a complete grammar of esperanto

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ProjectGutenberg'sACompleteGrammarofEsperanto,byIvyKellermanReed

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Title:ACompleteGrammarofEsperanto

Author:IvyKellermanReed

PostingDate:December4,2010[EBook#7787]ReleaseDate:March,2005FirstPosted:May25,2003LastUpdated:November13,2004

Language:English

Charactersetencoding:UTF8

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ProducedbyWilliamW.Patterson,CarloTraverso,CharlesFranksandtheOnlineDistributedProofreadingTeam.WethanktheCaseWesternReserveUniversityLibraryPreservationDepartmentthathasgivenustheimagefileswithwhichthepresentebookhasbeenprepared.

TRANSCRIBER'SNOTE:

TheEsperantoalphabetcontains28characters.ThesearethecharactersofEnglish,butwith"q","w","x",and"y"removed,andsixdiacriticallettersadded.Thediacriticallettersare"c","g","h","j"and"s"withcircumflexes(or"hats",asEsperantistsfondlycallthem),and"u"withabreve.Zamenhofhimselfsuggestedthatwherethediacriticalletterscauseddifficulty,onecouldinsteaduse"ch","gh","hh","jh","sh"and"u".AplainASCIIfileisonesuchplace;therearenoASCIIcodesforEsperanto'sspecialletters.

However,therearetwoproblemswithZamenhof's"hmethod".Thereisnodifferencebetween"u"and"u"withabreve,andthereisnowaytodetermine(withoutpriorknowledgeoftheword(s)involved,andsometimesabitofcontext)whetheran"h"followingoneofthoseotherfivelettersisreallythesecondhalfofadiacriticalpair,orjustan"h"thathappenedtofinditselfnexttooneofthem.Consequentlyother,unambiguous,methodshavebeenusedovertheyears.Oneisthe"xmethod",whichusesthedigraphs"cx",



"gx","hx","jx","sx"and"ux"torepresentthespecialletters.Thereisnoambiguitybecausetheletter"x"isnotanEsperantoletter,andeachdiacriticalletterhasauniquetransliteration.ThisisthemethodusedinthisProjectGutenbergetext.

ACOMPLETE

GRAMMAROFESPERANTO

THEINTERNATIONALLANGUAGE

WITHGRADEDEXERCISESFORREADINGANDTRANSLATION

TOGETHERWITHFULLVOCABULARIES

BYIVYKELLERMAN,A.M.,PH.D.

MEMBEROFTHEEXECUTIVECOMMITTEEANDCHAIRMANOFEXAMINATIONSFORTHEESPERANTOASSOCIATIONOFNORTHAMERICA,MEMBER

OFTHEINTERNATIONALLINGVAKOMITATO

TO

DR.L.L.ZAMENHOF

THEAUTHOROFESPERANTO

PREFACE.

Thisvolumehasbeenpreparedtomeetatwofoldneed.AnadequatepresentationoftheInternationalLanguagehasbecomeanimperativenecessity.Suchpresentation,includingfullandaccurategrammaticalexplanations,suitablygradedreadinglessons,andsimilarlygradedmaterialfortranslationfromEnglish,hasnotheretoforebeenaccessiblewithinthecompassofasinglevolume,orinfactwithinthecompassofanytwoorthreevolumes.

Thecombinationofgrammarandreaderhereofferedisthereforeunique.ItistofurnishnotmerelyanintroductiontoEsperanto,orasuperficialacquaintancewithit,butagenuineunderstandingofthelanguageandmasteryofitsusewithoutrecoursetoadditionaltextbooks,readers,etc.Inotherwords,thisonevolumeaffordsascompleteaknowledgeofEsperantoasseveralyears'studyofagrammarand



variousreaderswillaccomplishforanynationallanguage.Inflection,wordformationandsyntaxarepresentedclearlyandconcisely,yetwithadegreeofcompletenessandinasystematicorderthatconstituteanewfeature.Otherpointsworthyofnotearethefollowing:

Thereasonsforsyntacticalusagesaregiven,insteadofmerestatementsthatsuchusagesexist.Forexample,clausesofpurposeandofresultarereallyexplained,insteadofbeingdismissedwiththeunsatisfactoryremarkthat"theimperativefollowsporke,"orthe"useoftiel...keandtia...kemustbedistinguishedfromthatoftiel...kielandtia...kia,"etc.,withbutlittleintimationofwhenandwhyporke,tiel...keandtia...kearelikelytooccur.

Affixesarenotmentioneduntilsomefamiliaritywiththegeneralcharacterofthelanguageisassured,aswellasthepossessionofafairvocabulary.Theyareintroducedgradually,withadequateexplanationandillustration.Ofimportanceinconnectionwithwordformationisanelementdistinctlynewtheexplanationandclassificationofcompoundwords.Suchwords,likeaffixes,arewithhelduntiltheuseofsimplewordsisfamiliar.

Anothernewfeatureisthegradualintroductionofcorrelativewordsintheirlogicalorder,andintheirpropergrammaticalcategories,beforetheyarecalled"correlatives,"ortabulated.Thetabulationfinallypresentedisarealclassification,withregardtothemeaningandgrammaticalcharacterofthewords,notmerelyanarbitraryalphabeticalarrangement.Theuseofprimaryadverbsprecedestheexplanationofadverbderivationprepositions,especiallyde,da,je,etc.,receivecarefulattention,alsotheverbsystem,andthedifferentiationofwordswhoseEnglishequivalentsareambiguous.

Ageneralcharacteristicofobviousadvantageisthatalmostwithoutexceptionnewformsandconstructionsareillustratedbymeansofwordsorrootsalreadyfamiliar.Likewise,thenewwordsorrootsofeachlessonrecuratleastonceinthenextlesson,andusuallyinsomelessonthereafteraswell.Eachreadingexercisegivesnotonlyathoroughapplicationofthegrammaticalprinciplesofthelesson,butareviewofthoseintheprecedinglesson,andnouseismadeofwordsorconstructionsnotyetexplained.Thecomparativeeaseofthelanguage,andthelackofnecessityforrecitingparadigms,permitthereadingexercisestobelongenoughforthestudenttofeelthathehasreallymasteredsomething.Theseexercisesarefurtherunique,inthateachafterthefifthisacoherentnarrative,andnearlyeveryoneisastoryofgenuineinterestinitself.Thesestories,ifboundseparately,wouldaloneconstituteareaderequivalenttothoseusedinfirstandsecondyearworkinnationallanguages.(Forlistoftitles,seeTableofContents.)

ThesecondelementofthetwofoldneedwhichthisvolumemeetsisthenecessityforapresentationofEsperanto,notasathingapart,butinthatformwhichwillmakeitmostserviceableasanintroductiontonationaltongues.Asteppingstonetobothancientandmodernlanguages,Esperantomayrenderinvaluableaid,andpavethewayforsurmountingthemanydifficultiesconfrontingbothstudentandteacher.ThroughEsperanto,thelaborintheacquirementoftheselanguagesmaybereducedinthesameproportioninwhichthepleasureandthoroughnessofsuchacquirementareincreased.Forthisreason,thegrammaticalconstructionsofEsperantoarehereexplainedasconsistentlyaspossibleinaccordancewiththeusageofnationallanguages,especiallythoseintheschoolcurriculum,andprecisenamesareassignedtothem.Suchmattersascontrarytofactconditions,indirectquotations,clausesofpurposeandofresult,accusativesoftimeandmeasure,expressionsofseparation,reference,etc.,thusbecomefamiliartothestudent,longbeforehemeetstheminthemoredifficultgarbofanationaltongue,whoseexceptionsseemtooutnumberitsrules,andwhoseidiomsprovemorepuzzlingthanitsexceptions,unlessapproachedbythesmoothandgradualascentoftheInternationalLanguage,Esperanto.

IVYKELLERMAN.



WASHINGTON,D.C.,August3,1910.

TABLEOFCONTENTS.

LESSON

I. Alphabet.Vowels.Consonants.NamesoftheLetters.Diphthongs.CombinationsofConsonants.Syllables.Accent.

II. Nouns.TheArticle.Adjectives.AttributiveAdjectives.PresentTenseoftheVerb

III. ThePluralNumber.PredicateAdjectiveandNoun

IV. TransitiveVerbs.TheAccusativeCase.TheConjunctionKaj.TheNegativeNe.

V. TheComplementaryInfinitive.Interrogation.TheConjunctionNek.

VI. PersonalPronouns.AgreementwithPronouns.ConjugationoftheVerb.

VII. ThePastTense.Prepositions.AccusativeCaseofPersonalPronouns.

VIII. ReflexivePronouns.ReflexiveVerbs.

IX. LimitationoftheThirdPersonalPronoun.PossessiveAdjectives.PronominalUseofPossessiveAdjectives.LaKatokajlaPasero.

X. TheAccusativeofDirection.TheArticleforthePossessiveAdjective.Apposition.LaArabokajlaKamelo.

XI. PossessiveCaseofNouns.ImpersonalVerbs.VerbsPrecedingtheirSubjects.CoordinatingConjunctions.LaAraboenlaDezerto.

XII. IndirectStatements.TheIndefinitePersonalPronounOni.TheFutureTense.LaVentoflago.

XIII. TheDemonstrativePronounTiu.TensesinIndirectQuotations.FormationofFeminineNouns.EnlaParko.

XIV. TheDemonstrativePronounitiu.PossessiveFormoftheDemonstrativePronoun.TheSuffixIl.TheExpressionofMeansorInstrumentality.LaMano.

XV. TheDemonstrativeAdjective.AdverbsDefinedandClassified.FormationofOpposites.LaRuzaJunaViro.

XVI. TheDemonstrativeAdverbofPlace.Accompaniment.TheAdverbFor.TheMeaningofPovi.MalamikojenlaDezerto.

XVII. TheDemonstrativeTemporalAdverb.ComparisonofAdjectives.MannerandCharacteristic.Diri,ParoliandRakonti.FrederikoGrandakajlaJunaServisto.

XVIII. TheDemonstrativeAdverbofMotiveorReason.DerivationofAdverbs.ComparisonofWordsExpressingQuantity.ComparisonsContainingOl.CausalClauses.PrilaSezonoj.



XIX. JuandDesinComparisons.ThePrepositionInter.ThePrepositionPro.PrepositionswithAdverbsandOtherPrepositions.LaAtunokajlaVintro.

XX. TheDemonstrativeAdverbofMannerandDegree.PrepositionsExpressingTimeRelations.EnSeptembro.

XXI. TheAccusativeofTime.AdverbsandtheAccusativeofTime.ThePrepositionPor.LaSezonojkajlaMondo.

XXII. ClausesExpressingDurationofTime.ClausesExpressingAnticipation.TheInfinitivewithAnstata,Por,Antaol.TheExpressionofaPartoftheWhole.DiogenokajAleksandroGranda.

XXIII. AdverbsExpressingaPartoftheWhole.TheDemonstrativeAdverbofQuantity.ResultClauses.EnlaButiko.

XXIV. TheInterrogativePronoun.ThePresentActiveParticiple.CompoundTenses.TheProgressivePresentTense.TheSuffixEj.EnNiaDomo.

XXV. TheInterrogativeAdjective.TheImperfectTense.SalutationsandExclamations.WordFormation.KoniandScii.LaNepoVizitaslaAvinon.

XXVI. TheInterrogativeAdverbofPlace.ThePastActiveParticiple.AdverbDerivationfromPrepositions.AdverbsExpressingDirectionofMotion.TheSuffixEg.LaPluvego.

XXVII. TheInterrogativeTemporalAdverb.ThePerfectTense.ThePrepositione.TheSuffixAr.TempoandFojo.TheOrthographyofProperNames.RobertoBrucekajlaAraneo.

XXVIII. TheInterrogativeAdverbofMotiveorReason.TheInfinitiveasSubject.PresentActionwithPastInception.TheSuffixUl.LoiandVivi.PrilaAvokajlaAvino.

XXIX. TheInterrogativeAdverbofMannerandDegree.ThePluperfectTense.CardinalNumbers.TheAccusativeofMeasure.NiaFamilio.

XXX. TheInterrogativeAdverbofQuantity.ModifiersofImpersonallyUsedVerbs.FormationofCardinalNumerals.TheSuffixAn.LecionoPriAritmetiko.

XXXI. TheRelativePronoun.TheFuturePerfectTense.OrdinalNumerals.AlfredoGrandakajlaLibro.

XXXII. KiaasaRelativeAdjective.KieasaRelativeAdverb.TheFutureActiveParticiple.ThePeriphrasticFutureTenses.TheSuffixInd.AlfredoGrandakajlaKukoj.

XXXIII. KiamasaRelativeAdverb.KielasaRelativeAdverb.NumeralNounsandAdverbs.WordDerivationfromPrepositions.LaInvito.

XXXIV. PrepositionsasPrefixes.TheSuffixEbl.ExpressionoftheHighestDegreePossible.TitlesandTermsofAddress.elaFesto.

XXXV. KiomasaRelativeAdverb.ThePresentPassiveParticiple.Fractions.DescriptiveCompounds.Lainoj.

XXXVI. ThePresentPassiveTense.TheUseofDetoExpressAgency.TheGeneralMeaningofDe.WordDerivationfromPrimaryAdverbs.TheSuffixIst.AntikvaRespubliko.

XXXVII. TheDistributivePronoun.ThePrepositionPo.DependentCompounds.LaapelosurlaStango.



XXXVIII. TheDistributiveAdjective.TheImperfectPassiveTense.CompoundTensesofImpersonalVerbs.ReciprocalExpressions.TheSuffixUj.VilhelmoTellkajlaPomo.

XXXIX. TheDistributiveAdverbofPlace.TheFuturePassiveTense.PossessiveCompounds.TheTimeofDay.TheSuffixObl.EnlaStacidomo.

XL. TheDistributiveTemporalAdverb.TheDistributiveAdverbial.ThePastPassiveParticiple.ThePerfectPassiveTense.ThePrepositionLa.TheSuffixEm.LaPerditaInfano.

XLI. TheDistributiveAdverbiel.TheDistributiveAdverbiom.ThePluperfectPassiveTense.TheFuturePerfectPassiveTense.TheExpressionofMaterial.TheSuffixEt.LaDonaco.

XLII. TheFuturePassiveParticiple.ThePassivePeriphrasticFutureTenses.TheGenericArticle.TheSuffixEc.SurlaVaporipo.

XLIII. TheIndefinitePronoun.ParticipialNouns.ThePrefixEk.TheSuffixId.LaNestosurlaTendo.

XLIV. TheIndefiniteAdjective.TheIndefiniteAdverbofPlace.PredicateNominatives.LaevalokajlaSonorilo.

XLV. TheIndefiniteTemporalAdverb.TheIndefiniteAdverbIal.CausativeVerbs.EmphasisbyMeansofJa.elaMalnovaPonto.

XLVI. TheIndefiniteAdverbIel.TheIndefiniteAdverbIom.TheSuffixAd.TheUseofMem.ArimedokajlaKronoj.

XLVII. TheNegativePronoun.TheAdverbialParticiple.ThePrefixRe.LaFilozofoArimedo.

XLVIII. TheNegativeAdjective.TheNegativeAdverbofPlace.TheNegativeTemporalAdverb.TheSuffixA.TheAdverbJen.DuArtkonkursoj.

XLIX. TheNegativeAdverbsNenial,Neniel,Neniom.TheSuffixI.LaKrepusko.

L. ThePronounsendinginO.CorrelativeWords.TheUseofAjn.TheSuffixIng.LaGordiaLigao.

LI. ThePronounAmba.FormationswithIgandI.FactualConditions.LaMonaojkajlaAzeno.

LII. TheConditionalMood.CompoundTensesoftheConditionalMood.LessVividConditions.IndependentUseoftheConditionalMood.ThePrefixDis.PrilaGravitado.

LIII. ConditionsContrarytoFact.TheVerbDevi.ThePrepositionSen.LaFilozofoSokrato.

LIV. SummaryofConditions.ClausesofImaginativeComparison.TheUseofAltoExpressReference.TheSuffixEstr.LaOstracismodeAristejdo.

LV. TheImperativeMood.ResolveandExhortation.CommandsandProhibitions.LessPeremptoryUsesoftheImperative.TheUseofMoto.LaGlavodeDamoklo.



LVI. TheImperativeinSubordinateClauses.ThePrepositionJe.TheSuffixOp.LaMaradodelaDekmilGrekoj.

LVII. ClausesExpressingPurpose.FurtherUsesoftheAccusative.SynopsisoftheConjugationoftheVerb.TheSuffixUm.LaReiradodelaDekmilo.

LVIII. PermissionandPossibility.ThePrefixGe.TheSuffixA.Interjections.AleksandroGranda.

LIX. ThePositionofUnemphaticPronouns.SomeIntransitiveVerbs.TheSuffixEr.ThePrefixesBoandDuon.Correspondence.KelkajLeteroj.

LX. SomeTransitiveVerbs.Elision.ThePrefixEks.ThePrefixPra.TheSuffixesjandNj.WeightsandMeasures.TheInternationalMoneySystem.Abbreviations.PriLaKamero.

ESPERANTOENGLISHVOCABULARY.

ENGLISHESPERANTOVOCABULARY.

INDEX.

ACOMPLETEGRAMMAROFESPERANTO.

LESSONI.

ALPHABET.

1.TheEsperantoalphabetcontainsthefollowingletters:a,b,c,,d,e,f,g,,h,,i,j,,k,l,m,n,o,p,r,s,,t,u,,v,z.

VOWELS.

2.Thevowelsofthealphabetarepronouncedasfollows:

aasinfar.

easinfianc,likeainfate.

This"longa"soundinEnglishfrequentlyendswithavanish,abriefterminalsoundof,whichmakesthevowelslightlydiphthongal,asinday,aye.SuchavanishmustnotbegiventoanyoftheEsperantovowels.



iasinmachine.

oasintoll,for.

uasinrude,rural.

CONSONANTS.

3.Theconsonantsb,d,f,h,k,l,m,n,p,t,v,z,arepronouncedasinEnglish,andtheremainingelevenasfollows:

cliketsinhats,tsetse.

likechinchin,much.

glikegingo,big.

likegingem,jinjar.

isproducedbyexpellingthebreathforcibly,withthethroatonlypartiallyopen.

AsinpronouncingGermanandScotchch,Spanishj,Irishgh,Russianx,ClassicalGreeketc.Thereareonlyafewwordscontainingthisconsonant.

jlikeyinyes,beyond.

likezinazure,sinvisual.

risslightlytrilledorrolled.

slikesinsee,basis.

likeshinshine,rash,chinmachine.

likeworconsonantalu.SeeDiphthongs,5.

NAMESOFTHELETTERS.

4.Thevowelsarenamedbytheirsounds,asgivenin2.Thenamesoftheconsonantsarebo,co,o,do,fo,go,o,ho,o,jo,o,ko,lo,mo,no,po,ro,so,o,to,o,vo,zo.Theseareusedinspeakingoftheletters,inpronouncingtheminabbreviations,askotopofork.t.p.(=etc.),andinspellingwords,asbo,i,ro,do,o,birdo.

DIPHTHONGS.

5.Diphthongsarecombinationsoftwovowelsutteredasasinglesound,byonebreathimpulse.ThediphthongsinEsperantocontainaniorusoundasthesecondelement,butinordertoavoidconfusionwithcombinationsofvowelsnotformingdiphthongs(asinnaiva,likeEnglishnave,etc.),theyare



writtenwithjandinstead.Theirpronunciationisasfollows:

ajlikeaiinaisle.

ejlikeeiinvein,eyinthey.

ojlikeoiincoin,oyinboy.

ujlikeuiinruin,u(e)yingluey.

elikeaywinwayward,orlike(h)oopronouncedtogether.

alikeouinout,owinowl.

COMBINATIONSOFCONSONANTS.

6.Eachconsonant,inacombinationoftwoormoreconsonants,ispronouncedwithitsfullvalue,whetherwithinawordoratitsbeginning.Therearenosilentletters.

a.Thus,bothconsonantsareclearlysoundedinthegroupskn,kv,gv,sv,insuchwordsasknabo,kvin,gvidi,sviso.

b.Thecombinationkz,asinekzisti,ekzameno,mustnotbemodifiedtothegsorksrepresentedbyxinexist,execute.

c.Thecombinationsc,asinescepte,scias,isequivalenttothecombinationstsinlastsaid,firstsong,pronouncedtogetherrapidly.Thesinawordbeginningwithscmaybesoundedwiththeendoftheprecedingword,ifthatwordendsinavowel,asmisciasformiscias.

d.Thenandgarepronouncedseparatelyinthecombinationng,insuchwordsaslingvo,angulo,producingthesoundofngheardinlinger,notthatinsinger.

e.Eachoftwosimilarlettersisclearlysounded,asinterrilato,ellasi,likeinterrelate,welllaid.

SYLLABLES.

7.Eachwordcontainsasmanysyllablesasithasvowelsanddiphthongs.Thedivisionofsyllableswithinawordisasfollows:

a.Asingleconsonantgoeswiththefollowingvowel,aspano,bela,aero.

b.Aconsonantfollowedbylorr(whichareliquids)goeswiththelorr,asintablo,akra,agrabla.

c.Otherwise,thesyllabledivisionismadebeforethelastconsonantofthegroup,assuspekti,sankta,dekstra.

d.Prefixesareseparatedfromthewordstowhichtheyareattached,asdismeti,malakra,andcompoundwordsaredividedintotheircomponentparts,asefurbo,sunombrelo.



ACCENT.

8.Wordsofmorethanonesyllableareaccenteduponthesyllablebeforethelast,astblo,agrbla,suspkti.

WORDSFORPRACTICE.

9.(Tobepronouncedaloud,andcorrectlyaccented)Afero,trairi,najbaro,aero,hodia,pacienco,centono,ielo,e,samideano,treege,obei,obeu,Eropo,gvidi,ojo,iujn,justa,uste,jui,ado,lingvo,knabo,lara,pagi,kvieteco,ekzemplo,ellerni,fojo,krajono,forrajdi,kuirejo,evalejo,sankteco,scio,nescio,edzo,meze,duobla,ipo,ari,poo,svingi,sklavo,palaj,afao,atmosfero,monao,geometrio,ladi,vasta,eksplodi,senesa,sensencao,malluma,arbaranoj,mano,frea,askulti,dari.

LESSONII.

NOUNS.

10.Wordswhicharethenamesofpersonsorthingsarecallednouns.Theending,orfinalletter,ofnounsinEsperantoiso:

knabo,boy.evalo,horse.

pomo,apple.tablo,table.

THEARTICLE.

11.Thedefinitearticleisla,the,aslaknabo,theboy,laevalo,thehorse,latablo,thetable,lapomo,theapple.InEnglishthereisanindefinitearticle"a,an"forthesingular,butnonefortheplural.Esperantohasnoindefinitearticleforeithersingularorplural.Thereforeknabomaymeanboy,oraboy,pomomaymeanappleoranapple.

ADJECTIVES

12.Awordusedwithanoun(expressedorunderstood)toexpressaqualityorcharacteristiciscalledanadjective.TheendingofadjectivesinEsperantoisa:

bela,beautiful.flava,yellow.

granda,large.forta,strong.



ATTRIBUTIVEADJECTIVES.

13.Anadjectiveissaidtomodifyanounwhosequalityitexpresses.Whendirectlyprecedingorfollowingitsnoun,itiscalledanattributiveadjective:

lagrandaevalo,thelargehorse.belabirdo,abeautifulbird.floroflava,ayellowflower.fortaknabo,astrongboy.

PRESENTTENSEOFTHEVERB.

14.Wordswhichexpressactionorconditionarecalledverbs.Whenrepresentinganactorconditionasafact,anddealingwiththepresenttime,theyaresaidtobeinthepresenttense.TheendingofallEsperantoverbsinthepresenttenseisas:

kuras,runs,isrunning.flugas,flies,isflying.

brilas,shines,isshining.dormas,sleeps,issleeping.

15.Thepersonorthingwhoseactionorconditiontheverbexpressesiscalledthesubjectoftheverb:

Lasunobrilas,thesunshines(isshining),subject:suno.Knabokuras,aboyruns(isrunning),subject:knabo.

VOCABULARY.(Tobememorizedinthisandinallfollowinglessons.)

bela,beautiful.birdo,bird.blanka,white.bona,good.brilas,shines,isshining.evalo,horse.dormas,sleeps,issleeping.flava,yellow.floro,flower.flugas,flies,isflying.forta,strong,granda,large.

kaj,and.kantas,sings,issinging.knabo,boy.kuras,runs,isrunning.la,the.luno,moon.maras,walks,iswalking.pomo,apple.suno,sun.tablo,table.violo,violet.viro,man.

READINGLESSON.

1.Bonaviro.2.Lagrandatablo.3.Blankafloro.4.Flavabirdo.5.Labelabirdokantas.6.Fortaknabo



kuras.7.Labonaviromaras.8.Labelaevalokuras.9.Lasunobrilas.10.Birdoflugaskajknabokuras.11.evaloblankamaras.12.Labelalunobrilas.13.Laknabokantaskajlavirodormas.14.Belagrandapomo.15.Labonaknabokantas.16.Lagrandaevalodormas.17.Lasunobrilaskajlalunobrilas.18.Grandafortatablo.19.Violoflava.20.Labonaflavapomo.

SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.

1.Abeautifulflower.2.Agoodlargetable.3.Ayellowvioletandawhiteviolet.4.Themoonisshining(shines).5.Thegoodboyiswalking(walks).6.Thebeautifulyellowbirdisflying(flies).7.Thestrongmanissleeping(sleeps).8.Thewhitebirdissinging(sings).9.Astronghorseruns,andamanwalks.10.Thesunshines,andtheboyissinging(sings).11.Thelargeyellowapple.12.Anapplelargeandgood.

LESSONIII.

THEPLURALNUMBER.

16.Thepluralnumberofnouns,thatis,theformwhichindicatesmorethanonepersonorthing,ismadebyaddingjtothenoun,asviroj,men,fromviro,mantabloj,tables,fromtablo,table.

ojispronouncedlikeoyinboy.See5.

17.Anadjectivemodifyingapluralnounagreeswithitinnumber,beinggiventhepluralformbytheadditionoftheendingj.Anadjectivemodifyingtwoormorenounsusedtogetherisofcoursegiventhepluralform:

bonajviroj,goodmen.grandajevaloj,largehorses.belajbirdokajfloro(belabirdokajbelafloro),beautifulbirdand(beautiful)flower.

ajispronouncedlikeaiinaisle.See5.

18.Thearticleisinvariable,thatis,doesnotchangeinformwhenusedwithpluralnouns,aslaviro,theman,laviroj,themen.Theverbisalsoinvariableinform:

Lavirojmaras,themenwalk,themenarewalking.Lasunokajlalunobrilas,thesunandthemoonareshining.Laviroestas,themanis.Lavirojestas,themenare.

PREDICATEADJECTIVEANDNOUN.

19.Whentheadjectiveisapartofthatwhichistoldorpredicatedofthesubjectoftheverb,aswhenusedwiththeverbs"tobe,""toseem,"etc.,itiscalledapredicateadjective:



Labirdoestasbela,thebirdisbeautiful.Laknaboajnasbona,theboyseemsgood.Lavirojestasfortaj,themenarestrong.

20.Anounmayalsobeusedaspartofthepredicate,andisthencalledapredicatenoun:

Violojestasfloroj,violetsareflowers.Lakolomboestasbirdo,thedoveisabird.

21.Predicatenounsandadjectivesagreeinnumberwiththewordorwordswithwhichtheyareinpredicaterelation:

Rozojestasbelaj,rosesarebeautiful.Laknabokajlaviroajnasfortaj,theboyandthemanseemstrong.

VOCABULARY.

alta,high,tall.arbo,tree.ambro,room.domo,house.en,in.estas,is,are.folio,leaf.frea,fresh.ardeno,garden.kampo,field.

kolombo,dove.kuas,lies,islying,lie.longa,long.rozo,rose.rua,red.seo,chair.sidas,sits,sit,issitting.sur,on.ajnas,seems,seem.verda,green.

READINGLESSON.

1.Laaltaviroestasenlaardeno.2.Blankaevaloestasenlakampo.3.Belajbirdojsidassurlaverdaarbo.4.Labonajknabojestasenladomo.5.Laambrojenlabeladomoestasgrandaj.6.Freajflorojkuassurlatablo.7.Laviolojenlakampoestasbelaj.8.Lalunokajlasunoajnasgrandaj.9.Lakolombojestasbelajbirdoj.10.Laknabojajnasfortaj.11.Ruajpomojestassurlatabloenlaambro.12.Lafortajvirojsidassurseojenlalongaambro.13.Laarbojestasaltajkajverdaj.14.Lakolombojsurlaarbojkantas.15.Fortajevalojmaraskajkurasenlaverdajkampoj.16.Laknabojdormasenlagrandadomo.17.Ruaj,flavaj,kajverdajfoliojestasenlaardeno.18.Longatabloestasenladomo.19.Belajbirdojflugaskajkantasenlakampo.20.Freajrozojajnasbelaj.21.Lafoliojestasverdajkajruaj.


1.Thetreesinthegardenaretallandgreen.2.Theroomsinthehousearelong.3.Theflowersonthetablearered,yellowandwhite.4.Theleavesarelongandgreen.5.Themenaresitting(sit)onchairsinthegarden.6.Inthegardenareyellowroses.7.Thebirdsinthefieldaredoves.8.Theboysintheroominthehouseseemtall.9.Freshvioletsarebeautifulflowers.10.Thehorsesinthegreenfieldsseemstrong.11.Dovesaresinging(sing)inthegarden.12.Themeninthelargehousesleep.13.Thehouseis



longandhigh,andtheroomsinthehousearelarge.14.Redandyellowappleslieonthebigtable.15.Greenleavesareonthetreesinthelargegarden.

LESSONIV.

TRANSITIVEVERBS.

22.Theverbssofargivenhavebeenintransitiveverbs,expressingastateoranactionlimitedtothesubject,andnotimmediatelyaffectinganyotherpersonorthing,aslaknabokuras,theboyruns.Ontheotherhandatransitiveverbexpressesanactofthesubjectuponsomepersonorthingas,laknabotrovas,theboyfinds.

THEACCUSATIVECASE.

23.Thepersonorthingacteduponiscalledthedirectobjectofatransitiveverb,andisgiventheendingn.Thisiscalledtheaccusativeendingandthewordtowhichitisattachedissaidtobeintheaccusativecase:

Lavirohavasseon,themanhasachair.Laknabotrovasflorojn,theboyfindsflowers.

Theendingnfollowstheendingj,ifthewordtobeputintheaccusativecaseisinthepluralnumber.

24.Anattributiveadjectivemodifyinganounintheaccusativecaseismadetoagreeincase,byadditionofthesameaccusativeendingn.Thispreventsanydoubtastowhichoftwoormorenounsinasentenceismodifiedbytheadjective,andpermitsofvariationintheorderofthewords:

Laknabotrovasbelanfloron,theboyfindsabeautifulflower.Florojnbelajnlavirohavas,themanhasbeautifulflowers.Lavirohavasgrandanseon,themanhasalargechair.Ruanrozonlaknabohavas,theboyhasaredrose.

25.Apredicateadjectiveornoun(19)isneverintheaccusativecase,noristheaccusativeendingeverattachedtothearticle,whichisinvariableasstatedin18.

THECONJUNCTIONKAJ.

26.Intheexpressionboth...and...,theconjunctionkajisusedforbothwords,beingmerelyrepeated:

Lavirokajmaraskajkuras,themanbothwalksandruns.Laevaloestaskajgrandakajforta,thehorseisbothlargeandstrong.Laknabohavaskajrozojnkajviolojn,theboyhasbothrosesandviolets.Kajlaknabokajlaviroestasaltaj,boththeboyandthemanaretall.



THENEGATIVENE.

27.Thenegativewordmeaning"not"whenformingpartofasentence,and"no"whenusedasananswertoaquestion,isne.Whenusedasasentencenegative,itusuallyimmediatelyprecedestheverb.Foremphaticnegationofsomeotherwordthantheverb,nemayprecedethatword:

Violojneestasruaj,violetsarenotred.Lavirojnesidassurseoj,themenarenotsittingonchairs.Lakolombokantas,neflugas,thedoveissinging,notflying.Ladomoestasblanka,neverda,thehouseiswhite,notgreen.

VOCABULARY.

apud,near,inthevicinityof.benko,bench.brano,branch.diversa,various.felia,happy.frukto,fruit.havas,have,has.herbo,grass.ili,they.kolektas,gather,collect.

koloro,color.lara,wide,broad.manas,eat,eats.mola,soft.nigra,black.ne,not,no.rompas,break,breaks.sed,but.trovas,find,finds.vidas,see,sees.

READINGLESSON.

1.Laknabojneestasenlaambroenlablankadomo.2.Iliestasenlagrandaardeno.3.Laardenoajnaskajlongakajlara.4.Lafeliajknabojvidaslabelanardenon.5.Ilividasflorojnapudaltaarbo.6.Laflorojhavasdiversajnkolorojn.7.Laknabojkolektaskajruajnkajflavajnflorojn.8.Sedilinetrovasfruktojnenlaardeno.9.Florojnblankajnilinevidas.10.Laaltaarbohavasverdajnfoliojnsurlabranoj.11.Laknabojrompasbranon,kajkolektaslafruktojn.12.Ilividasflorojnsurlabranoj,sedlaflorojnilinekolektas.13.Laknabojnesidassurbenkojenlaardeno,sedkuassurlamolaherbo.14.Lakolombojsidassurlaarboj,kajiliestasfeliaj.15.Laknabojvidaslabelajnbirdojn.16.Fortajnigrajevalojmanaslaherbonenlakampo.17.Laknabojvidaslaevalojn,sedlaevalojnevidaslaknabojn.18.Laevalojnedormas,ilimanas.19.Lafreaherboestasverdakajmola.20.Feliajestaskajlaknabojkajlaevaloj.21.Lapomoestasbonafrukto.


1.Greenleavesareonthetrees.2.Theboysbreakbranchesandgathertheapples.3.Theyarenearthetalltreeinthegarden.4.Theyfindleavesonthetree,buttheydonotseethefruit.5.Thehouseislong,broadandhigh.6.Theroomsinthehousearebothlongandwide.7.Themenhavestrongblackhorses.8.Thehorseseatthefreshgreengrassinthefield.9.Themensitonbenchesinthegarden.10.Theboysdonotsleep,buttheylieonthesoftgrass.11.Theyseeboththebirdsandtheflowers,andtheyseemhappy.12.Theflowershavevariouscolors,butthegrassisgreen.13.Thedovesarenotsittingonthetree,theyareflyingnearthetrees.14.Beautifulredrosesarelyingonthetableinthehouse.15.The



largeredapplesareneartheyellowroses.

LESSONV.

THECOMPLEMENTARYINFINITIVE.

28.Theinfinitiveisaformoftheverbwhichexpressesmerelythegeneralideaoftheactionorconditionindicated,andhassomeofthecharacteristicsofanoun.Theendingoftheinfinitiveisi,askuri,torun,esti,tobe,havi,tohave.

29.Aninfinitiveusedtocompletethemeaningofanotherverb,servingasadirectobjecttoatransitiveverb,iscalledacomplementaryinfinitive.Ifthecomplementaryinfinitiveisfromatransitiveverb,itmayitselfhaveadirectobject:

Laknabovolaskuri,theboywishestorun.Birdojataskanti,birdsliketosing.Laknabovolashavievalon,theboywishestohaveahorse.Ilivolastroviflorojn,theywishtofindflowers.

INTERROGATION.

30.Aninterrogativesentenceisonewhichasksaquestion.Unlesssomedirectlyinterrogativeword(as"who,""when,""why,"etc.)isused,thesentenceisrenderedinterrogativebyuseofthewordu.Thisinterrogativeparticleisplacedatthebeginningofasentence,thewordsofwhichareleftinthesameorderasforastatement.Sincethereisnoinversionoforder,thereisnonecessityforawordlikeEnglish"do"or"does,"tointroducetheverb:

ulaknaboestasbona?Istheboygood?uilihavasflorojn?Havetheyflowers?ulakolombojkantas?Dothedovessing?(Arethedovessinging?)

THECONJUNCTIONNEK.

31.Intheexpressionneither...nor...,theconjunctionnekisusedforbothwords.Sinceanadjectivemodifieroftwoormorewordsconnectedbynekmustnecessarilymodifythemseparately,theadjectiveremainsinthesingularnumber:

Ilinekmarasnekkuras,theyneitherwalknorrun.Lavirohavasnekdomonnekardenon,themanhasneitherahousenoragarden.Neklarozoneklavioloestasverda,neithertherosenorthevioletisgreen.

VOCABULARY.(Verbswillhereafterbequotedintheinfinitiveform.)



bruna,brown.erizo,cherry.u,(30).dola,sweet.gusto,taste.i,it.Gertrude,Gertrude.knabino,girl.

matura,ripe.Mario,Mary.nek,neither,nor.persiko,peach.jes,yes.preferi,toprefer.ati,tolike.voli,towish.

READINGLESSON.

1.upersikoestasrua?2.Jes,iestaskajruakajdola.3.uerizojestasbrunaj?4.Ne,iliestasnekbrunajneknigraj,sedflavaj.5.ulapomoestasfrukto?Jes,iestasbonafrukto.6.ulavirokajlaknabohavaspomojn?7.Ne,ilihavasnekpomojnnekpersikojn.8.uMariohavaslamaturanfrukton?9.MariokajGertrudohavaslafrukton.10.Iliestasenladomo,kajmanaslamaturanfrukton.11.Lapersikojhavasdolanguston.12.Laknabinojvolashaviflorojn,sedlaknabojpreferaskolektidiversajnfruktojn.13.Ilivolastrovimaturajnerizojnkajflavajnpersikojn.14.Laerizojhavasbelanruankoloron.15.Lapersikojajnasmolajkajbonaj.16.Mariorompasbranon,kajvidaserizojnsurlabranoj.17.Gertrudoestasfelia,kajvolashavilabelanfrukton.18.Gertrudoestasalta,belaknabino.19.Marioataserizojn.20.Laknabojkajknabinojsidassurlaverdaherbo,kajmanaslaerizojn.21.Ilinevolasmanipomojn,ilipreferasladolajnerizojn.22.Lafoliojapudlaerizojestasneklarajneklongaj.


1.Havethegirlsbeautifulflowers?2.No,theyhavefreshfruit.3.Theboysdonotwishtogatherflowers.4.Theyprefertobreakthebranches,andfindthesweetcherries.5.Gertrudewishestoeatapples,butMaryhasneitherapplesnorpeaches.6.Dothegirlsliketositinthehouseandeatfruit?7.Yes,theyliketositinthehouse,buttheyprefertowalkinthefield.8.Areripepeachesbrown?9.No,theyareredandyellow.10.Hasthepeachasweettaste?11.Dothegirlsseethebeautifulblackhorsesinthefields?12.Yes,theyseethehorses,butthehorsesseemnottoseethegirls.13.Marysitsonthesoftgreengrass,andeatsripefruit.

LESSONVI.

PERSONALPRONOUNS.

32.Wordswhichstandintheplaceofnouns,as"you,""he,""who,""which,"arecalledpronouns.Pronounsreferringtothepersonspeaking(I,we),thepersonaddressed(you,thou),orthepersonorthingspokenof(he,she,it,they),arecalledpersonalpronouns.Theyareconsideredsingularorplural,accordingtowhethertheyrefertooneormorepersons.Sincethemeaningofsuchpronounsindicatesthenumber,nopluralendingiseverattachedtothem.Thepersonalpronounsare:



Singular. Plural.

Firstperson: mi,I(me). ni,we(us).

Secondperson: vi,you. vi,you.

Thirdperson:li,he(him).i,she(her).i,it.

ili,they(them).

Thereisanotherpronounci,thou,forthesecondpersonsingular,usedinsolemnstyle,asintheBible,inpoetry,andalsoforintimateorfamiliaraddresswhendesired,likeGermandu,Frenchtu,etc.

AGREEMENTWITHPRONOUNS.

33.Nounsinpredicaterelationwithpronouns,oradjectivesmodifyingsuchpronouns,aremadetoagreewiththeminnumber:

Niestasbonajkajfeliaj,wearegoodandhappy.Rozojestasfloroj,illneestasfruktoj,rosesareflowers,theyarenotfruits.Gertrudo,viestasbona,Gertrude,youaregood.Knabinoj,uviestasfeliaj?Girls,areyouhappy?

CONJUGATIONOFTHEVERB.

34.Anypronounmayserveasthesubjectofaverb.Thecombinationoftheverbwitheachofthepersonalpronounsinsuccessionforitssubject,iscalledtheconjugationoftheverb.Followingistheconjugationofthepresenttenseofesti,andofvidi:

miestas,Iam.viestas,youare.li(i,i)estas,he(she,it)is.niestas,weare.viestas,you(plural)are.iliestas,theyare.

mividas,Isee.vividas,yousee.li(i,i)vidas,he(she,it)sees.nividas,wesee.vividas,you(plural)see.ilividas,theysee.

VOCABULARY.

al,to,toward.Arturo,Arthur.a,or(a..a..,either..or..)ar,because.doni,togive.

hodia,today.kudri,tosew.Roberto,Robert.skui,toshake.stari,tostand.



fali,tofall.fenestro,window.

sub,under,beneath.virino,woman.

READINGLESSON.

1.Knaboj,uvivolassidienladomo,aenlaardeno?2.Nipreferassidihodiaenlaardeno,sublagrandaarbo.3.uvihavaspomojn,aerizojn?4.Nihavasnekpomojnnekerizojn,sednihavasdolajnpersikojn.5.Arturodonasalvilamaturajnpersikojn,arliataskolektifrukton.6.Arturo,uvirompaslabranojn?7.Ne,sedmiskuasbranon,kajlapersikojfalas.8.Mistarassublaarbo,kajkolektasladolanfrukton.9.LafruktonmidonasalMariokajGertrudo.10.MivolasdonipersikonalHeleno,sedhodiaiestasenladomo.11.isidasapudlafenestrokajkudras.12.ipreferaskudri,kajvolasnekmarineksidienlaardeno.13.Kajikajlavirinoapudivolaskudrihodia.14.Iliestasfeliaj,arilividaslabirdojnenlaarboapudlafenestro.15.Labirdojestaskolomboj,kajsidassurlaarbo.16.Sublaarbojenlakampostarasevaloj,kajilimanaslaverdanmolanherbon.17.Nidonaspomojnalili,ariliataspomojn.18.Niestasfeliaj,arnihavasbelajnpersikojnmaturajnkajbonajn.19.Roberto,viestasalta,sedvi,knabinoj,neestasaltaj.


1.DoesArthurbreakthebranchandgathertheapples?2.No,heshakesthebranch,andtheapplesfall.3.Theyareripeandsweet.4.Robert,doyouwishtostandbeneaththetree?5.No,Idonotwishtostandunderit,butnearit.6.Iwishtogiveboththepeachesandtheapplestothewoman.7.Sheissittinginthehouse,nearthewindow.8.Maryissittingin(on)achairnearher.9.BothMaryandthewomanaresewing.10.Theyprefertosew,anddonotwishtowalkinthegardentoday.11.Theyarehappybecausetheyliketosew.12.Theydonotwishtogatherflowers,orwalk,orseethebirds.13.Theyhaveneitherapplesnorpeaches,buttheydonotwishtoeat.14.Theygivethefruittotheboysandgirls.

LESSONVII.

THEPASTTENSE.

35.Thepasttenseoftheverbexpressesanactionwhichtookplaceinpasttime,oraconditionwhichexistedinpasttime.Theendingofthistenseisis,askuris,ran,flugis,flew,brilis,shone.Theconjugationofestiandalsoofvidiinthepasttenseisasfollows:

miestis,Iwas.viestis,youwere.li(i,i)estis,he(she,it)was.niestis,wewere.viestis,you(plural)were.iliestis,theywere.

mividis,Isaw.vividis,yousaw.li(i,i)vidis,he(she,it)saw.nividis,wesaw.vividis,you(plural)saw.ilividis,theysaw.



PREPOSITIONS.

36.Aprepositionisawordlike"in,""on,"placedbeforeanounorpronountoindicatesomerelationbetweenthisandanotherword.Theprepositionissaidtogovernthenounorpronoun,whichiscalleditscomplement.InEnglish,thecomplementofaprepositionseemstobeputintheaccusativecaseifitisapronoun,buttoremainunchangedinformifitisanoun.InEsperantotheprepositiondoesnotaffecttheformofthewordgoverned,whichremainsinthenominativecase:

Laarboestasenlaardeno,thetreeisinthegarden.Bonajpomojestassuri,goodapplesareonit.Midoniserizojnalli,Igavecherriestohim.Laknaboestasapudmi,theboyisnearme.Sublaarbostarisevalo,underthetreestoodahorse.

ACCUSATIVECASEOFPERSONALPRONOUNS.

37.Foruseastheobjectofaverb,anypronounmaybeputintheaccusativecasebyadditionoftheaccusativeendingn(23):

Lavirovidisvinkajmin,themansawyouandme.Lividisilinkajnin,hesawthemandus.Mividisneklinnekin,Isawneitherhimnorher.Nivolashaviin,wewishtohaveit.

VOCABULARY.

agrabla,pleasant,agreeable.bildo,picture.blua,blue.danki,tothank.de,from.diri,tosay.infano,child.interesa,interesting.

luma,light(notdark).muro,wall.nun,now.planko,floor.pordo,door.rigardi,tolook(at).tapio,carpet.tra,through.

READINGLESSON.

1.Hodialaknabojkajknabinojestasenlagrandadomo.2.Ilistarasapudlatablo,enagrablalumaambro.3.ihavasaltajnlarajnfenestrojn.4.Sublatablokajseoj,molatapiokuassurlaplanko.5.Latapiohavasbelajnkolorojn,ruan,bluan,flavan,kajverdan.6.Virinomaristralapordo,kajstarisapudlatablo.7.ihavisinteresajnbildojn,kajdonisilinallaknabojkajlaknabinoj.8.idiris"uvivolasrigardilabildojn?"9."Jes,nidankasvin,"dirislainfanoj,kajidonisalililabildojn.10.Grandabildofalisdelatablo,sedArturonunhavasin.11.LidonasinalMario,idankaslin,kajdonasinalRoberto.12.IlivolisdoniinalGertrudo,sedidiris"Ne,midankasvin,mineatasrigardibildojn."13.imarisdelatabloallafenestrokajdiris"Mipreferaskudri."14.ivolissidiengrandaseoapudlafenestro.15.Lavirinorigardisinkajdiris"Midonislabildojnalvi,knabojkajknabinoj,"ariliestas



interesajbildoj.16.Gertrudodiris"Viestasbonaalni,sedmivolassidiapudlapordoalafenestro.17.Mikolektisdolajnviolojnenlaardeno,kajnunmivolasrigardiladolajnflorojn,kajkudri."


1.Dotheboysandgirlswishtobegood?2.Theygatheredfreshflowersandgavethemtothewoman.3.Thehappychildrenwereinthegarden,butnowtheyareinthehouse.4.Theroomsinthehousearelight,becausetheyhavelargewidewindows.5.Thedoorsintheroomarewideandhigh.6.Thecarpetsonthefloorseemsoft,andhavevariousbeautifulcolors.7.Alargestrongtablestandsnearthedoor.8.Wecansitnearthetableandlookthroughthewindows.9.Gertrudeislookingatthevariouspictures.10.Shelooksatthem,andseemstobehappy.11.ShegaveapicturetomeandIthankedher.12.Helenwalkednearthetableandshookit.13.Arthurdidnotseethepicturesbecausetheywerelyingonthefloor.14.Helookedatthepicturesonthewall,buttheyareneitherinterestingnorbeautiful.15.Robertlookedthroughthewindow,andsawusinthepleasantgarden.

LESSONVIII.

REFLEXIVEPRONOUNS.

38.Apronounwhichreferstothesamepersonorthingasthesubjectoftheverbinthesentence,butisusedinsomeotherrelationthansubjectofthatverb,issaidtobeusedreflexively,ortobeareflexivepronoun.

39.Thefirstandsecondpersonalpronouns,mi,ni,andvi,(ci)areusedforthereflexivepronounsofthefirstandsecondpersons.Therecanbenoambiguity,sincewordssuchas"me,myself,us,ourselves,"canrefertonooneelsethanthepersonorpersonsspeakingwhilewordssuchas"you,yourself,yourselves(thee,thyself),"canrefertonooneelsethanthepersonorpersonsaddressed:

Mividasmin,Iseemyself.Midirisalmi,Isaidtomyself.Nihavastapionsubni,wehaveacarpetunderus.Niamuzisnin,weamusedourselves.(Citrovasdomonapudci,thoufindestahousenearthee.)Vidirasalvi,yousaytoyourself(yourselves).Viamuzasvin,youamuseyourself(yourselves).

40.Whentheverbisinthethirdperson,apronounofthethirdperson,usedotherwisethanasthesubject,mightormightnotrefertothesubjectofthatverb.Forexample,"Heseesabirdnearhim,"maymeanthatthesubjectseesabirdnearhimself,ornearanotherperson.Ifsuchapronounofthethirdpersonisintendedtorefertothesubjectoftheverb,Esperantousesaspecialreflexivepronounsi(accusativesin),whichmeanshim(self),her(self),it(self),them(selves),accordingtothegenderandnumberoftheverb:

Liamuzassin,heamuseshimself.Arturovidisbirdonapudsi,Arthursawabirdnearhim(self).



itrovasfloronapudsi,shefindsaflowernearher(self).Mariotrovissinsurbluatapio,Maryfoundherselfonabluecarpet.Latapiohavasdiversajnkolorojnensi,thecarpethasvariouscolorsinit(self).Labirdokaassinsublafolioj,thebirdhidesitselfundertheleaves.Iliamuzassin,theyamusethemselves.Lavirojhavasseojnapudsi,themenhavechairsnearthem(selves).Lavirinojtrovasflorojnapudsi,thewomenfindflowersnearthem(selves).Laarbojhavaserizojnsursi,thetreeshavecherriesonthem(selves).Subsilainfanojtrovismolantapion,underthem(selves)thechildrenfoundasoftcarpet.

Fromtheveryfactthatsialwaysreferstothesubjectoftheverb,itisevidentthatsicanneveritselfbeusedassubjectorpartofthesubjectoftheverb.

REFLEXIVEVERBS.

41.Averbhavingareflexivepronounforitsdirectobjectissometimescalledareflexiveverb,fromthefactthatsomelanguageshavehadorstillhaveaspecialreflexiveormiddleformoftheverb,toexpressanactofthesubjectonorforitself,ortheyhavecertainverbswhoseuseischieflyorexclusivelyreflexive.Theconjugationofaverbreflexivelyisthereforeasfollows:

miamuzasmin(miminamuzas),Iamusemyself.viamuzasvin(vivinamuzas),youamuseyourself.li(i,i)amuzassin(sinamuzas),he(she,it)amuseshim(her,it)self.niamuzasnin(nininamuzas),weamuseourselves.viamuzasvin(vivinamuzas),youamuseyourselves.iliamuzassin(ilisinamuzas),theyamusethemselves.

AsGreek,theyturnedthemselvesLatinexerceor,Iexercisemyself,vescor,Ieat(Ifeedmyself)Germanichhtemich,Ibeware(Iguardmyself)Spanishmealegro,oralgrome,Irejoice(Igladdenmyself)Frenchils'arrte,hehalts(hestopshimself).

VOCABULARY.

Alfredo,Alfred.amuzi,toamuse.anta,before,infrontof.aparteni,tobelong.griza,gray.iri,togo.Johano,John.kai,tohide,toconceal.

komenci,tobegin.ladi,topraise.legi,toread.libro,book.perdi,tolose.skatolo,smallboxorcase.strato,street.si,himself,etc.(40).

READINGLESSON.

1.JohanokajAlfredoamuzissinenlaardeno.2.Johanokaissin,kajAlfredotrovisJohanon.3.Alfredosinkaisenaltaarbo,kajJohanotrovisAlberton.4.MariokajGertrudosinkaisapudlafloroj,kajlaknabojtrovislaknabinojn.5.Laknabinojnevolasperdisinenlaagrablakampo.6.Johano



komencisamuzisinenlumaambroenladomo.7.Lamurohavasinteresajnbildojnsursi.8.TralafenestroantasiJohanorigardaslavirojnkajlavirinojnsurlastrato.9.Lihavasmolangrizantapionsubsi,kajnevolasseon.10.LikajAlfredovolisiriallastratokajamuzisin.11.Ilimarisallapordo,kajtrovisruanskatolonantasi.12.Enlaskatoloestislibro,kajJohanodirisalsi"Lalibroneapartenasalmi."13.LidirisalAlfredo"arnitrovisin,mivolaslegilalibron."14.Virinoantapordokomencisrigardilaknabojn,kajilidirisali"ulalibroapartenasalvi?Nitrovisinenskatolo."15.Lavirinodiris"Jes,niperdisin,kajmidankasvin,arvidonasalmilaskatolonkajlalibron."16.iirisallastrato,kajlaknabojirisalladomo.


1.Thebookinthegrayboxdoesnotbelongtome.2.Ifounditinfrontofme,nearthedoor.3.Youbegantopraiseyourselves,butIdonotpraisemyself.4.Theyhidthemselves,andIstoodnearthem.5.Thebirdssitonthetree,becauseithasripecherriesonit.6.Alfredamusedhimselfonthestreet,butweliketoamuseourselvesinthehouse.7.Thetreeshavegoodfruitonthem.8.Shefoundherselfinabeautifullightroom.9.Thecarpetonthefloorhadvariouscolorsinit,andthehighwallhadpicturesonit.10.Thepictureshadboysandgirlsinthem.11.Thebookbelongstoher,butitfellfromthebox.12.Thetablehasredandblueandyellowflowersonit.13.Didyouseethedovesneartheflowersinfrontof(before)you?14.Thebirdssawthefruitonthetreeinfrontofthem,andflewtothebranches.15.Isatonthebenchinthegarden,andbegantoreadaninterestingbook.16.Theyhidthemselvesintheleavesandbegantosing.17.Thechildisinapleasantroom.

LESSONIX.

LIMITATIONOFTHETHIRDPERSONALPRONOUN.

42.Sincethereisaspecialreflexivepronounofthethirdperson,thethirdpersonalpronouns,li,i,i,ili,whenusedotherwisethanassubjects,neverrefertothesubjectoftheverb,butalwaystosomeotherpersonorthing:

Laknaboladaslin,theboypraiseshim(anotherperson).idonaspomojnali,shegivesapplestoher(toanotherperson).Labirdovidisin,thebirdsawit(somethingelsethanthebird).Laknabojkaisilin,theboyshidthem(otherpersonsorthings).Ilitrovisilinapudsi,theyfoundthem(otherpersonsorthings)nearthem(selves).Labirdojflugisalili,thebirdsflewtothem.

POSSESSIVEADJECTIVES.

43.Wordslike"my,""his,""your,"whichindicateownershiporsomepossessiverelation,arecalledpossessiveadjectives.Possessiveadjectivesareformedfromthepersonalpronounsbyaddingtheadjectiveendinga,asmia,my,via,your(cia,thy),lia,his,ia,her,ia,its,nia,our,via,your(plural),ilia,their.Thelimitationintheuseofthethirdpersonalpronouns(42)isalsotrueoftheadjectives



derivedfromthem:

Miadomokajmiajardenojestasgrandaj,myhouseandmygardensarelarge.Johanosidassurviaseo,Johnissittinginyourchair.Lihavaslianevalon,hehashis(anotherperson's)horse.uvilegisiajnlibrojn?Didyoureadherbooks?

Sometimesthesewordsarecalledpossessivepronouns,althoughreallytheyarenotpronounsatall,butpronominaladjectiveswithapossessivemeaning.

44.Reflexivepossessiveadjectives,likethereflexivepronoun,refertothesubjectoftheverbinthesentence.Forthefirstandsecondpersons,theyarethesameasthepersonalpossessiveadjectives.Thereflexivepossessiveadjectiveofthethirdpersonissia,his,her,its,their,formedbyaddingtheendingatothereflexivepronounsi:

Mihavasmiajnlibrojnsurmiatablo,Ihavemybooksonmytable.Johanoperdissiajnlibrojn,Johnlosthis(John's)books.Marioestasensiaambro,Maryisinherroom.Labirdojflugisalsiaarbo,thebirdsflewtotheirtree.

PRONOMINALUSEOFPOSSESSIVEADJECTIVES.

45.Possessiveadjectivesmaybeusedpredicatively,as"thebookismine,"ormaymodifysomewordorwordsnotexpressed,as"minearelarge."Insteadofhavingspecialforms,likeEnglishmine,yours,hers,etc.,Esperantousestheregularpossessiveadjectivesprecededbythearticle:

Lagrandalibroestaslamia,thelargebookismine.Laviaestasgranda,lamiajestasbelaj,yoursislarge,minearebeautiful.Ilihavaslasian,sednelalian,theyhavetheirs,butnothis.Lailiajajnasestibonaj,theirsseemtobegood.

VOCABULARY.

diro,saying,remark.is,asfaras,upto,downto.hiera,yesterday.juna,young.kapti,tocatch,toseize.kato,cat.kolera,angry.lavi,towash.

mano,meal.nesto,nest.pasero,sparrow.patro,father.post,after,behind.surprizi,tosurprise.teni,tohold,tokeep.vizao,face.

READINGLESSON.

1.Hieramiperdismiangrizankaton.2.Iliakatokaptisnianbirdon.3.Viakoleradirosurprizismianpatron.4.ulagrandakampoapartenasaliapatro?5.Ne,ineestaslalia.6.Laliaestasbela,sedmipreferaslamian.7.uviatasvianlibronalailian?8.Lihavasneksiajnevalojnneklailiajn.9.La



knabinojajnasestikoleraj.10.Ilikomencislegisiajnlibrojn.11.Lavirokaptiskajtenissiajnevalojn,sedlinetrovisiliajnevalojn.12.ialibrokuassurlaplanko,postiaseo.13.inetrovisilianlibron,sedlajunajinfanojtrovislanian.

LAKATOKAJLAPASERO.

Grizakatoirisdeladomoislastrato.ividispaseronantasi,kajvolismaniin.Lakatostarispostgrandaarbo,kajkaptislapaseron.Lapaserodiris"Bonakatolavassinantasiamano,sedvinelavisvianvizaon."Lainteresadirosurprizislakaton.Lakatonetenislapaseron,sedkomencislavisianvizaon.Lapaseroflugisdelakatoislaarbo.Lakolerakatodiris"Miperdismianmanon,armikomencislaviminantalamano!"Nunlakatojnelavassinantalamanoj.Ilihavassiajnmanojn,kajpostlamanojililavaslavizaojn.Lapaserojnesurprizasilinnun,sedilitenaslapaserojn.Lakatojestasfeliaj,sedlapaserojneestasfeliaj.Lajunajpaserojvolasflugiallanestojenlaarboj.


1.Theboysarenotintheir(own)house,buttheyareinhis.2Isthelargebeautifulhouseyours?3.Thewomanwalkedthroughthedooroftheirhouse,asfarasherroom.4.Theroomhasinterestingpicturesonitswalls.5.Wepraisedtheirflowersyesterday,andtheygavethemtous.6.Theirbooksareintheir(thebooks')box.7.Theyareontheir(theboys')table.8.Thegraycatwasangrybecauseitdidnotholdthebird.9.Thesparrowsurprisedit,anditcommencedtowashitsface.10.Thesparrowwishedtoflyasfarasthetalltree,butthecatheldit.11.Thesparrowsaid"Agoodcatwashesitsface,butyouarenotagoodcat."12.Thesparrowwasangrybecausethecatseizeditandheldit.13.Thebirddidnotloseitsmeal,buttheangrycatlostitsmeal.14.Doyouseehiscatorhers?15.Iseebothhisandhers,butoursisnotinourgarden.16.Myfatherisatallstrongman.17.Iliketolookathim.18.Thechildrensawtheyoungbirdsinthenest.

LESSONX.

THEACCUSATIVEOFDIRECTION.

46.Whentheverbinasentenceexpressesmotion,thewordindicatingtheplace,personorthingtowardwhichthemotionisdirectedisgiventheaccusativeending.Thisisalsotrueifthewordisthecomplementofanyprepositionwhichdoesnotitselfsufficientlyindicatemotioninacertaindirection.(Theprepositionsal,to,toward,is,asfaras,tra,through,expressmotioninthedirectionoftheircomplements,andcouldnotwellbeusedexceptinasentencewhoseverbexpressesmotion.Consequentlytheaccusativeisnotusedafteranyofthesethree):

Liirisardenon,hewenttothegarden("gardenward").LaviroirosBostonon,themanwillgotoBoston("Bostonward").

Cf.English"hewenthome,""hewenthomeward,"etc.

Liestisenlaardeno,kajkurisenladomon,hewasinthegardenandranintothehouse.



ineestassurlatablo,ifalissurlaplankon,itisnotonthetable,itfelluponthefloor.Ilifalissublatablonislaplanko,theyfellunderthetableasfarasthefloor(directionexpressedbywholeprepositionalphrase).Miiristraladomoenmianambron,Iwentthroughthehouseintomyroom.

THEARTICLEFORTHEPOSSESSIVEADJECTIVE.

47.Inmanysentenceswherethepossessorisalreadysufficientlyindicated,Englishneverthelessusesapossessiveadjective,asin"Iwashmyface,""heshakeshishead,"butontheotherhandomitsitentirelywithcertainwordsindicatingrelationship,asin"Brothergaveittome,"etc.InbothcasesEsperantousesthearticleinsteadofthepossessiveadjective,unlessthefactofpossessionistobeemphasized:

Milavaslavizaon,Iwashmyface.Liskuaslakapon,heshakeshishead.Lapatroestasalta,Fatheristall.Midonisinallapatro,IgaveittoFather.

APPOSITION.

48.Englishoftenusesthepreposition"of"betweentwowordswherenoideaofpossessionreallyexists,as"thecityofBoston."Sincenounsusedinappositionrefertothesamething,andareinthesamegrammaticalconstruction,Esperantodoesnotuseapreposition:

LaurboBostonoestasgranda,thecity(of)Bostonislarge.MiaamikoJohanoestasalta,myfriendJohnistall.uvinekonasmin,vianamikon?doyounotknowme,yourfriend?

VOCABULARY.

arabo,arab.balda,soon.Bostono,Boston.frato,brother.kamelo,camel.kapo,head.kolo,neck.korpo,body.

meti,toput,toplace.nazo,nose.nur,only,merely.pui,topush.trans,across.tuta,whole,entire,all.urbo,city.varma,warm.

LAARABOKAJLAKAMELO.

Arabosidisensiadomoenlaurbo.Apuddomotranslastratolividiskamelon.Lakameloiristranslastratonislapordo,kajdirisallaarabo,"Frato,mineestasvarma,mivolasmetinurlanazonenvianvarmandomon."Laaraboskuislakapon,sedlakamelometislanazontralapordoenlaambron.Lakamelokomencispuisiantutanvizaonenladomon.Baldalihavislakaponislakoloenladomo.Postlakapoirislakoloenin,kajbaldalatutakorpoestisenladomo.Laaraboestiskolera,arline



volishavitutankamelonensiadomo.Likurisallakamelo,kaptislin,tenislin,kajdiris,"Frato,vivolismetinurlanazonenmiandomon.Laambroneestasgrandasediestaslamia,kajmipreferassidieni.""Viadiroestasbona,"dirislakamelo,"viadomoneestasgranda,sediestasvarma,kajmiatasstarieni.Mipreferasstarikajkuieni,kajmidonosalvimianarbontranslastrato.uvinevolasirisublaarbon?"Kajlakamelopuislaarabondeliadomoenlastratondelaurbo.Lakamelonuntrovissinenvarmaambro,sedlajunaarabostaristranslastratokajneestisvarma.


1.Thecatranacrossthestreet.2.Acrossthestreetitfoundasparrow.3.Itcaughtthebird,butbegantowashitsface,andthesparrowflewtothenest.4.Iwentintothegardenasfarasthelargetree.5.Ididnotholdmybook,anditfelluponthefloor.6.Itbegantofallunderthetable,butIseizedit.7.Mybrotherpushedthebooksintotheirbox,andputitonthetable.8.WewenttothecityofBostonyesterdayandintoabeautifulhouse.9.Thearabshookhisheadandsaid,"No."10.Butthecamelcommencedtogothroughthedoor.11.Hisremarkdidnotseemtosurprisethecamel.12.Thecamelpusheditsheadandneck,andsoonitswholebodyintothewarmhouse.13.Itwishedtoputmerelyitsnoseintoit.14.Thearabwasangry,becauseitpusheditselfintohishouse.15.Hesaid,"Brother,thehouseismine,andIdonotwishtohaveyouinit."16.Butsoonaftertheremark,thewholecamelwasinthehouse.17.Hepushedtheyoungarabintothestreet.18.Hewentacrossthestreetandstooduponthegrassunderatree.

LESSONXI.

POSSESSIVECASEOFNOUNS.

49.Theprepositiondeisusedtoexpresspossessionorconnection:

Lamurojdeladomo,thewallsofthehouse.Lakolorojdelafloroj,thecolorsoftheflowers.Lalibrodelaknabo,thebookoftheboy(theboy'sbook).Branodelaarbo,abranchofthetree.Laardenodelaviroj,thegardenofthemen(themen'sgarden).

IMPERSONALVERBS.

50.Verbswithanimpersonalorindeterminatesubject,as"itrains,""itissnowing,"arecalledimpersonal,becausethereisnoactualsubject,theword"it"servingmerelyasanintroductoryparticle.NosuchparticleisusedwithimpersonalverbsinEsperanto:

Pluvas,itrains,itisraining.Neishiera,itsnowedyesterday.

VERBSPRECEDINGTHEIRSUBJECTS.



51.Whentheverbinasentenceprecedesitssubject,Englishoftenusesanintroductoryparticle,suchas"there,""it."InEsperantonosuchparticlesareneeded:

Estasflorojsurlatablo,thereareflowersonthetable.EstisJohano,neAlfredo,enlaardeno,itwasJohn,notAlfred,inthegarden.Estasdomoenlakampo,thereisahouseinthefield.Estismi,itwasI.

COORDINATINGCONJUNCTIONS.

52.Wordslikea,kaj,nek,sed,whichjoinwords,wordgroups,orsentencestogetherareconjunctions.Alltheconjunctionsgivensofarconnectwords,phrases,orsentencesofsimilarrankorkind.Thesearecalledcoordinatingconjunctions,andthewords,phrases,orsentencesconnectedbythemaresaidtobecoordinate:

uvimarasakuras?(Aconnectstheverbs.)

iiris,kajniestisfeliaj.(Kajconnectsthesentences.)

Nekvinekmividisin.(Thesecondnekconnectsthepronouns,thefirstbeingintroductoryandadverbial.)

Aliaiperdislalibron.(Thesecondaconnectsthepronouns,thefirstbeingintroductoryandadverbial.)

ifalissurlaseon,sednesurlaplankon.(Sedconnectsthephrases.)

Lineatisin.Tamenlitenisin.(Tamenconnectsthesentences.)

Aphraseisawordgroupforminganexpression,butnotcontainingaverb,as"throughthehouse,""oftheman,""beforeme,"etc.

Coordinatingconjunctionsmaybefurtherclassifiedaccordingtotheirmeaning:Aisdisjunctive,connectingalternates,andexpressingseparation.Kajiscopulative,expressingunion.Nekisdisjunctive,expressingseparationandalsonegation.Sedisadversative,expressingopposition,contrast,ormodificationofapreviousstatement.Tamenisadversative,affirmingsomethinginspiteofapreviousobjectionorconcession.Do,so,then,consequently,isargumentative,expressingalogicalinferenceorresultinasomewhatconversationalmanner.

VOCABULARY.

akvo,water.amiko,friend.anka,also.bezoni,toneed.dezerto,desert.fidela,faithful.mono,money.

porti,tocarry.ria,rich,wealthy.sablo,sand.sako,sack,bag.seka,dry.tamen,nevertheless.trinki,todrink.



nei,tosnow.pluvi,torain.

veni,tocome.vojo,road,way.

LAARABOENLADEZERTO.

Araboiristransgrandansekandezerton.Kamelo,liafidelaamiko,portislin.Lakameloankaportisbelajntapiojn,arlaaraboestisriaviro.Laarabohavisnenurtapiojn,sedankasakojn.Enlasakojestisakvo,arenladezertonekpluvasnekneas.Lavirotrinkisakvon,kajankadonisakvonalsiakamelo.Lakamelomariskajmaris,sednevenisalladomodelaarabo,ariliperdislavojon.Lasunobrilis,kajlasablodeladezertoajnisvarma.Laarabonetrovislavojon,kajbaldalinehavisakvon.Tamenlakamelomariskajmaris,kajbaldalaarabovidissakonantasi,surlasekasablo.Liestisfeliakajdirisalsi"uestasakvoeni?Mivolastrinki,kajvolasdoniakvonalmiafidelakamelo."Liankavolislavilatutanvizaonenlaakvo,arliestisvarma.Postsiadirolikaptislasakon,kajkomencisrigardienin.Limetislanazonenin,sednetrovisakvonenlasako.Neklinekliafidelakamelohavisakvon,arestisnurmonoenlasako.Laaraboestiskolera,arlinevolismonon,libezonisakvon.Lihavismononensiadomoenlaurbo,kajvolistroviakvon.ulitamenmetislasakontranslakolondesiakamelo?Ne,linevolismetiinsursiankamelon,arliestiskolera.Linetenislasakon,sedifalissurlasablon,kajkuisapudli.Lasakonunkuassurlasablodelagrandadezerto,kajlamonoestaseni.


1.Todayitisraining,butyesterdayitwassnowing.2.DidyourfriendJohncarryhischairintothehouse?3.Isawyourgoodfriendsonthewaytothecity.4.Isthelargesackbehindthedoortheirs?5.Neithershenorherbrothersawthewholecity.6.TheywenttothecityofBostonandlosttheirway.7.Thereareinterestinghousesacrossthestreet.8.Thebodyofacamelislarge,anditsneckislong.9.Thecamelpusheditsheadintothehouseofthearab,andhewasangry.10.Onthesandinthedesertthereliesasack.11.Inthesackthereismoney.12.Thearabwaswarm,andwishedtodrinkwater.13.Healsowishedtogivewatertothefaithfulcamel.14.Nevertheless,hefoundonlymoneyinthesack.15.Hewasangry,anddidnotkeepthesack.16.Yesterdayhewishedtofindmoney,buttodayhepreferswater.17.Neverthelessthereisonlysandinthedesert.18.Hewishedtocomefromthedrydeserttothehouseofafaithfulfriend.19.Bothheandhisfriendsarerich.20.Theywenttohishouseyesterday,andcametotheirstoday.21.Theydonotneedmoney.

LESSONXII.

INDIRECTSTATEMENTS.

53.Astatementmadeindirectlybymeansofaclausedependentuponaverbmeaning"say,""think,""know,""believe,"orasimilarexpression,asin"Iknowthathecame,""Ihearthatheisgood,"iscalledanindirectstatement.(Thedirectstatementis"hecame,""heisgood.")Anindirectstatementisjoinedtothemainverborsentencebythesubordinatingconjunctionke,that.



Midiraskeliestasbona,Isaythatheisgood.Johanodiraskevivenishiera,Johnsaysthatyoucameyesterday.iopiniaskeestasmonoenlasako,shethinksthatthereismoneyinthebag.Nividaskeneas,weseethatitissnowing.

Aclauseisagroupofwordsincludingaverb,whichisdependentuponorsubordinatetoamainverborsentence,as"thathecame,""whenhewent,""thatheisgood,"etc.

InEnglishthesubordinatingconjunctionmaysometimesbeomitted,either"Ithinkthatheisgood,"or"Ithinkheisgood,"beingusuallypermissible.ButinEsperantothereisnovariation,andtheconjunctionkeisneveromitted.

THEINDEFINITEPERSONALPRONOUNONI.

54.Whenanindefinitepersonalpronounisdesired,asintheexpressions"oneknows,""theysay,""peoplesay,""youcansee,"etc.,theindefinitepersonalpronounoniisused.Thispronounmayalsobeusedintranslatingsuchexpressionsas"itissaid,""Iamtold,"etc.:

Onidiraskeliestasria,theysay(onesays)thatheisrich.Onividaskeiliestasamikoj,oneseesthattheyarefriends.Miopiniaskeoniataslin,Ithinkthatpeoplelikehim(thatheisliked).Onidirisalmikeestassabloenladezerto,Iwastold(peoplesaidtome)thatthereissandinthedesert.Oniopiniaskeiestasfelia,itisthought(onethinks)thatsheishappy.uonividisninenlaardeno?Wereweseen(didpeopleseeus)inthegarden?Oniatasagrablajninfanojn,peoplelikeagreeablechildren(agreeablechildrenareliked).

THEFUTURETENSE.

55.Thefuturetenseoftheverbexpressesanactorstateasabouttotakeplace,orasonethatwilltakeplaceinfuturetime.Theendingofthistenseisos,askuros,willrun,flugos,willfly,brilos,willshine.Theconjugationofestiandalsoofvidiinthefuturetenseisasfollows:

miestos,Ishallbe.viestos,youwillbe.li(i,i)estos,he(she,it)willbe.niestos,weshallbe.viestos,you(plural)willbe.iliestos,theywillbe.

mividos,Ishallsee.vividos,youwillsee.li(i,i)vidos,he(she,it)willsee.nividos,weshallsee.vividos,you(plural)willsee.ilividos,theywillsee.

VOCABULARY.

adi,tohear.blovi,toblow.greno,grain(wheat,corn,etc.).ke,that(conjunction).kontra,against.

oni,(see54).opinii,tothink,toopine.orienta,east,eastern.pluvo,rain.suda,south,southern.



montri,toshow,topointout.norda,north,northern.nova,new.okcidenta,west,western.

velki,towilt,towither.vento,wind.ventoflago,weathercock.vetero,weather.

LAVENTOFLAGO.

Estisvarmavetero,lasunobrilis,kajsudaventoblovis.Tamenlanovaventoflagosurladomodirisalsi,"Lasudanventonmineatas.Mipreferasorientanventon."Laventoorientaadisladironkajiveniskontralaventoflagon.Pluviskajpluvis,kajoniestiskolerakontralaventoflago,arimontrasorientanventon.idiris,"Pluvasnun,sedlagrenoenlakampojbezonossekanveteron.Oniestoskolerakontrami,armimontrasorientanventon."Laokcidentaventoadislaventoflagon,kajbaldavenis.ineestisforta,sediestissekakajagrablavento,kajneportispluvon.Laviroj,virinoj,kajjunajinfanojvolistrinki,sedilinehavisakvon.Lagrenokajlaflorojvelkis,kajlafruktoankafalis.Lanovaventoflagodiris,"Oniestoskolerakontrami,arnepluvas.Oniopinioske,armimontrasokcidentanventon,lafruktofalas,kajlagrenokajflorojvelkas.Miatasmontrinekokcidentannekorientanventon!"Nordaventoadiskajvenisallaventoflago.Laveteroneestisagrabla,kajlavirinojkajlajunajinfanojneestisvarmaj.Neis,kajoniestiskolera.Onidiris"Lagrenokajlafruktobezonasvarmanveteron,sedhodianeas.Nipreferaslasudanventon.Nihavisin,antalaorienta,laokcidenta,kajlanordaventoj.Laventoflagoneestasfidelaamikoalni.inemontrasbonajnventojn,kajnivolasrompiin!"Onikurisalladomo,kaptislanovanventoflagon,kajankarompisin.ifalis,kajkuissurlavojoantaladomo.


1.Onecanseethattheweathercockpointsoutthewinds.2.Theysaythatthewestwindwillbeadrywind.3.Theweathercocknowshowsthatanagreeablesouthwindblows.4.Peoplewillbeangrywith(against)theweathercock,becauseitpointsoutanorthwind.5.Anorthwindisnotwarm,andthegrainandfruitwillneedawarmwind.6.Itsnowed,andtheyoungchildrenwerenotwarm,becausethenorthwindblew.7.Peoplewilllikeasouthwind,butaneastwindwillcarryrain.8.Canonefindmoneyinthedesert?9.Doyouthink(that)heisinthehouse?10.Heissaidtobe(theysaythatheis)onthestreet.11.Itisthought(peoplethink)thatthecamelisafaithfulfriend.12.Iamtold(peopletellme)thatthecamelhasalargebody,andalongneck.13.Onecanseethatitisnotbeautiful.14.Peopledonotliketodrinkwarmwater.15.Neverthelessweshalldrinkwarmwaterinthecity.16.Itwasbeautifulweatheryesterday,buttodayweshallhavegoodweatheralso.17.Ithinkthatawarmwindwillblowsoon.18.Myfriendhasabeautifulnewhouse.

LESSONXIII.

THEDEMONSTRATIVEPRONOUNTIU.

56.Thedemonstrativepronountiu,that,isusedtoindicateapersonoradefinitelyspecifiedthing.Thepluralistiuj,those:



Tiuestaslavia,kajmivolastiun,thatisyours,andIwishthatone.Tiujestoskolerajkontravi,thosewillbeangrywithyou.Liadistiujn,heheardthose(persons,orthings).

57.Thedemonstrativepronountiuisalsousedasapronominaladjective,inagreementwithanoun:

Tiuventoestosvarma,thatwindwillbewarm.Mividastiunventoflagon,Iseethatweathercock.Tiujinfanojestasjunaj,thosechildrenareyoung.Mitrovostiujnlibrojn,Ishallfindthosebooks.

TENSESININDIRECTQUOTATIONS.

58.Theverbinanindirectstatement(53)oranindirectquestionremainsinthesametenseinwhichitwouldbeifthestatementorquestionweredirect.(InEnglishthisistrueonlyiftheintroductoryverbispresentorfuture,sinceafteranintroductorypasttensethetenseoftheindirectquotationischanged,andam,is,are,have,willbecomewas,were,had,would,etc.)

Mi diras ke li estas bona ,Isaythatheisgood." diris " " " " ,Isaidthathewasgood." diros " " " " ,Ishallsaythatheisgood.Li miras u mi adas ,hewonderswhetherIhear." miris " " " ,hewonderedwhetherIheard." miros " " " ,hewillwonderwhetherIhear.Miopiniiskeiestasbona, Ithoughtthatitwasgood(Ithought"itisgood").Onimirisulivenos, theywonderedwhetherhewouldcome(theywondered"willhecome?").

Anindirectquestionisintroducedbyu,whether,afterverbsmeaning"ask,""wonder,""know,"etc.:Mimirasulivenis,Iwonderwhetherhecame.Onidemandasuliestasria,peopleaskwhetherheisrich.

FORMATIONOFFEMININENOUNS.

59.Femininenounscorrespondingtodistinctlymasculinenounssuchasfrato,knabo,viro,maybeformedfromthesebyinsertingthesuffixinjustbeforethenounendingo:

fratino,sister(fromfrato,brother).knabino,girl(fromknabo,boy).

patrino,mother(frompatro,father).virino,woman(fromviro,man).

Cf.Englishnamessimilarlyformedfrommasculinenames,asPauline,Josephine,Ernestine,Geraldine,etc.,alsoGermanKnigin,queen,fromKnig,kingLwin,lioness,fromLwe,lion,etc.

VOCABULARY.



almena,atleast.apelo,hat.ielo,sky,heaven.filo,son.konstrui,tobuild.miri,towonder.morga,tomorrow.nubo,cloud.ombrelo,umbrella.

paroli,totalk,tospeak.parko,park.preska,almost.pri,concerning,about.promeni,totakeawalk.super,above.timi,tofear,tobeafraid(of).tiu,that(56).zorga,careful.

ENLAPARKO.

Miajjunajamikokajamikino,kajankailiapatrino,irishieraallaparko.Lainfanojdirisallapatrinokelaparkoestasagrabla,kajkeilivolaspromenieni.Laknabinoparolisalsiafratoprilabelajfloroj.idirisallikelaflorojvelkas,kajkelaherboenpreskalatutaparkobezonaspluvon.Laknabodirishodiaalmikehieralikajliafratinoadislabirdojnenlaarbojsupersiajkapoj.Lidiriskelimirispritiujbirdoj,tamenliopiniaskelabirdojbaldakonstruossiajnnestojnentiujarboj.Lainfanojpromenis,kajbaldailividiskegrizajnubojvenassurlaielon,kajmiajunaamikinotimiskepluvos.iparolisallapatrinoprilanubojkajlapluvo,montrisalilagrizajnnubojn,kajdiriskesivolasirialladomo.Ilikomencismariallastrato,kajpreskakuris,arilinehavisombrelon.Tralafenestrojdeladomojonirigardisilin,kajlaknabomirisulikajliajpatrinokajfratinoamuzastiujnvirojnkajvirinojn.Tamenlapatrinodiriskeinetimaskeiamuzostiujn,sedkeitimaslapluvon.ikajlafilinovolasestizorgajprialmenalanovajapeloj.Lafilodirisalikeliankaestaszorga,sedkeliopiniaskenepluvos.Baldalapatrovenisalili,kajportisombrelojn,arliankatimislapluvon.Limirisulainfanojkajiliapatrinohavasombrelojn.Baldapluvis,sediliestissekaj,arilihavislaombrelojn.Morgailinepromenosenlaparko,sedirosallaurbo.


1.Theeastwindisdryandthesouthwindwillbetoowarm.2.Awestwindblewagainsttheweathercock,butthegrainneededasouthwind.3AnorthwindisblowingandIthinkthatitwillsoonsnow.4.It(51)willbebeautifulweathertomorrow,becauseapleasantwindisnowblowing.5.Theflowerswillwitherbecausethosechildrengatheredthem.6.Theyaretalkingaboutthatpark,butIdonotwishtotakeawalk,becausetherearecloudsin(on)thesky.7.Atleastweshalltakeanumbrella,andmybrotherwillholditoverourheads.8.Mysistersaid"MotherandIareafraidthatitwillrain."9.Myyoungsisterwillbecarefulaboutthatnewumbrella.10.Iwonderwhethershewilltakeawalktomorrow.11.Thatparkispleasantandthegrassissoftandgreen.12.Thebirdsarebuildingtheirnestsnow,inthosebranchesaboveourheads.13.Theskyaboveusisblue,andawestwindisbeginningtoblow.14.Icanseethatweathercock,onthatlargehousenearthepark.15.Mothersaysthatmysisterwillhaveanewhattomorrow.16.Shewillbecarefulof(about)thathat.17.Myfather'sfriendisverycarefulofhisson.18.Oneseesthatheisnotastrongboy.

LESSONXIV.



THEDEMONSTRATIVEPRONOUNITIU.

60.Thedemonstrativepronoun(andpronominaladjective)meaning"this"isformedbyusingwithtiu(56)thewordi,whichexpressesthegeneralideaofnearnessorproximity.(Consequentlytheliteralmeaningofitiuisthatonenearby,thatonehere.)Thewordimayeitherprecedeorfollowthepronoun:

itiuestaslamia,thisismine.Mividisitiun,Isawthisone.uvivolastiujni?Doyouwishthese?itiuknabinoestasmiafratino,thisgirlismysister.Mividisitiujnapelojn,Isawthesehats.itiujamikojpromenos,thesefriendswilltakeawalk.

61.Thewordstiuanditiumaybeusedtodistinguishbetweenpersonsorthingspreviouslymentionedandjustmentioned:

GertrudekajMarioestasenlaparko.Tiurigardaslaflorojn,itiukolektasilin.GertrudeandMaryareinthepark.Theformer(thatone)looksattheflowers,thelatter(thisone)gathersthem.

POSSESSIVEFORMOFTHEDEMONSTRATIVEPRONOUN.

62.Toexpresspossession,thedemonstrativepronounstiuanditiuhavethespecialpossessiveorgenitiveformsties,thatone's,andities,thisone's.Theuseoftiesanditiestomean"theformer"and"thelatter"issimilartotheuseoftiuanditiushownin61:

Miirisaltiesdomo,Iwenttothatone'shouse.itiesfilojestasjunaj,thisperson's(thisone's)sonsareyoung.Miatastieskoloron,sedpreferasitiunfloron,Ilikethatone'scolor,butpreferthisflower.Lapatrokajliaamikoparolasprisiajdomoj.Tiesestasnova,seditiesajnasbela,Fatherandhisfriendaretalkingabouttheirhouses.Theformer'sisnew,butthelatter'sseemsbeautiful.

THESUFFIXIL.

63.Namesofinstruments,toolsorutensilsmaybeformedbyaddingthesuffixil(followedbytheendingo)torootswhosemeaningpermits:

flugilo,wing(fromflugi,tofly).kaptilo,snare,trap(fromkapti,tocatch).kudrilo,needle(fromkudri,tosew).montrilo,indicator,(clock)hand(frommontri,topointout,show).tenilo,handle(fromteni,tohold).

Therootofawordisthatpartofitwhichcontainstheessentialmeaning,andtowhichtheverbendingsi,as,is,os,thenounendingo,theadjectiveendinga,etc.,areattached,whennosuffixintervenes.Thus,viristherootofviroandofvirinokuristherootofkuri,etc.



THEEXPRESSIONOFMEANSORINSTRUMENTALITY.

64.Themeansorinstrumentalitythroughwhichanactisaccomplishedisexpressedbyuseoftheprepositionper:

Onikudrasperkudrilo,onesewsbymeansof(with)aneedle.Labirdojflugasperflugiloj,thebirdsflyby(with)wings.Liamuzassinpertiujbildoj,heamuseshimselfwith(by)thosepictures.Mitrovisinperviahelpo,Ifounditby(through)yourhelp.

VOCABULARY.

akra,sharp.buo,mouth.dekstra,right(notleft).i(see60).forko,fork.helpo,help.kafo,coffee.kulero,spoon.mano,hand.

najbaro,neighbour.per,bymeansof(64).supo,soup.telero,plate.terpomo,potato.ties,thatone's(62).trani,tocut.tre,very,exceedingly.viando,meat.

LAMANO.

Hieramimirisumihavosbonanmanonenladomodemiaamiko.Sedmiopiniiskemihavostrebonanmanon,armiaamikoatasdonibonajnmanojnalsiajamikoj.Onimetistrebonansuponantami,kajmimanistiunpergrandakulero.Postlasupomihavisviandon.itiunmitenisperforko,kajtranisperakratranilo.Laforko,tranilokajkuleroestasmaniloj.Mihavisnenurviandon,sedankanovajnterpomojn.Mitranistiujniperlatranilo,sedmimetisilinenlabuonperforko.Mitenislaforkonenladekstramano,kajmetislatranilontransmianteleron.Onibezonasakrantranilon,sedoninebezonastreakranforkon.Postlaviandokajlaterpomoj,onidonisalmifreajnmaturajnerizojn.Ilikuissurgrandatelero,kajhavisbelankoloron.Iliagustoestisankabona.Mipreskanediriskemiankahaviskafon.Miparolosmorgaalmiaamikopriliakafo,kajladosin.Postlamano,najbarodemiaamikovenisenitiesdomon,kajiliparolisalmiprisiajnovajdomoj.Perlahelpodesiapatro,miaamikokonstruosgrandandomon.Lianajbarovolaskonstruibelansednetregrandandomon.Tiesnovadomoestosbela,sedmiopiniaskemipreferositiesdomon.Miaamikovolisdonialmenakafonalsianajbaro,sedlidiriskelinevolastrinkikafon.Tamenlivolispersikon.Litenistiunenlamano,kajmanistiun.


1.Thebirdshaveverystrongwingsontheirbodies,buttheydonothavehands.2.Theywillbuildtheirnests,andsingabouttheyoungbirds.3.Thosechildrenweretalkingtomeyesterdayabouttheircat.4.Theysaidthatitlikestocatchandeatsparrows.5.Tomorrowitwillhide(itself)behindatree,andwillcatchayoungsparrow.6.Thechildrenwillgatherpeachesinthatperson'sgarden,andwillputthemuponaplate.7.Theywillshakethewholetreebymeansofabranch.8.Thesweetfruitabovethemwill



falluponthesoftgreengrass.9.Thechildrenwonderedwhetherthecherrieswereripe.10.Theyseemalmostripe,andtomorrowthechildrenwillpick(gather)them,withthehelpoftheirfather.11.Itissaid(54)thatthegraininthatman'sfieldvery[much]needsrain.12.Peoplealsothinkthattheflowerswillwither,for(because)itdidnotrainyesterdayortoday.13.Mycarefulyoungfriendwillcarryanumbrellainhishandtomorrow,becausehefearstherain.14.Heseesthosegraycloudsin(on)thesky.15.Heholdstheumbrellabyitshandle.16.Theweathercockisanindicatorconcerningtheweather.17.Oneeatsmeatwithafork,andsoupwithaspoon.18.Oneholdsthespoonintherighthand.19.Aknifeissharp,butonedoesnotneedasharpfork.20.Weshallhaveaverygoodmeal,andalsoverygoodcoffee.

LESSONXV.

THEDEMONSTRATIVEADJECTIVE.

65.Thedemonstrativeadjectiverelatedtothedemonstrativepronountiu(56)istia,thatkindof,thatsortof,such:

Tiafloroestasbela,thatkindofaflowerisbeautiful.Miatastianviandon,Ilikethatsortofmeat.Tiajnajbarojestasagrablaj,such(thatkindof)neighborsarepleasant.Mivolasaditiajnbirdojn,Iwishtohearsuchbirds.

ADVERBSDEFINEDANDCLASSIFIED.

66.Anadverbisawordwhichmodifiesthemeaningofaverb,adjective,anotheradverb,orphrase.Itmayexpressmanner,time,degree,negation,etc.Adverbsareeitherprimary,as"now,""almost,"orderived,as"gladly,""sweetly,"TheEsperantoprimaryadverbsgiveninthisandinprecedinglessonsmaybeclassifiedasfollows:

(a)TemporalAdverbs(expressingtime).

balda,soon.hiera,yesterday.hodia,today.

morga,tomorrow.nun,now.tuj,immediately.

(b)AdverbsofDegree.

almena,atleast.nur,merely.

preska,almost.tre,very,much.

(c)AdverbsExpressingOtherIdeas.

addition:anka,also.interrogation:u,(30).proximity:i,(60).

emphasis:e,even.affirmation:jes,yes.negation:ne,not,no,(27).



a.Anadverbusuallyprecedes,butmayalsofollow,thewordorwordswhichitmodifies.Itmustbesoplacedastoleavenodoubtaboutwhichoftwowordsorwordgroupsitisintendedtomodify.Thus,mipreskavolishavitiunclearlymeansIalmostwishedtohavethatbutmivolispreskahavitiunmightmeaneither"Ialmostwishedtohavethat,"ormoreprobably"Iwishedalmosttohavethat."Anexampleofpermissiblevariationinthepositionofadverbsisshowninquestionstowhichanaffirmativeanswerisexpected.Suchquestionsmaybeputintheformofastatement,followedbyune(insteadofhavinguintroducethesentence,withneinitsnormalposition):

Livenos,une?Hewillcome,willhenot?Laveteroestasbela,une?Theweatherisbeautiful,isitnot?Viadistiundiron,une?Youheardthatremark,didyounot?

FORMATIONOFOPPOSITES.

67.Ifthemeaningofawordissuchthatitcanhaveadirectopposite,suchoppositemaybeformedfromitbyuseoftheprefixmal:

malalta,low,short(fromalta,high,tall).malamiko,enemy(fromamiko,friend).maldekstra,left(fromdekstra,right).malhelpi,tohinder(fromhelpi,tohelp).maljuna,aged,old(fromjuna,young).malnova,old,notnew(fromnova,new).

Cf.Englishmalcontent,"discontented,"maladroit,"clumsy."

VOCABULARY.

dum,during.e,even.gardi,toguard.helpi,tohelp,toaid.honti,tobeashamed.kara,dear.kontenta,satisfied.kuraa,courageous.nokto,night.

povi,tobeable.preni,totake.propono,proposal.respondi,toanswer.ruza,sly,cunning.teli,tosteal.tia,thatkindof(65).tuj,immediately.voo,voice.

LARUZAJUNAVIRO.

Ruzajunavirokajbonamaljunaviroiristransdezerton.Tiuhavisnigranevalon,itiuhavisblankanevalon."Vigardosniajnevalojndumlanokto,une?"dirislajunaviroperdolavooalsiaamiko,"ardumlanoktooninepovosvidimiannigranevalon,sedmalamikojpovostujvidivianblankanevalon.Onipovostelitianevalon,arviestasmaljunakajmalforta,kajnepovosmalhelpimalamikojn."Tiapropononeajnisagrablaallamaljunaviro.Lineestiskontenta,tamenlinevolisperdisianevalon,arliestismalria.Lidirisalsikelidonossianblankanevalonallajunaviro,kajprenostiesnigranevalon.Tujlidirisalitiu"Sedperviahelpomineperdosmianevalon:midonosla



mianalvi,kajprenosvianevalon.Laviaestasmalbela,sediestasalmenanigravidonosinalmi,une?""Jes,"respondislaruzajunaviro,kajlidonissiannigranevalonaltiu,kajprenislablankanevalon."Nun,"dirislamaljunaviro,"Viestaskuraakajforta,kajvigardoslaevalojn,une?Vipovosmalhelpimalamikojnpertiugrandaakratranilo,kajoninepovostelivianblankanevalon."Laruzajunavironehontis.Lirespondis"Miakaraamiko,minundormos,aroninetelosblankanevalon.Mipovosviditianevalondumlanokto,kajmalhelpimalamikojn.Sedtiuevalovia(thathorseofyours)havaslakolorondelanokto,kajenunonipovasteliin."Lamalkontentamaljunavirodirisperkoleravoo"uvinehontaspritiapropono?"Tamenlaruzajunavirotujkomencisdormi,kajlamaljunavirogardislaevalojndumlatutanokto.

SENTENCESFORTRANSLATION.(Wordstobeformedwiththeprefixmalareitalicised.)

1.Doesoneeatpotatoesandmeatwithaforkoraspoon?2.Oneputssoupintothemouthbymeansofaspoon.3.Onecutsfruitwithaknife,andputsthefruituponaplate.4.Thecoffeewascold,andIwasmuchdissatisfied.5.Myknifewasdull,neverthelessIalmostimmediatelycutmy(the)lefthand.6.Iwasashamed,butIthinkthatthehandleofthatknifewasveryshort.7.Thegrassiswettoday,andIfearthatweshallnotbeabletotakeawalk,eveninthatsmallpark.8.Idisliketogowalkinguponthehardstreets.9.Thecourageousyoungmanandhisagedfriendtalkedabouttheirenemies.10.Theywishedtobecarefulabouttheirhorses.11.Theyoungmanwasverysly,andwishedtosleepduringthenight.12.Hesaidthatonecanstealablackhorseduringthedarknight.13.Hesaidthateither(a)heortheoldmanwouldguardthehorses.14.Theoldmanansweredthathewouldgivetohimhis[own]whitehorse.15.Hetookthatone'sblackhorse.16.Hewasashamed,andwasveryangryathisfaithlessfriend.17.Buthestayedawake,andguardedthehorses.

LESSONXVI.

THEDEMONSTRATIVEADVERBOFPLACE.

68.Thedemonstrativeadverbsofplacerelatedtothepronounstiuanditiuaretie,there,in(at)thatplace,anditie,here,in(at)thisplace:

Lateleroestastie,theplateisthere(inthatplace).Lalibrojkuasitie,thebooksliehere(inthisplace).Mitrovisvintiekajlintiei,Ifoundyouthereandhimhere.Tielaveteroajnastreagrabla,theretheweatherseemsverypleasant.

69.Iftheverbinthesentenceexpressesmotiontowardtheplaceindicatedbytieoritie,theendingnisaddedtotheadverb(46),formingtien,thither,there,anditien,hither,here:

Liirostien,hewillgothere(thither).Mivenisitien,Icamehere(hither).Niestistie,kajvenisitien,wewerethereandcamehere(hither).



ACCOMPANIMENT.

70.Accompanimentorassociationisexpressedbytheprepositionkun,with,alongwith:

Laviroveniskunsiaamiko,themancamewithhisfriend.Mipromenoskunvi,Ishallgowalkingwithyou.Laknabokuntiuviroestasliafrato,theboywiththatmanishisbrother.

Kunmustnotbeconfusedwithper(64),whichexpressesinstrumentality,althoughpermayoftenbetranslatedbyEnglish"with."TheEnglishpreposition"with"maybesaidtohavethreeratherclearlydefineddifferentmeanings.Inthelinguistichistoryofthisword,theoriginalmeaningwas"against,"stillshowninfightwith,strivewith,contendwith,withstand,etc.(Cf.Germanwiderstreiten,tostrivewith,widerhalten,toresist,etc.)Graduallythisword"with"usurpedthemeaningoftheoriginalpreposition"mid,"expressingassociationoraccompaniment(cf.Germanmit,"with",whichitcrowdedoutofthelanguageexceptinoneunimportantcompound).Theword"by"wasalsoencroachingupon"mid"fromanotherdirection,andso"mid's"successor"with"cametobeinterchangeablewith"by"inexpressinginstrumentality.Thus,English"with"indicatesopposition,accompaniment,orinstrumentality,forwhichthreesensesEsperantohasthethreeprepositionskontra,kun,andper,respectively.

THEADVERBFOR.

71.Theadverbfor,away,maybeusedindependently,asLiirisfordemi,hewentawayfromme,butitismorefrequentlyusedasaprefixtogiveasenseofdeparture,lossorsomewhatforcibleremoval:

foriri,togoaway,todepart.forkuri,torunaway,toescape.forlasi,toleavealone,toabandon,todesert.formani,toeataway,toeatup.forpreni,totakeaway,toremove.fortrinki,todrinkaway,todrinkup.

Cf.theprefixforinEnglish"forfend,"tokeepaway,toavert,"forbid,"toexcludefrom,tocommandagainst,"forbear,"torefrainfrom,etc.

THEMEANINGOFPOVI.

72.Theverbpovi,tobeable,isusedtotranslateEnglishcan,whichisdefective,thatis,doesnotoccurinalloftheformsaverbmayhave:

Mipovasparoli,Iamabletotalk,Icantalk.Mipovisparoli,Iwasabletotalk,Icouldtalk.Mipovosparoli,Ishallbeabletotalk,.Mivolaspoviparoli,Iwishtobeabletotalk,.

VOCABULARY.

el,outof,out.irka,around,roundabout.

peli,todrive,tochase.poo,pocket.



for,away(71).frua,early.glavo,sword.horo,hour.kun,with(70).lasi,toleave.

rajdi,toride.rapidi,tohasten.resti,toremain,tostay.saa,wise.tie,there(68).voki,tocall.

MALAMIKOJENLADEZERTO.

Junavirokajliasaapatrovolisiritransladezerton,kunsiajamikoj.Laamikojestisfortaj,kajlajunaviroestistrekuraa.Ilirestisenmalgrandaurbodumlanokto,kajforrajdiskuntiujamikoj.Lapatrokajlafiloopiniiskelaamikojkunilipovoshelpipersiajakrajglavoj.Iliopiniiskeilipovosforpelilamalamikojn.Eenladezertoonitrovasmalamikojn.Tiajmalamikojforprenaslamonondebonajviroj.Lajunaviroestiskontenta,arliestiskunlaamikoj.Lamaljunaviroestiskontentaarliestiskunsiafilo.Baldalanoktovenis.Estistremallumatieenladezerto,kajilipreskanepovisvidi.Dumlafruajhorojdelanoktolapatroadisvoojn,kajpreskatujlividislamalamikojn.Laruzajmalbonajvirojrapidistien,kajvokislamaljunanviron.Lamalkuraajamikojdelapatrokajfilonekrestistie,nekhelpisforpelilamalamikojn.Ilitujforkuris.Lamalamikojstarisirkalapatro,kajforpuislindeliaevalo.Lafilovolismalhelpiilin,sedlinepovis.Lipovisnurrestikunlapatro,kajgardilintiekontralaglavojdelamalamikoj.Baldalamalamikojkomencisforprenilamononellapoojdelasaamaljunaviro.Lakolerafilodirispermaldola(bitter)voo"uvinehontas?uvilasosalnineklaevalojnneknianmonon?"Sedlamalamikojrespondis"Ne,nilasosalvineklaevalojnneklamonon.Nineestasmalsaaj."Posttiudiroilitujforrapidis,kajpreniskunsilaevalojn.


1.Thefoolishfriendsoftheyoungmanandhisagedfatherdidnotstaywiththem.2.Theydidnothelpthemwiththeirswords,butranawayatonce(tuj),andwerenotashamed.3.Theoldmanhearddisagreeablevoicesbehindhim,andsoonhesawtheenemy.4.Theenemycalledthem,andhastenedthere(69).5.Thoseslybadmentookthemoneyoutofthepocketsofthecourageousyoungman.6.Theystoodaroundhim,andalsoaroundhisfather.7.Thefatherandsoncouldnotevenguardtheirhorses.8.Theenemydidnotleave(to)thesetheirhorses,buttookboththehorsesandthemoney.9.Soontheenemyrodeaway,duringthelatehoursofthenight.10.Thefatherandsonwereangryanddissatisfied.11.Theysaid"Wefearanddislikesuchmen."12.Thefathersaid"Bythehelpofourneighborswecan(povos)findthosebadmen,anddrivethemaway,outofthedesert."13.Thesonreplied,"DearFather,suchaproposalseemsgood,andIwillhelpwithmylongsharpsword.14.Butwearenowinthedesert,andtheroadtothecityislong.15.Wecannotridethither,butwecanwalkthither.16.Canyounothasten,with(per)myhelp?"17.Thewiseoldmananswered,"Yes,myson,withsuchhelpIcanwalkthither."

LESSONXVII.

THEDEMONSTRATIVETEMPORALADVERB.



73.Thedemonstrativetemporaladverbrelatedtothedemonstrativepronountiuistiam,then,atthattime:

Tiamlirajdosallaurbo,thenhewillridetothecity.Nuniliestassaaj,sedtiamiliestismalsaaj,nowtheyarewise,butatthattimetheywerefoolish.

COMPARISONOFADJECTIVES.

74.Anadjectivemayhavethreedegrees,positive,comparativeandsuperlative.Englishhasvariouswaysofformingthecomparativeandsuperlativedegrees(asbythesuffixeser,est,theadverbsmore,most,andirregularmethodsasingood,better,best,etc.).Esperantohasonlyonemethod,usingtheadverbspli,more,andplej,most:

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

bela,beautiful plibela,morebeautiful plejbela,mostbeautiful.

bona,good plibona,better plejbona,best.

malbona,bad plimalbona,worse plejmalbona,worst.

saa,wise plisaa,wiser plejsaa,wisest.

75.Theprepositionelisusedwithwordsexpressingthegrouporclassoutofwhichasuperlativeisselectedandmentioned:

Liestaslaplejjunaeltiuj,heistheyoungestof(outof)those.Viestaslaplejfeliaelni,youarethehappiestofus.Tiuestislaplejruzaellaviroj,thatonewasthecraftiestofthemen.

MANNERANDCHARACTERISTIC.

76.Theactionsorfeelingswhichaccompanyanactorstate,orthecharacteristicwhichpermanentlyaccompaniesapersonorthing,maybeexpressedbyasubstantivewiththeprepositionkun:

Liprenisinkunlaplejgrandazorgo,hetookitwiththegreatestcare.Miadislinkuninteresokajplezuro,Iheardhimwithinterestandpleasure.iestasvirinokunbonagusto,sheisawomanwith(of)goodtaste.Mihavasevalonkunfortakorpo,Ihaveahorsewithastrongbody.

Sometimesthemannerofanactionmaybeexpressedbytheinstrumentofit,expressedbytheprepositionperwithasubstantivemodifiedbyanadjective:Likantisperdolavoo,hesangwith(bymeansof)asweetvoice.Vipuisminperfortamano,youpushedmewithastronghand.



DIRI,PAROLIANDRAKONTI.

77.Theverbsdiri,tosay,paroli,totalk,tospeak,andrakonti,torelate,havingincommonthegeneralideaofspeechorexpression,mustnotbeconfusedinuse:

Midirisalvikepluvas,Isaidto(told)youthatitwasraining.Midirisinalvi,Isaidittoyou(Itoldyou).Miparolisalviprii,Italked(spoke)toyouaboutit.Mirakontisinalvi,Irelated(told)ittoyou.

VOCABULARY.

ami,tolove.ekster,outside(of).Frederiko,Frederick.gratuli,tocongratulate.intereso,interest.letero,letter.plej,most(74).plezuro,pleasure.

pli,more(74).plumo,pen.rakonti,torelate(77).reo,king.servisto,servant.skribi,towrite.tiam,then(73).zorgo,care.

FREDERIKOGRANDAKAJLAJUNASERVISTO.

HieramilegisinteresanlibronpriFrederikoGranda(theGreat).Enionirakontaskelareokunplezurolegisaskribispersiaplumo,dummalfruajhorojdelanokto.Agrablajunaknabo,laplejjunaellaservistoj,tiamrestiseksterlapordo.arlareolegisplejinteresannovanlibron,lineopiniiskelahoroestasmalfrua.Livokissianmalgrandanserviston,sedlaknabo,nekvenisnekrespondis.Lareoiristien,kajtrovislaknaboneksterlapordo.Lividiskelaknabodormassurmalaltaseo.TiamFrederikoGrandaneestiskolera,sedhontisarlivokislainfanon.LareoFrederikovidisleteronenlapoodelaknabo.Tujliprenislaleteronelliapoo,kajrigardisin.iestisleteroallaservisto,deliapatrino.ineestisriavirino,iajnisestitremalria.Enitiuleterolapatrinodirisperlaplumokeiamaslafilon.idankislinarliskribisalilonganleteron.iankadankislinarlidonisalimonon.Lareovolisestitrebonaaltiafilo.Kunlaplejgrandazorgolimetismononelsiapookunlaleterokajtiamlasislaleteronentiespoo.Tiamliformarisalsiaambro,kajvokislamalgrandanserviston.Laknabotujadis,kajrapidistralapordo.Likuristranslaambron,kajstarisantalareo."uvidormis?"dirisFrederikoGranda."Jes,mitimaskemipreskadormis,"respondislaknabo,"kajmitrehontas."Tiamlimetislamanonenlapoon,kajtrovislamonon.Liajnisplimalfeliakajdiriskungrandatimo"Malamikometisitiunmononenmianpoon!Oniopinioskemitelisin!Onimalamosmin,kajforpelosmin!"Frederikorespondis,"Ne,midonisinalvi,armiamasbonajnknabojn.Migratulasvianpatrinon,arihavastianfilon."


1.Aninterestingstoryisrelated(54)aboutFredericktheGreat.2.Hisyoungestservantstayedoutsideofthedoor.3.Thekingcalledhim,andhehastenedthitherandstoodbeforehim.4.Yesterdayhedidnotheartheking.5.Thekingcalledhim,buthedidnotanswer.6.Thekingthoughtthattheboyhadgone



awaywiththeolderservants,andhewasangry.7.Helefthisbookonthetable,andwenttothedoor.8.Thenhesawthatthelittleboywassleepingthere.9.Helookedathimwithgreaterinterest,andsawaletterinhispocket.10.Theletterwasfromtheboy'smother.11.Hehadwrittenalettertoher,withhispen,andhadgiven(to)hermoney,becauseshewaspoor.12.Hewrotelongerletterswithpleasure,becausehewasamostfaithfulson.13.Thekingcongratulatedthemotheroftheboy,concerningsuchason.14.(The)kingFrederickwishedtobekinder(plibona)totheboy.15.Heplacedhisbookuponthetable,nearhissword,andtalkedtothelittleservant.16.Thentheolderservantscame,andstoodaroundtheking.17.Theywalkedwithgreatcare,andtheyoungerservantdidnothearthem.18.Theylovedthelittleboy,andwishedtohelphim.

LESSONXVIII.

THEDEMONSTRATIVEADVERBOFMOTIVEORREASON.

78.Thedemonstrativeadverbofmotiveorreason,relatedtothedemonstrativepronountiu,istial,therefore,forthatreason,so:

Tiallaservistoforiris,thereforetheservantwentaway.Tialmigratulislin,forthatreasonIcongratulatedhim.Tialoniforpelislin,sotheydrovehimaway.

DERIVATIONOFADVERBS.

a complete grammar of esperanto

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