a social history of mizoram, northeast...

The Camera as Witness A Social History of Mizoram,

Northeast India

Joy L. K. Pachuau | Willem van Schendel

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Cambridge University Press978-1-107-07339-5 - The Camera as Witness: A Social History of Mizoram, Northeast IndiaJoy L. K. Pachuau and Willem Van SchendelFrontmatterMore information

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSchendel, Willem van.The camera as witness : a social history of Mizoram, Northeast India/Willem van Schendel, Joy L.K. Pachuau. pages cmIncludes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-107-07339-5 (hardback)1. Mizoram (India)—History—19th century. 2. Mizoram (India)—History—20th century. 3. Mizoram (India)—History—19th century—Pictorial works. 4. Mizoram (India)—History—20th century—Pictorial works. 5. Mizoram (India)—Civilization. 6. Mizoram (India)—Civilization—Pictorial works. 7. Mizoram (India)—Social conditions. 8. Mizoram (India)—Social conditions—Pictorial works. 9. Mizoram (India)—Social life and customs. 10. Mizoram (India)—Social life and customs—Pictorial works. I. Pachuau, Joy, 1969-II. Title. DS485.M684S544 2015954 ’ .166—dc232014030968

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Table of Contents

List of Figures vList of Maps xxvAcknowledgements xxvii

I: Becoming Mizo 11 Introduction 32 Coming into View: The First Portraits 243 Adjusting Mizo Culture 364 Domesticating a New Religion 595 Getting Educated 876 Controlling the Hills 1097 The Trouble of Travel 1458 First Stirrings of the Market Economy 1689 Mizos in the World Wars 189

10 Mizo Visual Sensibilities 212

II: Mizoram in the New India 23111 The Long Goodbye 23312 The Emergence of Popular Politics 24513 Mizoram and the New Indian Order 25314 Mizoram Comes to Delhi 26615 The Search for Authenticity at Home 27516 Mizo Style: Cowboys at Heart 288

III: Visions of Independence 29517 Famine and Revolt 29718 The Mizoram Government at Home and in East Pakistan 31819 The Mizoram Government in Burma,

China and Bangladesh 34120 A State and its Minorities 359






Table of Contents

IV

IV: Mizo Modernities 37721 Being Cool: The Music Scene 37922 Being Cool: Sharp Dressers 39723 Studio Modernity 41024 Conclusion 423

Copyrights and Sources 425 Glossary 439Bibliography 443Index 463






List of Figures

Chapter 1

1.1 Lalsawma makes a self-portrait, 1974 141.2 P. Rohmingthanga capturing a cultural event, 1970s 14

Chapter 2

2.1 Twekam, the Khumi chief of a village on the Kaladan river 252.2 Likebo, a Shendu/Lakher/Mara chief 262.3 Lushai woman 272.4 Gopi, a Khumi girl 282.5 A young man, Pangkhua sub-group 282.6 Tington, the headman of Chepui 292.7 Lushai woman with pipe 302.8 Portraits of Lushai, Paite and Lai (Poi) men 302.9 Young man of the Mru (Mro) group 31

2.10 Group of Lushai, 1872 322.11 Lushai chiefs posing with guns during their visit to Calcutta

(Kolkata), 1872 322.12 Pakhoma, a village chief near Tlabung (Demagiri), 1882 332.13 Lushai women at the loom, Pakhoma’s village, 1882 34

Chapter 3

3.1 Lushai implements 383.2 Mara musical instruments 383.3 The band of Chapi village, southern Mizoram 393.4 Chapel in the small village of Rotlang: A traditional

drum hangs in front of the pulpit, 1932 393.5 A group of hymn-singing Mizos, accompanied by

a trumpet and a snare drum 403.6 A group of performers wishing a happy New Year 41






List of Figures

VI

3.7 ‘Strumming!’ Zawnga and his banjo, 1940s 413.8 A group of fashionable young Mizos pose with their guitars 423.9 Boys with a ukulele 42

3.10 The first Mizo choir to tour northern India, 1929 433.11 Missionary Katie Hughes directing a church choir rehearsal

in Durtlang 443.12 A Christmas carol party in Venghnuai, 1949 443.13 Lushai women spinning, combing and drying cotton, southern

Mizoram 453.14 Lushai women spinning, combing and drying cotton, southern

Mizoram 453.15 Mizo women weaving, Aizawl 453.16 Inhabitants of Chelam (Selam) and Durpang villages,

northeastern Mizoram 463.17 Lushai boy 463.18 Young Lushai man in front of his house 473.19 The first Sunday School in Mizoram 483.20 Our first three students 493.21 Laltawnga, the first Mizo to become a licensed medical

practitioner, and Thuama, the second, 1913 513.22 Chuautera and Challiana, schoolmasters at Serkawn 513.23 Lalbeveli and M. Suaka, c. 1920 523.24 A group of educated young men, 1920–1925 533.25 Kaithuami dressed in homespun with western shoes

and stockings, 1923 543.26 Family group with pet dog, 1938 553.27 Group of nurses in festive dress 55

Chapter 4

4.1 British troops at the memorial site of Vanhnuailiana, a recently deceased chief, near Champhai in eastern Mizoram 60

4.2 Vanhnuailiana’s shrine with memorial stone: A human head, skulls of sacrificed animals and rice–beer container 60

4.3 ‘Prayer house’ 614.4 Memorial stone showing human figures, spears and the horned

skulls of sacrificed cattle 624.5 Shrine in northern Mizoram 634.6 Hut serving as the first church in Mizoram 64






List of Figures

VII

4.7 Preaching the Gospel in Mizoram 654.8 Khuma and Khara, the first Mizos Christians, 1899 674.9 Passage from pastor Chhuahkhama’s sermon, delivered in

the Mission Veng chapel, Aizawl, on 26 April 1931 684.10 The printing press at Serkawn, 1940 704.11 Sunday School in Aizawl, c. 1929. 714.12 In 1910, 13-year-old Lukira of Serkawn Sunday School passed

his scripture exam and received this certificate of merit 724.13 Mizo students in Silchar reading The Children’s Newspaper 734.14 Young ex-Christian, 1932 734.15 A bachelors’ dormitory or zawlbuk 754.16 A Christian village with the church on the hill to the left, 1930s 764.17 People coming to church in Rotlang village (southern

Mizoram) on a Sunday morning in 1932, against the background of a cloud-filled valley 76

4.18 The journey of souls after death 774.19 Killing a gayal 784.20 Y-shaped posts, each erected to commemorate the killing of a

gayal at a feast, c. 1910 794.21 Two gayals to be slaughtered for Christmas in Venghnuai

village, 1944 804.22 Feeding salt to gayals before slaughter at a wedding, 1958 804.23 A feast of gayal meat being prepared among Christian graves,

Sihfa village, 1956 814.24 Women evangelists or ‘Bible Women,’ 1923 814.25 Evangelists setting off for Burma, c. 1910s 824.26 Choosing a new sakhua: A mass baptism in southern Mizoram,

c. 1913 84

Chapter 5

5.1 Mizo villagers and a Gurkha interpreter (in white), 1894 885.2 Preaching in a Mizo village, c. 1913 895.3 Missionary Fred Savidge and his helper Challiana at work in

the study of the Serkawn mission house, c. 1914. 895.4 Teachers and children pose in front of the Aizawl Mission

School, 1903 905.5 Geometry lesson, Lunglei school, 1905 92






List of Figures

VIII

5.6 An early Mizo primer, produced by the missionaries and printed in Madras, 1909 92

5.7 Hrangshela, the schoolmaster of Dawn village, sits on a chair, surrounded by his pupils, 1914 93

5.8 Hopeful boys in the school playground 935.9 Mara youths who used to board at Serkawn before schools were

opened in their own region, 1932 945.10 A model timetable for school teachers, 1905 955.11 Friday morning hygiene lesson in Serkawn kindergarten:

Teacher Chhumi supervises the cleaning of the classroom furniture 95

5.12 Against a background of morning clouds, students and prefects of Serkawn Girls’ School line up in classes, 1926 96

5.13 Schoolgirls marching to music at a rehearsal of Open Day at Serkawn school, 1923 96

5.14 The first Mizo students in Shillong, 1906 975.15 Kaithuami and Laii, nursing students in Shillong, 1919 985.16 Mizo B.A. students in Kolkata in 1920 995.17 Mizo students in Shillong in 1929 1005.18 Mizo students in Jorhat (Assam), 1937 1005.19 Mizo students at Cotton College in Guwahati (Assam), 1948 1015.20 Studio portrait of Lalthanliana, Philadelphia, 1937 1025.21 Theological School, Durtlang. An exercise book for lessons in

Reformation and Church History, 1925 1045.22 Lalsiami and Chhumi, the first nurses trained in Serkawn,

c. 1923 1055.23 Nursing students at ‘stretcher drill’ on the first Open Day of

the South Lushai Girls’ School, Serkawn, 1923 1055.24 Students of the Theological and Teachers’ Training School in

their scouting uniforms 106

Chapter 6

6.1 Army camp, probably at Tipaimukh, at the northern edge of Mizoram 109

6.2 Breakfast at Tipaimukh camp 1106.3 ‘Camp Joi Bûm, Lushai’ 1106.4 British officer surveying in Mizoram, 1872 111






List of Figures

Ix

6.5 Darpong gives the cry of peace 1126.6 Hilltop outpost of Sirtay on the border between the

Chittagong Hill Tracts (British India) and the independent country that would later be known as Mizoram, 1882 113

6.7 Gurkha border soldiers in Demagiri (Tlabung), 1882 1136.8 The expeditionary force in southern Mizoram, 1890 1156.9 ‘Officers’ tents in the camp on the banks of the Tui-phai

stream, during a march to Kairuma’s village, December 1895’ 1156.10 Lunglei in the 1890s 1166.11 Fort Tregear (today: Darzo) in southern Mizoram was

constructed and stockaded during the final invasion of 1889–1890 116

6.12 Gate of British stockade with Gurkha soldiers, 1896 1176.13 The stockade at Champhai, c. 1924 1176.14 Rendezvous of the highest British military men 1186.15 A. Porteous, ICS – Superintendent from 1894 to 1896 –

surrounded by military and civilian assistants 1206.16 Superintendent A. Porteous and missionary Fred Savidge

sitting in a tent while on tour 1236.17 Official rest house with British official, pony and servant 1246.18 Chiefs’ sons with their headmaster, 1930 1256.19 Khamliana Sailo, chief of Lungleng, c. 1910 1256.20 Chiefs with British officials in Lunglei, 1940 1276.21 Khawvelthanga, the Christian chief of Maubuang village,

who freed his bawis in1909 1276.22 Chiefs alternate with British officials and their wives at the

farewell ceremony to Superintendent N. E. Parry, Aizawl, 1928 1286.23 A chief is half-hidden behind the Governor of Assam, as he

and his wife arrive at the Superintendent’s Bungalow in Aizawl, 1938 129

6.24 Chief Khawvelthanga with the memorial to King-Emperor George V’s silver jubilee, which he erected as a sign of his allegiance to the British Crown, 1935 130

6.25 The newly established market of Sairang on the Tlawng river, 1896 131

6.26 Captain Loch with friends and dog in Aizawl, c. 1893 1316.27 Constructing the Quarter Guard, Aizawl, 1896 132






List of Figures

x

6.28 The Quarter Guard almost completed, with Gurkha soldiers in front, 1896 132

6.29 A view of Aizawl in 1896 1336.30 The bamboo hut housing the post and telegraph office,

Aizawl, 1896 1346.31 Assam Rifles Ground (Parade Ground), Aizawl, 1920s 1356.32 Aizawl in 1895, with the ‘crater’ to the left and the

Superintendent’s bungalow to the right 1366.33 Assam Rifles soldiers cleaning out the water reservoir, supervised

by Pakunga, the first Mizo to attain the rank of subadar (junior commissioned officer), in coat and hat 137

6.34 A British picnic near Aizawl, 1895–1896 1386.35 Gurkha soldiers about to sacrifice a water buffalo,

Aizawl Parade Ground, 1896 1396.36 Tying the sacrificial water buffalo to the pillar displaying the

regimental insignia of crossed kukri (curved knives) and crown 1406.37 Gurkha women and children in festive dress, Durga Puja,

Aizawl, 1923 1406.38 Staff, students and friends of Aizawl Gurkha

Hindi School, 1953 141

Chapter 7

7.1 Woman returning home with bamboo containers full of water (and a gourd for dipping up the water from the spring) in her basket 146

7.2 Men on a path in the southern hills, 1913 1467.3 Missionary and porters travelling along the bed of a

mountain torrent between Runtung and Hauruang in southern Mizoram, 1913 147

7.4 The Tlawng river during the dry season, 1895 1497.5 A bamboo raft serving as a ferry by means of a cane ring

and ‘cable’ (Tuichawng river, 1932) 1497.6 Boat travelling from Cachar to northern Mizoram on the

Tlawng river, 1897 1507.7 Trains and launches would take travellers from Kolkata

to Chittagong 1517.8 The pony trip from Tlabung/Demagiri led to Lunglei

in 4 days 152






List of Figures

xI

7.9 Unloading luggage from boats at the Barkal rapids, 1904 1527.10 Missionaries Herbert and Mabel Lorrain posing at the

Barkal trolley, on their way to the Serkawn mission, 1904 1537.11 Matu women on the bank of the Kaladan near Saikao 1547.12 Porters carrying an official’s luggage across a river, 1896 1557.13 Missionaries Herbert and Mabel Lorrain on tour in

southern Mizoram, 1906 1567.14 On tour in southern Mizoram, 1904 1577.15 Mizo labourers boiling snails during a missionary tour 1577.16 ‘The kind of hut we sleep in when benighted in the forest’ 1587.17 Man posing with the tiger he had just killed, c. 1928 1597.18 Labourers holding aloft European women, 1895–1896 1597.19 Mizo and Santal labourers carrying a female missionary from

Aizawl to Sairang, 1927 1607.20 Missionary Maud Lorrain in her sedan chair, c. 1950 1607.21 Improving the road from Sairang to Aizawl, 1896 1627.22 Broadening a path into a road, Serkawn, 1913 1627.23 ‘Precipice Walk’ on the Lunglei road, near Aizawl, 1913 1637.24 Lushais with baskets and Lais with a hunting gun, on their

way to their fields, use a new road, c. 1910 1637.25 Group of Mizos on a level road, c. 1924 1647.26 Suspension bridge between Lungsen and Pachang in

western Mizoram, 1932 1647.27 Dilapidated suspension bridge, 1930s 1657.28 The first truck to reach Mizoram, c. 1942 166

Chapter 8

8.1 The weekly market in Lunglei, 1914 1708.2 A newly cleared hill field with a temporary field hut 1728.3 Women returning from their fields with baskets loaded with

vegetables, rice and sweet potatoes, near Lunglei, 1906 1728.4 Irrigated and hill agriculture in the Champhai valley, 1920s 1748.5 Chief Khamliana Sailo in his new orange orchard, 1908 1758.6 Display of commodities at the Aizawl Exhibition, 1904 1778.7 Schoolboys thatching a roof in Serkawn, 1905 1798.8 Mizo road workers, Serkawn, 1913 1808.9 Pakunga Chawngthu in 1922 181






List of Figures

xII

8.10 Two girls f lanking a uniformed Mizo, 1936 1828.11 Market day in Dawrpui (The Bazar), the commercial centre

of Aizawl, in the 1920s 1858.12 Selling agricultural produce in Aizawl’s main market in

the 1930s 186

Chapter 9

9.1 Members of the 26th and 29th Lushai Labour Company in Monchy-au-Bois (France), 1917 193

9.2 Sainghinga and friends, France, 1917 1959.3 Army hockey team in Mesopotamia, c. 1918 1959.4 Sainghinga receiving a gift from the General Officer

Commanding (GOC), Major General N. Ramchandra of the 57 Mountain Division, at the Reunion of Ex-Servicemen of Mizoram, Aizawl, 1978 198

9.5 Sainghinga laying a wreath at the war memorial, Aizawl, 1982 1989.6 Mizo chiefs and colonial officials join hands around the

Union Jack to pledge allegiance to Britain in its war effort again the approaching Japanese 200

9.7 War fund stall in Demagiri (Tlabung) erected by chief Sangkhuma, 1940 203

9.8 The Lushai Hills War Committee, 1941 2039.9 Decorated Mizos, 1942 204

9.10 Volunteers leaving Aizawl to join up, 1942 2049.11 ‘Them three’ 2059.12 Postcard of soldiers, 1940s 2059.13 Hmelmawia had this studio portrait taken while serving in

Iran during World War II 2069.14 Laithuama Lushai’s grave 2079.15 British soldiers in Aizawl, c. 1942 2079.16 A jeep at Kulikawn, c. 1942 2089.17 Girls posing with a jeep in Ngaizel, c. 1942 208

Chapter 10

10.1 Hranglianchhingi’s grave in Dawn 21310.2 Family and friends of Ngurbiakvela gather around

his grave, 1937 214






List of Figures

xIII

10.3 Rothangpuia and his wife during a visit to the grave of Dr Lukira (1896–1961) in Lunglei 215

10.4 Relatives posing with the coffin, probably in Champhai, in 1955 216

10.5 Officers of the Salvation Army posing behind the coffin of their fellow officer, major Lalchawna, Venghnuai, 1982 216

10.6 Teachers and students of the Mizo High School in Aizawl, 1950 217

10.7 Teachers and students of the Mizo High School in Aizawl, 1963 218

10.8 Group portrait of Superintendent’s Office employees, Aizawl, 1953 218

10.9 Three sisters – Thansiami, Thankhumi and Thanchhumi – in Chhinga Veng, Aizawl, Christmas 1930 219

10.10 The C. Vulluaia family on New Year’s Day (kumthar), 1961 22010.11 Christmas carol party, 1951 22010.12 C. H. Kela and his tea-drinking friends, New Year, 1930 22110.13 Gents only party, New Year, 1950 22110.14 New Year’s party at Venghnuai, 1950 22210.15 Mizo men serving in the Assam Regiment pose for a

New Year’s greeting, 1965 22210.16 The first Mizo-owned bicycle, proudly displayed in front

of the village shop (Bawla’s shop) in Theiriat, 1932 22310.17 Schoolboy Taite Hmar Durkanga with his new bicycle, 1932 22410.18 Liani with bicycle at Kulikawn, 1937 22410.19 Rosanga with his bicycle, studio portrait, 1955 22510.20 Driver Tlangbawia driving a wartime jeep for the

Burmese army, 1949 22610.21 Dr Zokhuma and friends in a jeep, New Year 1953 22610.22 On the Zarkawt-Dawrpui road, 1956 22710.23 Barefoot on a motorcycle, 1970s 228

Chapter 11

11.1 The power elite of Mizoram just after India’s independence, 1948 235

11.2 Missionary John M. Lloyd and his wife Joan with the second batch of tenth graders from Mizoram going up for the matriculation exam, 1949 236






List of Figures

xIV

11.3 Missionaries and students at a teachers’ training course, Aizawl, 1951 236

11.4 Missionaries on their way to the Presbyterian General Council meeting, Aizawl, c. 1951 237

11.5 A moustached missionary ( J.M. Lloyd) surrounded by other delegates at the Presbytery in Farkawn, 1959 237

11.6 The first committee of the Student Christian Movement, which was initiated by missionary O. W. Owen in 1954 238

11.7 The Chanmari Church Choir bids farewell to Joyce Horner and Gwen Rees Roberts, Presbyterian missionaries being expelled from Mizoram in 1968 239

11.8 The last Baptist missionaries to leave Mizoram were nurses E. M. Maltby and J. T. Smith, here shown with pastor H. S. Luaia, who led their farewell service at Serkawn church, 1968 239

11.9 Three generations of the missionary family of Saikao: Margaret Tlosai Lorrain Foxall, her daughter Violet and her mother Maud Lorrain, 1950 240

11.10 A printer, Bruce Foxall and a night guard of the Lakher Pioneer Mission holding bibles, Saikao (‘Lorrainville’), 1950 241

11.11 Violet and Lapi Mark with their children Frederick, Susan, Frank and Michael, 1979 242

11.12 Violet and Lapi Mark on the veranda of the Saikao mission house, 2011. 243

Chapter 12

12.1 The Young Lushai Association celebrates Christmas at the Civil Hospital in Aizawl, 1946 247

12.2 Mizo Union volunteers in Kulikawn, c. 1947 249

Chapter 13

13.1 Mizo delegates from Mizoram to the Assam Hills and Plains Peoples Week, Shillong, 5–11 November 1947 253

13.2 The Governor of Assam in Aizawl, January 1948 25413.3 The Barkataki family with Mizo servant and chiefs, c. 1950 25513.4 The sons of Mizoram chiefs invited to tea in Shillong, 1949 25613.5 The Superintendent and chiefs of Mizoram with the

Chief Minister of Assam at a conference in Shillong, 1950 256






List of Figures

xV

13.6 On election duty: A party of officials in a dugout on the Kaladan river in southern Mizoram, 1952 257

13.7 Farewell to Deputy Commissioner Barkataki at the Aizawl Tennis Club, 1953 258

13.8 The Pawi-Lakher Regional Council, 1953 25913.9 Independence Day celebrations in Aizawl, 15 August 1949 260

13.10 India’s Prime Minister Nehru addresses the newly installed Autonomous Mizo District Council, Aizawl, 1953 261

13.11 Prime Minister Nehru and his daughter Indira pose with members of the Autonomous Mizo District Council, Aizawl, 1953 261

13.12 Spectators under an arch waiting for the Prime Minister to arrive, Aizawl, 1953 262

13.13 Jawaharlal Nehru in Aizawl, 1953 26213.14 Thangliani in conversation with Jawaharlal Nehru and

Indira Gandhi, Aizawl, 1953 26313.15 The Prime Minister performs an impromptu dance,

Aizawl, 1953 263

Chapter 14

14.1 Mizo women pose with Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru on the lawn of Flagstaff House, New Delhi, on Republic Day, c. 1954 267

14.2 Cultural group from Mizoram with Indian President V. V. Giri outside his official residence, Rashtrapati Bhavan, Delhi, 1973 268

14.3 Cultural group from Mizoram taking part in the Republic Day parade, Delhi, 1973 269

14.4 The Mizoram float and dancers at the Republic Day parade in Delhi, probably 1990s 269

14.5 Rehearsing the bamboo dance (cheraw) in a near-empty National Stadium in Delhi for Republic Day, 1954 270

14.6 Mara cultural group posing with President S. N. Reddy in Delhi, c. 1977 271

14.7 Mara cultural group in Delhi 27114.8 Prime Minister Nehru with guests, Republic Day, Delhi, 1953 27214.9 The Mayor of Delhi with guests in assorted

‘tribal’ dress, 1966 273






List of Figures

xVI

Chapter 15

15.1 The Spring Festival (Chapchar Kut) in Aizawl, 1962 27615.2 The head of the Mizoram government, Chief Minister

Ch. Chhunga, wears a homespun shawl over his business suit while inaugurating the reinstated Chapchar Kut in Aizawl, 1973 277

15.3 The circular chai dance at the Chapchar Kut, Aizawl, 1973 278

15.4 Participants forming a Star of David at the Chapchar Kut, Aizawl, 1982 279

15.5 Independence Day in Lawngtlai, 1983 27915.6 Teachers’ Day in Aizawl, 1978 28015.7 A game of inbuan during the Chapchar Kut celebrations in

Tahan (Burma), 1978 28015.8 Inbuan champions with their trophy during Chapchar Kut

celebrations in Tahan (Burma), 1970s 28115.9 Lalropuii with a banner for Vangpui Kut, Manipur, 1973 281

15.10 Performing the bamboo dance (cheraw kan). 1952 28215.11 Performing the bamboo dance, 1962 28315.12 A vakiria, 1882 28415.13 The Lalbuta family, 1969 28515.14 Mizo cultural group on Chin National Day (Burma), 1972 28515.15 Lalkungi, Malsawmi and Saihlupuii show their festive

costumes, Dawrpui (Aizawl), 1976 286

Chapter 16

16.1 Studio portrait of Mizo students in Silchar, 1921 28916.2 Lalnithanga as a student in Shillong, 1942–1943 28916.3 ‘Cowboy somewhere in Happy Valley, 1948’ 29016.4 ‘Will there be any cowboy up in Heaven!!!’ 1950s 29016.5 Thangsailova, 1957 29116.6 Rock ’n’ roll music band, Silchar, New Year, 1958 29216.7 ‘Eastern Cow Boy’ 29216.8 Zokura Hnamte and Rozama, Sialsuk, 1965 29316.9 Cover of a Sudden Muanga comic book 294

16.10 L.T. Muana, 2012 294






List of Figures

xVII

Chapter 17

17.1 Mizo men, women and children gathered at the government bungalow in Demagiri (Tlabung) to receive rice during the bamboo famine of 1882 298

17.2 Celebrating the end of weeding in the famine year 1959 299 17.3 Government jeeps used to distribute rice during the famine

of 1959–1960 300 17.4 Air dropping of food supplies in rural Mizoram during

the famine, 1960 301 17.5 Officials from different government departments at

a discussion on rodent control 301 17.6 ‘We Do Not Want the Assam Government!’ Demonstration

demanding autonomy for Mizoram as a Hill State within India, 1961 303

17.7 Dawrpui, the bazar area of Aizawl, after air raids by the Indian Air Force, March 1966 305

17.8 Villagers of Mualvum are dismantling their church before being removed to Kawnpui, a ‘Protected and Progressive Village’, in 1967 307

17.9 A forcibly resettled family: The Kawlbawias in Vairengte PPV in 1968 309

17.10 A convoy of supply trucks during The Troubles, 1960s 309 17.11 The Supervisor of Village Grouping, Major-General

Rawat, in Sairang, 1970s 310 17.12 Road-building under the Employment Guarantee Scheme,

Ruantlang village, eastern Mizoram, 1973 310 17.13 Indian army officer handing relief goods to a Mizo

woman, 1970s 311 17.14 Ceremonial dancing in Thingsulthliah, a cluster village in

central Mizoram, marks the start of a development project in 1974 311

17.15 Prison-produced Iron Bar Magazine, 1969 313 17.16 The Dawngliana family pose for their family identity

card, 1967 314 17.17 Identity card photograph, Lalnghinglova family, 1967 315 17.18 The Suakchhunga family of Zarkawt have their photograph

taken for the family identity card, 1967 315






List of Figures

xVIII

Chapter 18

18.1 Military ceremony of the underground Mizoram Government, 1967 320

18.2 The Mizo National Army and their cave hideaway, 1967 32018.3 A group of fighters at Hliappui camp, 1968 32118.4 Living quarters, Hliappui camp, 1968 32218.5 Demonstrating weaponry at Lungkawlh, 1968 32218.6 Christmas at Saichal camp, 1968 32318.7 V. L. T. Muana (Chief Commissioner of Rûn) and his

assistant Lalnghinglova passing through the abandoned village of Sialhau on their way to East Pakistan, 1969 324

18.8 Looking at Mizoram from a mountaintop in East Pakistan, 1970 325

18.9 The Mizoram Government in exile, Mahmuam, East Pakistan, 1969 326

18.10 The exiled administrators of Run in East Pakistan 32618.11 Elected Members of Parliament and Senators of sovereign

Mizoram in East Pakistan 32718.12 Newly elected Members of Parliament take the oath of

office, Mahmuam (Old Chhantlang), East Pakistan, 1971 32718.13 Two sides of the identity card of Zamawia, Minister of

Defence of the Government of Mizoram, 1970 32818.14 Two sides of the identity card of Zamawia, Minister of

Defence of the Government of Mizoram, 1970 32818.15 Members of the Christian Youth Fellowship with

Pangkhua friends, Chhippui, East Pakistan 32918.16 Mizo Evangelical Choir at the Baptist Union Assembly,

Mahmuam, East Pakistan, 1971 32918.17 Christmas Carol party 33018.18 Ball game near Mahmuam, 1969 33018.19 Lalthlamuani with bridesmaids on her wedding day in

Mahmuam, East Pakistan, 1969 33118.20 A drum precedes newlyweds at ‘Jordan camp’, Mahmuam,

East Pakistan, 1970 33118.21 Mizo troops in Mahmuam (East Pakistan) readying

themselves for a military operation in Tripura (India) 33218.22 Lalzika in the jungle, East Pakistan, 1971 333






List of Figures

xIx

18.23 Lalthansangi and Chalmawii, Lion Brigade headquarters, East Pakistan, 1969 333

18.24 Three policemen in a photo studio, Chittagong city, East Pakistan 334

18.25 Mourning at the grave of Corporal Lalsaingura Sailo in Rangamati, East Pakistan, 1970, are Corporal Lalruala (left) and Corporal Ramchhana. 334

18.26 Officers of the V Battalion of the Mizo National Army, East Pakistan, 1970 335

18.27 New Year’s wishes from the Lion Brigade, East Pakistan, 1970 336

18.28 The Medical Department of the Mizo National Army, Mahmuam, East Pakistan, 1969 336

18.29 Happy in Rangamati, 1971 33718.30 Mizo officers have their picture taken with a Pakistani colleague

in Barkal, Chittagong Hill Tracts, East Pakistan, 1971 33718.31 President Laldenga inspects the Guard of Honour in

Mahmuam, East Pakistan, on Independence Day 33818.32 Laying a wreath at the Memorial to the Departed in

Mahmuam, East Pakistan, on Independence Day 33818.33 President Laldenga and Defence Minister R. Zamawia

with the Mizo national f lag at the funeral of Colonel Lalliana, Mahmuam, East Pakistan, 1970 339

Chapter 19

19.1 Mizos during their f light from Bangladesh to Burma 34219.2 Mizos in ‘Bawm Ram’ – the tri-junction between India,

Bangladesh and Burma 34219.3 Women of the Communist Party of Burma who gave

protection to the f leeing Mizos in Arakan 34319.4 Maj. Ngurliana Sailo and Maj. Ngursailova Sailo in

Arakan (Burma), c. 1974 34319.5 Mizo commanders at the Mizoram Government headquarters

in Arakan (Burma), 1970s 34419.6 Lalhmingthanga and Laldenga, representing the

Mizoram Government as Foreign Minister and President, in Beijing, 1970 344






List of Figures

19.7 Zoramthanga, secretary to Laldenga, in China, 1970 345 19.8 The Mizo fighters of the ‘China Contingent’ at Mang Hai

Training Centre in Yunnan, China, 1973 346 19.9 The ‘China Contingent’, led by Demkhawsiak and

Lalthawmvunga, at Mang Hai, Yunnan, China, 1973 346 19.10 Mizo rebels in the Stone Forest, Yunnan, China, 1974 346 19.11 Members of the China Contingent displaying their new

uniforms and arms, China, 1974 347 19.12 The China Contingent in Pajau, ‘Kachinland’, Burma 1974 347 19.13 A Mizo guerrilla (Saihnuna) operating in Mizoram 348 19.14 The Mizoram national f lag f lying high above representatives

of the Mizoram Government-in-exile, probably in Bangladesh, c. 1980 349

19.15 The Cabinet of the Mizoram Government, Chhimtlang, Bangladesh, c. 1980 349

19.16 President Laldenga inspects the troops at the Capital Headquarters in Bangladesh, 1981 350

19.17 Undercover Chinese-trained wireless operator at work in Aizawl in 1977 351

19.18 Mizo fighters with their equipment, Bangladesh, c. 1980 351 19.19 Patrolling near the Mizoram Government’s ‘Tactical

Headquarters’ in New Lawngkawr, northern Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, 1986 352

19.20 A delegation from the Mizoram Government-in-exile takes a break at Seling (Mizoram) on their way to peace negotiations with the Indian authorities in 1978–1979 352

19.21 Mirth after the signing of the Mizoram Accord in Delhi, 1986 353 19.22 Zoramliana poses with boxes containing the bones of fallen

Mizo fighters – ready to be taken back to Mizoram 354 19.23 Crossing the border from Bangladesh, 1986 354 19.24 ‘Welcome MNF. The people of Diltlang offer you our

highest honour’. Welcome gate for returning troops, 1986 355 19.25 ‘We welcome the warriors and martyrs of the Mizo

nation!’ Welcome parade with f lower-bedecked coffins in Aizawl, 1986 355

19.26 ‘Welcome home MNF’ and ‘Farewell to Army’. T-shirts for sale in Aizawl, 1986 356

xx






List of Figures

xxI

19.27 Voters during the elections of 1987 35619.28 Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to Aizawl, 1987 35719.29 The bamboo dance is being performed for Prime Minister

Rajiv Gandhi, Aizawl, 1987 357

Chapter 20

20.1 Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi landing in Aizawl for the ceremonies to upgrade Mizoram to the status of Union Territory, 1972 360

20.2 Crowds gathered at the Assam Rifles Ground in Aizawl to witness the inauguration, 1972 360

20.3 The first Governor of Mizoram greeting local notables, 1972 36120.4 The Pawi (later: Lai) District Council office in Lawngtlai,

c. 1980 36320.5 The Pawi (later: Lai) Autonomous District Council welcomes

Lal Thanhawla (chief minister of Mizoram) and his wife by ‘chairing’ them: Holding their chairs aloft and carrying them around, Lawngtlai, 1986 364

20.6 Monument celebrating 25 years of the Chakma Autonomous District in Chawngte/Kamalanagar 364

20.7 The Treasury Bench and the Opposition Bench face each other in the Council Room of the Chakma Autonomous District in Chawngte/Kamalanagar, 2000 365

20.8 The Chakma language, written in the script unique to it, and English appear on the emblem of the Chakma Autonomous District Council 366

20.9 Using a ‘f lannel graph’ to preach Christianity to Chakma villagers in Sihfa, 1965 367

20.10 A Chakma refugee camp in Mizoram, 1960s 36820.11 A Chakma refugee in Mizoram, 1964 36820.12 Taking a census of Chakma in Tlabung/Demagiri, 1979 36920.13 Indian officers overseeing the forced repatriation of Chakma

refugees to Bangladesh, Tipperaghat (Mizoram), 1986 36920.14 A group of Bru in Rotlang village pose with a Mizo

visitor, 1956 37020.15 Bru villagers, 1960 37120.16 Bru women with Mizo visitors near Tlabung/Demagiri, 1980 371






List of Figures

xxII

20.17 A Bru village, 1980 37220.18 Bru women pounding rice, 1980 37220.19 A meeting of the Hmar Student Association in Manipur

in 1979 373

Chapter 21

21.1 Villagers gathered around a gramophone, c. 1940s 38021.2 A Mizo band performs, 1959 38121.3 A Mizo trio at a college function in Kolkata, c. 1960 38121.4 Music group with guitar, bass and mandolin,

Khawruhlian, 1964 38321.5 Music band, 1965 38321.6 ‘The Beginners’, 1965 38421.7 A musician proudly displays his electric guitar, a novelty

in 1967 38521.8 Portrait with electric guitars, Mandalay, Burma, 1960s 38621.9 Young women with stylish bouffant hairdos and guitars,

Tuila, 1960s 38721.10 The ‘Young Generation’ present themselves at the

‘Chinar Beat’, Aizawl, 1972 38721.11 Lalhmingliana and friends during their first concert for

All India Radio, 1969 38821.12 The Vans, with singer Vanhlupuii, in action during the

First Mizoram Beat Contest, Aizawl, 1975 38921.13 Musicians of the band Creation Flame having a good

time at the Beat Contest, 1975 39021.14 Creation Flame on tour in Churachandpur, Manipur, 1976 39021.15 Creation Flame (wrapped in Naga blankets) and

friends in Mokokchung, Nagaland, 1976 39121.16 Creation Flame performing for a crowd in Aizawl, c. 1980 39121.17 Lalsangzuali Sailo in 1978 39221.18 Vulmawi in concert, Assam Rifles Ground, Aizawl, 1981 39221.19 Zodi lead guitarist T. Zorampela in the recording studio,

Mandalay, 1977 39321.20 Zodi on tour in Kalemyo, Chin State, Burma, 1979 39321.21 Cover of a Zodi audio cassette, 1980 39421.22 Album cover, 1990s 395






List of Figures

xxIII

Chapter 22

22.1 Thanbuangi posing against the rock face at Durtlang, 1947 39722.2 A portrait of F. Sapbawia, 1950 39822.3 Parthanchhumi (Pari) and Lalrochhungi in trousers with

cinch belts, 1958 39922.4 Thanbuangi and her friends showing the latest designs,

Lunglei, 1959 39922.5 Pari reading a magazine, 1960 40022.6 C. Manliana (centre), Zakhuma (right) and friends with

imitation rolled-up jeans, Aizawl, 1961 40022.7 ‘Costume parade’, Aizawl, c. 1964 40122.8 Backcombed hair and flaring skirts in Kulikawn, 1960s 40122.9 Thanpuii (in miniskirt) and friend in their Christmas dresses,

Lunglei, 1971 40222.10 Mizo guerrilla fighter in jeans, c. 1980 40322.11 A soldier of the Mizo National Army in uniform, c. 1980 40322.12 The rebel as style icon: Cocking his firearm on a hilltop, 1985 40422.13 Two rebels taking a rest, 1980s 40422.14 Teenagers, 1970s 40522.15 V. L. Ruata, Malsawmkimi (with doll) and

Rohmingliana, 1975 40522.16 Vulmawi singers Lalruanga and Butta (Lalbuta),

Aizawl, 1981 40622.17 An Andy Gibb poster on the wall at the Mizo ‘Capital

Headquarters’ in Chhimtlang, Bangladesh, 1986 40622.18 Hlawha (Lalhlawhliana), 1973 40722.19 Dawnghlua and his friends in Lamka, Churachandpur,

Manipur, 1979 40722.20 The platform shoes that Lalhlawhliana wore in the 1970s 408

Chapter 23

23.1 A group of friends, c. 1920 41123.2 Young men in front of a garden scene, 1940s 41223.3 A river scene with a rowing boat frames the uniformed shape

of Chuaua in this photo from a Shillong studio, 1946 412






List of Figures

xxIV

23.4 Two brothers (Lalbiakzuala and Daia) with a pith helmet in Silchar, 1951 413

23.5 A couple before a lakeside fantasy building, 1957 41323.6 P. Vanlallawma and Lalthianga with friends in a

Manipur studio, 1968 41423.7 P. Vanlallawma and Lalthianga with friends in a

Manipur studio, 1968 41423.8 Nunsangi and Rammawii in Biakhnuna Photo Studio in

Churachandpur (Manipur), 1968 41523.9 Kapzauva and Ziri in Kaladan Studio in Lawngtlai, 1977 415

23.10 Pathai and Khaichhua in a Saiha studio, 1985 41623.11 Lalramchuani and Parmawii pose in a photo studio in

Moreh (Manipur), 1982 41623.12 Malsawmi in front of the Taj Mahal, Aizawl, 1969 41723.13 An image from the same studio, 1960s 41823.14 Champuii in a studio in Dawrpui (Aizawl) in 1976 41823.15 101-year-old Chhunruma in the same studio in Dawrpui

(Aizawl), 1978 41923.16 Zonunsanga (left), Hruaia and friend, possibly in the

Krossmawi Studio in Darlawn, 1979 42023.17 P. C. Lalnunthara relaxing in front of K. T. Zama’s photo

studio in Aizawl, 1970 42123.18 The R. L. P. Mobile Studio on the road 421






List of Maps

Front Matter

1 Mizoram. xxvi

Chapter 1

1.1 The mountain ranges known as the Naga, Mizo, Chin, Chittagong and Arakan hills – and today’s international borders. 4

1.2 Colonial fragmentation: The hill country divided between three provinces of British India: Bengal, Assam and Burma. 7

Chapter 12

12.1 Mizoram as an outlying territory of the Republic of India (shown in gray), 1948. 2461 = Assam (India);2 = Kingdom of Tripura; 3 = Kingdom of Manipur; 4 = (East) Pakistan; 5 = Burma.






xxVI

Map 1: Mizoram.






Acknowledgements

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to the many people who generously shared their images with us and who gave us permission to reproduce a selection in this volume. Their help was essential; without them we could never have created this book.

We also owe a large debt of gratitude to Lalhlimpuii Pachuau (Mimi). Her untiring efforts to locate, copy and describe many images in Mizoram and Delhi were invaluable. We also thank her for her cheerful company during one of our trips through Mizoram.

There were others who gave us important support in the making of this book. For assistance of different kinds we would especially like to thank (in alphabetical order): Kyle C. Jackson, Lalhmingmuana (Lunglei), Lalmalsawma Khiangte (Aizawl), Masoom Reza, Kathinka Sinha-Kerkhoff, Siamtei (Churachandpur) and Bianca Son Suantak.

We are grateful for the financial assistance provided by the University Grants Commission, the ICSSR-NWO Social Science Scholar Exchange, WOTRO Science for Global Development (Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research), Charles Wallace India Trust, the research group Moving Matters of the University of Amsterdam, and the International Institute of Social History.

Joy L. K. PachuauWillem van Schendel






a social history of mizoram, northeast...

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