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A Learning-Centered Approach to Developing aA Learning-Centered Approach to Developing a SyllabusSyllabus in the Predoctoral in the Predoctoral

Competency-based Education ProgramCompetency-based Education Program

A Learning-Centered SyllabusA Learning-Centered Syllabus

This is a training support tool to assist faculty in the design of a learning-centered syllabus that is in alignment with the competency-based education approach of the predoctoral program. A learning-centered syllabus refers to a syllabus that emphasizes learning and presents it from the students’ point of view. It is intentionally designed by the course director to clearly convey what predoctoral students will learn and be able to do by the end of the course, why they should care about learning it, how it links to the attainment of general dentistry practice competencies, how it fits into the big picture of being a general dentist, how it relates to other predoctoral courses they have taken or are currently taking in the curriculum, and what students will need to do to be successful in the course. This is in contrast to a syllabus that is written from the teachers’ point of view—what one will teach and when one will teach it.

A learning-centered syllabus supports the predoctoral program’s competency-based education approach because it focuses on learning knowledge, skills, and attitudes that lead to the attainment of the general dentistry practice competencies and develops self-directed learners. To become competent general dentists, students must be clear about the process and outcomes of their learning. Therefore, the course syllabus you design is your opportunity to help predoctoral students transition into and/or progress through the school’s competency-based education program. The syllabus does this by clearly describing what students will learn in the course, how the course contributes to student attainment of certain competencies, and what role and responsibilities that you expect predoctoral students to take in your course (and in a professional school). While providing this basic information and establishing expectations, the syllabus is also an important learning tool that will support the building of

Copyright © Trustees of Boston University 1996. All rights reserved. Office of Educational Research and EvaluationUpdated: 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, 1998

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specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes using activities and assignments that promote active, inquiry-based learning efforts.

With the predoctoral program’s shift from a requirement-based curriculum to a competency-based curriculum over a decade ago, we have discussed in faculty seminars and committee meetings the importance of predoctoral students taking a more active role in monitoring and managing their learning and faculty increasing their role as facilitator of learning and decreasing their role as mainly a disseminator of knowledge. Further, we have discussed the importance of helping predoctoral students develop the capability to think critically and use evidence, as they will practice general dentistry in a world where the information rapidly changes. This means that they must be able to recognize when more information is needed, how to locate and evaluate the information, and decide how to best use it.

This change in how we think about what and how we teach and what and how student learning is best supported should be conveyed in the course syllabus. A syllabus that solely lists the class schedule and topics does not help predoctoral students understand how to think about their progress toward the attainment of competencies, or the basics about how to learn in a competency-based education program, or their self-directed role in their learning process. The increased emphasis on student learning suggests that the syllabus should move from a summary of what and when you will teach to what the students will learn, how it links to the attainment of competencies, how it fits into the big picture of being a general dentist, and what students will need to do to be successful in the course.

For predoctoral students who have had previous educational experiences where they were perhaps more passive listeners in a classroom, assuming a more active role and taking responsibility for managing their own learning can be difficult. For some students with cultural backgrounds where posing questions to the teacher or voicing opinions in the classroom is perceived as perhaps inappropriate or disrespectful behavior, this new expectation of them can be particularly challenging. The course syllabus you give to them is your chance to begin to help them transition into and take on this possibly new self-directed role.


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Basic Sections of the Learning-Centered Course SyllabusBasic Sections of the Learning-Centered Course Syllabus

The course syllabus serves a number of purposes that will support student learning in the predoctoral competency-based education program. As a course director in the predoctoral program, you are advised to include fifteen basic sections in the design of your syllabus.

Although this list summarizes what to write, it is important to be attentive to how you write the syllabus. The way in which you write your syllabus, that is, how you state why the course is important, how the sessions will be conducted, assignments, testing, amount of interaction permitted in the class, office hours, and so forth tells students a lot about you. It conveys your outlook toward students and their hope for success. It sets the tone for the course. When you read your current syllabus, ask yourself, “What kind of tone does it convey? What kind of message does it send about you and your attitude concerning students, learning, and teaching? Does it signal a sense of being student-centered?”

1.1. Title, Contact Information, Table of ContentsTitle, Contact Information, Table of ContentsThis section of the syllabus is where you present to students the name and number of the course, the date, course director name(s), instructor name(s), where and how the course director(s) and instructor(s) can be contacted via phone, e-mail, and/or fax, web-page address, and any copyright information. Since the syllabus is designed as a reference guide for students, it will usually be read in a non-linear fashion. This suggests that it is important to consider including a table of contents to make it easy to navigate through all its pages.

2.2. Description of the CourseDescription of the CourseThis section of the syllabus is where you present to students an overview or brief summary of what the course is about, how the course will be conducted (e.g., lecture format, small group discussions, simulated exercises, use of CourseInfo via the web), its competency-based orientation, the activities and assignments, the role of the instructors, the role of the student, standards for quality, your general outlook to learning and teaching in the course, and/or desire for them to enjoy and be successful in the course.


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Often the heading “Course Description” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes the course might be titled something like, “What is this course about?”

3.3. Purpose of the CoursePurpose of the CourseThis section of the syllabus is where you convey to students why the course exists, why the course is important to their goal of being a general dentist, how it relates to the general dentistry practice competencies, how this course fits in with the other courses they are taking during this same semester, and how this course fits into the rest of the curriculum.

Often the heading “Course Purpose” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes the course purpose might be titled something like, “Why am I taking this course?” or “How is this course relevant to me being a general dentist?”

4.4. Course Link to Competencies & SubcompetenciesCourse Link to Competencies & SubcompetenciesThis section of the syllabus is where you convey to students what specific competencies and subcompetencies are linked to the course. It is important to include the number of the competency (1-20) and the letter of the subcompetency (A, B, etc.).

Often the heading “Course Link to Competencies and Subcompetencies” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes the course link might be titled something like, “What competencies and subcompetencies does this course support?” or “What competencies and subcompetencies will I be working on during this course?” or “How does this course relate to my progression toward competency?”

Keep in mind that at the start of the program, predoctoral students are oriented to what competency-based education is about, what it means to progress toward competency, how to know when one is competent, and


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what specific competencies they are expected to attain by graduation. As students progress through the courses in the curriculum, it is essential that all course directors and instructors continue to clarify and reinforce why and how courses are sequenced and structured to support student attainment of the general dentistry practice competencies. This enables students to continually focus on the process and outcomes of learning. It also helps students progressively understand what it means to be in a competency-based education program. As you have experienced as faculty, the concepts and principles of competency-based education take time to absorb and internalize.

5.5. Learning Objectives or Learning OutcomesLearning Objectives or Learning OutcomesNow that students are clear about the what and why of the course and how it is linked to competencies, this section of the syllabus is where you communicate to them what they will be able to know and do by the end of the course. Providing students with learning objectives that contain clear outcomes is an important feature of the syllabus because these outcomes serve as the measure of “accountability.” Objectives provide a clear, concrete plan for what is to be accomplished in the course. When students have a clear idea of what they are expected to accomplish, when, and why it is important to their ultimate goal of being a good general dentist they are more likely to rise to the occasion and perform accordingly.

Often the heading “Learning Objectives” or “Learning Outcomes” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes the learning objectives or outcomes might be phrased something like, “What will I know and be able to do by the end of the course?”

It is advised that course directors use higher-level thinking objectives, where best applicable. Higher-level thinking objectives are those that require students to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information. This is in contrast to lower-level thinking objectives that require students to state, recognize, or simply recall information. Instruction that is focused on higher-level thinking objectives enables students to build capabilities for critical thinking, problem solving, and evidenced-based reasoning that


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supports clinical decision making. To help you write learning objectives, see Tables 1 and 2 at the end of this document for a listing of the major thinking levels and the verbs associated with each level and the basics steps for writing learning objectives (pages 14-15).

6.6. Prior Knowledge and SkillPrior Knowledge and SkillThis section of the syllabus is where you convey to students the specific course prerequisites they should have to be most successful in the course. This means describing what knowledge and skills they should have learned before starting the course, why it is important to have a solid understanding of them in order to be successful in the course, and where to review and/or learn these prerequisites if they do not have them. The term prerequisite is also called prior knowledge and skill.

Often the heading “Prior Knowledge and Skill” or “Prerequisite Knowledge and Skill” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes prior knowledge and skill might be phrased something like, “What should I already know and be able to do so that I can be successful in this course?” or “What should I already know and be able to do upon starting in this course?” or “What concepts and procedures will I be building upon in this course?”

This section of the syllabus is very important because prior knowledge has an enormous influence on learning outcomes. Research studies have shown a strong positive relationship between the quantity and quality of prior knowledge and acquiring knowledge in a course. The depth, breadth, and quality of prior knowledge is a strong predictor of what can ultimately be learned in a course. This is because knowledge is structured like a large network or spider web of information. Prior knowledge enables students to accurately and adequately assimilate the new information into this existing network in their minds (their existing knowledge base). This means that learning depends upon the availability of an existing cognitive network or structure which can be first activated (to recall and retrieve what is already known) and new information attached to it. So when the necessary prior knowledge is in place, learning can effectively occur. In so much as prior knowledge can enable learning to occur, inaccurate or


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incorrect prior knowledge can be more of a detriment to learning than having no prior knowledge at all. Inaccurate or incorrect prior knowledge actually hinders and interferes with learning. This is because changing or correcting knowledge is more difficult than acquiring initial knowledge (conceptual change versus conceptual acquisition). It is important, therefore, to adequately assess prior knowledge (see #7 below).

7.7. Pretesting for Prior Knowledge and SkillPretesting for Prior Knowledge and SkillThis section of the syllabus is where you convey to students that you use pretesting and why it is used in the course. Since the nature and scope of prior knowledge has a positive and negative impact on learning outcomes in a course, it is important to use pretesting.

Often the heading “Pretesting Your Knowledge and Skill” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes pretesting might be phrased something like, “How can I self-test myself to know if I have the prior knowledge and skill needed to be successful in this course?”

Prestesting is an important aspect of competency-based education. It is done for two reasons. First, it is used to determine the quantity and quality of prior knowledge and skill to determine how learning will be possibly influenced. This permits students to self-diagnose themselves to make sure that they have a “working knowledge” of the prerequisites, or take the opportunity to seek additional instructional support, if indicated.

Second, pretesting is used to adequately measure any changes in learning. To know what students have learned in a course, it is important to assess what they already know. Performance on pretests can be compared to posttest scores attained at the end of the course. Only by knowing what students knew at the start of the course can a measure of what was learned as a result of the course be determined. This pretest and posttest situation can measure a change in learning that a midterm or final examination alone cannot do. Using only a midterm and final examination permits you to say, “This is what students know at this point in the curriculum.” Adding pretesting to midterm and final examinations


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permits you to make this same statement, but also go further to say, “This is what students learned as a result of this course.” These are two different statements. One is about a change in learning and another is about knowledge level.

Pretesting can be done through self-estimates and expert judgment, but these tend to not be accurate measures. Pretesting is best done through testing formats such a multiple choice, matching, rating, completion, recognition and open-ended questions. It is common for syllabi in competency-based education to include self-assessment tools and pretests.

8.8. Roles and Responsibilities in LearningRoles and Responsibilities in LearningThis section of the syllabus is where you convey your expectations of the students’ role in their own learning process. If problem solving, clinical decision-making, and thinking like a general dentist are part of your course, then the syllabus can tell students what they will be expected to do and give examples of what this looks like—to ask questions, challenge ideas, make clinical correlations, attend sessions, actively participate in small group discussions, use the web-page for updates and printing information, carry out self-directed study, recognize the level of commitment, be aware of standards, understand how to be successful in the course, and acknowledge expected attitude, tolerance, professionalism, etc.

Similarly, it is beneficial to describe your role and what students can expect from you as the teacher—content expert, facilitator, coach, advisor, example, role model, resource, student advocate, expert authority in a particular area, etc.

Often the heading “Student Role in the Course” and “Faculty Role in the Course” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes the roles and responsibilities might be phrased something like, “What is my role and responsibilities in the course?” or “As a student in this course, what is expected of me?” or “What can I expect of myself and the faculty in this course?”


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9.9. How to Learn in the CourseHow to Learn in the CourseThis section of the syllabus is where you convey to students how to best learn in the course. This is where you provide different strategies and tips that you have found helpful for other students in this course. This may include how to take notes during class, how to use the handouts most effectively, how to read chapters online, how to do the assignments, where to focus and not focus, how to prepare for assessment and testing, how to study with others, how to self-manage, how to use the syllabus, how to self-manage in a small group activity, etc. Other ideas to consider include sets of study questions, previously used examinations and cases, and/or a learning style inventory that help students self-diagnose their learning style so as to helps students understand how they learn best.

Often the heading “How to Learn in the Course” or “Tips for Learning” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes how to learn might be titled something like, “What are the best ways I can learn the material in this course?”

Keep in mind that students progress through learning stages. They start as beginners or novices, progress to a more intermediate stage, and advance toward competency. The shift in stages is a consequence of their learning process that creates a change in knowledge level, skills, and attitudes. The stages are distinct changes in thought processes and strategies used. Beginner or novice students are those who are working to build well integrated knowledge networks (see #6 Prior Knowledge and Skill). They tend to spend much of their effort on creating and developing this knowledge network. A particular challenge for novice students is separating important from unimportant information in articles, books, handouts, etc. Therefore, highlighting strategies for how to best learn in a course is very important for novice students. The shift from novice to the intermediate stage is not merely a consequence of more knowledge, but also creating a more organized knowledge network that is structured around key concepts and principles. Information is more integrated and linked in multiple ways that make recall easier and faster. As students progress toward competency, they are freed from the effort of trying to


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create an accurate, well-knitted knowledge base and discerning important from unimportant information, therefore, focus more effort on extracting greater meaning and applying and reapplying knowledge so that is it is real “working knowledge.”

10.10. Course ScheduleCourse ScheduleThis section of the syllabus is where you convey to students the meeting times and course content. The schedule aspect of the syllabus design is most familiar to course directors. The schedule indicates the topics, meeting times, dates, room numbers, testing dates, and assignment due dates. If dates and times should have to be changed, the syllabus communicates where and how students will be notified of any changes in the schedule. The details about when sessions meet and how students should prepare for each session is information that helps students plan their schedule and direct their efforts. This allows students to have some personal control in monitoring and managing their learning.

Often the heading “Course Schedule” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes the schedule might be phrased something like, “When and where will we meet and what will I learn each time?”

11.11. Learning Assignments and ActivitiesLearning Assignments and ActivitiesThis section of the syllabus is where you inform students of what they are expected to do outside of class. Reading assignments are common, but it is beneficial to include other types of assignments like online searching for information, working in small groups to analyze a case or literature findings, completing study questions, and/or solving problem sets. Since dentistry is grounded in science, it is important to use learning assignments and activities that are inquiry-based and/or evidenced-based, where possible. This means using activities that follow the scientific method such as posing questions to answer, posing problems to solve, searching for evidence from multiple sources to draw defensible conclusions, reviewing and critiquing research literature, ruling out alternative hypotheses or competing explanations, and so forth.


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Often the heading “Assignments” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes assignments and activities might be titled something like, “What am I suppose to do outside of class?” or “What am I expected to do to help myself learn outside of class?

12.12. Formative Evaluation and ImprovementFormative Evaluation and ImprovementThis section of the syllabus is where you convey to students how you use formative evaluation in the course. In competency-based education, formative evaluation is an important feature. It serves to provide ongoing feedback to students about what they know and can do so that they can identify any gaps in the learning process. Gaps in learning can interfere or even prevent future learning, so it is important to monitor learning as one goes along. Formative evaluation enables students It helps them self-diagnose what they know and don’t know so they can continually monitor and direct their learning efforts in the course so they know how to pace themselves during the course—where and when to spend more time and effort. Formative evaluation activities include, for example, periodic quizzes, weekly study questions, cases, small group problem sets, and short essays.

Often the heading “Self-Monitoring” or “Self-Testing” or “Formative Evaluation” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes formative evaluation might be titled something like, “How will I know if I am learning as I go along in the course?” or “What kind of self-testing will I use to know if I am learning?” or “How will I monitor my learning before I get to the final exam?”

13.13. Summative Evaluation and GradingSummative Evaluation and GradingThis section of the syllabus is where you convey to students how they will be summatively evaluated, the weight or value of each kind of evaluation, and how these will be used to determine a final grade. There are two very important points to make with students:

First, it is important to explain that summative evaluation refers to how they are graded and used to measure their progress toward competency.


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For students to demonstrate that they are progressing toward competency, they need to pass different kinds of tests over time that builds a convincing pattern of evidence. The school’s policy statements can be used to communicate information about testing, remediation, academic honesty, and grading procedures (see Academic Affairs).

Second, it is also important to explain that because the predoctoral program uses a competency-based approach to education, testing and grading is based on achieving a certain standard, not on how well the class performs. This is called criterion-referenced testing and grading. Criterion-referenced testing refers to tests that compare student’s work to predetermined criteria and standards for excellence (absolute standard). It is a type of testing that gives evidence of a student’s knowledge or performance on specific, independently defined criteria. Test scores are interpreted by comparison with this predetermined criteria rather than by comparison with the scores of the class. This means it provides a sound basis for deeming a student competent or not.

This type of testing and grading that is used in a competency-based education program is in contrast to that which is norm-referenced. Norm-referenced testing and grading reflects a student’s achievement, relative to how other students in the class have performed. This is often called grading on a curve. This method of grading is not used in the predoctoral program because it doesn’t indicate how much or how little each student has learned or attained, but rather only where they stand in relationship to the class (relative standard). A student can earn a B grade because some students did somewhat better on the test and others did less so, but the student may know very little or have performed quite poorly on a test because the rest of the class did. It focuses on ranking student performance, as opposed to attaining a certain level of expected performance. This means it does not provide a sound basis for deeming a student competent or not.

Often the heading “Grading” or “Summative Evaluation” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes summative evaluation might be titled something like, “How will I be graded?”


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14.14. Course Improvement and Student FeedbackCourse Improvement and Student FeedbackThis section of the syllabus is where you inform students about the improvements you have made in the course as a result of course evaluations. This kind of information signals to students that their ideas and opinions matter to you. It shows that you are continually seeking to improve the course for the sake of students. Sharing some of last year's feedback from the course evaluation report means highlighting just a few key ideas that you acted upon as a result of the feedback (e.g., added more handouts on a certain topic, revised some of the slides, added more cases). If you want to include a copy of the survey used to obtain their feedback at the end of the course, see the Office of Educational Research and Evaluation for a sample copy to insert in your syllabus.

Often the heading “Previous Student Feedback on the Course” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes course feedback might be titled something like, “What improvements have the course director made to the course?” or “What changes were made in the course since last time?”

15.15. Learning ResourcesLearning ResourcesThis last section of the syllabus is where you offer students different kinds of resources to support learning and encourage their use in the course. Resources include web pages, textbooks, CDs or DVDs, journal articles, reference lists, labs, learning centers, media centers, study questions, cases, and individuals such as faculty members, 4 th-year students, alumni, or reference librarians. Providing detailed information about location and availability is important.

Often the heading “Learning Resources” is used. But another way to think about writing the title for this section is to use a question from a student point of view. For example, a section that describes learning resources might be phrased something like, “What resources should I consider using to help me learn?”


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Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis EvaluationDefine Translate Interpret Distinguish Compose JudgeName Describe Apply Analyze Plan AppraiseList Discuss Employ Associate Propose EvaluateState Restate Use Differentiate Design RateRecall Recognize Demonstrate Appraise Formulate ValueLabel Explain Dramatize Calculate Arrange ReviseRelate Express Practice Experiment Assemble ScoreUnderline Identify Illustrate Test Collect SelectRepeat Locate Operate Compare Construct ChooseRecord Report Schedule Contrast Create Assess

Review Shop Diagram Set up EstimateTell Sketch Inspect Organize CritiqueAccumulate Associate Debate Manage DecideApproximate Average Inventory Prepare DiscriminateArrange Balance Question Argue GradeChart Calculate Relate Build PraiseClassify Compute Solve Collate QualifyConvert Determine Examine Conceptualize RejectEnumerate Dissect Categorize Debate SupportExtrapolate Experiment Associate Develop meansGather Data Equate Correlate DeviseEstimate Indicate Analyze JustifyGeneralize Measure Deduce DrawGive Examples Order Detect ForecastGraph Play Disassociate Generate ideasGroup Recast Distinguish HypothesizeInterpolate Solve Divide InduceMatch Strive for mastery Doubt InstructOrder Test Examine InterrelateOutline Transpose Infer InventParaphrase Use instrument Interrogate ReportPlot Use references Look for trends SpeculatePredict Utilize Question StructureRank Weigh Recognize error TeachRead a scale Survey WriteSort VerifySummarize

Table 1: Examples of verbs to use in writing learning objectives categorized by the six main levels of thinking. Adapted from B. S.

Bloom et al., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain.


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Steps For Writing Learning Objectives

Writing clear, meaningful learning objectives is easy when you follow these three basic steps:

1. Select a verb that expresses behavior you and the student can readily see.

2. Describe the situation under which the action verb takes place.3. Describe how well the student is expected to perform.

Select a verb that expresses behavior you and students can readily see.

This is called the Performance aspect of the learning objective. Some verbs express physical action like “write” a treatment plan or “chart” caries. Other verbs describe a mental activity like “solve” a problem or “identify” multiple treatment options. Avoid ambiguous, fuzzy verbs like “to know,” “to understand,” or “to value” because these do not describe an observable action and they are prone to a wide range of interpretations. They refer to performance that cannot be observed directly. If you find yourself wanting to use these types of verbs ask yourself, “What does ‘to know’ look like?” “What does it look like if ‘I understand’?” “How would someone else recognize ‘to value’ if I was demonstrate it in the clinic?” Your answers to these kinds of questions will help you select the correct kind of action verbs that can be directly observed and are useful for writing learning objectives. When you can see the behavior then you can monitor how close you are getting to the learning objective or outcome and know when you finally get there. See Lists 1 and 2 below for examples of common action verbs used to write learning objectives and fuzzy verbs that should be not used because they do not express a directly observable action.

Describe the situation under which the action verb takes place.

This is called the Condition aspect of the learning objective. It means to think about the circumstances under which the student will pursue the learning objective. Will s/he do it within a certain period of time over the next month?—“Are there timelines?” Will s/he do it independently or with assistance from others?—“Are others involved?” Will s/he do it regularly, weekly, or monthly?—“What is the frequency?” Will s/he be allowed to use certain kinds of materials or resources in the school? How detailed should you be on the conditions? Detailed enough to be sure that the desired performance will be recognized by students and detailed enough so that students understand what is expected as YOU intend it.

Describe how well you will be expected to perform.

This is called the Standards aspect of the learning objective. Up to this point you have established what students are going to do and under what conditions. Now it is time to state how well students will be able to do it. This means to use words that describe an acceptable performance level – that is, use words that get at the quality of the performance students must work toward or exceed. Some of the common ways used to describe standards include: (a) time limits, (b) accuracy of performance, (c) Clinically acceptable/not acceptable, (d) thoroughness, (e) acceptable deviation from excellence or some other standard, (e) percentage of correct answers, and (f) number of errors permitted.


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Action VerbsList 1

Here is a partial listing of action verbs that you might consider using.

to chart to designto conduct to implementto analyze to collectto arrive to reviewto operate to diagramto prepare to writeto develop to experimentto evaluate to pilot testto set up to reproduceto present to organizeto collaborate to composeto talk to critiqueto self-assess to demonstrate

FuzzyVerbsList 2

Verbs that are open to a wide range of interpretation are not useful for writing clear learning objectives. Here is a partial listing of fuzzy verbs to avoid.

to know to enjoyto understand to thinkto really understand to believeto value to conceptualizeto fully appreciate to grasp the true meaning ofto role model to symbolize

Table 2: Basic steps for writing learning objectives.


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