A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF PĀLI LITERATURE

OF INDIA AND MYANMAR

Dr. Satyendra Kumar Pandey,Editor,

Encyclopedia of Himalayan Buddhist Culture Project,Central Institute of Buddhist Studies, Choglamsar,

Leh-Ladakh, Jammu –Kashmir, IndiaAbstract

PĀLI Literature developed around the 6th century B.C. in the ancient Magadha region of eastern India is the standard literature of the Theravāda

tradition of Buddhism. It consists of the Tipiţaka (canon), Anupiţaka (quasi-canon), Aţţhakathā (commentaries), Ţīkā (sub-commentaries),

Vamsa (chronicles), Vyākaraņa (grammar) etc. Though it articulates mainly the teachings of the Buddha, which address the existential problem

of mankind, the suffering (dukkha), it is a vast source of knowledge that deals with philosophy, psychology, ethics, history etc. In course of time

the Pāli words and literary expressions reached Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos etc. where the Pāli literature was adopted in its

entirety. It became the essence of Buddhist chanting, prayers and Dhamma-desanā (discourse) in their social and religious life. In Myanmar the

influence of this literature is so much so that the Myanmar made every possible effort to disseminate and preserve it. They produced a great

number of Pāli text on the Abhidhamma, grammar, anthology, ethics, discipline, boundary, rituals, cosmology, chronicles, eulogy or edifying

texts, metaphysics, law, etc. engraved entire Tipiţaka and its commentaries on marble slaves. Remarkably, India stopped producing Buddhist

literature (both in Pāli and Sanskrit) after 12th century A. D., but Myanmar continued to compose classical Pāli works till the beginning of 20th

century. This is because the practical guidance to live happily and to attain the highest goal of spirituality by one’s own effort, offered by Pāli

literature mesmerized the Myanmar. In this background the paper aims to study and evaluate as to how this literary tradition from India inspired

and imbibed the similar trend in Myanmar, the similarities as well as dissimilarities, which were easily accommodated in the local social

framework of Myanmar, the finer point of Abhidhamma, the local idiomatic expressions and its parallel in the early Pāli literature of India. To

achieve the objectives, different kinds of methodology such as comparative, survey, observation etc. have been employed.

1. INTRODUCTION

PĀLI Literature, recorded in and named after ‘Pāli’ language, developed around the 6th century B.C., in the ancient

Magadha region of Eastern India, following its use by the Buddha in delivering his sermon is the standard literature

of the Theravāda tradition of Buddhism. In course of time the Pāli words and literary expressions crossed the

boundaries and reached Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and its beyond. These countries adopted the

entire Pāli literature of India, which became the essence of Buddhist chanting, prayers and Dhamma-desanā

(discourse) in their social and religious life. Some of the countries such as Sri Lanka and Myanmar excelled in

producing Pāli based Buddhist literature especially in the Vaŋsa, Vyākaraņa, and Abhidhamma traditions.

Remarkably, India stopped producing Buddhist literature (both in Pāli and Sanskrit) after 12th century A. D. but, the

Theravada countries especially Myanmar continued to compose classical Pāli works till the beginning of 20th

century.

The existing Pāli literature is of great extent and importance. It is valuable alike for the philologist, the philosopher,

the psychologist, the historian, the sociologist, the student of folklore and comparative religion for it is a vast source

of knowledge that deals with metaphysics, psychology, ethics, culture etc. besides delineating the literary values of

prose, drama, epistle, metaphor, poetic concept, etc. Pāli, being an important part of the Asian culture, would

definitely help promote the Asian studies, providing a base for sociological, anthropological, historical, political

studies of the people living in Asia, i.e., it could form a bridge for cementing ties between the south Asia, Southeast

Asia, China, Japan, and Korea.

The research work plans to study and evaluate as to how this literary tradition from India imbibed and inspired the

similar trend in Myanmar, the similarities as well as dissimilarities, which were easily accommodated in the local

social framework of Myanmar. It would also assess the finer point of Abhidhamma, the local idiomatic expressions

and its parallel in the early Pāli literature of India. Keeping in view the vast extent of the Pāli literature, the work is

confined with special reference to the texts of Abhidhamma and the Gihivinaya.

To achieve the objectives, different kinds of methodology such as comparative, survey, observation, preserved and

applied trends have been taken into account.

2. PĀLI LITERATURE IN INDIA AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN THERAVĀDA TRADITION

The Pāli literature1, a collection of Pāli texts, complied or composed in India and the Theravāda Buddhist

countries may be classified as Piţaka (canonical) and Piţakettara (Post-piţaka i.e. non-canonica) literature.

The Piţaka literature, popularly known as Tipiţaka is the standard scripture of the Theravāda Buddhist tradition.2 It

contains the teachings of the Buddha and his disciples, which were compiled in the first Buddhist council, held at

Rajgaha. In the third century B. C. it was orally transmitted from India to the countries like Sri Lanka, Myanmar etc.

through a lineage of Theras. It was written down in Sri Lanka in the first century B.C., at the occasion of the Fourth

Buddhist Council.3 It is the most complete surviving early Buddhist canon and one of the first to be written down.4

It consists of three Piţakas (basket) the Vinaya, the Sutta and the Abhidhamma. Because of this, the canon is

traditionally known as the Tipiţaka (three baskets).5

The Vinaya Piţaka deals primarily with the rules and regulations aiming at the physical and vocal purificaiton of

the members of the Sańgha, both monks and nuns. It forms a great code of monastic discipline.6 It also includes the

stories behind the origin of each rule, providing a detailed account of the Buddha’s solution to the question of how to

maintain communal harmony within a large and diverse spiritual community. Besides, it is rich in the early history

of Buddhist order, and contributes innumerable deails of the life and ministery of the Buddha.

The Sutta-piţaka divided into five Nikāyas (literally means collection), namely, the Dīghanikāya7, the

Majjhimanikāya8, the Saŋyuttanikāya9, the Ańguttaranikāya10, and the Khuddakanikāya11 presents the accounts of

the Buddha's teachings, delivered in accordance with mental elevation, profession, beliefs etc. of the concerned

audiences. It contains a number of important discourses of the Buddha, such as the Brahmajālasutta12, the

Samaññaphalasutta13, the Mahāparinibbānasutta14, the Mahāsatipaţţhānasutta15, the Dhammacakkappa-

vattana-sutta16, the Sańgītipariyāyasutta17 etc. It also contains some other matter, as the Dhammapada, a fine

example of the moralistic, aphoristic strain in Indian literature, in which virtue is extolled and vice condemned;18 the

Sutta-nipāta, composed in a more formal style, contains 55 narratives and didactic poems, in the form of dialogues

1 For detail seeNorman K. R., Pali Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983; Hinüber,op. cit., Law Bimala C., History of Pali Literature, 2 vols., Delhi, indological Book House, 1983

2 Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, page 3

3 Ibid., page 20

4 Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 3.

5 Gombrich, page 4

6 Childers R.C., A Dictionary of Pali Language, New Delhi, Cosmo Publications, 1979, p. viii

and ballads; the Theragāthā and the Therīgāthā, which give at times a vivid insight into the ambience in which a

conversion to Buddhism took place: a monk celebrates his newfound freedom in an idyll of the hermit’s life; and a

nun reminesces over the pains of deserting her home and child, yet without regrets, since she has worn the freedom

of Buddhism; and the Jātaka19, which consist of fairy tales, animal stories and fable, ballads, and anecdotes. 20 The

Sutta-piţaka, in fact, intends to give a solid grounding in the Buddha’s teachings as well as highlight the

contemporary pictures of the Indian polity, economy, religion etc.

The Abhidhamma-piţaka, consists of seven texts, namely, the Dhammasańgaņi, the Vibhańga, the Dhātukathā,

the Puggalapaññatti, the Kathāvatthu, the Yamaka, and the Paţţhāna21 discusses the various doctrines of

Buddhism from a metaphysical point of view employing a terminology of great wealth and precision.22 Most

scholars describe the Abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the Suttas. The scholars like

Harvey,23 Gethin24 state that where the Suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the Abhidhamma thinks in

terms of specific events or occasions. The texts of the Abhidhamma except the Puggalapaññatti and the

7 It consists of thirty-four long discourses. – Law, Bimala C., p. 80

8 The Majjhima-nikāya [M] is a collection of 152 medium discourses. – Ibid. p. 150

9 The Saŋyutta-nikāya [S]consists of 7762 Suttas of varied length, arranged in a special order according to subject matter. It presents the most detailed explanations of the different aspects of Dhamma. - U Ko Lay, Guide to Tipitaka,

Rangoon, Burma Pitaka Association, 1986, p. 83

10 The Ańguttara-nikāya [A]contains 9,557 short Suttas. – Ibid. p. 110

11 Vipassana Research Institute [VRI], Igatpuri, Chaţţha Sańgāyana compact disc [CSCD], third version, Aţţhasālinī [Asl], 5.

12 It describes the different schools of philosophical thought prevalent in India at the time of the Buddha. – see Dīghanikāya [D]. 1.1

13 It deals with the views of the six contemporary thinkers as well as the attainment of immediate fruits of adopting the recluse life.-D. 1.2

14 It enumerates the events of the last journey of the Buddha, which starts from Rajagaha and ends at Kusinagara.- D.2.3

15VRI D. 3. 9, M. I. 10

16 It is the first discourse, delivered by the Buddha at Isipattanamigadāva (Sarnath). – VRI S. V.5.14

17 The Sutta delivered by Sariputta presents a list of the Dhamma in catechetical form. – VRI .D.3.10

18 It has remained a work of considerable diffusion in all Buddhist countries .In Myanmar Dhammapada is one of the texts to be studied in the first stage of the syllabus.- Mendelson, appendix

19 The Jātaka contains some 547 episodes supposedly having occurred in the Buddha’s earlier lives.

20 Britannica CD 2000.

Kathāvatthu,25 enumerate systematically the four ultimate truths (paramattha-Dhamma), consciousness (citta),

mental factors (cetasika), matter (rūpa) and Nibbāna (Eternal Bliss) in accordance with the different sets of

questions, set forth in the beginning of the texts. The sets of questions, arranged under different heads such as

wholesome (kusala), resultant (vipāka), root (mūla), absorption (jhāna) etc. serve as a classified table of Dhammas,

bring out the exact nature, function, properties and mutual relationship both internally (i.e. inside our own

personality) and externally (outer world) of these Dhammas. The Abhidhamma begins with ethical aspects of the

Dhammas and ends after presenting a vivid picture of both the philosophical and psychological aspects of the

human world. For example, the first sets of questions, classified as Kusalatika, raise the issues of wholesome,

unwholesome, and neither wholesome nor unwholesome aspects of the Dhamma. The answer to these questions

results in the indirect enunciation of Buddhist philosophy and psychology. As a philosophy it lays down that the first

three ultimates, the consciousness, the psychic factors and matter constitute the state of suffering, and the last one

Nibbāna is the state of peace, the state devoid of suffering. As psychology it shows the process of the functioning of

mind. It also shows that each activity of a man is guided by the mind. The mind polluted under the influence of

unwholesome mental factors, greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), delusion (moha) etc. forces a man to perform immoral

acts while the mind under the sway of wholesome mental factors, non-greed (alobha), non-hatred (adosa),

knowledge (paññā) etc. enables a man to perform moral act. Moral acts yield happiness while immoral acts cause

suffering. Hence is said, “Mind regulates the world”.26

The Piţakettara Pāli literature consists of Anupiţaka (semi-canon), Aţţhakathā (commentary) Ţīkā (Sub-

commentary), Anuţīkā (small treatise), Sańgaha (manual), Vaŋsa (chronicle), Vyākaraņa (grammar), Kāvya

(poetics), and Chanda (prosody) etc. Remarkably most of the chronicles, grammar, etc. were compiled in some of

the Theravāda Buddhist countries other than India. The Piţakettara Pāli literature is of very varying interest. The

21. Law, B.C., p. 304

22 Childers, p. viii

23 loc. cit.

24 Gethin, Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1998, page 44

25 The Puggalapaññatti, as the name suggests, describes the ten types of puggala (individual) in accordance with their respective mental elevation while the Kathāvatthu, composed by Moggaliputtatissa Thera, the President of the

third Buddhist council held after 218 year of the Buddha’s Mahāparinibbāna describes altogether 200 debates on point of doctrine, mainly concerned with wrong views such as “Person exists”; “Arahata falls away from Arahatship”

and so on. The style of compilation of these two treatise is, however, quite different from that of other treatises of the Abhidhamma-piţaka.

26 “Cittena kho bhikkhu loko nīyati .” – VRI. A. 1. 206

mere title of the books would fill many pages and therefore it will be sufficient here to mention a few of the more

noteworthy.

The Nettipakaraņa27, the Peţakopadesa28, and the Milindapañha29are considered as the semi-canonical literature

as per the decision of the Sixth Buddhist Council.30 Among these the Milindapañha is a text of considerable literary

and historical interest. It is a remarkable work of great antiquity as it exhibits a familiarity with Greek names and

places and records a religious discussion between a Buddhist monk Nagasena and King Milinda, identified as a

Bacterian Indo-Greek King Menander (140-110 B.C.).31 The profound and comprehensive exposition of Buddhist

doctrine, ethics, and psychology that the sage displayed is artfully presented in the form of simile and parable, and

the work has contributed importantly to the edification of audiences in the countries where Buddhism came to be

established. The style, in spite of the repetitions so typical of Buddhist doctrinal texts, is lively and presents the reader

with an invaluable picture of contemporary Indian life. It is one of the greatest works of classical Indian prose

literature.

Aţţhakathā, which literally means explanation of the word-meaning refers to the commentaries to the Theravāda

Buddhist canon, the Tipiţaka. These commentaries elucidate the traditional interpretations of the scriptures, besides

presenting a good deal of information about the social, economic, geographical, religious and political aspects of

then India.The commentaries are said to have come into existence during the very life-time of the Buddha and were

transmitted along with the Tipiţaka to different countries including Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka it was written down in

Simhalese language in the first century B.C. along with Tipiţaka, but the major parts of the commentaries, what is

available today is based on the earlier ones32 in Simhalese language, which have been now lost. Some of the zealous

Indian commentators, flourished in and after the fourth-fifth century A.D. restored these commentaries from

27 The Nettipakaraņa ascribed to the Buddha’s desciple Kaccāna according to the colophon of the text, is a kind of guidebook to understand the Buddhavacana (the word of the Buddha).- Geiger William, Pāli Literature And

Language, New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal Pvt. Ltd. P.26

28 The Peţakopadesa presents the enumeration of the Dhamma applying the same methods we find in the Nettippakaraņa. Consequently, a large amount of overlap could be seen in the description of these two books. – Geiger, p.

26

29 The Milindapañha is a text dealing with a dialogue between King Milinda (second century B.C.E.) and the monk Nagasena.- Geiger, p. 26

30 The Guide, ed. Bhikkhu Nyanmoli, Pali Text Society, 1972, page xii; Hinüber

31 Childers, p. x

32 The old commentaries are lost, however, references of their name as Mahākurundhi, Mahāpaccarī, Mahāţţhakatha etc. coud be seen here and there in the commentaries. Somewhere, they have also been indicated by the term

Porāņa.

Simhalese into original Pāli. Buddhaghosa was pioneer among them, who wrote more than a dozen commentaries,

almost on most of the important texts of the Buddhist canon. But, the most illustrious and famous commentary of

his is the Visuddhimagga, which systematically explains the three steps of Buddhist meditation, Sīla (virtue),

Samādhi (concentration) and Paññā (wisdom). Its presentation is so minute, clearl and beautiful that it earns the

name of Encychlopedia of (Theravāda) Buddhism. The other notable commentators of the time were

Dhammapāla, Buddhadatta, etc.

The Pāli Ţīkās are commentaries, chiefly exegetical, by different authors and belonging to different periods. They

comment not only upon Tipiţaka, but upon almost all the standard books, and the Ţīkās on the commentaries of

Buddhaghosa are often of great utility in cleaning up obscure passages in those writings.33

Among the manual works may be mentioned the Abhidhammatthasańgaha, a masterly analysis of the

Abhidhamma by Aniruddha, and Indian who belonged to Kancipuram and flourished in the 11 th-12th century

A.D.34 It is a highly rated and venerated work of post Buddhaghosa-period on which Myanmar’s scholars like

Chapada, Vepullabuddhi and Ariyavamsa have written several commentaries. After the notable works of

Aniruddha we find no reference to any significant treatise, written in India. In the 20th century we, however, find the

composition of a Ţīkā on the Abhidhammatthasańgaha, named Navanītaţīkā by D. D. Kosambi.

Significane Of Pāli Literature

THE Pāli literature has made a significant contribution in the Theravada countries. First of all it makes them aware

of the Buddhist concepts of four Noble truths, the Law of Dependent origination, no-soul, the law of

impermanence, the theory of Kamma and rebirth etc that deny the superiority and inferiority of a man (i.e.the caste

system) on the basis of birth,35 emphasize on the practice of four Brahma-vihāra, consider an individual capable of

making spiritual development36 etc. These principles besides talking of equality, fraternity and liberty aim to

establish a just, equitable and peaceful society.

33 Childers, p. xiii

34 Upadhyay, p. 627

35 VRI Suttanipāta [Sn], p. 1.6,

36 See Gaņakamoggallāna sutta, VRI M. III.1.7, and Cañkisutta, VRI M. II.5.5

Pāli literature offers lots of practical advice on a host of relevant real world topics, such as: how children and parents,

and other members of the society can live happily together,37 how one should safeguard one’s material possession,38

how to train one’s mind,39 how to cope with grief40 etc. It also gives them a distinct kind of Philosophy, Psychology,

Ethics, Culture and Literature, based on the solemn teachings of Buddha.

It helped the host countries, as we would see in case of Myanamar in evolving their own language, literature, and

culture. It also created a strong cultural bond among the neighboring Buddhist countries; particularly India and

those profess Theravāda tradition of Buddhism. There is no denying fact, the neighboring countries were politically

rivals, but it was only the Buddhism which brought them together and ensured cultural exchanges among them.

Some of the countries became famous because of the adoption of a particular discipline of Pāli literature. For

instance, Sri Lanka is famous for adhering the Sutta, Thailand for the Vinaya and Myanmar for the

Abhidhammma. Prior to the introduction of Buddhism in some of these countries, there was no trace of Dhamma

or the uniform civilized culture, though the existence of a kind of regional culture cannot be denied. Above all, the

Pāli literature helped in the preservation, propagation and spread of the teaching of the Buddha in the areas far and

wide.

The Pāli literature also provides information regarding the physical and mental diseases and their antidotes.41 As a

cure to mental diseases, the Pāli literature prescribes the practice of Vipassanā meditation, which enables one to

look within and observe minutely the different aspects of the functioning of our mind and body, which leads to the

proper understanding of the true nature of the world. Through Vipassanā one can do one’s own psychoanalysis and

get rid of many problems psychiatrical and psychosomatic.

3. PĀLI LITERATURE IN MYANMAR AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN THERAVĀDA COUNTRIES

Myanmar is a Theravāda Buddhist country in the sense that the majority of the Myanmar population

(approximately 89%) professes Theravāda42 tradition of Buddhism as their way of life or religion. The Theravāda

tradition is of one of the offshoots of Buddhism, which traces its lineage to the old Sańgha, established by the

37 VRI D.3.11

38 VRI A.IV.255

39 VRI D.2.9

40 VRI A.V.49

41 For detail see Mahāniddesa of Khuddakanikāya, Suttapiţaka, and Bhesajjakkhandhaka of Mahāvagga, Vinayapiţaka

Buddha himself, and claims to follow strictly the Tipiţaka (teachings of the Buddha) and its commentaries, handed

over to them by the lineage of theras43. Several countries including Myanmar received this tradition along with its

literature by the nine groups of the Dhamma Missionaries, dispatched by the King Asoka after the third Buddhist

council, held at Pataliputra (Patna) 218 years after the Mahāparinibbāna of the Buddha.

Having received this tradition the Myanmar expressed their full faith in the chief tenets of the Buddha. They made

effort not only to disseminate and preserve it, but also shaped their life on the lines of the Buddha’s instruction,

enshrined in the Pāli literature.

The Pāli Literature of Myanmar

The Pāli literature of Myanmar generally consists of the texts, compiled and composed in India and Sri Lanka, and

those produced indigenously by the Myanmar Scholars. Though Myanmar came in contact with Buddhism and its

literature quite early, the Pāli scholarship in Myanmar begins in 1064 A.D. when a Burmese, named

Dhammasenātpati wrote Kārikā,44 a grammatical work. A number of texts were composed, henceforth, on the

different disciplines of Pāli literature, of which writings on the Pāli Grammar and the Abhidhamma occupy

prominent place in Myanmar’s Pāli literature.

The Sāsanavaŋsa, which records the history of Buddhism in Myanmar, mentions a number of grammatical texts.

The Saddanīti, composed by Aggavaŋsa the 12th A.D. is a classic grammar text. It is one of the three principal Pāli

grammars along with the grammars by Kaccāna and Moggallāna.45

In the field of Abhidhamma Saddhammajotipāla, also known as Chapata46, was the first recorded monk who wrote

Sańkhepavaņņanā, a commentary on the Abhidhammatthasańgaho.47 He also composed Nāmācāradīpanī,48

42 The term Theravāda literally means elders’ view [thera + vāda], the earliest reference of which is seen in the Majjhima-nikāya. -Majjhima Nikāya, vol. I of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara p. 213.

43 “Tipitakasangahitam saţţhakathaŋ sabbaŋ theravādaŋ” ti. – Samantapasadika (NNM ed.), Vol. I, Bāhiranidāna-kathā, p. 45

44 GV., pp. 63, 73. Dhammasenapati wrote the Kārikā at the request of the monk Nānagambhīra who is perhaps the thera mentioned in the Pitakatthamain as the author of the religious work Tathāgatuppati. – Bode, M. H., Pāli

literature of Burma, London, 1946.P. 16.

45 The monks of Sri Lanka who received a copy of the Saddanīti declared it superior to any work of the kind written by Sinhalese scholars – “Saddavisaye ayaŋgandho viya sīhaladdīpe gandho natthi.”- Sas., p. 71. Also see. Roger

Bishoff., www.accesstoinsight

46 He is basically famous for his treatise on Kaccāyana’s grammar, the Suttaniddesa.

47 Oldenberg, Pali Mss. In the India office, JPTS., 1882, p. 85.

48 Forchhammer, Essay, p. 35. Bode. P. 19.

which is included in the nine Abhidhaam texts, known as little finger manuals in Myanmar. The Burmese scholars

like Vimalabuddhi49, Vepullabuddhi50, Ariyavaŋsa (15th century A. D.)51, Saddhammālańkāra52, Mahānāma53,

Tipiţakālańkāra54, Saradassi55, Nāņavara56, etc. composed a number of texts on the Abhidhamma. In the 17th

century several Abhidhamma texts such as the Atthasalini, the Sammohavinodanī, the Abhidhammatthavibhāvinī,

the Sańkhepavaņņanā the Abhidhammattha-sańgaha, the Mātikā, the Dhātukathā, the Yamaka, and the

Paţţhāna were translated into Burmese tongue.57 The reason for these translations must have been a developing

interest in the psychology of Buddhism among the people who could not themselves read Pāli.58

In the 20th century Ledi Hsaya-daw composed two important texts on the Abhidhamma, the Paramatthasańkhepa,

and the Paramatthadīpanī. The Paramatthadīpani is a classic one, which puts forth certain arguments against

some of the Abhidhammic views, enshrined in the Vibhāvinīţīkā.

Besides, these two important disciplines of Pāli literature Myanmar produced a great number of Pāli text on

anthology, ethics, discipline, boundary, rituals, cosmology, chronicles, eulogy or edifying texts, metaphysics, law,

etc. These texts include not only the original treatises but also the commentaries and sub-commentaries, written

particularly by Myanmar monk scholars ever since the composition of Kārikā. Some of these texts were published

and some of them are either unpublished or preserved in the manuscript form in the libraries, and museums of

Myanmar. Some of them have been perished also due to negligence or lack of awareness and proper technique of

their preservation.

4. STUDY OF COMMON LITERARY TRENDS49 Vimalabuddhia composed Abhidhammatthasańgahaţīkā SVD., Verse 1223.

50 Vepullabuddhi of Pagan authored a Ţīkā on the Abhidhammatthasańgaha, called Dasaganţhivaņņanā or Dasagandhi-vaņņanā.

51 Ariyavaŋsa composed Maņisāramañjūsā, a commentary on the Abhidhammatthasańgahavibhāvinī, and Maņidīpa a Ţīkā on Aţţhasālinī. ibid., p. 42

52 Sas., p., 48. Saddhammālańkāra composed Paţţhānasāradīpanī.

53 Ibid. Mahānama composed Madhusāradīpanī , a Ţīkā on the Abhidhamma.?

54 Tipiţakālańkāra, chiefly remembered as an Abhidhamma scholar, wrote a commentary on the introductory verse of Aţţhasālinī.

55 Saradassi (17th c.A.D.) authored Guļhatthadīpanī, which explains difficult passages in the seven books of the Abhidhamma. See Sas. P. 116

56 Nāņavara composed the Ganthipadattha, a gloss on the difficult words of the famous ‘Abhidhammattha-sańgaha. He also glossed similarly the ancient commentary Aţţhasālinī.

57 Maniratana Thera translated the Atthasalini, the Sammohavinodanī, the Abhidhammatthavibhāvinī, and the Sańkhepavaņņanā while Aggadhammalańkāra translated the Abhidhammatthasańgaha, the Mātikā, the

Dhātukathā, the Yamaka, and the Paţţhāna into Burmese tongue.

58 Roger Bischoff

The Myanmar accepted Indian Pāli literatute as the base of their faith and belief. They made no change in the

Buddhist canon they received from India. The only notable exception is seen in their belief that they count semi-

canonical texts Milindapañha, the Nettippakaraņa, the Peţakopadesa, and Suttasańgaho under the texts of the

Khuddakanikāya. The presentation of narratives through gradual, illustrative, analytical and experimental

approaches as well as the approach of adaptation is the basic feature of the Indian Pāli literature. In order to

compose indigenous Pāli texts, Myanmar followed the Indian tradition of expositional and analytical method, found

in the different texts of Pāli canon. For instance, the Myanmar scholars while illustrating technical terms related to

the Dhamma used the expositional method employed in the different texts of Pāli canon such as Mahāniddessa.

Besides, whatever indigenous Pāli texts, they composed; their subject materials were more or less imported from the

Pāli literature originated in India. Similarly, most of the parables, similes, ballads etc. used in the Myanmar texts

have been borrowed from the Indian Pāli literature, particularly Aţţhakathā. The Myanmar scholars, while

elucidating Buddhist concepts, never showed hesitation in pointing out the point of disagreement ever exist between

the Porāņa and Ācariya besides noting down their own views as we see in the Paramatthadīpanī. Ledi Sayadaw

(1846-1923), the author of the Paramatthadīpanī has expressed his disagreement on certain Abhidhammic points

from those of the Vibhāvinīţīkā, an earlier sub-commentary on the Abhidhammatthasańgaha.

In the beginning of the 20th century a new trend to write short treatises on different aspects of the Buddhism,

particularly those of the Abhidhamma emerged in Myanmar. The texts of Ledi Hsayadaw who authored 108 texts

on different issues of the Dhamma published in Myanmar between 1905 and 1906 A.D are the brilliant example of

this trend.59 Some of his texts are: the Paramatthasańkhepa, a manual of Abhidhamma; Nibbānadīpanī, an

exposition of Nibbāna; Rūpadīpanī, a treatise on Matter; Paţiccasamuppādadīpanī, an exposition of the Law of

Dependent Origination that describes the causes of repeated existence; Maggańgadīpanī, the exposition of the

eightfold path; etc. 60 Along with these, his other works represent fairly well the fields where Pāli flourishes today.

Remarkably, Myanmar excelled in producing small treatises tagged with dīpanī, pakāsinī, etc which make minute

analysis of the intricate points of the Dhamma. These texts work as handbook and ready reference.

5. THE IMPACT OF PĀLI ON MYANMAR SOCIETY

Pāli is a sacred language in Myanmar because of its use by the Buddha and his disciples in the past, and the monks

of the society in the present. It is a living language of Myanmar in the sense that it is the only medium of Buddhist 59 Bode, p.97-98.

60 ibid., pp. 97-98

prayers and daily expression of chanting. Monastic affairs, such as Kaţhina, Upasampadā etc. are done specifically

in Pāli. Though the general people do not understand the real import of the Pāli words, a number of lay people

usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly. The Paritta and the Paţthāna are the

standard collection of frequently recited texts. Monks are, of course, expected to know quite a bit more. As a result

we find a number of monk scholars who were and are well versed in many texts of the Pāli literature, even the entire

Tipiţaka. A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learnt the entire Pāli Tipiţaka by heart for the Sixth Buddhist

Council.61 The monks frequently use this language to legitimize their belief of having high knowledge, and the

power and position, they enjoy in the society.

The impact of Pāli on the mind of the Myanmar is so deep that they made every effort to preserve this literature

from the very beginning. To preserve the Pāli texts the Myanmar followed the ancient tradition of memorization

and recitation (which is still common in Myanmar), Dhammakathā (talk on the different aspects of the Dhamma)

and convening the Buddhist councils, besides inscribing them on the palm leaves, gold, copper and bronze plates,

stone and marble slabs etc. After the fifth Buddhist council held in 1871 in Mandalay, the entire Tipiţaka along

with its Aţţhakathā were inscribed on the 729 marble slabs, and were housed in an especially built pagoda ‘Kutho-

daw’ in Mandalay. In modern days, they are employing the electronic media such CD and Cassette etc. to preserve

it. It is the result of Myanmar’s effort that we have almost all the texts of Pāli literature, available not only in

Myanmar, but other countries including India also. Notably, the Myanmar not only adopted different modes of

preservation, they also applied its solemn teachings in different aspects of their life.

The foremost application is seen in their veneration and allegiance to the triple gems, the Buddha, the Dhamma, and

the Sańgha. The recitation of the “threefold refuge” formula that makes a person a Buddhist, either lay or monastic,

imparts a pledge of allegiance to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sańgha.

61 Mendelson, Sangha and State in Burma, Ithaca, New York, Cornell University Press, 1975, page 266

In Myanmar a general tendency towards the learning of Pāli could be seen not only among the monks but also

among the common people of all ranks, ages and sexes. In the past, the King Kya-swa (1234-50) wrote two

grammatical texts, Saddabindu and Paramatthabindu62, his daughter wrote the Vibhattyattha, a text on Pāli

cases.63 It is also reported that a lovesick person wrote a grammar to get the hand of one of the daughters of King

Narapatisithu.64 These days the people are more interested in learning and understanding the crux of the

Abhidhamma. A quite interesting enthusiasm to attend the Abhidhamma class could be seen among the official

students, monks, nuns, and novices, young boys and girls, and even among technicians and other professionals.

The Abhidhamma, the study of which was made compulsory in the second half of 17 th centuy by King

Siripavaramahadhammarāja (A. D. 1672) 65, has a great impact on the psyche of the people of Myanmar. The

composition of a number of Abhidhammic texts and the value attached to the study of several Abhidhammic texts

including those known as let-than (little finger manualas) 66 in Myanmar testify the fact. The most popular

Abhidamma text, after Dhammasańgaņi is the Abhidhammatthasańgaha, which has been more often translated

and paraphrased than any other Pāli text. Pitakatthamain alone mentions twenty-three different Burmese

Nissayas on it.67 Most of the noted Theras of the past took it in hand, and it has been carefully edited by some of

modern Hsayas. A close analysis of the principal translations of this single little text would be an explanation,

incomplete of course, but very interesting and instructive, of the true Burmese view of Abhidhamma theories such

as we find in the Dhammasangaņi.

Since the Anāgatavaŋsa predicts that the decline of the Buddha-sāsana will begin after five thousand years with

the disappearance of the Abhidhamma’s last text, the Paţţhāna,68 the Burmese emphasizes on learning the

Abhidhamma in general and the Paţţhāna in particular to prevent or slow the decline of the Sāsana. Consequently

the Burmese, the monks and the lay people alike, memorize the Paţţhāna and recite it daily. Most of the

monasteries and nunneries celebrate the Paţţhāna week or month. Even little children learn to recite the twenty-four

62 Sas. P. 76, see also GV., pp. 64, 73,.

63 Sas., p. 77 (See Preface to Subhuti’s edition of Abhidhanppadipika, 2nd ed. Colambo, 1883).

64 Bode, p. 21 fn. 5.

65 Ibid. 57-58

66 See Aung, S. Z., Compendium of Abhidhamma Philosophy, London, Luzac & company, p. IX.

67 Bode, 62

68 Since the Paţţhāna is the highest and most difficult teaching of the Buddha, it is believed that it will be the first to be lost.

conditions along with the Paritta (the suttas of protection). Besides, the twenty-four conditions of the Paţţhāna can

be found printed on the fans of the bhikkhus, on calendars, and on posters.

The introduction of Pāli literature, people fervor for its learning, and its translation into local language enriched the

Myanmar Language with Pāli terms. As Myanmar is predominantly a Theravāda Buddhist country, her

(Myanmar) language has a lot of Pāli words and or derivatives of Pāli words. Everyday Myanmar people use a

good percentage of Pāli words, nearly fifty percent, innocently. There are thousands of Pāli words (approximately

6000) in the present day of Myanmar usage.

The Myanmar usual way of greetings to each other as ‘min ga lar bar’ contains the Pāli word Mańgala.69 The

Myanmar always say loving kindness to others as ‘Myit ta thar bar’. Here Myitta in Pāli is Mettā. Similarly there

are many Pāli words such as dhar na (dana), thila (sila) pyin nya (panna), wai da nar (vedana), wik zar (vijja),

seik t (citta), law ka (loka), etc., the use of which with Myanmar pronunciation could be seen in daily usage of the

Myanmar. The Myanmar language is also full of Abhidhammic terminologies. The Myanmar English Dictionary

contains almost more than 200 words, derived from single Abhidhamma term, the Citta (seik t) expressing

different states of mind such as emotion, anger, fantasy, resent, doubt, mental illness etc.70 Obviously Myanmar

carried many Pāli words to convey the difficult concepts of Abhidhamma and other conceptual aspects of the

Buddhism. No doubt, the words have eventually become Myanmar words.

The influence of Pāli literature could also be traced on the Myanmar proverbs. The following examples of the

Myanmar proverbs would be sufficient to show the influence of the philosophical, psychological, ethical and other

concepts of the Pāli literature.The proverbs ‘Tinn lon lyin pyá yor. lon lyin pá71’, (If the string is too tightly tied, it

will break off. If the string is too loosely tied, it will wrinkle. That means the Middle way is perfect) and ‘Ma yoŕ.

ma tinn saung kyou nyinn72’(Not too tight nor too loose like superbly tuned strings of a harp.) show the impact of

the two extremes and the middle path discussed in the Mahāvagga. The proverbs ‘Kou aták hnin. kou sū 73’[ a

witch suffers punishment assigned by a powerful exorciser for her witchcraft (one shall pay for his own misdeed)],

‘Ta yār phá tau amyá pyae74’(If one accepts the law of karma, one can easily dispel one’s fury), ‘Bel thu ma pyu mi

69 The term Mangala has been taken from the Mańgalasutta, which deals with the beautitudes of life.

70 Myanmar English Dictionary, Yangon, Department of Myanmar Language Commission, Ministry of Education, Union of Myanmar 2006, pp. 122-124

mi mhu75, (The result or karmic effects of one’s own deeds i.e. a person is the sole master of his fate), ‘Ma hoù loù

ma hà phyì76’(Do the injustice, comes the unhappy end) etc. shows the impact of kamma theory. Similarly we find

hundreds of Myanmar that bear the influence of Buddhistic concepts.

The Pāli literature enriched the Myanmar literature. The Pāli texts in Nissaya-forms finally promoted not only

translations but also the development of the Myanmar language and literature in general. 77 Myanmar has twenty-

three Nissayas alone on the Abhidhammatthasańgaha. Numerous Pāli texts including the Tipiţaka were

translated into Myanmar language. Besides, the many forms of Myanmar literature, such as Wuhtu (story in prose)

Pyo (story in poem), Yagan (satirical poem), Pyo zat (play) etc. reflects the influence of Pāli literature, particularly

the Paññāsa Jātaka, also known as Zimme Pannatha.78 The subject matter of most popular dramatic form Pwe is

taken from the Jātakas.79 Fictional writings also have Buddhist elements as we see in U Po Kya’s Alaung Daw

Kathapa.80.

The impact of Pāli literature could also be seen on the Myanmar society, which is traditional one. The relationship

among the members of family, the basic unit of the Myanmar society is essentially based on specific duties and

responsibilities, love and respect etc.81 as enumerated in the Dīghanikāya’s Sigālovādasutta, 82 taken by the

Myanmar as Gihivinaya along with some other suttas like the Mańgalasutta, Vasalasutta etc. The relationship

between the teachers and the students, and the master and the servants is also based on their respective duties

enjoined in the Sigalovādasutta.83 Similarly on the different occasions in the Burmese life, such as childbirth,

71 Myanmar proverbs, 68:54

72 ibid. 106:55

73 Ibid. 16:51

74 Ibid 64:27

75 Ibid 98:07

76 Ibid 106:61

77 Annemarie Esche, “The Tradition of Reference Books in Myanmar and the Challenges of the Present Time”, Traditions of Knowledge in Southeast Asia, Part III, 2004, Yangon, Myanmar Historical Commission, p.107.

78 See Aye Khyin, “Zimme Paņņātha (Paņņāsa Jātaka) and Myanmar literature”, Traditions of Knowledge in Southeast Asia, Part II, 2004, Yangon, Myanmar Historical Comission, pp. 106-123.

79 Britanica CD-2000.

80 See Nyut, Dr. Khin Maung, “U Po Kya’s writing: His fictional Hitorical Research Alaung Daw Katthapa”, Traditions of Knowledge in Southeast Asia, Part II, 2004,Yangon, Myanmar Historical Commission, pp 93-105.

naming ceremony, wedding and funerals, the monks are invited to chant Buddhist prayers,84 the Paritta and the

Paţţhāna texts.

The impact of Pāli literature could also be marked on Myanmar’s sculpture,85 Pagoda worship,86 legitimization of

any events linking it with the prophecies of Buddha,87 economic problems,88 religious beliefs, cult of dāna, local

codes89 etc. Thus, we find that there is hardly any aspect of the Myanmar’s life, which is unaffected by the Pāli

literature. It would not be exaggeration to state that the Burmese life hinges around the Pāli literature.

7. EVALUATION OF LOCAL TRADITIONS AND TRAITS

Pāli literature and its ingredients have been a great source of the evolution of Burmese way of life. Since the

teaching of Buddha prescribes a way to lead a peaceful and happy life here and hereafter, the Burmese made all

possible effort to shape their life accordingly. They also incorporated certain non-Buddhistic elements in their way

of life. As a result we find evolution of a number of local traditions and traits that includes the introduction of the

teaching of the texts of Tipiţaka with the help of their Aţţhakathā and Ţīkā, the conversion of traditional

monasteries into primary learning centers for the Myanmar children,90 the introduction of the examination of

Tipiţakadhara (the bearer of the Tipiţaka), the development of Nissaya texts91, the evolution of Shinbyu (temporary

ordination), taking of precepts on special occasions, such as New Year, Uposatha day,92 the recitation of Paritta

text93 or other Pāli suttas to ward off certain calamities or problems of life94 etc.

VII. CONCLUSION

The Pāli literature that originated in India primarily articulates the teachings of the Buddha and his disciples. Most

of the texts of the Tipiţaka are exclusively of religious interest, but interspersed in it are the works of considerable

81 Gray J.pp. 150-151

82 For detail see VRI D.III.8.

83 See Gray, J. p. 151-152

84 Aung, M. H., p. 12

85 Ray, Nihar Ranjan, Theravada Buddhist in Burma, University of Calcutta, 1946, p. 133

86 Myint, Ni Ni, “The Tradition of Sand Pagodas in Myanmar”, Traditions of Knowledge in Southeast Asia, Part I, 2004, Yangon, Myanmar Historical Comission, p. 243

87 Hmannan Mahayazawindawgyi, Mandalay: Yangon, Mandalay Book Depot, 1957, I, 436-438.

88 Tin Soe, “An economic Interpretation of some Traditional Myanmar Concepts in the Context of Globalization”, Traditions of Knowledge in Southeast Asia, Part III, 2005, Yangon, Myanmar Historical Commission, pp.147-148

89 . Bode, p.

interest, such as Philosophy, Psychology, Ethics etc. The teachings of the Buddha, with their straightforward, lively,

and incisive style, homely similes, and simple humour have the nature of touching the soul of the people. When the

Pāli literature, the carrier of these teachings, reached Myanmar, it left a deep imprint on the psyche of the Myanmar.

Whether it is the language or literature or society or polity or economy all are influenced by the Pāli texts. They

adopted the essence of these teachings in their practical life and made every effort to preserve it. They composed a

number of Pāli texts, dealing with different aspects of Buddhism, grammar, Abhidhamma, chronicles etc. They

also devised a number of methods to disseminate and propagate the Pāli literature. In preserving the Tipiţaka and

other Pāli literature, Myanmar has played a great role.

90 Aung, M. H., p. 4

91 Nissaya texts elucidate the meaning of the Pāli words in vernacular language.

92 Aung, M .H., p. 12

93 The Paritta text, consists of 28 Suttas, such as Mettasutta, Parābhavasutta, Vasalasutta, etc. was evolved in Myanmar.

94 Daw Kyawt Kyawt, “ The observance of Myanmar Traditional occult sciences”, Traditions of Knowledge in Southeast Asia, Part II, Yangon, 2004, Myanmar Historical Commission, p. 366.