrounding urban areas.

In the Ngqushwa Municipality, informal development associated with the urban node

of Hamburg has developed up-stream along the Keiskamma Estuary within walking

distance of Hamburg. The development of this area has lagged behind the development of

Hamburg and developed primarily between 1973 and 2004, this is probably due to both the

remoteness of the area and the lack of infrastructure. Employment opportunities in the area

are limited; however, post-1994 opportunities in surrounding areas increased resulting in

many of the economically active people being migrant workers seeking work in the urban

centre of Buffalo City and smaller sub-regional centres and towns within the Ndlambe

Municipality (PGDP 2003). This has an effect on land use and, therefore, land use change

in that income is generated from formal employment leading to a reduced need for

subsistence agriculture, thus reducing cultivation practices in these areas.

Apartheid legacy policy and planning whereby Ngqushwa Municipality was

incorporated into the Ciskei homeland resulted in this area being historically managed by,

and subject to, its own legalisation. All land in the Ciskei was held under communal tenure

and, therefore, owned and managed by the Ciskei government which meant that people

could not buy or sell land in this area, and could not take ownership of it for other land uses

with any security (Christopher 1994). Lack of ownership has resulted in poor land

management in the former Ciskei area resulting in the intra-class transformation of grassland

cover to thicket cover; it is likely that this has come about as a result of overgrazing by

domestic livestock (Ward 2005). This problem has continued, in spite of the abolishment of

Apartheid, as land tenure issues have not yet been resolved; thus, people still do not have

land ownership rights. This inability to buy and own land also prevents any formal

development from taking place, as there is no security for investing in such developments.

This in turn affects land use, as it means that there is not permanent transformation of the

land, but as mentioned often leads to poor management and degradation.

The Ciskei government produced sound conservation legislation that ensured the

protection of much of its coastal zone. In terms of the Nature Conservation Act (No. 10 of

1987), a coastal conservation area of 1000 m inland of the high-water mark was proclaimed,

and any clearing or development without authorisation from the government was

prohibited (Republic of Ciskei 1987). This formal protection of the coastal zone has

contributed to a relatively undeveloped coast, which is evident along the Ngqushwa

Municipality’s coastline. It should be noted that during this time of independence, the

Ciskei Department of Agriculture and Forestry undertook a rural development project

which provided a detailed assessment of the area and proposed a long-term development

plan. The report series provided an overall development framework for the entire area as

well as detailed development plans for specific areas including the coastal zone (Ciskei

Department of Agriculture and Forestry and Loxton Venn and Associates 1983). Following

on from their work, engineers undertook an assessment to provide guidelines for the

development of the Ciskei coastal zone in terms of its tourism and recreational potential

(Hill Kaplan Scott (HKS) Incorporated Consulting Engineers 1984). These plans, though

sound in terms of spatial planning for development and ensuring conservation, were never

realised. This lack of implementation, coupled with existing Ciskei conservation and land


use legislation and the state of land ownership in the area, has resulted in the evident lack of

development along the coast of Ngqushwa. Albeit good in terms of conservation of the

natural coastal environment, it has limited socio-economic growth for people in this area.

In terms of development and transformation, it is clear that there are distinct differences

between the Ndlambe and Ngqushwa municipalities. The Ndlambe Municipality has

experienced a rapid increase in formally developed areas and little informal development.

In contrast, the Ngqushwa Municipality has experienced a substantial increase in

informally developed areas and a relatively low increase in formal development. In terms of

changes in altered lands, the Ndlambe Municipality’s area has increased as a result of the

conversion of livestock and cultivated farms to game farms which allow the land to return

to a more quasi-natural state, albeit disturbed, while the Ngqushwa Municipality’s area of

altered land has increased as a result of the abandonment of cultivated fields. These

differences in current land use can primarily be attributed to the political and legislative

history of the area and possibly provide a reflection as to what is happening on a national

scale. Areas still under land tenure are not developing at the rate of areas that were not,

primarily due to the reasons outlined above. Areas held under tenure or that were

historically held in trust are only now beginning to focus on promoting development, as is

the case in the Ngqushwa Municipality. This historical lack of development provides South

Africa a unique opportunity to ensure the conservation of coastal areas through the

application of the ICM Act and other legislation.

The ICM Act marks a landmark change in coastal management for South Africa and to

some degree requires radical action. Key in terms of development is the determination of

set-back lines, seaward of which development is prohibited without authorisation. Set-

back lines will ensure the protection of coastal functioning areas as well as protect

resources and infrastructure from the effects of sea-level rise and coastal erosion. The ICM

Act also requires that Coastal Management Programmes be drawn up and Coastal

Committees be established at the national, provincial and local levels, which will ensure

integrated management of the coastal environment and decision makers will be forced to

look at the system holistically before authorising individual developments.

In terms of coastal development, it is key to look at the links with other existing legislation.

The ICM Act requires that environmental authorisation be obtained for areas below the set-

back line; this is done through NEMA (No. 107 of 1998), whereby an Environmental Impact

Assessment must be undertaken (Republic of South Africa 1998). Other legislation that is key

to future development in the Eastern Cape and South Africa include, the Land Use Planning

Ordinance (LUPO) (Cape LUPO (15 of 1985) for the Eastern Cape), the Municipal Systems

Act and the Development Facilitation Act (DFA) (No. 67 of 1995).

Cape LUPO makes provision for structural plans, zoning schemes and the subdivision

of land and, thus, governs any changes in land use, particularly in terms of agricultural

lands. The Municipal Systems Act ensures that all municipalities develop an Integrated

Development Plan, of which a Spatial Development Framework (SDF) is a key component

(Section 26(e)). The SDF should provide guidelines for land use management within the

municipality (Republic of South Africa 2000). The DFA was introduced as an integrated

legislative framework to facilitate land development projects post-1994 (Rigby and Diab

2003) and is currently key to all spatial planning processes in South Africa.

The ICM Act, though sound poses some challenges, the biggest concern is that the Act

designates authority and responsibility to municipalities, whereby they are required to

undertake a range of planning, monitoring and management responsibilities. Responsi-

bilities include, but are not limited to, the declaration of coastal access land, signposting

of entry points to coastal access land, controlling the use of, and activities on, coastal


public property and providing facilities that promote access to coastal public property such

as parking areas, toilets, boardwalks and other amenities. Municipalities are required to,

within 4 years of the commencement of the Act, prepare and adopt a municipal coastal

management programme, which should be reviewed every 5 years, for the management of

the coastal zone. Furthermore, municipalities are tasked to put by-laws in place to assist

in the implementation, administration and enforcement of coastal management. The

question is how can municipalities achieve these goals, and if they do not what impact will

this have on the future of coastal management in South Africa? They need to be given as

much support as possible from higher spheres of government and the private sector.

Conclusion

It is evident that the two municipalities are currently at different stages of development. The

Ndlambe Municipality is experiencing a development boom and the present management

and spatial planning guidelines and legislation need to be carefully implemented and

monitored to ensure that future development is contained within the existing urban nodes to

prevent ribbon development along the coast.10 As yet, development pressure is not as severe

in the Ngqushwa Municipality and there is the opportunity to apply regulations which

ensure that future development occurs in areas of low environmental sensitivity, thus

ensuring the conservation of sensitive coastal areas. This principle can be applied to other

areas in South Africa, such as the KZN North Coast, which is currently under similar, if not

more, development pressure.

If this is not achieved, the ecological functioning of the natural system will be affected

making it more susceptible to degradation, coastal erosion and extreme weather events, thus

reducing its ability to sustain coastal livelihoods. ICM and effective spatial planning are

fundamental to ensuring long-term sustainability of the coastal zone, and it is important that

the legislation and planning that allows for this be implemented effectively. The

development of the ICM Act highlights what each sphere of government should be doing to

contribute to long-term management of the coastal zone. A key concern is the designation of

authority and implementation to municipalities, who largely lack the capacity to do this and

could result in a persistence of unsustainable developments in the coastal zone. For the ICM

Act to be realised, there has to be support for the municipalities, particularly in areas such as

Ngqushwa, there needs to be both financial and institutional support and guidance from the

National and Provincial levels. The province needs to be the lead agent in terms of ICM for

the Eastern Cape and there needs to be identification of natural coastal assets and potential

development areas at the provincial level. This will assist the municipalities in recognising

and demarcating areas such as the coastal protection zone, coastal public property and the

delineation of the urban edge. Furthermore, provinces are required by the ICM Act to

develop a provincial coastal management plan which will inform municipalities in

developing municipal coastal management plans and ensure that coastal management is not

fragmented along the Eastern Cape coast, this is critical to ensuring that unsustainable

ribbon development does not persist.

This paper illustrates that pressure for development is increasing within the coastal zone

and resulting in changes in land use and ultimately land cover. If this transformation is not well

managed, it could result in adverse affects on the coastal zone. These two municipalities

have the opportunity to develop in such a way that allows for conservation and sound

management of the coastal zone, within existing legislative frameworks, particularly the

ICM Act. If accomplished, this will ensure long-term sustainability within the coastal zones

of the Ndlambe and Ngqushwa municipalities. The concern, as highlighted by these


two municipalities, is the responsibility placed upon municipalities which often lack the

financial and human capacity to carry out their mandate. Thus, in order for the coastal

zone management to be effective, there needs to be a collaborative effort from all spheres of

government. Municipalities within a province need to work together and support each other;

capacitated municipalities could provide assistance, guidance and capacity building to weaker

municipalities. Furthermore, the limitations at the local level need to be recognised and

supported by the provincial and national levels. This collaborative governance will ensure that

coastal zone management is not fragmented, disjointed, ad hoc or crisis driven, and allows for

a holistic approach to coastal management.

Acknowledgements

Grateful thanks are due to the South African Environmental Observation Network (SAEON) forfunding and to Ms Tanith Grant of the SAEON for her assistance with data capture that made thispaper possible.

Notes

1. Email: [email protected]. Email: [email protected]. Email: [email protected]. Apartheid planning was aimed at separating people based on race and ethnicity, which resulted

in the forced movement of people into homeland areas. The Ciskei is located on the east coast ofSouth Africa, within what is now the Eastern Cape Province, between the Great Kei and GreatFish rivers (Charton 1980).

5. Coastal public property includes coastal waters and land submerged by coastal waters.6. The coastal buffer zone is roughly defined as 100 m inland of the high-water mark in urban areas

and 1000 m in rural areas.7. Coastal waters include all waters influenced by tidal activity, thus including estuaries (Republic

of South Africa 2008).8. Land use refers to the activities and inputs that people perform on land cover to manipulate or

maintain it (Di Gregorio 2005).9. Land cover is the description of natural and man-made features on the earth’s surface

(Thompson 1996; Di Gregorio 2005).10. There are a number of concerns associated with ribbon development, such as the provision of

services and aesthetic impacts. A key concern in terms of the ICM Act is that this may result inadverse impacts on coastal public property and the coastal protection zone.

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a spatial assessment of coastal development and land use change in the eastern cape, south africa

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